SECONDARY SCHOOL CURRICULUM planned and controlled relationship between pupils, teacher, materials,

AND INSTRUCTION (PGDT 413) equipment and the environment, in which it is hoped that desired learning
will take place. Shilbeck (1984): The learning experiences of students, in so
Unit One: Introductory Remark on the Term Curriculum and Related far as they are expressed or anticipated in goals and objectives, plans and
Issues designs for learning and the implementation of these plans and designs in
school environments.
1.1: Definition of Curriculum Glatthorn (1987): the curriculum is the plan made for guiding learning in
Introduction schools, usually represented in retrievable documents of several levels of
Dear learner, you will be exposed to different definitions of the word generally, and the actualization of those plans in the classroom, as
curriculum. The definitions are classified as broad and specific. Hence, experienced by the learners and as recorded by an observer; those
analyze the varied definitions in the light of secondary school curriculum experiences take place in a learning environment which also influences
and their implications to the teaching-learning process. Dear learner, you what is learned.
might have heard the word curriculum before. You have learnt various
subjects when you were a student at primary school and secondary school. _1.1.2: Specific Definitions
Therefore, before you read the definitions suggested by scholars, define the The specific definitions imply activities, which are measurable and
term curriculum by using your own words and make a comparison. Like observable. Examples:
many of the academic subjects, the word curriculum comes from a Latin Curriculum is an outline of a course of study (Print, 1987).
word “currere” meaning “race course”, and traditionally, the school’s Curriculum is a set of subjects (Marsh, 2001).
curriculum has represented something like that to most people. Indeed until Curriculum is a school timetable
quite recently even the most knowledgeable professional educators regarded 1.1.3: Definitions Based on the Role Played on Schools
curriculum as the relatively standardized ground covered by students in Curriculum could also be defined based on the roles of schools as
their race towards the finishing line to get certificate, diploma or degree. It prescribed by society or educators. Here below are two of the many
should not be a surprise, then to find that many current concepts of the definitions:
curriculum are firmly grounded in the notion that curriculum is a race Subject Center: Consider the role of schools as “Promoting students’
course of subject matters to be mastered. Although curriculum specialists intellectual capacity”.
have, in the interest of clarity, attempted to limit the meaning of curriculum, Thus curriculum is defined as “the collection of subjects offered to students
disagreement still exists with respect to what constitutes legitimate to train the intellectual capacity”.
definition of the word. Within the twentieth century, the curriculum of Experience Center: consider curriculum as a means to make students
schools and of colleges has been defined in several ways. shape a new social order and lead life in it, which involves everything that
1.1.1: Broad Definitions cover the planning process and the instructional objectives.
The board definitions are open to many interpretations. In other words, one Curriculum from Constructivist Point of View: Constructivist view on
broad curriculum differs from the definitions given above. The constructivist
definition of the word curriculum contains different specific concepts. movement in recent cognitive psychology has reemphasized the active role
Ralph Tyler (1949): students’ play in acquiring knowledge and the social construction of
All of the learning of students which are planned and directed by the school knowledge has been an important principle in socio-cultural theory.
to attain its educational goals. D. K. Wheeler (1967): By curriculum we Knowledge-acquisition is active and strategic, focused on many factors,
mean the planned experiences offered to the learner under the guidance of including problems of understanding, diversity of expertise, learning styles,

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the school. thinking styles, and interests.

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Lewis (1981): Define curriculum as a plan for providing sets of learning Curriculum, according to constructive view, is taken as ‘enacted’ between
opportunities for persons to be educated. Learning opportunity implies a students and teachers, and collaboration and reflection in a ‘community of

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inquiry. The results of these programs seem promising in that they lead to Can curriculum be considered as a discipline?
an increasing growth in knowledge, a higher degree of critical thinking,  The field of curriculum has its set of principles
greater reading and writing skills, as well as improved skills in – In curriculum planning, principles such as educational philosophy,
argumentation. With competing forces such as a push for basics in the curriculum goals and learning objectives are applied in developing
curriculum, higher standards for achievement, and the value placed on the programs
more robust understanding facilitated by constructivism, deciding who – In curriculum design, the principles of scope, sequence and balance are
should select instructional objectives becomes difficult. From a used in the organization of content to be taught.
constructivist perspective, learners should be heavily involved (in fact with  The field of curriculum has its own body of knowledge and skills
their teacher assistance) in determining objectives, learning opportunities,  Much of it drawn from other disciplines
and evaluation procedures. – In the selection of content, curriculum has relied on the principles,
knowledge and skills from psychology, philosophy and sociology.
Most educators agree that Curriculum refers to the means and materials – In the organization of content, curriculum has drawn from the fields of
with which students will interact for the purpose of achieving identified management and organizational theory.
educational outcomes. In fact, curriculum is a means of communicating the – In the implementation of curriculum, various ideas from systems theory,
essential principles and features of an educational proposal that includes organizational behavior and communication theory have been used to
the goals, broad contents, methods and evaluation mechanisms in such a enhance effectiveness.
form that it is open to critical scrutiny and capable of effective translation  The field of curriculum has its list of theoreticians and
into practice. practitioners
- They include curriculum planners, professors of curriculum, curriculum
The scope of Curriculum developers and so forth who are termed as curriculum specialists.
Curriculum Scope denotes to the question what learning content, learning • The specialist:
experience, methods, etc should be included to and excluded from the – Is well-informed about how students learn, how teachers react to change
curriculum. Curriculum is delimited to the knowledge of curriculum and obstacles to improvement.
development, curriculum planning and curriculum design. Here below is – Generates new knowledge by recombining existing programs, adapting
brief definition of the three domains of curriculum as a subject: Curriculum approaches and constructing new curriculum.
Development:- concerned with how curriculum evolved, implemented, 1.2. Foundations of Curriculum
evaluated and what various people, process and procedures areinvolved in Curriculum foundations may be defined as those basic forces that influence
the construction of the curriculum. Curriculum Planning: - is a process of and shape the minds of curriculum developers and hence the content and
making the curriculum materials after identified objectives, selecting structure of the subsequent curriculum. The literature in the area of
contents and learning experiences, instructional materials and developing curriculum generally distinguishes five categories of sources of curriculum
evaluation mechanisms. Curriculum Design: - refers to the way one foundations- namely philosophical foundation, Psychological Foundation,
conceptualizes a curriculum arranges its major components to provide Sociological foundation, Science and Technology foundation, and
direction and guidance in developing the curriculum. Historical foundation. The three sources of curriculum foundations
Curriculum as a Discipline constitute together the principal areas of influence on curriculum developers
 What is a discipline? in their consideration of curriculum. These influences affect developers’
According to Oliva (1982), a discipline has the following characteristics: ways of thinking about curricula and, in the process, produce conception of
– A discipline should have an organized set of theoretical principles. curricula. At some later time developers express these conceptions, both

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– A discipline encompasses a body of knowledge and skills pertinent to that explicitly and implicitly, when devising curricula. Let us now examine

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discipline. these curriculum foundations in a little more depth to provide some sense of
- A discipline has its theoreticians and its practitioners.

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perspective to the influence of each foundation up on the process of over the world. They are Perennialism, Essentialism, Progressivism, and
curriculum development. Reconstructionism. These educational philosophies focus heavily on
1. Philosophical Foundation WHAT we should teach the curriculum aspect.
Philosophy and philosophical assumptions are basic to all curriculum Perennialism
foundations as they are concerned with making sense of what we encounter For Perennialists, the aim of education is to ensure that students acquire
in our lives. How curriculum developers and implementers perceive the understandings about the great ideas of Western civilization. These ideas
world, and hence education, may be determined by posing the following have the potential for solving problems in any era. The focus is to teach
three philosophical questions. These are: What are real? Ontology: the ideas that are everlasting, to seek enduring truths which are constant, not
inquiry into what is real as opposed to what is appearance, either conceived changing, as the natural and human worlds at their most essential level, do
as that which the methods of science presuppose, or that with which the not change. Teaching these unchanging principles is critical. Humans are
methods of science are concerned; the inquiry into the first principles of rational beings, and their minds need to be developed. Thus, cultivation of
nature; the study of the most fundamental generalizations as to what exists. the intellect is the highest priority in a worthwhile education. The
What is good? Axiology: the inquiry into the nature, criteria, and demanding curriculum focuses on attaining cultural literacy, stressing
metaphysical status of value. Although the term "axiology" is not widely students' growth in enduring disciplines. The higher accomplishments of
used outside of philosophy, the problems of axiology include (1) how humankind are emphasized in the great works of literature and art, the laws
values are experienced, (2) the kinds of value, (3) the standards of value, or principles of science.
and (4) in what sense values can be said to exist. Axiology then is the Essentialism
subject area which tries to answer problems like these: How are values Essentialists believe that there is a common core of knowledge that needs to
related to interest, desire, will, experience, and means-to-end? How do be transmitted students in a systematic, disciplined way. The emphasis in
different kinds of value interrelate? this conservative perspective is on intellectual and moral standards that
Can the distinction between intrinsic and instrumental values be schools should teach. The core of the curriculum is essential knowledge and
maintained? Are values ultimately rationally or objectively based? skills and academic rigor. Although this educational philosophy is similar in
What is the difference between a matter of fact and a matter of value? There some ways to Perennialism, Essentialists accept the idea that this core
are two main subdivisions of axiology: ethics and aesthetics. Ethics curriculum may change. Schooling should be practical, preparing students
involves the theoretical study of the moral valuation of human action not to become valuable members of society. It should focus on facts-the
just concerned with the study of principles of conduct. Aesthetics involves objective reality out there--and "the basics," training students to read, write,
the conceptual problems associated with describing the relationships among speak, and compute clearly and logically. Schools should not try to set or
our feelings and senses with respect to the experience of art and nature. influence policies. Students should be taught hard work, respect for
What is true? Epistemology: the inquiry into what knowledge is, what can authority, and discipline. Teachers are to help students keep their non-
be known, and what lies beyond our understanding; the investigation into productive instincts in check, such as aggression or mindlessness. This
the origin, structure, methods, and validity of justification and knowledge; approach was in reaction to Progressivism approaches prevalent in the
the study of the interrelation of reason, truth, and experience. Individuals 1920s and 1930s.
will perceive and answer these questions in different ways and hence Progressivism
individual philosophies emerge. In turn, differing philosophies will affect Progressivists believe that education should focus on the whole child, rather
how individuals perceive and relate to the curriculum. than on the content or the teacher. This educational philosophy stresses that
Educational Philosophies students should test ideas by active experimentation. Learning is rooted in
Within the epistemological frame that focuses on the nature of knowledge the questions of learners that arise through experiencing the world. It is

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and how we come to know there are four major educational philosophies, active, not passive. The learners are a problem solvers and thinkers who

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each related to one or more of the general or world philosophies. These make meaning through their individual experience in the physical and
educational philosophical approaches are currently used in classrooms all cultural context. Effective teachers provide experiences so that students can

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learn by doing. Curriculum content is derived from student interests and rational principles exist in logic, mathematics, ethics, and metaphysics that
questions. The scientific method is used by progressivist educators so that are so fundamentally true that denying them causes one to fall into
students can study matter and events systematically and first hand. The contradiction. Rationalists have such a high confidence in reason that proof
emphasis is on process-how one comes to know. The Progressive education and physical evidence are unnecessary to ascertain truth – in other words,
philosophy was established in America from the mid 1920s through the mid "there are significant ways in which our concepts and knowledge are gained
1950s. John Dewey was its foremost proponent. One of his tenets was that independently of sense experience". The Rationalists have claimed that the
the school should improve the way of life of our citizens through ultimate starting point for all knowledge is not the senses but reason. They
experiencing freedom and democracy in schools. Shared decision making, maintain that without prior categories and principles supplied by reason, we
planning of teachers with students, student-selected topics are all aspects of couldn't organize and interpret our sense experience in any way.
progressivism. Books are tools, rather than authority. Rationalists argue that there is innate knowledge; they differ in that they
Reconstruction / Critical Theory choose different objects of innate knowledge. Rationalists see the
Social Reconstructionism is a philosophy that emphasizes the addressing of curriculum as subject matter of symbol and idea.
social questions and a quest to create a better society and worldwide Empiricism
democracy. Reconstructionist educators focus on a curriculum that Empiricism is a theory which states that knowledge comes only or primarily
highlights social reform as the aim of education. Critical theorists, like from sensory experience. One of several views of epistemology, the study
social reconstructionists, believe that systems must be changed to overcome of human knowledge, along with rationalism and skepticism, empiricism
oppression and improve human conditions. For social reconstructionists and emphasizes the role of experience and evidence, especially sensory
critical theorists, curriculum focuses on student experience and taking social experience, in the formation of ideas, over the notion of innate ideas or
action on real problems, such as violence, hunger, international terrorism, traditions. Empiricists may argue however that traditions (or customs) arise
inflation, and inequality. Strategies for dealing with controversial issues due to relations of previous sense experiences.
(particularly in social studies and literature), inquiry, dialogue, and multiple Empiricism in the philosophy of science emphasizes evidence, especially as
perspectives are the focus. Community-based learning and bringing the discovered in experiments. It is a fundamental part of the scientific method
world into the classroom are also strategies. that all hypothesis and theories must be tested against observations of the
Information Processing natural world rather than resting solely on priori reasoning, intuition, or
Information processing theorists focus on the mind and how it works to revelation. Empiricism, often used by natural scientists, asserts that
explain how learning occurs. The focus is on the processing of a relatively "knowledge is based on experience" and that "knowledge is tentative and
fixed body of knowledge and how it is attended to, received in the mind, probabilistic, subject to continued revision and falsification." One of the
processed, stored, and retrieved from memory. This model is derived from epistemological tenets is that sensory experience creates knowledge. The
analogies between how the brain works and computer processing. scientific method, including experiments and validated measurement tools,
Information processing theorists focus on the individual rather than the guides empirical research.
social aspects of thinking and learning. The mind is a symbolic processor
that stores information in schema or hierarchically arranged structures. The Empiricists believe that there is no such thing as innate knowledge, and
Rationalism that instead knowledge is derived from experience (either sensed via the
Rationalism view reason as the chief source and test of knowledge or any five senses or reasoned via the brain or mind). Empiricists view the
view appealing to reason as a source of knowledge or justification. More curriculum as a subject matter of the physical world. Both empiricists and
formally, rationalism is defined as a methodology or a theory in which the rationalists view the learner as recipient of information. However, for
criterion of the truth is not sensory but intellectual and deductive. rationalists, the teacher is source of ideas, facts and information whereas for

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Rationalists believe reality has an intrinsically logical structure. Because of the empiricists the teacher is the demonstrator of process. The method of

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this, rationalists argue that certain truths exist and that the intellect can teaching for rationalists is more of drilling, lecturing and subject-based. For
directly grasp these truths. That is to say, rationalists assert that certain

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the empiricists, the method of teaching is lecturing too and more teacher- content. In acting this way curriculum developers both transmit and reflect
centered. the culture of which they are part.
Behaviorism Thus, it is not possible to talk about a culture free curriculum. Rather, one
Behaviorist theorists believe that behavior is shaped deliberately by forces should consider a curriculum as a situation where judgments are made as to
in the environment and that the type of person and actions desired can be what aspects of culture are to be included and why. Consequently, when
the product of design. In other words, behavior is determined by others, developers devise curricula, the cultural background of those developers
rather than by our own free will. By carefully shaping desirable behavior, will become evident in the content they select, the methods they include, the
morality and information is learned. Learners will acquire and remember objectives they set and so forth. Society and culture influence curriculum
responses that lead to satisfying aftereffects. Repetition of a meaningful developers simply because they are members of a particular society. When
connection results in learning. If the student is ready for the connection, the process of curriculum development takes place, the cultural traits within
learning is enhanced; if not, learning is inhibited. Motivation to learn is the developers influence the very selection of objectives, contents,methods and
satisfying aftereffect, or reinforcement. Behaviorism is linked with evaluations that constitute the curriculum they are devising.
empiricism, which stresses scientific information and observation, rather Alternatively, curriculum developers may be well aware of societal and
than subjective or metaphysical realities. Behaviorists search for laws that cultural influences and have the deliberate intention in mind of reproducing
govern human behavior, like scientists who look for patterns in empirical aspects of that culture in the curriculum. The issue then becomes whether
events. Change in behavior must be observable; internal thought processes the curriculum should mirror society or it should become a tool for change.
are not considered. Above all, curriculum developers, whether at systematic, local or school
level within educational enterprise, should not forget that they are a product
Constructivism of their culture and that every decision that they make will be culturally
Constructivists believe that the learner actively constructs his or her own related.
understandings of reality through interaction with objects, events, and 3. Psychological Foundation
people in the environment, and reflecting on these interactions. Early The contribution of psychological sources to the foundation of curriculum is
perceptual psychologists (Gestalt psychology) focused on the making of significant and growing. Curriculum, therefore, _ can draw upon
wholes from bits and pieces of objects and events in the world, believing psychology, particularly educational objectives, student characteristics,
that meaning was the construction in the brain of patterns from these pieces. learning processes, teaching methods and evaluation procedures. The study
For learning to occur, an event, object, or experience must conflict with of psychology does not, at least for the moment, provide a source for
what the learner already knows. Therefore, the learner's previous content in a secondary school curriculum. The curriculum workers’
experiences determine what can be learned. Motivation to learn is opportunities to master the psychological field are limited, but they
experiencing conflict with what one knows, which causes an imbalance, definitely need to have general understanding based on psychological
which triggers a quest to restore the equilibrium. secondary school subjects. theory and research.
2. Sociological Foundation Mental Discipline and Curriculum
It is hardly surprising that society and culture exert enormous influences on Mental discipline is a theory of learning, which was also known as faculty
the formation of the school curriculum. After all as it was society that psychology. According to this theory, the mind was made up of series of
devised schooling to ensure the survival of the cultural heritage, we would faculties, each of which was related to a particular function or ability of the
expect to see an extensive influence of society and culture upon curriculum mind. This discipline was the prevailing theory during the long period when
in schools. Curriculum developers serve the function of translating rote memory was the primary learning process. Curriculum content was
traditional assumptions, ideas, values, knowledge and attitudes into often chosen on the basis of how well it would discipline and exercise the

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curriculum objectives, content, learning activities and evaluation of these mind, rather than because of its value in the life of the student. The

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curriculum elements, sociological sources have their greatest impact on curriculum designed to meet the needs of the philosophy, which supported

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the mental disciple theory of learning, was often composed of subjects such Updating the curriculum to satisfy the increasing demand of skilled
as foreign languages and mathematics. manpower
Connectionism and Curriculum The unlimited demands for intercultural exchange
Connectionism is a theory of learning based on the connection of the Securing knowledge about what is going on around the world and
various elements of the nervous system in causing behavior. The curriculum making it part of once life.
dictated by connectionism has a great deal of drill and repetition in it. 1.3 Teachers Role and the Major Curriculum Views
Behaviorism and Curriculum Most governments invest heavily in education as a proportion of their total
Behaviorism developed along strictly scientific lines that are behavior was budget since they tend to see the educational process as a primary means of
dealt with and explained in terms of observable reactions. The curriculum producing the sort of intelligent and skilled workforce required to operate in
implied by behaviorism differs little from that for connectionism. Drill this changing environment at all levels of the economy. And formal
remained a prominent method of teaching but experiences selected here so education is led by well designed curriculum which is expected to be
as to produce conditioned responses. implemented by teachers. Therefore, curriculum and teachers have strong
Gestalt Theory and Curriculum relationship. The role of the teacher in relation to curriculum could be
The greatest contribution of the gestalt theorists was in the area of explained as follows:
perception. Gestalt theory leads to the development of a curriculum that 1. Work as an instructional designer:
offers the learner an opportunity to discover processes and relationships. Teachers may have focused on the learners’ developmental, emotional and
Emphasis is placed upon perceiving a whole in order to understand the affective needs in their teaching. They may have focused on learner critical
importance of a specific Generalities and principles are emphasized in thinking, problem-solving and collaborative skills. So can you identify
preference to isolated facts and meaningless drill. yourself in one or more of the scenarios described above? Research
4. Historical Foundation identified that teachers well-designed learning activities that foster language
Study of the history of the country, locality and the school system of the use in authentic and real life settings, can support learner’s needs and
country is important while the curriculum planning is in progress. This facilitate deep learning.
helps the curriculum to be based on the socio-cultural and politico- 2. Work as an intercultural practitioner (primarily for language and culture
economic development of the country. Curriculum is created by people teachers): it is helpful for teachers to ask what culture is, how we detect the
based on the circumstances and beliefs during that period of time. The nuanced cultural difference in teaching, and how we lead students cross the
curriculum is reflective of the political ideologies, economic systems, boundaries of difference cultures. The role of teachers, as an intercultural
religious convictions and conceptions of knowledge at a particular point in practitioner, is first to analyze a culture, its concepts and keywords, and
time. then to introduce and explain them to learners by way of paraphrase or
5. Scientific and Technological Foundation presenting the affective behavior within a situation-oriented approach, and
Science and technology make things obsolete in a short period of time and it finally to step back and let learners discover and interpret the meanings for
demands a high level of efficiency from citizen as a must in every field. The themselves. (It is at this point that learners may show their positive or
innovations, mechanics, mere benefits, etc are results of science and negative feelings.) Teachers are now in a position to observe the extent of
technology, environmental pollution, degradation of resource, deterioration learners’ understanding and agreement, and so may lead learners into an
of human values, the dissolving of religious sanctions, restructuring of analytical comparison of the two cultures.
political democracy, specializations, psychological witness, etc are the 3. Work with their colleagues to adapt the curricular standards to their own
negative results of science and technological developments. The teaching: There are multiple standards for curriculum all over the world.
implications of these to curriculum planning are that: How do we work effectively under the mandated curriculum standards and

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The need for the inclusion of many things to be learned and culture to test system? Researchers found that there are two ways helpful for a

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be transmitted teacher’s professional development under the mandated curriculum
standards and testing system: 1) careful study of the curriculum materials

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that were authoritatively, specifically, and consistently structured; 2) and need to know and share experiences in order to provide quality, equity and
continuous and substantial participation in the collaborative observations, relevant education for all. There is a strong relationship between curriculum
discussions, and reflections on each other’s lesson development, teaching, and instruction. This relationship between curriculum and instruction could
and lesson debriefing in schools. be explained in the following four different models.
4. Work as an effective room manager: Classroom management is not Dualistic Model: This model views the relationship between curriculum
separated from academic curriculum. A successfully designed and and instruction as two independent entities with very minor interaction.
implemented curriculum cannot do without effective classroom Inter-locking Model: View the relationship between curriculum and
management strategies. Chinese researchers suggested teachers set explicit instruction as highly intertwined.
rules, give punishment and award appropriately, give students some control Concentric Model: This model considers curriculum and instruction as
in a limited range, set up teacher’s authority via respect, develop mutual system and subsystem interchangeably.
trust and positive relationships with students, and communicate with the Cyclical Model: this model considered the relationship between curriculum
parents. You can find more resources on Gaining Ground and appropriate and instruction as interdependent having significant impacts on each other.
these resources for your own use in the room management. Therefore, curriculum and instruction are related, interlocked and
5. Work with parents and community in designing your schoolwork and interdependent, which of course can be studied and analyzed as separate
homework: classroom is not the only place that curriculum should be learn entities. However, they cannot function in mutual isolation. Therefore,
and mature to become adults. So the schoolwork needs to be connected to teachers’ knowledge on curriculum will help them to implement the
what students can learn at home and make their learning an integrated and curriculum on the actual ground effectively.
consolidated daily experience. In that sense, homework needs to be
considered in our curricular design. And the parents’ involvement is vital Unit-Two:Curriculum Development and the Planning Process
for this process. Teachers need work with parents and make use of varied 2.1 Meaning of Curriculum Development and Design
and meaningful homework to help students engage in goal-directed Curriculum Development
learning. Curriculum development describes the process of curriculum-making. It can
Here are some examples of how to involve parents in schoolwork and also be articulated as a series of steps, such as: define educational purposes;
homework: selection of contents and learning experiences; organizing of contents and
1. Objectives: explains the learning goals of the activity, if this is not clear learning experiences; construct activities/experiences that can meet these
from the title or letter. purposes; organize activities/experiences and Evaluate whether the
2. Prewriting: gives the student space to plan a letter, essay, story, or poem educational purposes have been met or not. There are many models for
by outlining, brainstorming, listing, designing nets and webs, or by using curriculum development. Generally, as a process, curriculum development
other planning strategies. is concerned with reviewing, planning, developing, implementing and
3. First draft: gives the student space to write and edit. A student who needs maintaining curriculum while ensuring that the stakeholders engaged in this
more space may add paper. Some teachers ask the student to write a final process have a high level of commitment to and ownership of the
copy on other paper at home or at school. curriculum. In formulating policy, the challenge lies in the discourse on the
4. Interactions: guides the student to conduct a family survey or interview, form, content, aims and goals of curriculum, often referred to as curriculum
talk with a family partner about ideas or memories, read work aloud for orientations (Eisner & Valance, 1974, as cited in Joseph, 2011). These
reactions, edit work, practice a speech, or conduct other interactions. Other curriculum orientations have a profound impact on roles of stakeholders,
assignments include exchanges focused on grammar, vocabulary, reading, parents, educators and students as they relate to vision and practice,
and other language arts skills. decision making, curriculum planning, development, implementation and

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1.4 The Need and Purposes of Curriculum Knowledge and the Teacher evaluation. These orientations or “cultures” of curriculum, in turn, have an

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The knowledge of curriculum is important to make educational discussions impact on the curriculum development process (Joseph, 2011).
and decisions at different levels. Decision makers, officials and teachers Curriculum Design

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Taba (1962) define curriculum design as a statement which identifies the the objective of the lesson is to introduce the concept big and little, then
elements of the curriculum, states what their relationships are to each other, directions that tell children we will "compare" objects may not be
and indicates the principles of organization and the requirements of that meaningful. Examine the instructional language carefully to determine
organization for the administrative conditions under which it is to operate. whether it will need to be simplified. It is also important to ensure that
A design, of course, needs to be supported with and to make explicit a students have the prerequisite knowledge before using that knowledge in
curriculum theory which establishes the source to consider and the more complex contexts.
principles to apply. When curriculum are planned those who construct the Attributes of Curriculum Design
curriculum may place different emphases on these component parts of the If designing curricula is like designing any object, process, or system in
curriculum. Usually more emphasis is placed on the subject matter. Designs important respects, it follows that it has these attributes:
also deals with Horizontal and Vertical Organization of the curriculum Curriculum design is purposeful. It is not just to “have” a course of study.
component parts. Whereas horizontal organization deals with scope and Its grand purpose is to improve student learning, but it may have other
integration: side-by-side arrangement of activities; vertical organization purposes as well. Whether the purposes are in harmony or in conflict,
deals with sequence and continuity: longitudinal placement of activities. explicit or implied, immediate or long-range, political or technical,
Summary of the Six Principles of Effective Curriculum Design curriculum designers do well to be as clear as possible about what the real
1. Big Ideas: Limit the number of new concepts introduced in a lesson, and purposes are, so that they can respond accordingly.
focus first on the most basic concepts before advancing to the more Curriculum design is deliberate. To be effective, curriculum design must
complex concepts. Be sure that students understand one concept before be a conscious planning effort. It is not casual, nor is it the sum total of lots
introducing the second. For example, reserve teaching synonyms until of different changes being made in the curriculum over weeks, months, and
students are firm on the basic concept. The concepts of comparatives and years. It involves using an explicit process that identifies clearly what will
superlatives should be withheld until the basic concepts are clearly be done, by whom, and when.
established. When introducing comparatives and superlatives, introduce Curriculum design is creative. Curriculum design is not a neatly defined
comparatives first; then, after students consistently use comparatives, procedure that can be pursued in a rigorous series of steps. At every stage of
introduce superlatives. curriculum design there are opportunities for innovative thinking, novel
2. Conspicuous Strategies: Use clear models to teach basic concepts. Use concepts, and invention to be introduced. Good curriculum design is at once
simple language. systematic and creative—feet-on-the ground and head-in-the clouds.
3. Mediated Scaffolding: Limit the number of concepts introduced, and Curriculum design operates on many levels. Design decisions at one
separate those that are likely to be confused. To reduce the language level must be compatible with those at the other levels. A middle-school
demands, refrain from introducing two new and unfamiliar labels in one curriculum design that is incompatible with the elementary- and high-school
day. It is also important to provide sufficient guided practice for the group designs will almost certainly result in a defective K-12 curriculum, no
before progressing to individual turns. matter how good each part is on its own. By the same token, the middle-
4. Strategic Integration: When the basic concepts are reliably known by school curriculum itself cannot be effective as a whole unless the designs of
learners, introduce comparative and superlative concepts strategically to its grades are in harmony.
build higher-order skills. Higher order skills will not be useful or reliable if Curriculum design requires compromises. The challenge is to come up
the basic concepts are not firm. with a curriculum that works well—perfection is not its aim. In developing
5. Judicious Review: To really "know" a concept, students must use it a design that meets comp ex specifications, trade-offs inevitably have to be
frequently and in a variety of concepts. Lessons following the initial lesson made among benefits, costs, constraints, and risks. No matter how
should apply new concepts to build up the students' ability to remember and systematic the planning or how inventive the thinking, curriculum designs

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recall the concepts. always end up not being everything that everyone would want.

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6. Primed Background Knowledge: A frequent limitation of early Curriculum designs can fail. There are many ways in which curriculum
language programs is using language that learners may not understand. If designs can fail to operate successfully. A design can fail because one or

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more of its components fail or because the components do not work well How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained?
together. Or, the people who have to carry it out may reject the design (Assessment and Evaluation) Sometimes referred to as the father of the
because they misunderstand it or find it distasteful. In most cases, however, curriculum movement, Tyler sought to instill in developers of curricula a
curriculum designs are neither wholly satisfactory nor abject failures. more logical, systematic, meaningful approach to their task. His work is
Indeed, a key element in curriculum design is to provide for continuous now understood by many curriculum writers as a foundation for the
correction and improvement, both during the design process and afterward. objective model though it is considered as rigid in its nature. However, over
Curriculum design has stages. Curriculum design is a systematic way of time much of his work has been misinterpreted, treated superficially and
going about planning instruction, even though it does not consist of some even ignored. Tyler describes and analyses sources of objectives that come
inflexible set of steps to be followed in strict order. Curriculum decisions from learners, studies of contemporary life, academic subjects, philosophy
made at one stage are not independent of decisions made at other stages, and the psychology of learning. Certainly, Tyler has had significant effect
and so the curriculum-design process tends to be iterative, various stages upon curriculum developers and writers for the past decades. In general,
being returned to for reconsideration and possible modification. But Tyler has viewed curriculum planning as a four step process. These are:-
recognizing the different tasks and problems at each stage is important in Step 1: Formulation of objectives
making the process work. The stages, which are considered in turn in the Step 2: Selection of contents and learning experiences
rest of this chapter, are establishing curriculum Step 3: Organization of contents and learning experiences
design,specifications;conceptualizing a curriculum design; developing a Step 4: Evaluation
curriculum design; and refining a curriculum design.. According to Tyler, the identification and defining of objectives is crucially
2.2 Curriculum Development Models important in developing an educational program for learning. To him,
The Objective Model objective is given greater emphasis and should be made the first area of
The objective model is also known as rational, classical models. Its root is concern for curriculum development and that is why the Tyler model is
the behavioral psychology. This approach to the curriculum process referred to as objective model. He defines objectives as an intended reset of
emphasize the fixed sequence of curriculum elements, beginning with learning outcomes. In the formulation of objectives, Tyler suggests three
objectives and following a sequential pattern from objectives sequential important sources of information. These are: Study of the learners:
pattern from objectives to content, method and finally evaluation. In this According to Tyler, before the formulation of educational objectives, the
pattern, objectives serve as a basis for devising subsequent elements, with needs, interests and background of the learners should be carefully
evaluation indicating the degree of achievement of those objectives. The investigated. Based on the investigation, what the learners lack or do not
two principal proponents of rational/ objectives models are Ralph Tyler and have are made to be part of the educational objectives. Study of the
Hilda Taba. contemporary life: Tyler recommends that major activities of the world of
Tyler’s Model work, significant problems, demands and trends of the society need to be
Tyler argued that to develop any curriculum, one had to pose the following systematically studied and incorporated in the objectives of the school
four fundamental questions. These four questions represented the major curriculum. Suggestions from subject matter specialists: Since subject
tasks and issues to be dealt with in the process of curriculum development. specialists are experts or professionals, their suggestions could be utilized in
These questions are:- the formulation of objectives. Tyler suggests that the list of statements of
What educational purpose that schools seek to attain? (Objectives). objectives on the bases of the above three sources need further screening. In
What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to attain these this regard, he forwards two screening devices and these are the
objectives? philosophical screening and psychological screening. Philosophical
(Instructional strategies and content) screening helps to select the objectives in terms of what is good and

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How can these educational experiences be organized effectively? valuable to learn. Whereas, psychological screening helps to select

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(Organizing curriculum experiences) objectives that are appropriate in terms of the nature and process of learning
and in relation to the needs and maturity levels of the learners. Many

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authors agree that Tyler’s model is simplified and linear. However, this fundamental elements of the curriculum processes as suggested by Tyler.
model served as the starting point for other models. But, Wheeler considered Tyler’s approach is linear and argues that
Taba’s Model: curriculum development is a continuous process. Thus, the activities
In her book entitled Curriculum Development: Theory and Practice (1962), involved in the planning need to be interrelated in a continuous and cyclical
Taba outlined her approach to the process of curriculum development. In form. Fig. 1.6 Wheeler’s Model According to Wheeler, the process of
this work, she modified Tyler’s basic model to become more representative curriculum development begins with the treatment of objectives at various
of curriculum development in schools. While it is linear in approach, Taba levels. The treatment begins with the aims from which intermediate goals
argued for more information input at each stage of the curriculum process. are derived. Wheeler goes to state that further specific behavioral outcomes
In particular, she suggested a dual consideration of content (logical are defined to be attained at a shorter period including at a specific
organization of the curriculum) and the individual learner (Psychological instructional level.
organization of the curriculum). To emphasize her point, Taba claimed that
all curricula are composed of fundamental elements. A curriculum usually The Process Model:
contains some selection and organization of content: it either implies or It was developed by Lawrence Stenhouse. He argues that, a process model
manifests certain patterns of learning and teaching. Finally, it includes a is more appropriate than an objective model in areas of the curriculum
program of evaluation of the outcomes. Therefore, Hilda Taba proposed a which center on knowledge and understanding. The root of this model is in
seven steps approach to the process of curriculum design and development philosophy of education. Stenhouse believes that it is possible to design
in 1962. The model proposed by her gives priority to the needs of the curricula rationally by specifying content and principles of procedures
students and the procedure of curriculum development begins with the rather than by pre-specifying the anticipated outcomes in terms of
diagnosis of needs. The orders (steps) as Taba perceives it are: objectives. The justification for choosing such content rests not on the pupil
Step 1: Diagnosis of needs behavior to which it gives rise, but on the degree to which it reflects the
Step 2: Formulation of objectives field of knowledge. In this design the process is specified; that is, the
Step 3: Selection of content content studies, the methods employed and the criteria inherent in the
Step 4: Organization of content activity. The end product produced by pupils is not specified before hand in
Step 5: Selection of learning experiences terms of behavior but can be evaluated after the event by the criteria built in
Step 6: Organization of learning experiences to the art form. In this model behavioral objectives are absent. In the place
Step 7: Evaluation (Determination of what to evaluate and ways and means of objectives, the emphasis is on defining
of doing it.) acceptance of procedure for dealing with such issues. It is concerned with
The procedure of curriculum development proposed by Taba is basically the teaching content. It does not presuppose a linear treatment of its component,
same as the Tyler’s model except some difference like the following. it is sensitive to differences in subject matter and it assumes the autonomy
Taba included diagnosis of needs of the individual teacher. However, the process model is still concerned
She treated contents and learning experiences separately in terms of with ends, though admittedly not behavioral in character, and that is
both the selection and organization. emphasis on content and principles of procedure trends to obscure this
Taba also capitalizes the interdependence and interrelatedness of the necessary feature of curriculum planning. There are a
various elements involved in the development of curriculum. number of practical objections to it, the most important being the
Taba stressed the relationship among the factors of the model in difficulties associated with assessing pupils work and the problem of
contents and learning experiences. In general, she included in her model the teacher competence, since the model assumes that teachers will be refining

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fundamental elements of curriculum such as: objectives, contents, learning and deepening their understanding and judgment of the concepts, principles
experiences, organization and evaluation. Tyler’s influence is also clearly and criteria inherent in their subjects. Stenhouse admits that a process

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seen in a diagram model offered by D. H.Wheeler. Wheeler’s Model: This model is far more demanding on teachers and thus far more difficult to
model had five basic stages as follows. Basically, Wheeler used the

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implement in practice, but it offers a higher degree of personal and does not presuppose a means-end analysis at all; it simply encourage teams
professional development. or groups of curriculum developers to take into account different elements
The Situational Model: and aspects of the curriculum developments process, to see the process as
This model has its roots in cultural analysis as developed by Shilbeck. The an organic whole, and to work in a moderately systematic way. The
model puts curriculum design and development firmly within a cultural curriculum models in general are prescriptive in that they recommend how
framework and it views such design as a way in which teachers modify and the activities of curriculum design out to be conducted.
transform pupils’ experience through providing insights into cultural values, 2.3 Selection of Contents and Learning Experiences
interpretative frameworks and symbolic systems. This model is based on the Contents or subjects matters are facts, principles, formulas, theories, etc
assumption that the focus for curriculum development must be the which are selected from the accumulated knowledge of the society and it is
individual teachers; that school-based curriculum development is the most only part of the total culture of the society. Contents are not an end for
effective way of promoting genuine change at a school level. Curriculum themselves, but they are a means to the end.
experts will go to individual school and work with the teachers to develop Learning experiences are the interactions of the learners with their
the curriculum to improve the teaching of a subject. According to Shilbeck environment in their effort to acquire the contents with purposeful support
the model has five major components. These components are: of the teacher. They are mental operations and exercises of the learners that
Situational Analysis: This involves a review of the situation and an would enable them to develop the desired learning outcomes; that is the
analysis of the interacting elements constituting it. External factors that to changes of behaviors expected at the end of the various levels of instruction.
be considered are broad social changes including: ideological shifts, Learning experiences include the different techniques, strategies and
parental and community expectations, the changing nature of subject methods that are used for the purpose of teaching and learning. Learning
disciplines, and the potential contribution of teacher support systems such experiences are the activities the learners’ exercise and develop in order to
as colleges and universities. The internal factors include: pupils and their meet the expected changes of behaviors by way of acquiring the contents.
tributes, teachers and their knowledge, skills, interests, etc…, school ethos 2.3.1 Selection of Curriculum Contents and Learning Experiences
and political structure, materials resources and felt problems. Since contents are the vehicles or means through which objectives are
Goal Formulation: with the statement of goals embracing teacher and attended, they have to be given due consideration at the time of selection. If
pupil activities (though not necessarily expressed in behavioral terms). Such irrelevant or inappropriate contents and learning experiences are selected,
goals are derived from the situational analysis only in the sense that they then the students’ time will be wasted and the intended learning outcomes
represent decisions to modify that situation in certain respects. will not be attained. That is, the selection of contents and learning
Program Building: this comprises the selection of subject matter for experiences is as important as that of the formulation of objectives.
learning, the sequencing of teaching, learning episodes, the development of 2.3.2 Components of Curriculum Experiences
staff and the choice of appropriate supplementary materials and media. The components of curriculum experiences are contents and learning
Interpretation and Implementation: where practical problems involved in experiences.
the introduction of a modified curriculum are anticipated and then hopefully Contents: ‘Content’ is equated directly with ‘knowledge’. Many educators
overcome as the installation proceeds. believe that content consists only of the facts, concepts and generalization,
Monitoring, Assessment, feedback and reconstruction: Which involves a or the knowledge related to a particular subject or theme. Content is defined
much wide concept of evaluation than determining to what extent a as the subject matter of the teaching-learning process and it includes the
curriculum meets its objectives. knowledge (facts, concepts, generalizations, principles and so forth),
Shilbeck’s situational analysis model is not an alternative to the other two. processes or skills associated with that knowledge base and the values

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It is a more comprehensive framework which can encompass either the associated with subjects or whatever is being learnt.
process model or the objectives model, depending on which aspects of the Content Selection

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curriculum are being designed. This model is flexible, adaptable and open One of the first tasks facing a curriculum developer, armed with a set of
to interpretation in the light of changing circumstances. The model outlined objectives and recommendations from a situational analysis is to select

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appropriate contents to meet those objectives. Contents or subjects matter is 2.Validity: Content may be regarded as valid when it is authentic or true,
only part of the total culture. It includes what men know and believe and and to a large measure this means whether the content is accurate. Accurate
their ideas and loyalties, but not everything they have created. When or true information says what it is supposed to say. A significant test of the
curriculum developers undertake the actual selection of contents, the stand validity of content is to determine the degree of its obsolescence. In this
they take on what contents to include may be seen in terms of a continuum. rapidly changing world, the obsolescence of content is a continual problem
It is suggested that the approach towards selecting content varies between, faced by curriculum developers and those who implement curricula. Some
one emphasizing a knowledge-based approach where the learning of factual school subjects, such as mathematics, science and social studies, appear to
materials is of paramount importance, and another emphasizing the process be in a state of almost constant flux. The criterion of validity of content may
approach where skills are highly valued and seen as integral to effective also be measured in terms of the relationship between content and
understanding. objectives. For content to be valid, it must reflect the stated objectives. If
Learning Experiences: are the interactions of the learners with their objectives claim one thing while the content selected for the curriculum
environment in their effort to acquire the contents. They are mental teaches something different then it is regarded as invalid. For example, if an
operations and exercises of the learners that would enable them to develop objective seems to achieve student understanding of Ethiopia’s political
the desired learning outcomes; that is the changes of behaviors expected at structure, and the ensuring content deals only with one political party, then
the end of the various levels of instruction. Learning experiences include the content would be invalid.
the different techniques, strategies and methods that are used for the 3.Social Relevance: if the curriculum is to be a useful prescription for
purpose of teaching and learning. They are the activities the learners’ learning, its content and the outcomes it pursues need to be in tune with
exercise and develop in order to meet the expected changes of behaviors by the social and cultural realities of the times. A somewhat controversial
way of acquiring the contents. In reality, content and learning experiences criterion for content selection is that of social relevance. This criterion
do not exist apart. If students are thinking, they are usually thinking about suggests that content for inclusion in a curriculum should be selected on the
something - some content. If they are engaged in some experience, such as grounds of its relevance to the social development of the individual, but
reading a book, they are combining both a learning experience and content. within the context of a community-oriented perspective. Thus, this criterion
Content and learning experiences always comprise curriculum unity. is concerned with content relating to moral values, ideas, social
Students cannot just engage in learning, or in studying, without problems, controversial issues, democratic principles, understanding of
experiencing some activity and some content. cultural groups, social awareness and criticism, the facilitation of social
2.3.3 Selection Criteria for Contents and Learning Experiences change and so forth that would assist students to become more effective
When selecting content specifically for a curriculum, the developer requires members of their society.
guidelines to ensure that the content is appropriate. The following criteria 4.Utility: this criterion appears similar to the criteria of significance and
provide a framework for facilitating the selection of content. They are not social relevance but the term is defined in rather specific manner in terms
presented in their order of merit or worth, and not all would be applied of individual learners. When employed to select content for a school
equally. Nevertheless, they provide a useful guide for the selection of curriculum, the criterion of utility applies to the usefulness of content in
appropriate content. preparing students for adult life. As such it implies a very correctly
1.Significance: The criterion of significance applies where content is relevant and functional approach to the selection of content that will lead to
judged in terms of how essential or basic it is to the discipline or theme a desired outcome on behalf of the learner. This criterion is also
under study. Where content is considered to be of value to the subject individually oriented reflecting the concept of the value or usefulness of the
area, it is deemed to be significant and thus worthily of inclusion in a content to individual learners experiencing the proposed curriculum.

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curriculum. For most curriculum developers this criterion involves an A recent adaptation of the curriculum criterion suggests that content should
appropriate balance between concepts, ideas and facts. Nevertheless, be selected to meet students’ present needs. This criterion is particularly

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this criterion is somewhat problematic when we pose the question appropriate for curricula devised for non-tertiary-bound students.
“significant for whom?”

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5.Learnability: Those contents have to meet the needs of large numbers 7.Scope/Balance of Breadth and Depth: curriculum should represent an
of students with diverse backgrounds and a wide range of ability appropriate balance of breadth and depth. Yet depth of understanding
(Young, 1989; Kennedy, 1990). In these cases, if the content is to be and a breadth of coverage are two contradictory principles. One cannot
acquired by all students, then consideration must be made not to make the practice both of them to an extreme. They are especially contradictory when
content too difficult for this group of learners. To lessen this problem and subject matter or content is viewed as an accumulation or collection of
make content suitable to the ability levels of all students involved could specific descriptive facts rather than a disciplined way of seeing the
reduce the content to the level of the lowest common denominator. This in important relationships between facts and central ideas. The followers of
turn, would create an insane, pointless curriculum for many students. The this view see depth as an extension of coverage. This view of depth leads to
answer to this problem lies, in part, in creating multiple content material or a broader coverage which practically prevents spending time on the
variations of the basic content materials by adding more advanced content necessity of concentration on a few fields, which prevents sufficient scope
for abler students, in order to meet differing student abilities or levels within for the broadening of perspective or for serving a greater variety of needs
a single curriculum. An associated aspect on the learn-ability criterion is . According to the second view, depth means understanding fully and
student readiness. It is extremely difficult for curriculum developers to clearly certain basic principles, ideas, or concepts, as well as their
predetermine it. The classroom teacher as curriculum implementer and application- To achieve depth of understanding, one needs to explore ideas
curriculum adapter is in an appropriate position to consider learner fully enough and in sufficient detail to comprehend their full meaning, to
readiness. Thus it is a professional judgment by the teacher which will relate them to other ideas and to apply them to new problems and solutions.
determine whether or not certain contents should be included in the To begin with, one could study the concept of light in sufficient depth
presentation of the curriculum based upon the readiness of the learners to without necessarily covering all phenomena of light.
accept that content. It might be possible to achieve a reasonable balance of breadth and depth by
6.Interest: The interest of learners in the curriculum’s content is generally selecting sufficient range of ideas to study which have the greatest
considered to be an important criterion in the selection of that content by applicability and the greatest power to transfer, and by spending enough
curriculum developers. After all this is good sense. However, it appears to time on studying each. Such an approach to depth of understanding permits
be one of those criteria more valued in the theory than in the reality. the student to penetrate into the way of thinking sufficiently to acquire the
Certainly curriculum developers have accorded this criterion the lowest discipline of the subject. The crux of the matter lies in teaching for transfer,
priority in practice. The problem associated with the student interest in developing the capacity to apply whatever is learned in one context to
criterion is the dilemma it causes when determining just how significant a other areas and problems. This suggests that the problem of balance of
role this criterion should play, at one extreme, curriculum developers could depth and coverage cannot be solved by consideration of the selection of
ignore student interest as a selection criterion. They could argue, perhaps content alone. It involves also parallel plans for designing learning
justifiably so, that they know what content students should learn. experiences which cultivate the process essential to transfer.
However, this extreme position loses the potential of a strong student 8.Provision for wide range of objective:
motivational force and hence may be counterproductive. Curriculum should provide for the achievement of a wide range of
Alternatively, curriculum content selected largely upon a student interest objectives. Mastery of content is only one of the many possible outcomes
criterion possibly suffers from whim, immature development, and of learning. Various other types of behaviors are both possible and
individualistic emphasis. The range of students’ interest may appear to be necessary educational objectives. An effective curriculum provides
unlimited and they are frequently of a transitory nature. Obviously some acquisition of significant new knowledge and for the development of
accommodation of both arguments must be taken into account when increasingly more effective ways of thinking, desirable attitudes and

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constructing curriculum. Curriculum developers would do well to certain a interests, and appropriate habits and skills. Potentially rich subject
greater understanding of student interests and perceived needs. While matter can be implemented with learning experiences which provide

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maintaining the role of arbiter, curriculum developers must take greater opportunities for practicing either a wider or a limited range of behavior,
cognizance of student interests. and hence serve either a wide or a narrow range of objectives. One can, for

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example, learn geographic facts and principles simply by memorizing them. on the means of putting together the objectives, content, methods, learning
But it is possible also to learn the same facts by examining the maps experience, and evaluation techniques systematically according to their
contrasting geographic areas to locate them, to use the fact of latitude, suitability in leading a better teaching-learning process. Similarly,
rainfall, and altitude to predict what is grown and produced in these areas in curriculum organization is defined by other educators as the arrangement of
order to develop generalizations about the relationship to geographic the components or elements of a curriculum into a substantive entity. It
conditions to resources, production, or way of life. These experiences will refers to the way in which curricula are treated. Here, the components or
produce the same knowledge of facts and principles, but in addition elements of a curriculum are similar with the above explanation. These
encourage the cultivation of many other behaviors at the same time. include aims, goals, objectives, subject matter or content, learning activities
9.Durability of the elements of content: determining how long an item and evaluation. The nature of these components and the manner in which
of content will last as a desirable element is difficult. Subject matter has they are organized in the curriculum plan comprise what we mean
changed so rapidly in fields like physics and chemistry that prediction of its curriculum design or organization.
durability has sometimes seemed impossible. In general, however, the Hence, curriculum organization deals with the pattern or the arrangement
closer an item of content is to a main idea or a concept, the greater is its of these elements; that is, it focuses on how these elements can be brought
chance of being durable. Where possible, all criteria should be together to form a systematic unity. Moreover, curriculum organization is
considered, although it appears that the criteria of significance, validity an activity which is usually done at the time of either planning a new
and utility are accorded greater priority. curriculum or revising the existing curriculum. Although most curriculum
2.3.4 Curriculum Organization plans within their design the above essential elements, often they are not
Introduction given equal weight. Frequently, content or subject matter receives the
Following the selection of contents and learning experiences, there is a need primary emphasis. But, sometimes schools do create designs that stress
to put them in to a meaningful and systematic pattern or order. This is primarily on objectives and evaluation approaches. Some designs give
referred to as organization. Organization requires the arrangement of primary emphasis to learning experiences and activities. The curriculum
contents and learning experiences in to some kind of continuity and designer’s curriculum approach and philosophical orientation influences
sequence. This helps for a better and deeper understanding that is which design does he or she actually select.
instrumental for the successful realization of educational objectives. It is 2.3.4.2: Organization of Contents and Learning Experiences
usually believed that a curriculum should be organized properly in order to To make contents learnable and to bring about the slow but profound
meet its objectives satisfactorily. Whatever desirable objectives are change in behavior there is a need to organize contents and learning
formulated, and relevant contents are selected if the material is presented in experiences in such a way that they reinforce one another. The
a haphazard way, that is, if the organization of this material is overlooked, reinforcement of contents and learning experiences at different levels is
then the expected objectives may not be achieved adequately. To assumed to bring a cumulative effect. Furthermore, as noted by Taba “what
accomplish this goal (to have a better organization of a material), the makes learning in schools is different from learning in life since learning in
designer should have, not only a thorough understanding of the curriculum school is organized”. According to this notion, if contents and learning
content and his/her objectives but also, principles for organizing the needs experiences are not organized, learning becomes something done disorderly
and problems of the content. Principles are basic generalizations that are and incidentally. The selection of contents and learning experiences could
accepted as true and that can be used as basis for reasoning or conduct. be adequate enough but the outcome could be a failure due to lack of proper
2.3.4.1: Definition of Curriculum Organization organization. As noted by Taba “curriculum organization poses many
Some educators take curriculum organization and curriculum design as questions and requires an application of all we know about the nature of

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synonymous. For instance, in the Dictionary of Education, both are defined knowledge, about child growth and development and about theory of
as: “the way in which the component parts of the curriculum have been learning because of its complexity and difficulties.

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arranged in order to facilitate learning and teaching and to enable schools to In order to achieve maximum results from the selected contents and
formulate feasible daily and weekly schedules.” This definition emphasizes learning experiences advocates of the objective model advice curriculum

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workers and teachers to examine the relationship of the experiences over Other Organizing Principles commonly used include increasing the
time and also from one area to another. These two kinds of relationships are breadth of application, increasing the range of activities included. In the
referred to “the vertical and horizontal relations respectively”. Vertical subject, the use of description followed by analysis, the development of
relation is characterized by the criterion of level and the horizontal by the specific illustrations followed by broader and broader principles to explain
criterion of relation across subjects. In considering these two kinds of these illustrations, and the attempt to build on increasingly unified world
relationships, Tyler’s assumption is that attainment of objectives usually picture from specific parts which are first built into larger and larger
takes a long time and single learning experiences which does not recur at wholes.
different levels and across subjects may have very little effect on the 2. 3.4.4: Criteria for Organization
learner. Organizing contents and learning experiences enables to maintain Organizing contents and learning experiences as Tyler showed help to relate
relationship between subjects both in case of vertical and horizontal various experiences, which together comprise the curriculum to produce the
directions. It enables also to employ theories of learning in organizing the important effect in attaining the objectives of the program. In this line
contents and learning experiences, that is, deciding what should come first curriculum specialists identify four major criteria to be met in building
and what comes next, considering the capacity, interest, motivation, effectively organized group of contents and learning experience. These are:
readiness, need, etc. of the learners, and also enables to maintain order and Continuity: is the planned repetition of content at successive levels, each
coherence. The process of time at an increased level of complexity. Continuity also refers to the
organizing contents and learning experiences demand to base organization vertical reiteration of major curriculum elements. By this Tyler means that
on certain criteria and principles. recurrent and continuing opportunity must be given for the skill to be
2.3.4.3: Organizing Principles learned, to be practiced and developed. Of course the recurrence of
Tyler identified some organizing principles upon which the continuity, concepts, ideas and learning experiences becoming deeper and broader as
sequence and integration of learning experiences are attained among them the level increases. Therefore, the purpose of continuity is to provide for a
the major elements identified to serve as threads for the learning cumulative learning to take place, it is to provide for a greater depth and
experiences. These organizing principles are: breadth of understanding to all varieties of learning: thinking, skills and
Extending the concept by increasing the range of experience that attitudes. However, this cumulative progression need not necessarily be tied
provides for the development of the concept: To illustrate, in social study up with a shift in content. It is conceivable that the same content can be
programs, being with the child’s immediate environment the home and studied on two levels, one requiring a more mature understanding, more
school, and expand to the community, state, nation and world. In reading, penetrating analysis, and a deeper insight than the other. For instance, the
the student should first recognize letters of the alphabet and then proceed to child may learn notions of interdependence at grade one level by studying
reading words, sentences, paragraphs and novels. To determine sequence the way in which the activities and the need of the family are dependent on
psychologically, consider the maturity of the learner, his interest, readiness, the activities of other people. A third grade may examine the concept in
motivation, relative difficulty of the item, and the relationship between the relation to interdependence among the community services. A twelfth grade
item and the prerequisite skills. student may encounter the same concept, but with reference to the
Extending the concept by broadening the range of respects in which the interdependence of nations.
experiences occurs: For instance, to recognize inter-dependence in respect Sequence: sequence is putting the content and materials into some sort of
of economic matters, social matters, inter-dependence in aesthetic matters order of succession. Sequencing in curriculum can be in terms of the
and the like. content or learning experience. The content sequencing is done on the basis
Chronological principles: This enables learners see the development of of the subject matter logic while the learning experiences are sequenced

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events over time. It demands organizing in order of time of happening. In using psychological approaches.
using this principle there is a need to see to it whether it is providing the Logical Sequencing: the logical sequencing approach of content

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psychological organization, which broadens and deepens the learner’s organization puts the content of the materials into some order of successions
command of the elements involved in the organization. in answering the question “what is to follow what”. Logical sequencing is a

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matter of specifying the learning structure of any subject. In this process of
acquisition of knowledge every new capability builds on established Unit Three: Curriculum Implementation, Change and Evaluation
foundation previously learned knowledge. In this way a student is only 3.1. Meaning of Curriculum Implementation
ready to learn something when he has mastered the prerequisite knowledge Curriculum implementation is a process of putting newly planned or
required to be a base for the new content. changed curriculum into practice. Implementation in curriculum involves
In logical sequencing, the important organizing principle used in putting changing the status quo by accepting and utilizing a newly created
the content is chronological order. Chronological principle is arranging curriculum or part of a curriculum. That is taking a curriculum document as
facts and ideas in relation to time sequence. This sequencing usually is devised in the development phase of the model and putting it into practice.
particular to history; and courses in literature can also be arranged based on If the curriculum is accepted and utilized successfully, we say that it has
this principle in selection of literatures. Example: The battle fields in become institutionalized.
Ethiopian history can be arranged in chronological order. Change is the process of transforming phenomena in to something
Psychological Sequencing: the learning experiences are arranged based on different. Therefore, curriculum change can be defined as any alteration in
principle of psychological sequencing by giving more attention to the the aspects of curriculum such as educational philosophy, values,
learning activities in relation to the learner’s abilities, interests, aspirations objectives, organizational structures and material, teaching strategies,
and backgrounds rather than the course and content coverage. The designers student experiences, assessment and learning outcomes.
should select learning experiences based on the developmental levels of the 3.2. Curriculum Implementation Approaches and Models
learners taking into account their individual differences in many aspects like In the short term, any newly implemented curriculum will be expected to
interest, intelligence, level of aspiration and background. Accordingly the experience some difficulties. To a large degree this will reflect the
activities and assignments given and the leaner’s performance and effectiveness of the curriculum developers in meeting the needs of the
expectations also differ. In this sequencing approach learning experiences curriculum’s clients. Thus, implementation is a short-term phenomenon that
can be arranged following certain organizing principles like: Establishing attempts to integrate the new curriculum into existing practice. To some
Scope: refers to breadth or latitude of the curriculum and it shows what degree, the problems experienced in implementing curricula reside with a
must be provided to students in different grade levels in a school. That is it lack of systematic implementation procedures.
reflects the type of educational experiences that are believed by planners to It is important for teachers to know that a new curriculum can be
be relevant or appropriate for learners at particular stages of development so implemented more successfully in a school when cognizance and action are
that the educational objectives can be realized Scope shows that curriculum taken on the following points:
horizontally by identifying common curriculum experiences that could Planning: A deliberate strategy is developed to implement the curriculum
involve all students from all cultures in a given country’s educational in the school.
system to be provided in a given semester or year. It facilitates the teachers’ Communication: The curriculum is presented in terms of its favorable
work by showing the content of a semester’s or year’s work that is characteristics.
appropriate for the students to learn. Scope could be achieved if and when it Cooperation: Support is obtained at a systematic level for the innovation.
fulfills the following criteria: Support: The characteristics of the school are disposed towards the
if it provides for all the demands of a society; innovation. For the implementation process to be successful, it needs to
if it meets the common needs and problems of children at all grade consider planning, communication, and cooperation and support processes.
levels; Curriculum Implementation Models
if it basis on basic principles, values, and issues; Curriculum implementation can be done using different models. The three

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if a particular society considers it worthy; common once are discussed below in a brief manner:
if it gives room to continuity of learning experiences; and Fidelity Model: curriculum implementation model that requires the

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if it focuses upon life situations and help children to solve problems in curriculum to be implemented without any modification as it is, that is, as it
the society.

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is prescribed by the curriculum experts. The teacher has no right to make evaluation data and school/class level improvement needs, the greater the
any form of change in all aspects of the curriculum. degree of implementation.
Mutual Adaptation Model: Teachers are allowed to make some Board and Community Characteristics: the greater the board and
modification by considering the reality of the context. community interest and support without controversy, the greater the degree
Enactment Model: the curriculum implementer participates in all of implementation.
curriculum development process at all levels. Teachers are the most active School Level Factors
participants in curriculum creation. This model goes up to school based The Role of the Principal: the greater the active support of the principal,
curriculum development under the national framework. the greater the
3.3 Factors Affecting Curriculum Implementation degree of implementation.
Factors Related with the Characteristics of the Change: Teacher-Teacher Relationship: the more collegiality, trust, support,
Need and Relevance: Need and relevance refers to the perceived need to interaction and open communication between teachers, the greater the
the part of implementers. It would seem that the greater the recognized need degree of implementation.
for change, the greater the degree of implementation. Teacher characteristics and orientations: The greater the sense of teacher
Clarity: refers to understanding of goals and means of an innovation by efficacy, the
users. The greater the understanding of goals and what is to be gained from greater the degree of implementation.
their adoption, the greater the degree of implementation. External Environment Factors
Complexity: has to do with the difficulty and extent of change required of Government Agencies: The greater the congruence between local needs
users. The greater the complexity in innovations with differentiated and the reform and the greater awareness of subjective realities, the greater
components incrementally introduced, the greater the degree of the degree of implementation.
implementation. External Assistance: The greater the interaction with local district, the
Quality and Practicality of Program: refers to the quality and availability greater the degree of implementation.As a whole, curriculum
of materials. Users must perceive that materials are going to meet important implementation can be affected by the following variables:
needs as well as be practical and usable. Unavailability of required The nature of the curriculum itself
materials acts as inhibitors of implementation. The situation of the learners
Factors Related with the Characteristics of the School District Level The professional competence of the teacher
Previous History of Innovation Attempts: the more positive the previous Availability of resources
history with innovation, the greater the degree of implementation. The school environment
The Adoption Process: the higher the quality of planning to meet The out of school environment
problems, the greater the The school-community relationship
degree of implementation. The management practices in the school.
Administrative Support: the greater the “real” administrative support, the 3. 4. Curriculum Change, Resistance and Increasing Receptivity for
greater the degree Curriculum Change
of implementation. Change is a phenomenon which we experience continuously. It seems that
Staff development and Participation: The greater the quality and quantity features of our society are changing daily. Indeed, some changes are so
of sustained interaction and staff development, the greater the degree of frequent and substantial that we may find them difficult to keep abreast with
implementation. these developments so, it is with schooling and education; substantive and

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Time-line and information systems/ evaluation/: the greater the extent to frequent change appears to have become something of a norm, a continuing
which timing or events is guided by an understanding of implementation, reality of schools. Curriculum change may be considered as a subset of

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the greater the degree of implementation. The greater the linkage between educational change and as such is affected by the same type of factors
affecting change within education in general. Much of curriculum is

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concerned with planned change, which may be defined as a deliberate and Although the change that occurs in the schools cannot be fit into precise
collaborative process involving a change agent and a client system which categories, curricularists need to realize that types do exist and that planned
are brought together to solve a problem or more change could be an ideal one.
generally, to plan and attain an improved state of functioning and applying 3.4.2: Resistance to Curriculum Change
valid knowledge, most of what we address in curriculum is some form of People are the key to curriculum implementation effort but not always are
planned change. people ready to accept change curriculum change. The people’s resistance
3.4.1 Change Typologies in Curriculum to change can be attributed to various factors.
Some educators classify changes into different types. Warren Bennie has a. Inertia: many people think it is easier to keep things as they are. Wanting
identified the following types of changes: to keep things as they exist is often mixed with believing that things do not
Planned Change: It is a change in which those involved have equal power need to be changed or that change being suggested is unwise and will thus
and function in a prescribed fashion. People identify and follow precise be unproductive in meeting the objectives of the school.
procedures for dealing with the activity at hand. Planned change is taken to b. Insecurity: People feel instance about the uncertainty of things to
be an ideal one. happen. Those who are comfortable with the present are reluctant to change
Coercion: one group determining the goals and intentionally excluding for a future which they cannot comprehend or see clearly. They prefer to
others from participating characterizes this type of change. The group in stay with certain known deficiencies than venture forth to uncertain futures,
control has the major power and works to maintain the unequal power even if the changes most likely would be improvements.
balance. c. Rapidity of change: This refers to the factor which makes people to
Interaction Change: In this type of change, mutual goal setting and fairly resist change by anticipating another change in curriculum soon. Many
equal power distribution among groups take place. But those involved often people feel that if something is implemented this year, it will most likely be
lack deliberateness of effort; they are uncertain how to follow through with abandoned when another innovation appears and this will thus make all
the plans of development and implementation. Changes have also been their efforts useless.
classified according to their complexity. John McNeil has identified five d. Lack of knowledge: Sometimes people resist innovation and its
types of changes as described below. implementation because they lack knowledge. They either do not know
Substitution: This depicts alteration in which one element is replaced for about the innovation at all or they have little information about it.
another. By far, this is the easiest and most common type of change. e. Lack of Support: People also resist change if financial or time support is
Alteration: This type of change exists when someone introduces into the not given to the effort. Resistance to change is sometimes perceived as
existing materials and program new content, items, materials, or procedures good, because it calls upon the change agents to think carefully about the
that appear to be only minor and thus are likely to be adopted readily. innovations and to consider the human dynamics involved in implementing
Perturbations: These changes could first disrupt a program, but can then programs.
be adjusted purposefully by the curriculum leader to the on-going program f. Self Interest: People also resist to curriculum change when they feel that
within a short time span. the change may result in a loss in their current position which is related to
Restructuring: These changes lead to modification of the system itself-that their personal interest.
is, of the school or school district. New concepts of teaching roles such as 3.4.3: Improving Receptivity to Curriculum Change
differentiated staffing or team teaching would be a restructuring type of Curriculum implementation requires face-to-face interaction or person-to
change. person contact. It is also a group process involving individuals working
Value-Orientation Change: These are shifts in the participants’ together. Not only does the group enable certain actions to occur, it also

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fundamental philosophies or curriculum orientations. Major power brokers serves to change its individual members. Curriculum leaders can also
of the school or participation in the curriculum must accept and strive for increase the person’s willingness to change by “linking” the need and

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this level of change for it occurs. However, if teachers do not adjust their expectations of the individuals with those of the organizations. Brue Joyce
value domains, any changes enacted are most likely going to be short lived. and his coworkers have identified the following guidelines that help

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individuals to increase their receptivity to curriculum innovations. not only be conducted after implementing the plan but it starts when the
Curriculum activity must be Cooperative: if any program is to be planner checks learning experiences against various criteria derived from
implemented and institutionalized, it should be perceived by all parties as educational psychology and general principles of learning and from
their program. This sense of ownership is achieved by involving people practical experience and when these learning experiences have been
directly and indirectly with the major aspects of curriculum development checked to see that how much they are related to the objectives. Hence, the
and implementation. Consider as some people do not like change: importance of curriculum evaluation is to make a more inclusive check as to
Resistance to any new idea is often natural. Curriculum leaders should whether the plan or choice for learning experiences actually function to
anticipate it, and should prepare procedures for dealing with it. They must guide the teacher in producing the sort of outcomes desired
also identify well in advance of the action questions that will arise about the In addition, it assesses the curriculum development and the appropriateness
innovation being implemented: how will people feel about the change? in relation to the educational goals. It also helps to check the validity of the
What worries will people have? What are some likely points of conflict? basic hypothesis upon which the effectiveness of the particular instruments
What can be done to lessen the anxiety levels of individuals who will be being used in the implementation process. Generally from Tyler’s practices
affected by the change? Innovations are subject to change: Nothing should of curriculum evaluation we can understand that the process makes possible
be viewed as permanent. A new curriculum is presented as a response to a to note in what aspects the purpose for curriculum evaluation and the reason
particular time sometimes even new programs, will be required. Change is a why a process of evaluation is necessary after the plans themselves are
constant, and people need to realize that all programs will be constantly developed. For this Tyler was called the father of modern program
reviewed to determine if they should be continued. Proper timing: it is a key evaluation. The important function of evaluation is helping the planner to
factor that increases peoples’ receptivity to an innovation. If the school see whether the educational plans developed for learning experiences
community is demanding that a new program to be created to respond to a practically function to guide teachers in showing clear objectives and
perceived national need, then a new program addressing that need is likely appropriate means to achieve them.
to meet with success and acceptance.. In addition to this, evaluation is regarded as having functions to identify the
3.5 Curriculum Evaluation strengths and weakness of the plan and to find out how far a curriculum is
Evaluation is a term used more and more in educational decisions and it is effective and in what respect it needs modification. Therefore, in the
taken as one of the important steps of curriculum development. New evaluation process data are gathered and interpreted for the sake of deciding
curricula are being developed on every hand, these curricula have to be on the modification of the program after answering these questions. The
evaluated to understand the success and failure of the educational plan and curriculum should be judged in relation to the culture of the society it is
to see whether the designed curriculum is effective or ineffective in the serving. In general, evaluation can be done for the following purposes:
implementation process. Evaluation provides information to improve curricula. Effective data
3.5.1: Meaning of Evaluation collected during a unit of study, will provide the bases for changes that will
Evaluation is a process that helps the planners or other concerned make the curriculum more effective in meeting objectives.
authorities to see the difference between what is intended or expected and Evaluation provides useful information to curriculum developers to
how much is accomplished. In doing so it provides valid and reliable clarify the stated objectives. Feedback obtained through evaluative
information that could help to decide about the failure or success of an procedures indicates how realistic and effective the original objectives were
educational program. and where change is required.
3.5.2: The Purpose of Evaluation Those interested (such as students, parents, educational systems,
Modern educational evaluation began with the work of Ralph Tyler in employers, universities, development planners, and so forth) to know how

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1930s by asking random questions to learners about the contents of their well students perform in their learning, they need constructive information
courses. In his works Tyler showed the importance of evaluation in on student performance to enhance their decision making effectiveness.

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education promoting idea that evaluation is necessary to see whether the Curriculum developers should ensure that provision is made for evaluative
educational objectives are mastered. In this view, evaluation process does information that is meaningful and valid.

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It enables to see what has been achieved (impact evaluation). 3.5.4: Types of Evaluation
It is used to document what has been done and what progress has been There are several types of evaluation. Among them, three major types of
made curriculum evaluation are commonly used in education. These are formative
(process or implementation evaluation). evaluation, diagnostic evaluation and summative evaluation.
It is used to determine cost-benefit accountability for expenditures. Formative Evaluation: is undertaken to improve an existing program.
It used to share experiences (professional development). Hence, this evaluation must provide frequently detailed and specific
Used to determine the effectiveness of a program in light of the information to guide the program being developed. However, this does not
attainment pre-set mean that formative evaluation is only used at the implementation stage.
priorities and goals. Therefore, evaluation can be undertaken for one or Formative evaluation can be used at each of the three stages of program
more development: planning/designing, disseminating it to other users and
purposes listed above. implementing the program.
3.5.3 Evaluation Procedures to be Followed Diagnostic Evaluation: is directed towards two purposes, either for
Evaluation procedure could be devised in accordance with the educational placement of students properly at the outset of the instructional period (such
level it is meant to check. It could be organized to evaluate total educational as secondary school), or to discover the underlying cause of deficiencies in
program or a given curriculum or certain instruction. Anyhow, the purpose student learning as instruction unfolds. The essential feature of diagnostic
of evaluating total educational program is to find out its validity to the evaluation, therefore, is to provide useful information on student
society it is planned. To do so, it requires substantial judgment and this performance in order to address a problem. It can be conducted before
substantial judgment could be achieved if the following, steps are followed commencing a unit of learning and during instruction when a student
as evaluation procedures. reveals repeated inability to profit from the learning experiences.
Step 1: Identifying the Objective: the process of evaluation begins with the Summative Evaluation: is concerned with evaluating the overall program
identification of educational objectives. Since the main task of evaluation is after it is in operation. Summative evaluation is often based on tests of all
to see how far the objectives are achieved, they have to be clearly defined in sorts, students’ reaction to the instruction, teachers’ view concerning the
order to have a clear conception of the sort of behavior implied by them. effectiveness of instruction, parents’ reaction, employer ratings of
Unless it is clearly defined the evaluator cannot tell what kind of behavior graduates, and reports from college examination bureau, etc.
to look for in the students in order to see to what degree these objectives are 3.5.5 Criteria for Curriculum Evaluation
being realized. Establishing evaluation instruments should be based on the following
Step 2: Identifying the Situations: This step refers to the identification of the evaluation criteria.
situations which will give the student the chance to express the behavior Criterion 1- Curricular Structure: Is the curriculum sufficiently complete?
that is implied by the educational objectives. We must find situations that What are the current education elements? What is missing?
give opportunity to the learners to acquire the expected types of behavior. Criterion 2 - Curricular Sequence: Is the sequential logic of the curriculum
For example, if we’re looking for the evidences of development of interest, optimal? For example, are curricular elements optimally sequenced for
situations giving the opportunity for free choice of activity have to be learning clinical method and related topic areas? This involves the idea of
provided. Generally, Tyler suggests that evaluation situation is the kind of learner readiness.
situation that gives an opportunity for the students to express the type of Criterion 3 -Curricular Element Proportionality:
behavior we are trying to appraise. Does curricular content proportionally reflect the objectives of medical
Step 3: Establishing Evaluation Instruments: Here, we identify particular education, the elements that are required for the student to develop a general

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tests and examine them to see how far they fit into the type of objectives and balanced preparation? How is the time allotted in the curriculum? Are
that are appraised and how far they agree to the learning situations meant to learning experiences of sufficient duration fora student to learn what is

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produce the expected behavior. intended?

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Criterion 4 - Curricular Integration: Is the curriculum sufficiently The curriculum developer role involves the teacher in designing and
integrated /linked in terms of educational elements so that optimal learning developing, usually as a member of a group, a curriculum to meet student
is facilitated and curricular redundancy minimized? needs. Through the use of techniques such as situational analysis and needs
Criterion 5 - Curricular Balance/Learner Outcomes: Is the curriculum and assessment, teachers are able to determine the nature of students’ needs.
its evaluative components (objectives) balanced in terms of learner Using this database they are able to develop an appropriate curriculum to
outcomes? Is there an educationally sound balance between knowledge, meet those needs. Finally, teachers may undertake the role of curriculum
skill, and attitude development? To what level of competency are learners researcher. Here, the staff may be involved in improving one’s own
prepared? practice, testing curriculum materials, evaluating new curricula, testing
1. Knowledge 2. Comprehension 3. Application 4. Analysis 5. Synthesis teaching strategies and collecting data on student needs. Teachers can
6. Evaluation conduct action research. Thus, from the above two points of view, there is
Criterion 6 - General Preparation: Does the curriculum prepare all students an intimate relationship and interdependence between the professional
broadly enough? How well does the curriculum achieve a base of general teacher and the curriculum.
preparation compared to specialized preparation?
Criterion 7 - Curricular Evaluation Are evaluation mechanisms Unit Four: Teaching-Learning Process
systematically in place in order to identify intended learner outcomes .
(knowledge, skill, attitude across the spectrum of expected competencies)? 4.1 Definition of Terms:
This includes evaluation by learners, teachers and 'outside' resources. Teaching is defined as:
Criterion 8 - Faculty Development: Is there sufficient recruitment, training, • “Any form of interpersonal influence aimed at changing the ways in which
evaluation and nurturing of faculty teachers in order to achieve and other persons
maintain excellence in the accomplishments of the intended educational can or will behave" (Gagne, 1963a)
process? • “An interactive process, primarily involving classroom talk, which takes
3.6: Teachers and Curriculum Relationship place between
Clearly teachers participate in a multiplicity of curriculum activities at a teacher and pupils & occurs during certain definable activities" (Amidon &
classroom level. These are very essential for their daily teaching tasks and Hunter, 1967)
include such activities as selection of specific content, selection of teaching • “Teaching denotes action undertaken with the intention of bringing about
strategies, and use of audio-visual media and so on. In recent years, teachers learning in
are participating more in curriculum decision-making at the school level. another" (Robertson, 1987)
The nature of this participation may be seen in the various roles that Teaching denotes:
teachers adopt in the decision-making process. It is suggested curriculum An activity or action: You can see teaching taking place
decision-making roles at the school level. These are as implementers, A process: It involves a series of actions and decisions of the teacher
adopters, developers, researchers and evaluators. As implementer or An interpersonal activity: Interpersonal refers to the fact that teaching
receiver, the teacher’s role is to apply curriculum developed elsewhere. involves
Most curriculum writers specializing in curriculum change would argue that interactions between a teacher and one or more students
teacher support is essential for the effective implementation of any Intentional: There is some purpose or set of purposes for which teaching
curriculum innovation. Alternatively, the teacher could adopt the role of occurs. This
adapter or modifier. Here, an externally developed curriculum is interpreted purpose is bringing about learning on the part of the learner.

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and changed to meet the needs of a particular school population. This 4.1.1: Characteristics of Effective Teaching
modification has occurred because teachers on the schools staff perceive • Clarity of the teacher’s explanations and directions.

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that the curriculum concerned does not adequately meet the needs of their • Establishing a task-oriented classroom climate.
students. • Making use of a variety of learning activities.

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• Establishing and maintaining momentum and pace for the lesson. students make academic and social progress. Likewise, the implementation
• Encouraging students’ participation and getting all of them involved. of different curricula has done little to improve student achievement
• Monitoring pupils’ progress and attending quickly to pupils’ needs. because it is teachers’ facilitation of learning objectives, not simply having
• Delivering a well-structured and well organized lesson. the curriculum box on the shelf that determines whether students benefit
• Providing pupils with positive and constructive feedback. from instruction. Consistent evidence suggests that to improve students’
• Ensuring coverage of the educational objectives. academic achievement and social skill development, we need to focus on
• Making good use of questioning techniques the nature and quality of teacher-student interaction.
Learning is defined as: Effective teacher-student interactions create:
1. A persisting change in human performance or performance potential . . . Emotional Support – Positive relationships among teachers and peers
(brought) about as Classroom Organization – Well-managed classrooms that provide
a result of the learner’s interaction with the environment (Driscoll, 1994). students with frequent, engaging learning activities
2. The relatively permanent change in a person’s knowledge or behavior Instructional Support – Interactions that teach students to think,
due to experience provide ongoing feedback and support, and facilitate language and
(Mayer, 1982, p. 1040) 3. An enduring changes in behavior or in the vocabulary.
capacity to behave in a given fashion, which results from practice or other II. Evidence on Effective Teacher-Student Interactions:
forms of experience (Shuell, 1986, p. 412). To improve the effectiveness of teacher-student interactions, we must first
4. It is the lifelong process of transforming information into knowledge, know how to assess them. Research provides evidence about the types of
skills, behaviors and attitudes. teacher-student interactions that promote positive social and academic
4.1.2: Characteristics of Effective Learning: development. The Classroom Assessment Scoring System provides a
• It is meaningful to the students. reliable,
• Students can use it, connect it to their lives, or actively participate in it. valid assessment of these interactions. The class instrument assesses three
• It allows students to move further than memorization of facts and bits of broad domains of effective interactions—Emotional Support, Classroom
knowledge. Organization, and Instructional Support—that characterize students’
• It prepares the students to understand and participate in a complex world. classroom experiences. Each domain is comprised of multiple dimensions
• It encourage students to investigate, to understand the world around them, of effective interactions known to contribute to students’ success in school,
to analyze, to such as Teacher Sensitivity, Behavior Management, and Quality of
draw conclusions & to communicate – in other words, TO THINK. Feedback. Research conducted in over 6,000 classrooms in UK concludes
4.2 The Interaction between Teaching and Learning that in grades PK-5, students in classrooms with higher CLASS ratings
Effective interactions between teachers and students are essential for realize greater gains in achievement and social skill development. Selected
promoting long-term school success across grades. The Classroom studies demonstrate:
Assessment Scoring System offers an evidence based approach to defining • Higher levels of instructional support are related to preschoolers’ gains in
and measuring effective interactions in school classrooms. The class also pre reading and math skills.
provides aligned professional development support to give targeted • High levels of emotional support contribute to preschoolers’ social
feedback to districts, schools, and teachers, with the overarching goal of competence in the kindergarten year.
improving outcomes for students. • High levels of emotional support are associated with growth in reading
I. What Constitutes Effective Teacher-Student Interactions? and math achievement from kindergarten through fifth grade.

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Past attempts at defining and measuring quality in education have yielded • High levels of classroom organization are associated with gains in first
limited results. We now know that many of the more commonly debated graders’ literacy.

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regulations intended to improve the impacts of classrooms (i.e., class size, • Kindergarten children are more engaged and exhibit greater self-control in
teacher education, and credentialing) are not sufficient to ensure that classrooms offering more effective teacher-child interactions.

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• First-grade children at risk for school failure perform on par with peers, Engages students beyond reading, listening, and note-taking;
both socially and academically, when exposed to classrooms with effective Promotes deep learning, not just acquisition of facts;
teacher student interactions. In sum, the link between effective interactions Develops higher order thinking skills (e.g. analysis, synthesis,
and improved social and academic outcomes for students has been evaluation) through intentionally designed activities;
replicated in numerous studies across the prekindergarten and elementary Often involves interaction among students;
years. Requires students to take greater responsibility for their learning;
III. Teacher-Student Interactions in Secondary Classrooms Teachers help students to monitor their own learning and discover what
Adolescents in middle school and high school characterize their interactions they do and do not understand;
with teachers as frequently unsatisfying and un motivating. They report that Helps students build competencies (e.g., problem-solving, critical
their experiences in the classroom lack meaningful challenges, supportive thinking,
relationships, and competence- and motivation building experiences. Yet, communication) as well as content knowledge.
engagement and intrinsic motivation are pivotal in adolescence, as these 4.4 Qualities of an Effective Teacher
students have the means to not only withdraw energy from educational • Has excellent subject knowledge or mastery.
pursuits but to drop out altogether. Engagement in school begins to decline • Provides work that is challenging for students.
early in adolescence, and by entry into high school this decline is so • Has a smooth relation with students.
pronounced that half of high school students report that they do not take • Manages the class well.
their school or their studies seriously. Studies of large-scale testing • Plans his/her lessons well.
programs indicate that teachers are the greatest source of variation in what • Adopts a variety of teaching methods and media.
students learn in schools. • Considers the needs of the different ability groups within the class.
What is Active Learning? • Makes good use of a variety of questioning techniques.
A situation where students are active participants in their own learning • Is friendly, with a sense of humor.
rather than passive receivers of knowledge • Gives feedback within an appropriate timescale.
Students engage in some activity that forces them to think about and • Is confident, open to suggestions and other viewpoints.
comment on the information presented. • Remains a student all his/her life.
The focus in active-learning is on generating knowledge through a • Knows his/her world.
process of inquiry, observation, analysis and problem solving. • Combines adaptability with courage, etc.
Active learning is defined as learning in which the child, by acting on 4.5 Major Responsibilities of a Teacher
objects and interacting with people, ideas, and events, constructs new 1. The teacher guides his students and learning activities: the most
understanding. important
No one else can have experiences for the child or construct knowledge responsibilities of teachers are to plan, organize and direct the activities,
for the child. which will result in learning and guiding the students. That is to say:
Children must do this for themselves. Development of instructional objectives
Active Learning refers to techniques where students do more than Identifying and motivating learning and learners
simply listen to a lecture. Employing appropriate materials and methods of preparation and
Students are doing something including discovering, processing, and presentation.
applying information (McKinney, 2007). 2. The teacher participates in the construction of the curriculum: the

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4.3: Characteristics of Active Learning teacher participates
Generally, active learning methodology is an instructional approach that in the preparation of curriculum, syllabus, teachers guide and textbooks and

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helps students to learn through thinking and doing. More specifically, active other
learning: instructional manuals.

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3. The teacher measures and evaluates the students’ progress: to be contributing effectively to discussion. One group calls you over and
Measurement and evaluation are used to determine the effectiveness of says that they do not understand what they are expected to do.
learning and teaching process. Evaluation requires the following tasks: Case study 4: Groups are working on a 30 minute task. One group seems to
Identification of instructional objectives. have finished after only 15 minutes, while another group has hardly started.
Selection and construction of valid, reliable and practical instrument. The group that has nearly finished is looking bored.
Knowing to what extent the instructional objectives are achieved Case study 5: When groups are asked to report back, nearly every group
Use of basic statistical techniques to interpret and appraise the results has only one group member contributing. The contributions from most
4. The teacher leads extra-curricular activities: the teacher is expected groups are identical. This is time consuming and students are looking bored.
to participate in different extra-curricular activities such as clubs, One group gives ideas that you think are incorrect and contrast with what
committee, department head, etc. others are saying. (Source: HDP handbook, 2011).
5. The teacher gives guidance and counseling to students concerning
academic and Unit Five: Principles, Methods and Techniques of Teaching
personal problems. The teacher has regular contact with large number of 5.1 Definition of Terms
students and is in a position to observe the changes in behavior. He/she is Principles are defined as fundamental norms, rules, or values that represent
responsible to assist students with various problems such as health, social what is desirable and positive for a person, group, organization, or
life, educational affairs and sexual relations. community and it helps in determining the rightfulness or wrongfulness of
6. The teacher makes use of research findings and social resources: The its action. Principles are more basic than policy and objectives, and are
teacher should use results of research and conduct research concerning meant to govern both.
his/her profession that can improve the quality of the profession. The focus Teaching Method is defined as: A systematic order imposed up on
must be on action research so as to improve the instructional process. teaching activities. These teaching activities can be expressed in terms of
7. The teacher participates in community activities: the teacher is the teacher activity and students’ activity in a given lesson. Methods are
responsible to participate in at least some of the social organization of the ways by which the teacher imparts (conveys) the facts, ideas, concepts, etc.
society. to the learners to help them acquire the necessary knowledge, develop skills
8. The teacher acquaints himself/herself with the rules and regulations and values. They are how teachers transmit lesson content to facilitate
of the school information to students. They are the means by which the teacher attempts
and works accordingly: the teacher is expected to understand and abide by to bring about the desired learning. Instructional methods are not ENDS by
the rules and regulation that are in place at the schools. themselves but MEANS to achieve the intended objectives of instruction.
What are the issues for both the teacher and the learners and suggest The different methods that are available to teachers are varied and many in
possible solutions? their nature and values.
Reflect for each case in terms of effective teaching and learning. 5.2 Major Kinds of Teaching Principles
Case study 1: A class of 60 students has been divided randomly into 6 There are nine principles of teaching as discussed below:
groups. You have prepared one sheet of instructions for each group. It takes 1. The principle of uniting instruction with the political, economic and
a long time for students to start working. By the end of the session, no-one social policy of
has completed the task. the country: This indicates that instruction must be related with the life of
Case study 2: Students have been allocated to groups. It takes a long time the learners. The curriculum of a country will not be different from a
to move the furniture. There is a great deal of noise. After the furniture has reflection of the socio-political realities in the society. Hence the teacher

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been moved, most groups are sitting and talking about the research they has the responsibility to create the link between the contents of instruction
have done, but there is very little new activity taking place. and the political, economic and social expectations sought to be developed.

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Case study 3: Groups have been formed and instructions given. Most 2. The Principle of connecting instruction with social life: The main
groups seem to be working well, but only one or two group members seem purpose of this principle is preparing students for productive work. This is

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in other words interested in linking theory with practice like for instance; application requires the use of instructional media as much as
extracurricular (clubs) activities at schools. demonstrating to students the concrete parts, aspects, problems or
3. The Principle of integrating instructions of different subjects: The phenomenon by means of real objects, models, charts, maps or explanations
main objectives of school instruction are to enable the students to use facts and descriptions etc.
of the different subjects (horizontal relationship) jointly in social life. 7. The principle of understanding individual difference in instruction
Subject integration leads to students’ unity of thinking, outlook, skills, (the principle of
attitudes etc. the application of the principle requires analysis of the approaching students personality based upon collective activity): The
syllabus in their points of contact with other subjects (their interrelations) teacher should know the cognitive abilities and physical maturity of
and using the relations to elaborate basic terms, concepts and ideas of students. Its application requires considering students’ individual difference
general importance. This principle assists students develop a unified view of (ability to perform a certain task or operate a given machine) and applying
the issue under discussion. different approaches to address the difference. Remember individuals
4. The Principle of guiding the activities of learners (the principle of greatly differ in comprehending the same thing.
teacher’s leading 8. The principle of applicability and durability of the results of
role and students’ independent work): The leading roles of the teacher instruction (the
are planning, organizing, guiding students, encouraging, stimulating, principle of stabilizing the results of instruction permanently): The
facilitating, which are the basic for successful learning. Learners’ self- quality of instruction is measured by its results and these results must be
activity is so important for the development of initiation, creativity, etc. the applicable and durable. Instruction requires planned repetition, summary,
principle tells us that the learners in our classrooms are not passive recipient exercise and various applications of knowledge, abilities and skills. Its
of knowledge. The application of the principle requires: application requires keeping in mind the importance of stabilization
Proper planning, organizing, directing, controlling and evaluating (repetition, summarizing, applying) to gain a solid and applicable
students’ tasks; knowledge and to prevent forgetting. And this influences all steps of
Conscious guidance of students learning (motives, attitudes, knowledge, teaching like having interesting beginning, planned repetition, and
capacity, conviction etc.) summary, intensive exercise, checking and evaluation, etc.
Initiating and stimulating students’ activities/practice. 9. The principle of shaping instruction systematically according to the
Developing step-by-step students-self activity. curriculum: The implementation of this principle requires the study of the
5. Principle of making instruction comprehensive: The main educational curriculum materials (the syllabus, textbook, teacher’s guide and
aim of this principle is to make the instructional process suitable for instructional aides), the development of clearly defined objectives in all
student’s demands, knowledge, capacity, abilities, will power etc. Some of levels of planning, organization of the subject matter in line with the
the rules in making instruction comprehensive are to proceed from concrete students ability, maturation interest and background.
to abstract, from known to the unknown, from easy to difficult, from nearer 5.3 Major Categories of Instructional Methods
to further, etc. There are two major categories of instructional methods. These are teacher-
6. The principle of vividness in instruction (the principle of giving clear centered and student-centered.
ideas in 5.3.1: Teacher-Centered Method
instruction): Successful learning always depends on the learner’s clear This is a teacher-dominated approach. The teacher monitors both their rate
perception of all important parts of the content. Instruction should be clear of classroom activity and the pattern of classroom interaction, which will
so that knowledge is based on sufficiently clear and lively perception and result in the immediate disappearance of the knowledge acquired. Some

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conception. It takes into account the connection between sensual and educators call this method as the authoritarian method for one person, the
theoretical and between cognition and practice in the organization of the teacher, set the task, prescribes procedures and judge results without

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instructional process. This is because the elements of cognition (sensation, permitting others to share in the decision process. In other words, free time
imagination/ thinking) are fundamentals of man’s understanding. Its for independent work is given no room, as the teacher’s presentation of new

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information is a highly monitored and governed session. In sessions of this Teachers produce conducive environment to learn via facilitation and
sort, the student is an individual who passively absorbs the learning and the guidance;
teacher pours into her/him. That is to mean, in such an approach in lieu of Prior knowledge and experience of learners is integrated to the learning
creating situations where by students will find answers for themselves and process;
do their own learning. We are likely to create situations where by we think Students learn through the integration of theory and practice;
we can direct and control and be sure they learn what they are supposed to. Use of intrinsic reward; that is, students motivate themselves which in
The teacher will do most of the talking and it is the student’s duty to listen turn helps to have effective learning;
to what the teacher has to say, commit into memory and repeat it during Use of some punishment – using reasons rather than power;
recitation periods or in examinations. Use of assessment and feedback – any assessment is formative. In
Some characteristics of the teacher-centered methods reality, however, most lessons are neither purely either student nor teacher-
There is high percentage of academic learning time; centered. In fact, the majority of the lessons could be more teacher-centered
The teacher engages the students on the task promptly and keeps them with a combination of few active learning methods (student-centered).
on the activity until its completion; 5.4 Types of Instructional (Active Learning) Methods
The teacher is active in explaining, monitoring and describing; 1. The Lecture Method
Interaction and socializations among or in between students is kept to A face-to face teaching approach where the teacher explains, elaborates,
the minimum as tells the facts, events, ideas, etc. It refers to one way flow of information
the students are awfully busy with the tasks given by the teacher; (from the teacher to the student). It is a verbal presentation about materials
Mastery learning is highly stressed; to be learnt.
Use of extrinsic reward-praise, good grade; Conditions necessitating the use of lecture method
Use punishment-usually hard punishment; 1. The need to explain, elaborate, simplify materials, which the students are
Use of assessment and feedback-terminal or summative not familiar.
5.3.2: Student- Centered Method 2. The need to cover a lot of material in a short time.
In the student-centered instructional method, students are active participant 3. When there is no sufficient material for students and if it is to be covered
in their own learning instead of passive receivers of information. Their by teacher’s
previous knowledge and experience are so crucial and valued since they detailed preparation.
help to construct new knowledge. And the role of the teacher is creating 4. When there is lack of teachers.
conducive environment for learning and offering a guide, stage settings Types of lecture methods:
facilitating, observing and evaluating his/her students in a more objective a. Formal (Unmodified): This is characterized by the lack of discussion or
way. In other words, the teacher as a facilitator and co-worker is not interaction in between the teacher and the students. The teacher lectures
expected to only give information, but also to design instructions that would continuously for a long time being uninterrupted. This method is not
lead students learning for understanding through debating, interrogating, suitable for first and second cycle students because the students have less
discussion, creating exploration, etc. In general, the guiding principle of the retention power and cannot concentrate for a long time.
student- centered instructional method adheres that learning should be b. Informal (Modified): Takes into account the participation of students
focusing on quality rather than on quantity and on understanding rather than like asking, giving suggestions and answering to questions. Here, there is an
on memorization. interruption. It is possible to use such an approach in the lower grades
Some Characteristics of the Student-Centered Methods together with other methods. When we use other methods to support our

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Learners are actively engaged in solving problems in lieu of being lecture, it is referred as augmented lecture.
receivers of 2. The Demonstration Method

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knowledge; It is carried out by showing some natural phenomena, real objects, models,
and processes to the learner. The method combines a verbal explanation

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with practical illustrations, handing or operation of equipment or materials. make a brief discussion of a certain issue. It helps to get the view of every
It develops both mental and motor skills of the learners for it involves student without any hesitation.
observation, participation and practice. Procedures:
The demonstration method has the following steps: Divide the class in to small groups of 3-6 pupils.
1. Explanation Arrange the chairs in circle to face each other.
2. Demonstration Ask them to elect a chairperson and a secretary.
3. The Students Performance Tell them the question for discussion (it should be understood).
4. The Instructor’s Supervision, and Tell the amount of time they will have for discussion possibly 5-10
5. Evaluation of the Demonstration Process. minutes.
To make this method effective, the teacher needs to: Inform them that “X” minutes are left before the time is up.
Determine the right time for demonstration; The secretary must summarize and report the main points on the
Prepare the necessary materials in advance; chalkboard.
Make students clear with the aim of the demonstration; Avoid repetition.
Make sure that the sitting arrangement is in order all students can see 4. Panel discussion method: It is discussion between a group of people
and hear; who have a special knowledge and interest in the topic to be discussed. It
Be certain that the safety rules are observed; and has a chairperson, panel members and the audience. And there is a give and
Summarize what she/he has demonstrated. take with the class. It helps in facilitating learning through sharing of
knowledge and experience.
Types of demonstration method: 5. Debating method: Debate is a very formal approach consisting of sets of
a. Formal demonstration: This is the case where the teacher demonstrates speeches by participants of two opposing teams and a rebuttal by each
the lesson to his students. It is used: participant. Debating requires skills of:
1. When there is lack of materials for each student; and Critical analysis
2. When the materials are dangerous to be handled by students. The art of persuasion
b. Students’ Demonstration: In such a method the learners do the Rapid rebuttal
demonstration themselves. The role of the teacher will be supervising the 6. Brainstorming Method
demonstration conducted by the learners and offering some help when the This is a discussion in which the members of the group are encouraged to
need arises. generate different ideas on a given problem or a topic. The members relax
3. The Group Discussion Method and give their opinions freely and without self-censoring.
It is a method that encourages students’ active participation in exchanging Four basic Rules for Brain Storming Session:
their views. It is used for gaining new knowledge, solving problems, i. Criticism is forbidden and adverse judgments of ideas must be held until
forming attitudes, developing the ability of arguing, interpreting, discussing the end.
gaining linguistic abilities and skills. There are four methods of grouping ii. No matter how unworkable and unacceptable the idea may seem it should
students as listed below: be accepted.
Arbitrary according to lists of names or sitting arrangements. iii. Quantity is wanted. That is the greater the number of ideas; the greater
Abilitystudents having similar abilities sit together. will be devising solutions for a problem.
Mixed deliberately composed group. iv. Combination and improvements are sought. Besides to contributing

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Compatibilitystudents who like each other or one another and work ideas of their own, participants should suggest how others ideas could be
well. improved. A secretary (other than the teacher) notes all suggestion that are

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The type of discussion could be in large group or small group. In the case advanced and later the judging committee screens.
of small group discussion, the students are divided into small groups and

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7. The Questioning Method: It is a method, which is conducted by asking that it does not require the study of a script and memorization of the parts of
questions. The students ask and the teacher responds or redirects the the play. In role playing the spontaneous action comes directly from the
questions. This method can be used at any grade level if it is planned and actor’s or actress’s creative use of his/her own experience. This method
conducted properly. The classification of questions enables the learners see the reality through the eyes of others and is
could be: followed by discussion. The role-playing method enables the learners to see
a. Cognitive memory questions- these are narrow and need little or no the reality through the eyes of others.
thinking e.g. when Prerequisites for Good classroom Role-playing:
operation sunset’ was started? 1. The class should have a common interest in the issue or the problem
b. Convergent questions: they are narrow though they may require some under discussion.
thinking. But, ones thought out; there is a correct answer and usually one 2. The participant’s/ actor’s knowledge of the issue.
correct answer. E.g. If the area of a triangle is 12cm2 and one of the sides is 3. It should be regarded as a means of learning, not as an entertainment.
4cm, find the other side. 10. The Problem Solving Method: encourages students to learn through
c. Divergent question- these are wide open questions. No one can predict finding solutions for problems. Individuals or group of students can do it.
what the answer will or should be. They do not have one best answer. E.g. Problem solving involves:
what are the advantages of learning in one’s mother tongue language? 1. Identifying the problem.
d. Evaluative Questions- these are questions that ask students to put a 2. Thinking of possible solutions (hypotheses or approaches to take in
value on something. These are questions in which students pass judgments solving the problem).
on some actions. E.g. how do you evaluate the implementation of the new 3. Testing (verifying) the tentative solutions or approaches.
curriculum in Ethiopia? 4. Rejecting the tentative solution or approaches that do not meet the
Factors that are to be considered during questioning are: requirements and trying other new ones till the solution is achieved and this
i. The question to be asked should be as precise and clear as possible is the reason why this method is called trial and error learning. The problem
ii. The question should be thought provoking and involve vital aspect of the should be higher than the present levels of the students’ knowledge so as to
lesson. make students fill the gap.
iii. It should be in line with the level of the knowledge of the students. 11. The project Method: is an assigned activity in which a student or
iv. It should not be of the type to be answered by a ‘yes’ or ‘no’ group of students work on some specific task so as to produce tangible
v. Prepare the question to be asked in advance. product. It is a natural and life related learning activity that involves
vi. Ask the question before naming the student. investigation and problem solving. This method is more applicable in the
vii. Give time for thought. Do not use a machine gun approach. practical fields such as technical education, agriculture and etc.
viii. Involve as many students as possible. 12. The Field Trip Method: In this method, students are taken out to visit
8. Dramatization: refers to the acting out of any situation either places, historical sites, factories, farms, workshops, service giving
spontaneously or with a prepared script. The situation may be real or institutions, geological areas, etc. and get knowledge. It requires pre-visit
fictitious. It can be divided into Miming and Acting. arrangement (plan), the visit and after trip discussions. It helps students to
Miming: In this form of dramatization, the actor or actress speaks no get acquainted with the actual environment.
word but communicates to his/her audience thoughts and actions through 13. Active Listening method: You give your students an activity or “job”
movement of his/her body gesture with his/her hands, face, and head. to perform as they listen. Sometimes this may involve an activity they need
Acting: In here, there is movement and dialogue. The actor or actress to complete as they “listen”, or it could be a handout to fill in, a series of

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utters something accompanied by his/her physical movements in order to questions to answer, or objectives to target. Basically, the teacher guides the
convey his/her message effectively. students to what they should be listening for, and prepares them for what

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9. The Role Playing Method: is a deliberate acting out of a role in a they are about to hear, so they can listen actively.
classroom. It is unrehearsed dramatization but differs from dramatization in

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14. Balloon Game method: The students are given the names of a number person. This is a great way of connecting the actual reality of your subject
of important people who are in an imaginary “balloon”. The balloon is to enter the class. You can interview scientists, historians, politicians,
sinking, so the only way to keep it from falling to the ground is to throw out personalities within the school surrounding!
one of the people. They have to discuss which person they would throw out 19. Investigation method: To investigate is to search. With this activity,
first, which second, and which third…etc. You can do this with famous you give your students a topic, theory, issue, or idea to “investigate”. They
scientists, modern inventions, historical figures, formulas, medicines… then spend some time researching this subject in detail. You might guide
whatever you can think of! This forces the students to make a decision and them and push them to look at the issue from every angle. Then after, they
argue their position. can provide feedback about their investigation in a number of ways: an
15. Experimentation method: An experiment is when students put a essay, a presentation, a demonstration, a report, or any other idea they can
hypothesis to the test. Basically, an experiment involves taking a theory or come up with.
idea, and testing to see if it is true. It usually involves a very specific and 20. ICT method: This is simply allowing the students to use computers to
controlled method of procedure, and results are usually recorded. From either complete an activity or to find information. You may give them an
these results, a conclusion is derived. An experiment can also answer the internet search as an activity. Or you may design resource materials for your
question “What if?” Experiments can take many forms. They can be class, with an assignment and put it on the university network so they can
scientific explorations, laboratory experiments, behavioral experiments, complete it.
educational experiments, pilot projects, and field experiments. Sometimes it 21. Jigsaw method: You divide the class into groups. Letter name is
can just be trying something new and seeing if it works. assigned to each member. Each group is given a “specialist” topic and each
16. Goldfish Bowl method: This is a very useful exercise to use when you member of that group has to become an expert in that topic. You can do this
want to discuss a “hot topic”. Select two students (one male and one female as a homework activity, or as a multi lesson activity. After they have
if possible) to sit back to back in the center of the room with other students become an expert, you separate the “specialist” groups and form new
grouped around. Each student is assigned a particular view (or side of the groups. The new groups are made up of one specialist from each of the
issue). They have to debate the view. If another student wants to join in, original groups. They then work together to teach each other the
he/she goes to the center and taps the person they want to replace on the information they learned in their original group.
shoulder and takes their seat. Each person should be replaced in turn. The 22. Mastery Learning method: Mastery learning is when the instructor
teacher can also intervene to get other students involved. Sometimes it is pushes the students to master or perfect the learning. You are designing
good to let the students know the topic before so that they have time to form activities that push the students to perfectly know the information, skills, or
opinions and arguments. attitudes you are teaching. In a way, you are setting the students an
17. Hot Seating method: Either one member of the class is assigned to be a achievable challenge that will make them think and master the concept.
character or one member of each small group. These can be from literature, 23. Microteaching method: This is when the students model or try out
a person from history, a famous scientist, or a famous politician…any different teaching methods with a small group. There is usually a time limit
famous personality! The member is placed in the center of the room/ group of 10 to 15 minutes for the teaching to take place. The students then give
to role play the character. Other members of the class/ group direct the “teacher” feedback on their mini lesson and the methods used. The
questions to the person in the center who has to respond as that person. feedback includes some positive points about the teaching, as well as
After 10 minutes, change the person in the center and the character. constructive feedback. This can be done in any subject and is ideal to use
18. Interview method: This is a great way to get experts into your with students training to be teachers.
classroom. Invite a guest speaker to attend your class who is an expert in 24. Mind Map method: A mind map is a visual representation of ideas on

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your field of study. Tell the students ahead of time, and have them research any given topic. The students write the topic to be explored in the centre of
that topic and prepare questions to ask the guest speaker. Then, when the the page, using three colors and an image attached to the topic. Then, they

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guest arrives, allow the guest to do a short introduction about their area of branch out on sub topics, which are then broken down into smaller sub
expert. Following this, allow the students to intensively interview the topics. Each branch should be a separate color, with one word written above

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indicating the sub topic. From these main branches, smaller branches will owners of their own learning. Another way to do self-assessment is to have
go off in different directions, each with a different piece of information them complete a questionnaire about themselves and their learning. Lastly,
about that subtopic. Mind maps should be colorful and can include pictures you can also have your students grade their own performance in your
to help the students remember the information. lessons. Have them grade their work and then compare it with the mark you
25. Pair Discussion method: This is an activity when you put your students give them.
into pairs. This can be done with the person they are sitting beside, or you 31. Storytelling method: Storytelling can take two forms: either the
can put them in pairs with people they haven’t worked with before. In the instructor tells a story, or the students tell a story. In some cases, the
pair, they will complete a task, discuss a topic, and/or prepare feedback to instructor might start the story, and have each student contribute to the tale.
the large group. This is a good activity to do before a large group discussion It is a great way to practice language, and make the students use their
because it will give shy students a chance to voice ideas with a friend before listening skills! Another way to use storytelling is for the instructor to read a
they speak in front of the whole group. It also leads nicely into a story and then ask the students questions after to test understanding and
pyramiding activity. listening.
26. Peer Assessment method: Peer assessment is when you have your 32. Pyramiding method: Pyramiding is a method of teaching where you
students assess each other. This may involve them marking each other’s start with the individual and move to the whole group. Give your students a
work, giving feedback on teaching, editing or checking work before task to finish, a problem to solve, an assignment to complete, or an issue to
submission, grading presentations, and giving comments on each other’s think about. They are to do this individually for a specified amount of time.
performance. Next, have them get into pairs and compare what they have written. As a
27. Presentation method: A presentation is an activity where students pair, the students come up with a new answer together or verify that they
present a topic in front of their class. This can be done individually or as a have the same answer. Have the students move into groups of four. Again,
group. Students need good public presentation skills. With a presentation, they compare their answers and discuss. Last, get feedback from the whole
you are not just teaching the topic, but are also teaching the students HOW class. You do not have to get every group to give an answer. Instead, pick
to present. When giving the presentation assignment, also give clear criteria specific students to share important points their group raised. If it is a
about what makes an effective presentation. Explain about the WAY they problem that is solved, have one, two or three groups put their answer on
are to deliver the information (organization, visual aids, voice, clarity of the board. This can be a great introductory activity, taking 20 minutes, or it
expression, and body language). Also, give criteria about the content of the can be expanded to last an entire class. You can also do stages of it as
presentation (evidence of research, originality of ideas, effectiveness of homework.
argument, ability to answer questions. 33. Case Studies method: You provide the students with two or more
28. Reflection method: Reflection is a great activity because it allows the different situations or scenarios and the students have to study the situation
students to take some quiet, personal time to “reflect” or think over what and describe how they would deal with that situation. These studies should
they have learned in the lesson. This can take many forms. Reflection can be based on real life, and force the students to make a decision on how they
be done as a thought bubble, where they write one or two things they’ve would deal with the situation.
learnt from the class on a piece of paper or yellow stick to be put on a 34. Creative Writing method: Creative writing is when the students use
bubble. It can also be done as a diary entry with questions supplied by the their imagination to create a piece of writing. This can take the form of
teacher. It might be done as a brainstorm, or as a mind map. In any case, a story writing, drama presentations, poetry, imaginary newspaper articles,
reflective activity should allow the students 5 – 10 minutes to quietly look magazines, creative research papers, and other fiction and nonfiction forms
at themselves and what they learned in your lesson. of writing. It is a good way for students to put knowledge into a creative

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30. Self Assessment method: Self-assessment is when learners evaluate context.
themselves what they have learned. One way to do this is to have the 35. Crossover method: Students are divided into groups to discuss a

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students mark their own work. The purpose of doing this is to make the specific topic (in any subject). After 5 minutes, 2 members of the group
students aware of what they know and what they don’t know! They become move to another group to share ideas from their original group. From their

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sharing, more discussion is developed. After 5 minutes, they will cross-over Helps avoid needles repetition;
or “move” to another group. This will ensure that the information you want Gives substitute teachers a basis for presenting real lesson;
the students to learn, travels through the entire class. This avoids the need Gives outline to follow as one teaches a lesson;
for a lot of feedback. Remember that all the various active learning methods Enables to anticipate the implementation of activities;
discussed above may not necessarily be used at the same time in one subject Assures the attainability of instructional objectives, etc.
by one teacher. Their applicability depends on the type of the lesson/ topic, 6.3 Major Criteria that a Quality Plan Should Fit
the subject, the students, and the situation. However, using two or more of A. Objectivity: denotes that a lesson plan should be based on the existing
the above active learning methods in one lesson is usually recommended in reality of the country;
several subjects. B. Logical Sequence: implies that contents and activities in a lesson plan
5.5 Major Criteria Used for Selecting Instructional Methods should be arranged in logical order. In other words, lesson contents should
Objectives of the lesson; proceed from simple to difficult, from near to far, from known to unknown,
Content of the lesson; from concrete to abstract, etc.
Time of the lesson; C. Flexibility: expresses that a lesson plan should be open to make
Availability of instructional media; necessary amendments when unpredictable problems face and when there is
Background of the learners, etc. transfer of teachers.
D. Comprehensiveness: a lesson plan should include the major elements
Unit Six: Planning Lessons, Organization and Management such as objectives, contents, methods, media, time, activities, evaluation
6.1 Definition of a Plan mechanisms, etc.
Some of the definitions of the term “plan” are: E. Clarity and Simplicity: an instructional plan should be written in clear
A plan is a guide map for action; and simple languages.
A plan is an experience in anticipatory teaching; 6.4 Fundamental Questions of Instructional Planning
A plan is a blue print; There are seven fundamental questions of instructional planning as
A plan is a direction for future activities, etc. recommended by Ralph Tyler (1949).
Thus, instructional planning is a process of the teacher using appropriate Why to teach? Understanding the objectives to be achieved.
curricula, instructional strategies, and resources during the planning process What to teach? Knowing and mastering the contents to be taught.
to address the diverse needs of students. It is a preparation for teaching and How to teach? Selection of appropriate methods and media.
learning, including construction of goals, objectives, and instructional and Whom to teach? Identifying the grade level and background of the
assessment methodology. Instructional planning is a systematic planning, learners.
developing, evaluating, and managing the instructional process based on When to teach? Knowing the solid number of working days and total
principles of learning and instruction. allotted periods for the subject.
6.2 Merits of an Instructional Plan How much to teach? Checking the harmony among the contents in the
Different scholars have forwarded some of the following merits of having a textbook and the total number of periods.
plan Where to teach? Understanding the environment such as climate,
Helps ensure subject mastery; location of the school and the reality of the country.
Enables to select appropriate instructional methods; 6.4.1: Types of Instructional plan
Avoids crisis in the classroom; There are different types of instructional plans as mentioned below:

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Develops more confidence; Annual lesson Plan;
Enables to use different instructional media; Semester plan;

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Realizes wise usage of time; Unit plan;
Fixes the direction of teaching-learning process; Course plan;

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Weekly plan recognize a given objective as falling primarily into one category or
Periodic (daily) plan another. One reason for considering these areas separately is to accentuate
6.4.2: Types of Instructional Objectives the affective and psychomotor areas, because schools often focus on
General Objectives: are used in preparing the annual plan. We use some of cognitive changes alone.
the following action verbs: 6.5.1: The Cognitive Domain Work on the cognitive domain was
To know, understand, comprehend, devote, grasp, enjoy, appreciate, completed in 1956 and is commonly referred to as Bloom’s Taxonomy of
have faith in, believe in, admire, develop, be familiar with, be aware of, the cognitive domain. This domain refers to behavioral objectives which
acquire, etc. Examples: At the end of this unit, the students will be able to involve intellectual or mental abilities ranging from simple remembering of
know the English alphabets. learnt materials to highly creative way of combining (synthesizing) new
Specific Objectives: are used in preparing periodic lesson plan. They ideas and evaluation. This is the most common type of instructional
clearly show what type of learning outcomes are expected from the learners. objectives since it focuses on the transmission of knowledge and intellectual
Some of the action verbs used here are listed below: skills, which is the most prevalent view of the role of school both today and
To compare, design, infer, identify, differentiate, construct, write, in the past (Jacobsen et al., 1989:85). The same authors have mentioned
debate, define, solve, select, evaluate, draft, change, list, arrange, practice, their intimacy that 80 to 90% of the average elementary and secondary
locate, match, plan, separate, draw, measure, express, perform, calculate, students’ school time is devoted to the achievement of cognitive goals, of
explain, etc Examples: At the end of this lesson, the students will be able to course, to the lowest level of cognitive learning. The cognitive domain has
write the first six English alphabets. At the end of this lesson, the students six components.
will be able to pronounce the first six English alphabets. Knowledge: is the lowest level of the cognitive domain. At this level
students are expected to remember, recall recognize, retrieve information
6.4.3: Guidelines for Writing Instructional Objectives such as facts, terminologies, problem solving strategies, rules, etc.
Objectives should be stated in terms of students’ performance; Knowledge is the easiest of thinking levels, where we need to describe and
Objectives should be written in terms of the learning outcome, not in identify things to show as we have remembered or learned. It is
terms of the learning process; distinguished from the remaining five which are together called intellectual
Statements of objectives should be an amalgamation of subject matter abilities for the simple reason that the latter requires organized mode of
and desired behavior; operations and generalize techniques for dealing with materials of
Avoid the use of more than one objective in one statement. problems. Some action verbs that describe learning outcomes at this level
6.5: Taxonomy of Behavioral Objectives include define, list, tell, describe, identify, show, label, collect, examine,
Several decades ago, as interest in defining educational objectives was tabulate, quote, name, select, outline, state, recite, match, recall, etc.
increasing, a group of experts in education led by Benjamin Bloom studied Example: The students will be able to define terms such as diffusion and
the idea of defining objectives very systematically. They developed a osmosis.
taxonomy, or classification system in to ordered group or categories, of Comprehension: This level requires that students not only remember
educational objectives. Based on this classification educational objectives information, but also understand it and be able to explain or express it in
are divided in to three domains such as cognitive domain, affective domain their own words. At this level, students are expected to be able to change
and psychomotor domain. Each domain is comprised of hierarchical levels the form of communication; translate and restate (paraphrase) what has
which proceed from basic to more complex learning. In real life, of course, been read, seen, etc, connecting or making relationships among parts of a
behaviors from these three different domains occur simultaneously. While communication, interpret, see consequences from information (inference)

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students are writing in a psychomotor domain, they are also remembering or and extrapolate a piece of communication. Action verbs that can be used at
reasoning cognitive, and they are likely to have some emotional response to this level include: summarize, interpret, associate, predict, convert,

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the task as well (affective). Therefore, many objectives are an amalgam of estimate, infer, defend, explain, paraphrase, discriminate, distinguish,
cognitive, affective and psychomotor. But it often makes senses to generalize, contrast, discuss, differentiate, etc…. Example: the student will

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be able to give his/her own examples of recent Supreme Court decisions on This domain focuses on attitudes, values and feelings, (e.g. rules of respect
man’s protection under the law. and relationships, getting along in groups, appreciating art and nature, sense
Application: refers to the ability to use learnt material in new and concrete of confidence, positive self-esteem, and resolving moral/ethical dilemmas).
situation. At this level, students are expected to use previously acquired This taxonomy is ordered according to the principle of internalization.
information in a setting other than the one in which it was learnt. Some of Internalization refers to the process whereby a person’s affect toward an
the action verbs are: change, modify, solve, demonstrate, organize, transfer, object passes from a general awareness level to a point where the affect is
develop, prepare, use, apply, produce, implement, construct, conduct, internalized and consistently guides or controls the person’s behavior.
perform, etc. Example: when provided with known numbers, the students Affective goals are seldom made explicit and then consciously translated
will be able to apply the formula necessary to solve geometry problems. into teaching procedures. This domain consists of the following five levels.
Analysis: refers to the breaking down of informational materials in to their Receiving: The key feature at this level is that of students exhibiting a
component parts, examining such information to develop divergent degree of open mindedness for without this trait they may not be willing to
conclusions by identifying motives or causes, making inferences and/or receive the information under study. Hence, awareness, willingness to hear,
finding evidence to support generalizations. Therefore, students are and selected attention are very important. At this level students are expected
expected to identify logical errors/e.g. point out a contradiction or erroneous simply to listen or be attentive. Some action verbs that describe outcomes at
inference/ or differentiate among facts, opinions, assumptions, hypothesis the receiving level are attend, discern, be aware, hear, notice, listen, ask,
and conclusion. Students are expected to draw relationships among ideas choose, follow, hold, locate, etc. Example: the students will illustrate an
and to compare and breakdown, distinguish, point out, deduce, illustrate, awareness of the importance of ecology by supplying pertinent newspaper
relate, diagram, infer, separate out, differentiate, outline, subdivide, analyze, clippings.
order, classify, arrange, divide, compare etc. Example: the students will be Responding: is active participation on the part of the learners. Students
able to breakdown the components of the compound in to its constituent attend and react to a particular phenomenon may emphasize compliance in
elements. responding, willingness to respond, or satisfaction in responding
Synthesis: is creatively or divergently applying prior knowledge and skills (motivation). For example, students participate in class discussions; give
to produce a new or original whole. Therefore, at this level students are presentation, question new ideals, concepts, models, etc. in order to fully
expected to produce something unique or original; here, they are expected understand them. At this level, students are exhibiting some interest,
to solve some unfamiliar problems in a unique way. Some action verbs that involvement, or even commitment. Some action verbs used at this level are
describe learning outcomes at this level are; categorize, create, formulate, applaud, follow, play, comply, discuss, participate, volunteer, etc. For
compile, design, compose, produce, etc. Example: the students will be able example: the students will demonstrate enjoyment of the subject by
to create an environment for a hypothetical animal volunteering to join in the role-playing of Ras Alula Aba Nega.
Evaluation: Objectives written at this level require the students to form Valuing: the worth or value a person attaches to a particular object,
judgment and make decision about the values of methods, ideas, people, or phenomenon, or behavior. This ranges from simple acceptance to the more
products that have a specific purpose. Students are expected to state the complex state of commitment. Valuing is based on the internalization of a
bases for judgment (e.g. external criteria or principles they drew up on to set of specified values, while clues to these values are expressed in the
reach their conclusion). Some action verbs that describe learning outcomes learner’s overt behavior and are often identifiable. For example, one
are: appraise, criticize, justify, compare, defend, support, contrast, judge, demonstrates beliefs in the democratic process, is sensitive towards
validate, assess, evaluate, rank, grade, test, measure, recommend, conclude, individual and cultural differences (value diversity), shows the ability to
etc. Example: The student will be able to evaluate objectively the best of solve problems, proposes a plan to social improvement and follows through

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two students’ essays on HIV/AIDS. with commitment and informs management on matters that one feels
Reflection: What is the difference between the sub-levels of the cognitive strongly about. Objectives at this level require the students to display

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domain? behavior consistent with a single belief or attitude in situations where she/he
6.5.2: The Affective Domain is neither forced nor asked to comply. Here, behavior is initiated by the

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students who is committed to particular position and is willing to openly Imitation: Learners observe a skill and attempt to repeat it, or see a
discuss and support that position. Some action verbs used here are: Act, finished product and attempt to repeat it while attending to an exemplar.
debate, help, argue, display, organize, convince, express, prefer, complete, Objectives at this level require that the student be exposed to an observable
demonstrate, differentiate, follow, form, initiate, invite, join, justify, action, and then overtly copy or repeat it, such as when an instructor
propose, read, report, select, etc.Example: The students will demonstrate a demonstrates the use of a microscope by placing a slide on the specimen
continuing desire to learn to use the microscope by volunteering to work tray. Here, students are expected to observe and be able to repeat it
after school. (although imperfectly) the action being visually demonstrated. This level is
Organization: Organizes values into priorities by contrasting different usually lacking neuromuscular coordination. Some of the action verbs that
value, resolving conflicts between them, and creating a unique value describe learning outcomes at this level are copy, replicate, repeat, align,
system. The emphasis is on comparing, recasting, and synthesizing values. grasp, balance, hold, rest on, follow, place, step, etc. Example: the students
Organization requires a commitment to a set of values. It involves two will be able to familiarize themselves with soccer kicking techniques.
important issues. Manipulation: the student is required to perform selected actions from
1. Forming a reason why one values certain things and not others; written or verbal directions without the aid of a visual model or direct
2. Making appropriate choice between things that are valued and are not observation. Students are expected to complete the action from reading or
valued. listening to instructions, although the behavior still may be performed
Students are expected to organize their likes and preferences into a value crudely and without neuromuscular coordination. The action verbs used
system and then decide which one will be dominant. Some action verbs that here are the same as that of the imitation level except they are performed
describe learning outcomes at the organization level are adhere, alter, from spoken or written instructions. Example: Students will use the power
arrange, compile, compare, complete, formulate, generalize, abstract, saw safely to cut out a desired form for a bookstand.
decide, select, balance, systematize, theorize, etc. Example: the student will Precision: At this level, learners independently perform the skill or produce
freely express her opinion to her class mate about the importance of sex the product with accuracy, promotion and exactness; at an expert level. Few
education. errors are apparent. Here the students are expected to perform an action
Characterization: Individuals have a value system that controls their independent of either visual model or a written set of directions. Proficiency
behavior. The behavior is pervasive, consistent, predictable and most in reproducing the action at this level reaches a higher level of refinement.
importantly characteristic of the learner. Instructional objective are Students are expected to reproduce the action with control and to reduce
concerned with the student’s general patterns of adjustment (personal, errors to a minimum. Expressions that describe outcomes at this level
social, emotional). In general, this level allows the students to develop include performing the behavior: accurately, with control, independently,
personal yet global views about such things as the nature of universe or a errorless, proficiency, with balance, refine, succeed, surpass, etc. Example:
philosophy of life. Some action verbs that describe learning outcomes at Students will be able to blow the trumpet skillfully to produce a high “F”
this level are avoid, internalize, resist, display, manage, resolve, exhibit, Nota for one minute.
require, revise, act, discriminate, display, influence, practice, etc. Articulation: The skills are so well developed that the individual can
6.5.3: The Psychomotor Domain modify movement patterns to fit special requirements or to meet a problem
It refers to skill development (E.g. kicking a ball, measuring in sciences, situation. Here, the students are expected to display coordination of a series
drawing shapes in Mathematics, handwriting, using tools or equipment0. of acts by establishing the appropriate sequence and performing the acts
No matter how much information we have, without appropriate skills, we accurately with control as well as with speed and timing. Some of the action
will not be able to use it. The psychomotor behavior concerns itself with verbs used here to describe outcomes include confidence, integration,

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levels of attainment on neuro-muscular coordination. As the level of speed, coordination, proportion, stability, harmony, smoothness, timing,
coordination goes up, the action becomes more refined, speedy and adapt, alter, change, excel, rearrange, etc. Example: Students will be able to

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automatic. Each level is presented in the following way. head the soccer ball forwards, to the left and to the right.

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Naturalization: At this level, response is automatic. The individual’s relative importance given to prevention and intervention, degree of control
experiment, creating new motor acts or ways of manipulating materials out and supervision exercised by the teacher. Some of them are listed below.
of understandings, abilities, and skills developed. One acts “without 1. The Assertive Approach: This approach expects teachers to specify
thinking”. Therefore, objectives at this level require a high level of rules of behavior and consequences of misbehaving or disobeying and
proficiency in the skill or performance being taught. The act is performed communicate them to the students clearly. Teachers hold students
with the least expenditure of energy and becomes routine, automatic, and accountable for their actions. The idea is for teachers to respond to a
spontaneous. Students are expected to repeat the behavior naturally and student’s misbehavior quickly and appropriately.
effortlessly. Some of the action verbs which describe this behavior are 2. The Behavior Modification Approach: Such an approach involves a
arrange, combine, compose, construct, create, design, originate, etc. And variety of techniques and methods, ranging from simple rewards to
some of the expressions that describe this level of behavior are elaborate reinforcement training. The assumption in this approach is that
automatically, naturally, effortlessly, professionally, with perfection, behavior is shaped by environment and little attention is given to the causes
roughly, with posies, with ease, spontaneously, etc. Example: Students will of the problem. The basic principles are:
be able to catch and pass the ball accurately while on the move during a Behavior is shaped by its sequences not by the causes of the problems;
basketball game. Behavior is strengthened by immediate reinforces;
Concerning the inter-relationship between the three domains, the division of Students respond better to positive reinforces than to punishment.
educational objectives in to domains is not water-tight or exclusive one. The 3. The Group Managerial Approach: This emphasizes on the importance
achievement in one domain is to a quite appreciable degree dependent upon of responding immediately to group behavior among students that may be
the learner’s status in others. For instance, understanding (comprehension) inappropriate or undesirable in order to prevent problems rather than having
may be a prerequisite for attaching proper value to an object or proper to deal with problems after they emerge. The idea is, if misbehavior is not
cognition necessary for arousing proper interest. Similarly, interests and noticed, is ignored, or is allowed to continue for too long, it often spreads
attitudes affect the quality of performance in both cognitive and throughout the group and becomes more serious and chronic.
psychomotor domains.
6.6 Definition of Classroom Management 6.6.2: Organizing the Classroom
Classroom management is the art of carefully preparing, presenting, One of the vital factors is learning the environment. This implies that the
disciplining and controlling class activities. Classroom management is also teacher has to create homely atmosphere at his/her classroom. For doing so
the process of organizing and coordinating a class so that there can be knowledge of the different seating arrangements is so important. In any
efficient and effective learning. Students are composed of diversified discipline, every classroom is a mixed ability group. Whether dealing with
attitude, values, maturity, age, family background, etc. Thus the teacher is high flyers, or low achievers, teachers must allow for the fact that some
highly expected to manage such varieties of behaviors. Classroom learners will work more rapidly and accurately than others. On the way to
management is also defined as the methods and strategies an educator uses the ideal of individualizing educational programs for all their learners,
to maintain a classroom environment that is conducive to student success teachers can start by splitting their class into groups. The amount and
and learning. Although there are many pedagogical strategies involved in difficulty of work demanded from each group can then be related to their
managing a classroom, a common denominator is making sure that students abilities in that particular subject. There are three ways of doing this: by
feel they are in an environment that allows them to achieve. Rota, quota and branching.
6.6.1: Approaches to Classroom Management Rota: as in rotation of crops, refers to groups moving round the classroom
The teacher’s personality, philosophy, and teaching style will directly affect from one activity

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his/her managerial and disciplinary approach. There are different to another.
approaches to class management, all based on a mixture of psychology, Quota: similarly requires the teacher to work out an appropriate amount of

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classroom experience and common sense. Their difference is only in the work to be completed during a session by each group. Each learner has an

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assignment card or booklet, which becomes a record of work, completed as Effective class managers make use of one or a combination of the
the teacher check it. approaches mentioned above. They have a well-planned and relevant lesson
Branching: involves starting all the class together on a particular activity, which they encourage students to take seriously, who make it clear what the
doing an exercise from the board, or working together from a textbook. class rules are and teach disciplinary skills with as much care as they teach
6.7 Types of Seating Arrangement academic skills, who realize what kind of things stimulate student attention,
There are four most popular seating arrangements that we observe in most and who know and enjoy each one of their students. Being an effective class
classrooms. manager is not a talent, which some people just have, and others do not – it
A. Row type of seating arrangement: where the students sit in rows, is a set of skills and an attitude learned though patience and practice. There
facing the teacher and the chalkboard. Usually learners are arranged in are a number of things we know about effective class managers. For
accordance with their height where the tallest seat at the back and the instance, effective managers have a workable system of rules and
shortest in the front. In situations where you have students with short- procedures which the students follow and do not ‘turn them loose’ without
sighted, hard or hearing you need to place them in one of the front seats. careful directions. They do not appear to treat inappropriate behavior
Merits differently from the less effective managers, but they stop it sooner. We
This type of seating arrangement seems to be convenient for formal also know that good class managers establish classroom with routines and
lecture. procures which ensure that teaching and learning take top priority, and that
It helps to have easy movement in between rows and orderly collection the students are informed about their responsibilities for performing the
and distribution work, as well as about the importance of the work to the teacher. These
of materials. good managers seem to consider the task of controlling student behavior as
B. Cluster Pattern of seating arrangement an instructional challenge, which requires the same approach taken to
This is characterized by the formulation of little cluster of students in instruction in other curriculum areas. They analyze the task at hand,
different positions in the class. This type of seating arrangement is very deciding what skills are necessary for the students to perform as desired.
convenient for buzz group discussion. Class management, then, involves things such as routines, beginning a
Merits lesson, planning for instruction, lesson presentation, rapport with students,
Students communicate easily with each other; response to questions and proper use of the chalkboard, to mention only
Easier for students to work as a team; some.
Movement from one cluster to another is not too difficult. 6.8.1:What Kind of Learning Atmosphere is Ideal?
C. The horse shoe pattern of seating arrangement: A seating A busty class is usually a happy class. Provide activities, which stretch the
arrangement in which students’ abilities and afford sufficient work to keep them busy. Develop a
students are arranged in the form of “U” shape. In here the teacher sits at sense of timing-know when to speed up, slow down, or change the activity,
the centre. but avoid creating pressure. In addition, rules for behavior should grow out
Merits of the purposes of the group and should be developed jointly by the classes
Used when the lesson requires a lot of discussion among the students and the teacher. Easily recognizable rewards should follow approved
and with the teacher as well; behavior without delay. Give recognition whenever possible for superior
Easy for students to consult each other. work or behavior. Try to respond to poor work with encouragement rather
D. The Round Table Pattern/ Circular Seating Arrangement than scolding. This is possible if you as a teacher are prepared in terms of
Is this also a good formation of groups’ discussion lessons? Unlike the outlines, material, equipment, and activities. Start and end on time.

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horseshoe, the authority of the teacher is completely decentralized. In sum, 6.8.2: How Should you Approach Individual Differences?
although many teachers may not find it too easy varying their students Providing for individual difference is a major class-management concern

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seating arrangements, they should try to vary them as much as they can. regularly cited by teachers. Perhaps you also consider it as your major
6.8 Effective Classroom Management concern. Teachers always recognize an obvious manifestation of a problem

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relating to individualization. Solving this critical management problem 5. Establish a good rapport with students so that they feel confident in
requires an understanding of both the nature of the concept of individual approaching you with problems or questions. Be as courteous as you expect
differences and the attempts to devise suitable educational arrangements. them to be with you. Never act in anger, or use threats as a deterrent.
Individuals differ from each other physically, temperamentally, 6. Teacher example will set the stage for many things. Be well groomed and
intellectually, and in their special aptitude. Those individual differences are speak and act like a lady or gentleman.
naturally obvious in physical attributes, psychological attributes: subject- 6.8.3: Principles of Class Discipline
matter knowledge, intellectual development, motivation, intellectual Here are some principles that may help the teacher under the concept
curiosity, study habits, ability to think independently, creativity, and so on. discipline clearly.
In order for teachers to make working units of instruction for individual Principle 1: the aims of education and class discipline are the same: to help
students, therefore, they must fully concentrate on teaching small groups students become self-directing people.
and individuals. Only if they have organized the program in such a way that Principle 2: Discipline should be dynamic, helping students to channel
other students are fully self-directive, responsible for their own behavior their energies towards learning goals.
and for the completion of assignments, will teachers be able to concentrate Principle 3: Discipline is inseparable from teaching.
on individual students-hence respond to individual differences. Independent Principle 4: Discipline should change with the learners’ stage of
activities are ones that students do without continual supervision from the development and help them move to the next stage.
teacher. While the teacher is engaged in instructing individuals and small Principle 5: Behavior is determined by rational demands of the specific
groups of students, the rest of the students are doing independent activities. situations.
The following points help to create a good classroom environment if Principle 6: teaching effectiveness, as perceived by learners, gives the
practiced by a teacher. teacher classroom authority.
1. Know your students. Learn their names immediately; Principle 7: Discipline is the ability to attend to a task.
2. Be aware of students’ feelings. Pay attention to attitudes revealed in Principle 8: No matter what the classroom design or how learners are
writing and discussions. Respect the personalities of the students. Don’t talk organized for instruction, the principle for effective teaching and discipline
down to them. apply.
3. Student’s participation is necessary for good morale. Help the students to Principle 9: By identifying and dealing effectively with the factors under
become members of the group. their control and influence, teachers can, in most cases, tip the balance in
4. Emphasize the strengths of each student. Always look for the good points favour of discipline.
in a student. Build up the confidence of each student-help him/her feel Principle 10: principle of redirection: Socialization requires the redirection
important to the group. All people, young and old, like praises. Use it. of destructive behavior into socially useful behavior.
As a teacher you are supposed to do the following in order that you can Principle 11: Principle of agreement: ways of dealing with misbehavior
have a good should be in agreement with developmental goals.
classroom environment: Principle 12: Basic disciple can be achieved only when basic needs, such
1. If you make a promise, keep it. Students expect to be, and should be, as food and safety, are met. Schools should recognize that all students need
treated fairly by their teacher. If you make a mistake, apologize. Share with to be valued and respected as people which they need to have some measure
the students the fact that everyone makes mistakes. of control over their lives and activities, in school and out.
2. Be willing to try out ideas. A teacher must be flexible. Be as creative and 6.8.4: Leadership Styles
innovative as you know how to be. Teaching style is viewed as a broad dimension or personality type that

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3. Employ a procedure, which is friendly and informal but businesslike and encompasses teacher stances, pattern of behavior, mode of performance,
consistent. Treat all students with the same degree of fairness, impartiality, and attitude toward oneself and others. It also refers to the choice of

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and consideration. instructional activities and materials and methods of involving the students
4. The teacher should posses a good sense of humor.

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in the process of instruction. A teacher and his/her students communicate provide no (or few) goals and directions for group of individual behaviors
under three types of teaching styles. There are: leave them free to do what they like. Students taught by these teachers:
i. Visual: charts, demonstrations and other things that can affect the sight of Feel insecurity;
the learners assist learners; Show dissatisfaction against their teachers;
ii. Auditory: learners are assonated by explanations of what is to come Are cooperative.
next. Brainstorming, questioning, and debriefing allow students to make Democratic style: in the head or teacher believes that the staff or students
links between what they have acquired; and should be involved in decision making process. Decisions are arrived at
iii. Kinaesthetic: the learners do their best when they touch and move. after consultation with the staff or and with the students. This person allows
They show fewer tendencies to learn if there is little or no external freedom of thought and action within the framework of the mission and
stimulation or movement. A teacher and his/her learners communicate objectives of the school. This style is based on the belief that where people
through various styles of classroom leadership. And the presence or absence are committed to the services of ideas, which they helped to frame, they will
of relationships between or among the learners and the teacher are exercise selfcontrol, self-direction and be motivated. In sum, a teacher of
influenced by the teacher’s styles of guidance. The following are some of this style respects the individuality of their students and don’t impose orders
them. or restrictions on their learners. They create such an environment in which
Authoritarian style: The teacher who subscribes to this style of classroom students freely communicate with each other. Teachers work as leaders of
management determines school policy alone and assigns duties without the group. The teachers and students work on the principle of give and take
question in prescribed manner. Such teachers centralize all powers in and respect each other and let the students share in the decision making
themselves and teaching is completely teacher centered. Students are the process. The following characteristics are developed in a democratic
followers of the orders of their teacher and listeners of the information; the classroom.
teacher imparts knowledge to a passive audience of learners. This type of Friendliness and more cooperative atmosphere.
teaching style has no place for free discussion and expression on the part of High level of efficiency and habit of independent work.
the learners. When people are coerced, controlled and threatened, Initiative of working effectively in the absence of their teacher
individuals’ initiatives may be stifled and self-motivation may be Mutual cooperation and recognition.
discouraged. This may lead to low morale amongst both the staff and the These three types of leadership (characteristics) overlap in the process of
learners, which may become the root causes of strikes, riots. classroom instruction, because teachers could not always show
The students taught by the authoritarian teachers: authoritarian, laissez-faire or democratic behavior in their teaching. Thus,
Lack the capacity for initiation and group action; the specific conditions should be considered.
Show no interest in their work in the absence of their teacher; 6.8.5: Guideline for Effective Classroom Management
Develop hostility and aggression towards other follow members. Have a good plan;
Laissez-faire style: The teacher believes that there should not be rules and Have good subject mastery;
regulations since everyone has an “inborn sense of responsibility. Such a Use rewards;
situation may well exist amongst mature, experienced teachers. But how Apply better methods of teaching;
would it work with new, young teachers fresh from “freedom years of Respect professional code of ethics;
university or college?” This is a mismanagement where the head sits back ReRespect the students;
and allows everyone to do as they please. This may lead to anarchy, and Evaluate your students fairly;
chaos, which would hardly be conducive to the provision of quality Encourage students participation;

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education. The laissez-faire (literally let-do) style is opposite to the Keep your promise;
autocratic style. These often considered as unorganized or ineffective Use humour, etc.

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teachers. They don’t direct or guide their students’ activities. Rather they There are also the following eight factors that provide the foundation for an
effective classroom management and discipline strategy. Each is discussed

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below. Addressing these enables a teacher to use the “winning ways” in succeed, with the result that they act out because they feel like failures. We
classroom management that help create an environment in which the know from the work of Howard Gardener that children learn
teacher is respected the classroom is peaceful for all and learning proceeds likelihood of a well-managed classroom.
unhindered. 5. Expecting students to be responsible for their own learning and behavior:
1. Letting students know classroom rules and consequences for not We know that the best way to foster responsible behavior is to give students
following them: This critical factor, described further below, is the step responsibilities, and the way to foster irresponsible behavior is to deny
through which clear and specific classroom guidelines are established. students responsibility. Teachers need to remember that if they “demand a
There are three components to this. The first is establishing classroom rules- lot,” they will get a lot. If they “expect a lot,” they will get a lot. But, if they
the set of standards that all students will follow. The second is determining “ask for little,” that is exactly what they will get. Students should be
the consequences if these standards are not met-the things that occur in the expected to complete and turn in their homework. They should be expected
situation that rules are not followed. The third is the identification of to be in class on time and ready to learn. They should be expected to try
rewards those ways in which adhering to standards is recognized and hard and apply themselves in every assignment. And, they should be
rewarded. expected to help create a well-managed classroom, free of discipline
2. Providing instruction that matches students’ abilities: Instruction should problems. If they know they are responsible for these things, there is a far
be at a level that is not too easy for students, leading to boredom, and not greater likelihood that they will consider them meaningful, personal
too difficult, leading to frustration. The ideal instructional level is that priorities than if they consider them someone else’s responsibility.
which is somewhat challenging to the student and which the student can 6. Listening to what students are thinking and feeling: One of the most
attain-consistent with the principle of the zone of proximal development. If important things a teacher can do is to listen empathetically to students’
instructional materials are not at the appropriate level for a student, there is needs. This has the potential for preventing or eliminating misbehavior. We
a good possibility that the student will be frustrated and misbehaved. Hence, need to recognize that behavior problems occur when students feel anxious,
assessing students’ knowledge levels and identifying instructional materials hurt, afraid, and angry or rejected. If a teacher listens to a child who is
that will enable them to learn in challenging ways is a key to effective having negative feelings, the need to resort to misbehavior is eliminated.
classroom This means more than simply letting the child or adolescent talk. It means
management. having a teacher communicate with empathy the concern theteacher feels
3. Varying the instructional approaches used in the classroom: Research for the student. It means having a teacher communicate with empathy the
shows that elementary grade children tend to be able to attend carefully to concern the teacher feels for the student. It means helping the student try to
one style of presentation for approximately 10 minutes, and secondary find an avenue to solve he student try to find an avenue to solve the problem
school students for approximately 15 minutes. When students are no longer that is causing the negative feelings.
paying attention, behavior problems occur. Hence, a valuable strategy for 7. Legitimizing behavior that cannot be stopped: There are some behaviors,
preventing classroom management problems is for a teacher to vary the such as conservation among adolescents that is difficult to keep away from
style of classroom presentation and of classroom activities. If there is a the classroom. With peer culture of great significance to adolescents, they
change of pace with some frequency and if students have the opportunity to continually want to interact with one another. There are many ways that
move from one type of learning to another during any class session, it is teachers can build learning environments that recognize the traits of
most likely that inattentiveness and restlessness will be minimized. students and build on the behaviors that are characteristics of groups of
4. Providing a number of learning choices: Giving students a number of learners at particular stages or of various backgrounds. Collaborative
choices for undertaking a class assignment enables them to choose the one learning, for example, enables adolescents to work together, turning their

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that is most personality meaningful to them and makes clear that they do need for peer interaction into an asset rather than a liability. Similarly,
have influence on what occurs in school. It can prevent the difficult young students want to be active. Creating learning environments that

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situation in which, with only one learning path, some children do not require them to be active, moving about the classroom as they solve

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problems, for example, builds upon the characteristics they bring to the Unclear instruction;
educational environment. Not doing assignments, home works, etc;
8. Recognizing that there are some students who have serious behavior Coming late;
problems: It is often stated that you can best understand the patterns of Quarrelling each other;
behavior in a classroom if you recognize the 80-15-5 rule. The rule states Breaking rules and regulations;
that approximately 80% of students will not be a behavior problem in a Changing Seats without permission, etc.
well-managed classroom. If instruction is matched to their level of ability, 6.10 Preventive Techniques for Classroom Misbehavior
they are likely to adhere to the expectations for them and will rarely if ever A) Some of the preventive techniques are listed below:
be a behavior problem. Approximately 15% of students will be a discipline Use sign;
problem some of the time. These are children who may be experiencing Approaching towards the misbehaving student;
difficulties at home or in learning, thus feeling frustrations that they deal Boosting students interest;
with by misbehaving. Their behavior is acceptable some of the time, but not Use humor
acceptable other times. The remaining 5% are students who are under Reprimand;
serious stress, who have learned in the past to misbehave, or who are Placement;
involved in non-school behaviors in the past to misbehave, or who are Tolerance;
involved in non-school behaviors (drinking, taking drugs, etc.) that lead to Focusing, etc.
significant non-school behaviors (drinking, taking drugs, etc.) that lead to B) In addition, teachers should apply the following preventive
significant problems in school behavior. It is very important that teachers techniques so as to make
not develop a sense of failure due to difficulties in dealing with this type of effective classroom management:
student. Rather help needs to be sought from administrators at the school or 1. Create a warm and nurturing classroom climate.
from a psychologist to give the student the kind of assistance beyond the The classroom should be a place where a student feels welcome and at
classroom necessary to identify and address the problem. home. Students need to feel safe and accepted, so ridicule and sarcasm are
6.9: Major Causes for Classroom Misbehavior not allowed. Mutual respect and the golden Rule is the key for maintaining
There are two major causes for classroom misbehavior: this climate.
6.9.1: Teacher-Related Problems 2. Democratically develop a set of rules and consequences.
Teachers can be sources for classroom misbehavior in the following Teachers and students must create discipline plans including rules with
aspects: clear and effective consequences. The rules should be agreed upon and
Poor preparation; understood by everyone in the class. It should be understood that when rules
Ineffective style of presentation; are broken, consequences will be applied fairly and consistently.
Poor handling of questions; 3. Develop a daily routine, yet remain flexible
Nagging; Students will often misbehave if they don’t know exactly what they should
Hasty judgment; do and when. Teachers can avoid this dilemma by installing class routines
Overreacting; and procedures, which allow the students to begin and complete work
Lowering academic marks; expeditiously.
Corporal punishment, etc. 4. Make learning more attractive and fun for the student;
6.9.2: Students-Related problems Schools exist for the students, and not for the teachers. It is important for

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Some of the aspects at which students can be cause for classroom the teacher to expend every effort necessary to make the curriculum
misbehavior are mentioned below: relevant, the lessons interesting, and the activities enjoyable. The result will

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Cheating ; be an engaged and active participant in the learning process.
Lack of clear rules; 5. Deal with misbehavior, quickly, consistently, and respectfully.

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Misbehavior is a disruption to my effectiveness as an educator. The time A classroom can be a warm cheery place. Students enjoy an environment
spent dealing with misbehaving would be better spent teaching the others. that changes periodically. Study centers with pictures and color invite
Therefore, misbehavior will be dealt with quickly and consistently with enthusiasm for your subject. Young people like to know about you and your
class defined consequences. interests. Include personal items in your classroom. A family picture or a
C) Techniques for Better Classroom Discipline few items from a hobby or collection on your desk will trigger personal
1. Focusing conversations with your students. As they get to know you better, you will
Be sure you have the attention of everyone in your classroom before you see fewer problems with discipline.
start your lesson. Don’t attempt to teach over the chatter of students who are 7. Low-Profile intervention
not paying attention. Most students are sent to the principal’s office as a result of confrontational
2. Direct Instruction escalation. The teacher has called them on a lesser offense, but in the
Uncertainty increases the level of excitement in the classroom. The moments that follow, the student and the teacher are swept up in a verbal
technique of direct instruction is to being each class by telling the students maelstrom. Much of this can be avoided when the teacher’s intervention is
exactly what will be happening. The teacher outlines what he and the quiet and calm. An effective teacher will take care that the student is not
students will be doing this period. He may set time limits for some tasks.An rewarded for misbehavior by becoming the focus of attention. She/he
effective way to marry this technique with the first one is to include time at monitors the activity in her/his classroom, moving around the room. She
the end of the period for students to do activities of their choosing. The anticipates problems before they occur. Her/his approach to a misbehaving
teacher may finish the description of the hour’s activities with: “And think student is inconspicuous. Others in the class are not distracted.
we have some time at the end of the period for you chat with your friends, Controlling Student-Related Misbehavior
go to the library, or catch up on work for other classes.” There are times, however, that students may create problems that disrupt the
3. Monitoring classroom discipline no matter how the teacher is without any of the
The key to this principle is to circulate. Get up and get around the room. problems listed above. This could be because the students may have some
While your students are working, make the rounds. Check on their progress. problems related to inattentiveness, or other problems they might have at
An effective teacher will make a pass through the whole room about two home. The following are some of the general or classic preventive measures
minutes after the students have started a written assignment. He/she checks that you as a teacher can use so as to help the students develop self-control.
that each student has started, that the children are on the correct page, and a) Signal interference:- in some cases a subtle signal can put an end to
that everyone has put their names on their papers. budding misbehavior. The signal or body language, if successful, can
4. Modeling stimulate the student to control him/or herself.
“Values are caught, not taught.” Teachers who are counters, prompt, b) Proximity control: place yourself close to the misbehaving student. This
enthusiastic, in control, patient and organized provide examples for their makes a signal more apparent.
students through their own behavior. The “do as I say, not as I do” teachers c) Interest boosting:- convey interest in the incipient misbehavior,
send mixed messages that confuse students and invite misbehavior. If you directing such students so that they will concentrate on the school work.
want students to use voice in your classroom while they work, you too will d) Humor:- humor is an excellent influence, especially in tense situations.
use a quiet voice as you move through the room helping youngsters. However, remember that it should not convey any irony or sarcasm.
5. Non-Verbal Cuing e) Retribution:- when efforts at prevention and subtle control fail, you may
Non-Verbal cues can also be facial expressions, body posture and hand occasionally have to resort to forms of retribution. If the misbehavior is an
signals. Care should be given in choosing the types of cues you use in your accomplished fact, you have no choice but to require the guilt party to

41
classroom. Take time to explain what you want the students to do when you suffer consequences. This is because retribution teaches the students that
use your cues. they should not break rules. Retribution can have such forms as withholding

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6. Environmental Control privileges, detention,putting them in a quiet room for some time, discussing
in private, and sending them to the principal.

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f) With-it-ness: means teacher’s knowledge and understanding of what is finds it difficult to read the board when she is near the back of the class. Her
occurring in his/her classroom. This refers to the ability to demonstrate that work in all subjects is above average for the group.
the teacher knows what was going on. That is it is defined as a teacher’s 12. Mr. “R” works at the same speed as everybody in the group and his
communicating to the students by his/her actual behavior that she/he knows written work is good. He never talks to anybody else in the group – he is
what the students are doing, or has “eyes in the back of his/her head” always on his own.
Read the following scenarios and identify possible barriers to learning D) The LEAST Approach:
and suggest Where:
possible strategies for support by an effective teacher: “L” stands for leave it alone. Many actions may simply be left out.
1. Mr. “A” suffered from measles very badly as a small child, which has left “E” stands for end the action. Many teachers can simply end the
him with both hearing and visual impairment. He has had special help misbehavior without undo emotion.
through elementary and high school which has enabled him to cope with his “A” stands for attend more fully; that is, a teacher must take further steps
disabilities. He cannot read printed materials easily but he can write and beyond merely ending the disruption at the moment, and then it is time to
read Braille. get into the root of the problem.
2. Ms. “B” is an orphan and has two small children of her own. She has “S” stands for spell out direction. If the procedures listed so far do net
worked extremely hard to complete her education, supporting herself by work, it is time to clearly tell the student what to do.
growing and selling vegetables. “T” stands for track (follow up). The student’s progress as she/he moves
3. Mr. “D” has just been diagnosed as HIV positive. He is a friendly, along specified measures.
outgoing young man The following are also very essential for managing classroom
who seems to be coping well. misbehaviors:
4. Ms. “F” has been on crutches following an accident when she was a 1. Planned ignoring: if it appears that the behavior will not spread to
small child. She has limited mobility from the waist down and relies on her others, it is sometimes best to ignore it.
mother for support. In school, she had supportive friends who looked after 2. Engaged time; enough work is assigned to f ill the scheduled time. This
her is also named as “time on task”. As there is students work involvement
5. Mr. “H” has epilepsy. When he reached adolescence, he began to have exhibit fewer disciplinary problems as there is Less chance for boredom.
seizures more frequently. His doctor hopes that he will be better as he The “time on task” has been known as a critical factor in learning. Active
becomes more mature and that new medication will help him. student engagement in learning provides valuable clues as to adjust what
6. Ms. “J” finishes the work before everybody in the class. Her work is teachers are doing with their time.
always excellent. She says she is bored with the work because it is too easy. 3. Placement: the teacher has to put noisy student with a well-behaved
7. Ms. “K” has language difficulties. She copes very well in her local student.
language and was given language support by a family friend to help her 4. Hurdle lesson: due to frustration, with a particular assignment, not
achieve good results in her grade 10 exams. Her Amharic and her English understood, etc then they translate their frustration into disruptive behavior
are very limited. and the remedy is re-teaching.
8. Mr. “L” becomes angry very easily and he loses his temper and hits other 4. Antiseptic bouncing (time out): removing the student from the room for
students in the class when he finds the work difficult. His new Maths a few minutes (this happens when the student becomes uncontrollable)
teacher realizes that he can only count up to 10. 5. Reprimands: talk with the misbehaving student in private rather than in
9. Ms. “M” was involved in a car accident and is now in a wheelchair. She front of the class.

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is good in all her subjects. 6. Stop troubles before it starts: knowing the right moment to interrupt
10. Mr. “N” is in Grade7. He is good at Mathematics, but he can hardly read behavior is a valuable asset.

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the simplest material.ag54 ACTIVE LEARNING PROJECT 11. Ms. “P” 7. Praise: needs to be natural and sincere and should never become dull and
routine. It is a good idea to try to think of at least different but similar

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synonyms for “good” like “great”, fine”, “splendid”, “remarkable”, are a) Fidel Bet: here, the students are expected to master the 27 alphabets.
some examples. The way the teacher talks to the class reflects his/her b) Apostle (Abugida): the students start reading the first verse of St. John.
attitude to them not only in what is said, but how it is said. c) Acts of the Apostle: Here, the students are expected to read loudly the
8. Facial expressions and tone of voice: are as important to acts of the Apostle. The task of the teacher is to clarify the idea.
communication as making sure that attention is gained, by getting the class d) Dawit Bet: the students, here, are expected to mediate the contents of the
to stop work and listen carefully to what has to be said. ‘Dawit’. The students also develop the skill of how to write a letter.
2. Zema Bet: the following contents are included at this stage: church
UNIT SEVEN: Trends of Curriculum Development in Ethiopia music (song), dancing, playing, beating of time and tsome-degua. The zema
7.1. Traditional Education bet takes seven years for graduation.
Indigenous Education 3. Kine Bet: here, the students begin to study ‘Geez’ language learning
Indigenous education is a system of education which is offered by all ethnic takes place through group discussion and criticisms of compositions of a
and linguistic groups with the aim of conveying cultural elements to the given theme (topic). Some of the activities (content) include here are:
young generation. It plays a crucial role in equipping the children with the ‘Geez’ grammar, translation of Geez text into Amharic and composition of
attitude and skills which are appropriate for male and female social roles, verse.
based on cultural values. Indigenous education gives due attention to the 4. Metshaf-Bet: implies higher education. There are four areas of
concrete problems of local communities. It also serves as a source of specialization. These are: the Old Testament, the New Testament, Dogma
political leaders and ordinary farmers from within the community. The and philosophy, and astronomy (astrology). Though it is usual to specialize
Ethiopian nations and nationalities do have various mechanisms of in one of the above mention areas, there are scholars who specialized in
implementing the indigenous education so as to create members of the two, three or even four. Any person who has succeeded in specializing the
community who respect cultural values. four areas is called as the “four Eyed”.
Religious Education Quranic/Islamic Education
It encompasses Church education and Quatrains education. These types of According to Markosis (1994:156), Quranic education was introduced to
religious education are treated in the following manner. Ethiopia during the 7th century. Arab culture and faith were adapted in most
Church Education of the southern and south east Ethiopia. Ayalew (1989:31) has mentioned
According to various sources, Christianity has been introduced to Ethiopia that the operation of Islamic education was confirmed to the centers of faith
by a pope called Frumenties from Egypt, Alexandria in 4th century (Aba due to lack of the church. Like that of church education, the Quranic
Selama Kessate Berhane) 330 E.C. During this period, king Ezana was in education has four phases/structures as discussed here under.
power at Axum. He was primarily baptized by Aba Selama Kessate Berhan. Mejlis Quran: at this phase, the students study the Arabic alphabets. They
Due to this reason, Ezana is assumed to be the first Christian king in start writing on a wooden tablet know as “loh”. The following three aims
Ethiopia. According to World Bank (1988:11), church education has are expected to be implemented. These are: learning Arabic letters, reading
founded a comprehensive system of education that provided Ethiopian Quran and recitation of prayers.
cultural, spiritual, literary, scientific and artistic life. As mentioned by
Teshome Wagaw (1979:11), the primary purpose of the Ethiopian church Fiqh: is the second phase where students learn about Islamic laws; the
education was to prepare young men for church services such as deacons contents to be covered
and priests. Church education has also served as the main source for civil are: religious, political and civic life.
servants such as judges, governors, scribes, treasures and general Nehawiya: is also called as the grammar school. The expected major

43
administrators. Church education has four major structures (levels). These contents are: Arabic terminology, Arabic grammatical rules and usage,
are: sentence construction, meaning and usage of Quranic terminology.

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1. Nibab Bet: is the first level of the Orthodox Church education. It has
four sub-levels as elaborated below:

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Tefsir Quran: Tefsir means reparation, commentary particularly on It is appropriate to trace the historical background of modern education in
Quranic and the sacked books. Here, the students learn and practice the Ethiopia so as to understand how it went about at various phases. As whole,
translation of Quranic literature into vernacular languages. the victory of Adwa (1896) and the foundation of Addis Ababa have
7.2 Development of Modern Education in Ethiopia witnessed new developments. According to Tegegne et al. (1999-200:84-
7.2.1 The History of Ethiopia Education Before the 20th century. 86) the historical development of modern education from French period to
Western education was introduced into Ethiopia through Portuguese the Derge period is discussed in detail as follow:
missionaries, starting from the 16th century. The first group of missionaries French Influence (1906-1935)
was Portuguese Jesuit missionaries. They opened Catholic schools and The first modern government school was opened in 1905 in Addis Ababa.
taught reading, writing, arithmetic and the Catholic faith. The students were The name of the school is Menelik II primary school. The second modern
taught to read and write both in Amharic and Portuguese. In 1632, the government school which was opened in 1925 in Addis is said to be Teferi
Portuguese missionaries were expelled from Ethiopia. The years from 1632 Mokonen. The expansion of modern schools also continued to Harar,
to 1769 were a period of isolation and as a result no missionary was allowed Dessie, Ankober, Jima, Debremarkos, Gonder, Awassa. Egyptian Coptic
to enter Ethiopia. Fear of Jesuit intervention was a factor in creating a teachers were used. The schools served for teaching languages such as
climate of isolation. This fear kept Ethiopia badly closed to missionary French English, Italian and Arabic. The medium of instruction was French
activities for over a century. language because of its dominant influence. In other words, Ethiopia had
With the opening of the Suez canal (1869), the 19th century marked the adopted the French system of education. Elementary students had annually
coming of many protestant and catholic missionaries. They engaged in to sit at the French Legation for French government examination of
certain amount of teaching. Books were translated into Geez and Amharic. competence. Many students were sent to colleges in Marseilles, French. By
Secular books like spelling and reading books, geography and history books 1935, there were 21 government schools on function with a total enrollment
were translated. Secular books are books pertaining to worldly things or of 4,200 students. Diribsa Defera et
things that are not regarded asreligious, spiritual, or sacred. Missionaries al. (1990) have pointed out that modern education officially commenced in
like Isen Berg and Krapf (1830), the Lazarist father, father from Italy 1908 marking significasignificant step in the history of education in
(1847) and the Sedish Evangelical mission had organized some schools in Ethiopia.
Ethiopia. Increasing foreign contacts in the 19th century resulted in sending Italian Influence (1936-1941)
some Ethiopians to abroad in countries like France, India, England, Rome, During the Italian invasion, all schools were closed. The buildings in some
etc. They were sent for religious studies. Tewodros II (1855-1868) was cases were used for Italian troops and later taken over for Italian children.
highly interested to introduce western civilization and education. But The pre-war education system was changed. Education during the Italian
because of misunderstanding, Tewodros imprisoned the missionaries. This war was political in nature. The Italians were interested to build up the
led grave conflict with the British which precipitated the battle of youth with education centered on their political ideology. During this
Maquedella. Missionaries were welcomed during the regime of Menilik II period, the native education was restricted to elementary schools. The
and schools began educational works. The government confined to the curriculum was designed to train people who can handle manual labour and
places where the Coptic church had not strongly extended its educational also to foster loyalty to the Italian government. This instructional process
influence. The aim of mission education was to convert the student or to focused on the following areas: language, agriculture and crafts.
qualify him for the conservation or others. Generally, the objective of the British Influence (1941-1952)
missionaries was religious. By 1935, it was reported that 43 mission schools In 1941, Ethiopia regained its independence with the help of Great Britain.
operated by commission organizations were in existence in Ethiopia The end of the war ushered in a new educational era. The main

44
(Tegegne Bayou et al., 1999-2000). concentration was the production of teachers and various personnel for the
7.2.2 The development of Modern Education During the 20th state machinery. This was done mainly with British assistance, during

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century. which English become the medium of instruction. In 1943 the first
secondary school was inaugurated and teacher training schools were

44
opened. The curriculum, the structure and textbooks used were that of ideology was "serving better the interests of the masses and enhance its
British East Africa and students were prepared for the London certificate contribution towards the establishment of a socialist society". As a result,
examination (GCE). the education system of the country strongly followed the Eastern European
American Influence (1952-1974) educational system and the aims, content, and materials of education were
The primary, Junior, and senior secondary structure was adopted in 1962 designed in alignment with socialist principles. The fundamental aim of
and Amharic replaced English as medium of instruction up to grade six. education was to cultivate Marxist-Leninist ideology in the young
Attempts to produce national curriculum and to expand primary education generation, to develop knowledge in science and technology, in the new
were made. Secondary schools were opened in provincial capital and culture and arts, and to integrate and coordinate research with production to
Awrajas. A national University called Haile Selassie I University college enable the revolution to move forward and to secure a productive citizenry.
(the present Addis Ababa University, 6 killo campus) was opened in 1950 These broad objectives were later summarized into three slogans, namely,
and higher education system began to develop thereafter. A low cost teacher “Education for production, for scientific research, and for political
supply was organized by the Ethiopian University service which imposed consciousness." Some specific aims of this educational system were:
one year’s teaching in secondary schools. However, in 1961 UNESCO Eradicating illiteracy through the provision of universal education to the
sponsored conference on education in Africa which took place in Addis public masses.
Ababa revealed Ethiopian’s poor educational progress. The dramatic Providing schooling to help citizens develop their consciousness,
expansion of education not withstanding Ethiopia was very far from participating in class struggle, and using the principles of Marxism and
meeting the target of Universal primary education set out by the conference Leninism.
on African education. By 1974 primary education was accessible to only 12 Enabling students to acquire and own progressive cultures so that they
percent of the primary schools age population. abide by the principles of socialist morality and discipline.
The Derge (Military) Period (1974-1991) Providing education that would enhance scientific research and practice
The derge regime influence began in 1974. The education system was under so that students would be able to integrate theory with practice, know their
the influence of the Soviet Union. An attempt was made to establish a environment, and the society in which they live. Providing education that
socialist education system. To this effect, curriculum was developed and liberates the society from primitive systems of production by producing
textbooks were prepared. The attention of teachers and students was manpower trained in various professional disciplines. It was believed that a
directed to political and propaganda activities. During this period, quality student developed by these educational objectives would not have a narrow
education deteriorated. Marxist-Leninist philosophy was the central theme academic education, nor be a producer alone. He would be provided with
that guided the political, economic and social life of the country. The academic and a productive education. He would be a humane and
curriculum during this period was highly politicized that students were productive worker. He would not be living on the produce of others, nor
required to take courses in political education. would he be dependent on others for his livelihood. This statement implies
The education system of the Derg regime was influenced by several that the schools were supposed to consider the relevance of the curriculum
factors. These factors included the strong determination and commitment of to producing a workforce in the attempt to create a modernized Ethiopia. To
the Derg government for expanding the communist ideology and the implement these new socialist ideas, a task force was set up with the aim of
development of curriculum based on the philosophy of Eastern European revising the curriculum to align with the new educational goals. The new
education system. Consequently, the overall education system was aimed curriculum was referred to as the Transitional Curriculum. General
towards the attainment of communist ideology. This view was articulated polytechnic education, with the aim of producing middle-level trained
through National Democratic Revolution in 1976, General Directives of manpower, was proposed to ameliorate the problem of unemployment of

45
Ethiopian Education in 1980, and the guidelines of the Working Party of graduates of secondary education. However, a lack of sufficient financial
Ethiopia in 1984. Under the Derg, Eastern European governments (East investment and the downfall of the communist ideology led to the collapse

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Germany, Bulgaria, Hungary, etc) served the Ethiopian government as of the programme in the late 1980s. The reasons for the failure of
policy advisors. The central theme of the Eastern European Socialist polytechnic education were not well documented. Aside from the

45
government’s announcement that the programmme was discontinued due to The southern part of the country received greater educational resources
budgetary problems, the pros and cons of the programme were not studied. than the northern part. Secondly, the quality of education had gradually
Even the schools which were serving as experimental sites did not have the started to deteriorate, due to a number of factors. For example, the meager
necessary data. This period brought a dramatic increase in enrollment at educational resources had to be thinly spread because of the uncontrolled
primary and secondary schools. One of the immediate measures taken by expansion of schools. Most of the literature indicates that educational
the revolutionary regime was to address the issue of primary education. quality was decreasing as compared with the previous periods. These
Accordingly, in a policy directive issued on December 20th, 1974, it was problems were identified by the Derg government, including a review of the
proclaimed that "under the banner of education for all" citizens shall have country’s economic and educational needs. The review was primarily aimed
the right to free fundamental education. at solving the problems created in the employment sector due to rapid
On the basis of this declaration, the Ministry of Education took a step to expansion of secondary schools.
reconcile its educational priorities so as to advance universal primary To address this concern, the government passed a resolution to expand
education within the shortest period of time using the available resources. technical and vocational education to meet the employment demands of the
To accomplish this educational reform, the Ministry of Education designed country. Soon after the resolution, the MOE initiated a project known as
a new curriculum, developed new textbooks, teachers' guides, and other The Evaluation Research on the General Education System of Ethiopia
materials for nearly all subjects and grades of the regular schools. The (ERGESE). The evaluation of the education sector was carried out by four
instructional materials were produced in consonance with government committees organized from MOE and Addis Ababa University. The study
guidelines, the National Democratic Revolution Programme, and later on focused on curriculum development and teaching, learning process,
the Workers Party of Ethiopia's Programme, the 10- years Economic and educational administration, structure and planning, educational logistics,
Social Development, Prospective Plan and other economic, political, social supportive services, and manpower training and educational evaluation and
and cultural proclamations. Proclamation No. 103 of 1976 ensured the research. The major findings of the study were:
public ownership of schools to reconcile the management of schools with Though the syllabus of secondary school subjects reflected the national
the socialist system of ownership. However, some schools for the children objectives; textbooks do not reflect national educational objectives and they
of the politicians and wealthy families remained free from government focus on the instruction itself rather than learning dimensions.
control. Consequently, there was a difference in the quality of education for The subjects suffer either from lack of clarity, coherence, and
upper class and lower class children, reflecting the idea that in any consistency of content, or from poor style of presentation.
society,education serves the dominant class. One of the significant Amharic as a medium of instruction in the primary school (grade 1-6)
contributions of the Derg regime was its launching of a vigorous national has created difficulties for students whose mother tongue is not Amharic.
campaign against illiteracy in 1979. By July 1990, which marked the Using English as medium of instruction from grades seven to twelve
Eleventh Anniversary of the Literacy Campaign, a 75.3 percent national created difficulties for both teachers and students.
literacy rate was reported. The reduction in illiteracy rate from 95 percent at The educational structures, namely primary (grade 1-6), junior
the start of the Ethiopian National Literacy Campaign (ENLC) to 24.7 is secondary (7-8) and senior Secondary (9-12), are not satisfactorily
certainly an outstanding achievement. In terms of expansion, integrated and coordinated.
the number of primary schools increased at a high rate in all parts of the The expansion of the education system is not in accordance with the
country. The national enrollment rate reached 34.1 percent. The slogan of economic resources and capability of the state.
the Ethiopian government was to spread education as much as possible and The problem of Ethiopian education is a result of poor textbooks, lack
the nation’s economic and social development problems would take care of of instruments and widespread incompetence among teaching staff. Most of

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themselves. Though a quantifiable expansion of the educational system on the recommendations forwarded by the ERGESE were already considered
face value appears to be quite impressive, significant problems lie behind by the Ten Year National Perspective Plan (1984-1994). Consequently, the

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the figures. Firstly, it was not possible to make education equitably recommendations were not implemented. The Derge education system was
accessible to all regions. somewhat inhibited by problems such as budget shortfalls, which in turn

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affected the supply of basic educational materials including textbooks and a Higher education institutions were found only in very few regions, and they
shortage of qualified teachers both at primary and secondary schools. To were overcrowded and their research capacity was very low. The necessary
resolve the problem of the shortage of qualified teachers, the government infrastructure to provide relevant quality education to the rural population,
took an aggressive measure by recruiting 5,500 untrained teachers, recruited which is over eighty-five percent of the population of the country, was at an
immediately after the completion of 12 grade. It is not difficult to imagine insignificant level of development. With the awareness of these complex
how the huge recruitment of untrained teachers affected the quality of problems, the transitional government of Ethiopia has embarked on charting
education. But, this measure has to be seen from its contribution to the the right direction of development to break the vicious circle we have been
expansion of education to the rural part of the country and equal educational entangled in.
opportunity for all. To resolve the problem of teachers’ qualification at Education, as a very important factor to human development is of a high
elementary level, the government designed a summer program, lasting over priority in the overall development endeavor of the government. Hence, it
three years, to certify teachers. This strategy continues to be employed as requires an appropriate direction to set a new process in motion and change
one of the mechanisms to train teachers at the primary and secondary levels the alarming situation. For this, a comprehensive education and training
today. policy formulated. The policy encompasses overall and specific objectives,
7.3 The Current Education and Training Policy (1991----) implementation strategies, including formal and non formal education, from
Education enables individuals and society to make all-rounded participation kindergarten to higher education and special education. It emphasizes the
in the development process by acquiring knowledge, ability, skills and development of problem solving capacity and culture in the content of
attitudes. The current Education and Training Policy of Ethiopia was set education, curriculum structure and approach, focusing on the acquisition of
with a major objective of education aimed at strengthening the individuals scientific knowledge and practicum. Along with this, it directs that there be
and society’s problem-solving capacity, and developing the ability and appropriate nexus between education, training, research and development
culture starting from basic education to all levels. The education policy has through coordinated participation among the relevant organizations. The
several general and specific objectives which include: enabling citizens to policy incorporates the structure of education in relation to the development
identify harmful traditions and replace them by useful ones; helping the of students profile, educational measurements and evaluation, media of
citizens to improve, change, develop and conserve his environment for the instruction and language teaching at various levels, the recruitment,
purpose of an all-rounded development by diffusing science and technology training, methodology, organization, professional ethics and career
into the society; playing a role in the promotion of respect for human rights development of teachers.
and democratic values; and creating the condition for quality, mutual Due attention is also given to the provision and appropriate usage of
understanding and cooperation among people educational facility, technology, materials, environment, organization and
. Education does not operate in isolation; rather it has to be integrated with management so as to strengthen the teaching-learning process and
research, practice and development to contribute towards an all-rounded expansion of education. The evaluation of a decentralized, efficient and
development of society. The policy was established with the awareness of professionally coordinated participatory system is indicated in respect of
the country’s education problems of relevance, quality, accessibility and administration and management of the education system. It is also stated
equity. The current objectives of education are set considering the society’s that the financing of education be just, efficient and appropriate to promote
needs and with the intention to indicate future direction. The education equity and quality of education. Overall, the education and training policy
system had faced problems of inadequate facilities, insufficient training of envisage bringing-up citizen endowed with human outlook, countrywide
teachers, overcrowded classes, shortage of books and other teaching responsibility and democratic value having developed the necessary
materials, all indicate the low quality of education provided. The gross productive, creative and appreciating capacity in order to participate

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participation rate at the primary education was below 22% of the relevant fruitfully in development and the utilization of resources and the
age cohort. Of these a large number discontinues and relapse is high. environment at large.

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Illiteracy is an overall problem of the society. Opportunities for high school
education and technical and vocational training were limited to big towns.

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