Case

study
Mechanical

and

durability

characterization

of

new

textile
waste

micro-
#
ber

reinforced

cement

composite

for

building
applications
Payam

Sadrolodabaee
a
,
*
,

Josep

Claramunt
b
,

Monica

Ardanuy
c
,
Albert

de

la
Fuente
a
a
Department

of

Civil

and

Environmental

Engineering,

Universitat

Politècnica

de

Catalunya,

BarcelonaTECH,

Barcelona,

Spain
b
Department

of

Agricultural

Engineering,

Universitat

Politècnica

de

Catalunya,

BarcelonaTECH,

Barcelona,

Spain
c
Department

of

Material

Science
and

Engineering

(CEM),

Universitat

Politècnica

de

Catalunya,

BarcelonaTECH,

Barcelona,

Spain
A

O
Article

history:
Received

24

October

2020
Received

in

revised

form

18
December

2020
Accepted

January

2021
Keywords:
Cementitious

materials
Durability

Fiber-reinforced

composites
Mechanical

properties
Sustainability

Textile

waste

#
bers
A

T
Fiber

reinforced

mortars

(FRM)

are

growingly

used
in

several

#
elds

of

building

technology
(e.g.,

façade

panels,

roo
#
ng,

raised

#
oors

and

masonry

structures)

as

building

elements.
One

of

the

promising

type

of

#
ber

for

these

composite
materials

can

be

textile

waste
originated

from

cloth

wastes.

The

use

of

this

sort

of

recycled

materials

and

wastes

as
cement

reinforcement

within

the

building

sector

can

play

relevant
role

in

sustainability,
both

the

environmental,

economic

and

social

perspectives.

In

this

paper,

the

design
mechanical

properties

(
#
exural

and

compressive

strengths

at

7,

28

and

56

days

as

well

as
toughness

and

stiffness)

together

with

durability

properties

of

cement

pastes

reinforced
with

short

Textile

Waste

Fiber

(TWF)

in

contents

ranging

from

to

10

by

weight

fraction
cement

was

investigated.
The

results

were

compared

with

those

obtained

from

Kraft

Pulp
pine

Fiber

(KPF),

taken

as

reference.

The

main

conclusion

is

the

feasibility

of

using

this

type
of

#
ber

as

potential
reinforcement

in

construction

materials

with

the

optimum

dosage

of
8%.

Although

the

#
exural

resistance

and

toughness

of

the

TWF

composite

are

lower

than
KPF

control

by

almost

9%,

the

compressive
strength

and

stiffness

together

with

durability
properties

have

proven

to

be

enhanced

respect

to

the

reference

composite.
©

2021

The

Authors.

Published

by

Elsevier

Ltd.

This

is

an

open

access
article

under

the

CC
BY-NC-ND

license

(
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/
).
1.

Introduction
Cementitious

materials

present

the

highest

compressive

strength

to

weight

ratio

compared

to

other

construction
materials

[
1
].

Nonetheless,

both

tensile

strength

capacity
and

toughness

result

to

be

an

order

of

magnitude

less

respect

to

the
former,

which

thereby

leads

to

cracking

under

tensile

stresses

caused

by

low

service

loads

[
2
].

This
lack

of

tensile

strength
capacity

derives

in

material

prone

to

crack

and

fragile

in

case

of

failure

[
3
].

For

this

reason,

#
bers

have

been

predominantly
used

in

cementitious

matrices
aiming

at

enhancing

the

toughness,

energy

absorption

capacity,

post-cracking

behavior

[
4
Œ
6
]
as

well

as

#
exural

and

tensile

strength

[
7
,
8
].
The

incorporation

of

#
bers

has

also
resulted

in

improvements

respect

to

shrinkage

[
9
,
10
]

and

durability

according

to
several

authors

[
11
Œ
13
].

In

this

regard,

the

use

of

#
bers

can

limit

crack

propagation

and
control

the

crack

width,

which

can
*

Corresponding

author.
E-mail

addresses:

payam.sadrolodabaee@upc.edu

(P.

Sadrolodabaee),

josep.claramunt@upc.edu

(J.

Claramunt),

monica.ardanuy@upc.edu

(M.

Ardanuy),
albert.de.la.fuente@upc.edu

(A.

de

la

Fuente).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscm.2021.e00492
2214-5095/©

2021

The

Authors.

Published

by
Elsevier

Ltd.

This

is

an

open

access

article

under

the

CC

BY-NC-ND

license

(
http://creativecommons.org/
licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/
).
Case

Studies

in

Construction

Materials

14

(2021)

e00492
Contents

lists

available

at

ScienceDirect
Case

Studies
in

Construction

Materials
journa

homepage:

www.e

lsevier.com/locate/cscm

result

in

an

effective

reduction

of

the

aggressive

agents
™

ingress

and

the

associated

consequences.

This

is

of

particular

interest
when

the

use
of

this

composite

material

is

oriented

to

applications

with

certain

level

of

structural

responsibility

for

which
strength,

ductility

and

durability

requirements

are

demanded.
Although

during

the

past

decades

various

types
of

#
bers

such

as

asbestos

[
7
],

steel

[
13
Œ
15
],

glass

[
16
,
17
]

and

polymeric
[
18
Œ
20
]

have

been

tested

in

brittle

matrices,

there

have

been
some

disadvantages

such

as

detrimental

health

effects,

high
cost,

and

speci
#
cally,

substantial

environmental

footprint

[
21
Œ
23
].

Likewise,

based

on

the

statistics,

the

construction

sector
is

responsible

for

about

40
%

of

the

European

Union's

total

#
nal

energy

consumption

and

36

of

its

total

CO
2
emissions

[
24
].
That

is

why

signi
#
cant

efforts

should

be

devoted

to
applying

the

‚
3Rs
™

concept

of

reducing,

reusing

and

recycling

in

the
building

sector

and

material

fabrication

[
25
].
The

use

of

more

environmentally

friendly

materials

obtained

from

renewable

sources

or
secondary

raw

materials

with
sustainable

recycling

processes

could

be

an

interesting

solution

for

the

reduction

of

CO
2
emissions

and

energy

intake,

even

in
#
ber

production

[
26
,
27
].

World

#
ber

production

has

been

steadily

increasing

in

the

past

few

decades,

now

exceeding

100
million

tons

per

year

[
28
].

In

this

sense,

vegetable

and

cellulosic

#
bers

have

been

already
used

as

sustainable

and

durable
[
29
Œ
36
]

reinforcement

in

mortars

and

composites

for

low-performance

structural

applications

[
37
Œ
39
].

Another

promising
and

sustainable

type

of

#
ber

as

reinforcement

for
cement-based

materials

could

be

textile

waste

#
ber.
The

textile

leftover

is

one

of

the

predominant

wastes
™

resources

worldwide.

Just

in

the

EU,

around

5.8

million

tons

of
textiles

per
year

are

unprocessed

while

only

25

of

these

textiles

are

recycled

by

charities

and

industrial

enterprises;

the
remaining

goes

to

land
#
ll

or

municipal

waste

incinerators

[
40
,
41
].
Thus,

the

reuse

of

these

textile

waste

cutting

including
all

#
ber,

yarn

and

fabric

waste

produced

during

the

garment

manufacturing

process

as

well

as

all

worn

out

or

not
fashionable
clothing

discarded

by

the

users

in

constructions

is

becoming

potential

alternative

due

to

the

shortage

of

natural

mineral
resources

and

increasing

waste

disposal

costs

[
42
,
43
].
The
production

process

of

these

shredded

#
bers

involves

low

energy

consumption

and

it

is

mainly

mechanically

with
low-heat

emission

[
44
].

Textile

waste

(TW,

hereinafter)

#
bers

manufactured

from

combination
of

several

#
bers,

natural

or
synthetic

such

as

cotton,

wool,

silk,

polyester,

nylon,

and

polypropylene

is

very

abundant

waste.

These

can

draw

great
attention

as

reinforcement

of

fragile

matrices,
building

insulations

and

lightweight

bricks

owing

to

low-cost,

lightweight,
availability,

energy-saving,

and

environmental

preservation

[
45
].

The

production

of

materials

reinforced

with

TW

#
bers

is
feasible

and

economically

viable

in
regions

where

the

raw

material

is

abundant

almost

everywhere.
According

to

several

studies

[
46
Œ
50
],

TW

#
bers

can

be

used

as

thermal

insulation

building

materials.

In

this
sense,

the
application

of

this

kind

of

waste

in

external

double

walls

resulted

in

increasing

the

thermal

insulation

capacity

to

40

%
respect

to

the

double-wall

with

the

air

cavity.

The
thermal

conductivity

and

properties

value

of

the

woven

and

nonwoven
fabrics

waste

were

similar

to

other

conventional

insulation

materials

[
50
]

(expanded

polystyrene,

extruded

polystyrene

and
mineral

wool).
Fibrous

structures

are
also

good

examples

of

sound

absorbing

materials.

Several

authors

investigated

the

acoustic
performances

of

these

materials.

Lee

et

al.

[
51
]

put

forward

the

use

of

recycled

polyester

#
bers
to

produce

sound

absorbing
non-woven

materials.

The

authors

indicated

that

by

increasing

the

diameter,

thickness,

length

and

content

of

#
bers,

the
sound

absorption

coef
#
cient

of

the

non-woven

fabric

improved.
In

another

study

by

Tiuc

et

al.

[
52
],

different

non-woven
fabrics

containing

natural

and

synthetic

textile

#
bers

were

tested.

The

results

proved

good

sound

absorption

coef
#
cient

at
medium

and

high

frequencies,

but

lower

sound

absorption

coef
#
cient

at

low

frequencies.
In

another

research

[
53
],

the

#
ammability

of

this

composite

was

studied.

The

textile

waste

composite
was

subjected

to

an
open

#
ame

for

30

min.

Despite

the

high

#
ammability

of

the

TW

cuttings,

the

composite

showed

no

evidence

of

burning,

thus
proving

good

#
re
proo
#
ng

material.
Several

authors

[
54
Œ
56
]

carried

out

research

on

the

use

of

textile

#
bers

to

produce

lightweight

bricks.

Results

showed
that

the

increase

of

the

textile

waste
#
bers

content,

predominately

cotton,

the

porosity

of

the

cement

bricks

increased.

A
more

porous

structure

allowed

an

improvement

of

the

thermal

performances

and

an

increase

in

the

water

absorption.
Experimental
investigations

indicated

that

these

innovative

bricks

were

lighter

in

comparison

with

commercial

concrete
bricks.

Also,

the

insulation

capacity

of

the

former

was

better,

i.e.

the

thermal

conductivity

coef
#
cient

was
29.3

lower
respect

to

commercial

concrete

brick.

In

similar

study

[
57
],

textile

waste

#
ber

clay

bricks

tested

and

the

results

indicated
that

the

samples

containing

#
bers
had

lower

water

absorption

than

the

simple

clay

sample.
The

compatibility

of

#
ber

residues

from

the

nonwoven

textile

industry

with

Portland

cement

has

been

studied

by
Monteiro

et

al
.

[
58
].

It

was

reported

that

the

textile

waste

used

in

this

investigation

resulted

to

be

incompatible

with

the
cement

setting

probably

due

to

high

cotton

content

which

disturbed

cement

setting
reactions.

So,

cement

did

not

set

in

full
extent

as

observed

by

temperature

monitoring;

this

being

the

unique

research,

according

to

the

author
™
s

knowledge,

that
stated

this

negative
effect.
In

order

to

identify

the

target

potential

applications

of

this

material,

the

mechanical

properties

should

be

characterized.

In
this

sense,

the

engineering

design

properties

of

TWF

reinforced

cement

composites

have
not

been

deeply

investigated

yet
and,

consequently,

its

structural

suitability

cannot

be

con
#
rmed.

Hence,

the

main

goal

of

this

research

consists

in

carrying
out

an

extensive

experimental

program

to
characterize

the

mechanical

and

durability

properties

of

new

short

randomly
dispersed

TW

#
ber-reinforced

cement

paste

meant

for

constructional

purposes.

As

result,

both

compressive

and

#
exural

(at
pre-and

post-cracking
stages)

strength

capacities,

together

with

the

toughness

and

stiffness

properties

as

well

as

the
optimum

dosage

were

derived

from

the

experimental

program.

The

results

were

#
nally

compared

with

those
obtained

from
P.

Sadrolodabaee

et

al.

Case

Studies

in

Construction

Materials

14

(2021)

e00492
2

reference

mortar

samples

reinforced

with

kraft

pulp

pine

#
bers,

these

#
bers

being

one

of

the
most

prevailing

#
bers

in
cellulose

#
ber-reinforced

composites.
2.

Experimental

procedure
2.1.

Materials
2.1.1.

Binder
A

Portland

cement

Type

52.5R

supplied

by

Cementos

Molins

Industrial,

S.A.

(Spain)

has

been

used

for
producing

the
mortars.

Chemical

composition

criteria

and

physical/mechanical

requirements

according

to

EN

197
#
1:2011

and

given

by

the
supplier

are

reported

in

previous

work

[
36
].
2.1.2.

Fibers
TW

#
bers

were
provided

by

Triturats

La

Canya

S.A

(Spain)

and

these

consisted

of

30.7

polyester

and

69.3

cotton.

The
moisture

content

(expressed

as

relative

humidity)

and

the

water

retention

values

were
7%

and

85,

respectively.

The

gross

75
%

of

the

weight

is

represented

by

#
bers

with

diameters

ranging

from

3.6

to

32.1

m
m,

the

rest

being

mix

of
yarns

and

fabrics
(see

Fig.

1
-a,b,c).
Unbleached

softwood

kraft

pulp

(Pinus

insignis)

with

7.8

(over

the

total

weight)

of

lignin,

and

an

aspect

ratio

of

88
supplied

by

Smur
#
t

Kappa

Nervión,

S.A.

(Spain)

[
39
]

was

used

as

the

reference

mortar

reinforcement

(
Fig.

1
-d).
2.2.

Samples

preparation
The

TW

#
ber-reinforced

mortars

were

prepared

in

laboratory

mixer
pan

and

posteriorly

casted

into

20

40

16 0

mm
mold

in

which

MPa

pressure

was

applied

in

order

to

eliminate

the

water

excess.

The

specimens
remained

24

h.

under

the
press

machine

and

posteriorly

demolded

and

placed

in

climate

chamber

(20
#
C

and

90

of

RH)

for

7,

28

and

56

days
according

to
the

test

procedure

considered

in

[
32
,
59
,
60
].

Fig.

depicts

the

casting

and

curing

procedure

carried

out.
The

designation

of

the

specimens

(
Table

1
)

is

based

on
the

#
ber

type:

TW

being

the

Textile

Waste

and

CTR

the

Control
Kraft

Pulp.

The

numbers

indicate

the

#
ber

dosages

expressed

in

percentage

of

the

cement

weight

(6,

8
and

10

%).

Samples

for
durability

tests

are

designated

with

(TWD8

and

CTRD8).

The

initial

and

#
nal

water/cement

ratios,

(w/c)
initial
and

(w/c)
#
nal
,
Fig.

1.

(a)

Textile

Waste
Fiber

(TWF);

microscopic

image

of

the

TWF

components:

(b)

cotton

magni
#
cation

40

and

(c)

polyester

magni
#
cation
40

1.25

and

(d)

Kraft

Pulp

Fiber
(KPF).
P.

Sadrolodabaee

et

al.

Case

Studies

in

Construction

Materials

14

(2021)

e00492
3

together

with

the

initial

dosage

of

the

materials

to

make

the

#
ber-reinforced

mortar

for

1000

cm
3
are

also

reported

in

Table

1
.
Six

specimens

were

cast

for

each

sample.
The

KPF

was

saturated

before

its

addition

to

the

mortar

paste,

in

order

to

facilitate

the

dispersion.
For

this

reason,

the
initial

water/cement

ratio

of

the

CTR

samples

was

higher

than

those

TW

specimens.

However,

the

#
nal

water/cement

ratio

of
both

composites

varied

between

0.35
#
0.50

after
the

elimination

of

excess

water

by

compression

during

24

h.
2.3.

Mechanical

tests
2.3.1.

Flexural

tensile

strength

and

toughness
Three-point

bending

tests

(
Fig.

3
)

on

100

mm

span-length

unnotched

beam
specimens

were

carried

out

in

order

to
quantify

the

pre

and

post-cracking

contribution

of

the

#
ber

reinforcement.

For

this

purpose,

an

INCOTECNIC

press

equipped
with

load

cell

of

3
K

capacity

based

on

EN

12467:20 12

[
61
]

was

used.

The

test

was

controlled

with

closed-loop

system,
the

loading

rate

being

mm/min.

Six

specimens

were

tested

for
each

sample

at

7,

28

and

56

days.
The

maximum

#
exural

tensile

strength

(or

also

named

Modulus

of

Rupture,

MOR)

of

the

composite

was

determined

by
means

of

Eq.

1
,
where

P
max
is

the

maximum

load

recorded,

is

the

span

length

(100

mm),

and

(40

mm)

and

(20

mm)

are
the

cross-sectional

width

and

thickness,

respectively.
MOR
¼
3
P
max
L
2
bh
2
ð
1
Þ
Fig.

2.

Preparation

of

the

samples:

(a)

mixing

process;

(b)

molds

#
lled

with

material;

(c)

compression

and

water

excess

elimination

process

and

(d)

curing
conditions.
Table

1
w/c

of

the

samples

and

codi
#
cation

of

the

specimens.
CODE

TW6

TW8

TW10

TWD8

CTR6

CTR8

CTR10

CTRD8
(w/c)
initial
0.50

0.50

0.50

0.50

1.0 0

1.50

1.40

1.50
(w/c)
#
nal
7

days

0.42

0.44

0.44

0.43

0.44

0.44

Œ
28

days

0.40

0.50

0.50

0.45

0.42

0.42

0.35

0.50
56

days

0.45

0.40

0.45

0.45

0.39

0.35

Œ
Initial
Cement[gr]

16 00

14 00

1200

14 00

16 00

14 00

1200

14 00
Initial

Water[gr]

800

700

600

700

500

440

360

440
Initial

Dried

Fiber[gr]

96

112

120

112

96

112

120

112
P.
Sadrolodabaee

et

al.

Case

Studies

in

Construction

Materials

14

(2021)

e00492
4

The

toughness

index(I
G
),

de
#
ned

as

the

area

beneath

the

force-displacement

curve

comprised

from

zero

to

a
post-failure
load

of

0.4

MOR

was

established

as

the

reference

parameter

to

characterize

the

type

of

failure

(ductile

or

fragile)

and

the
post-failure

deformation

capacity.
The

#
exural

stiffness

(K)

was
also

measured

from

the

force-displacement

relationships

during

elastic

deformation

by
using

Eq.

based

on

[
61
],

where

D
p

and

D
f

are

the

variations

of

forces

and

de
#
ections
of

points

on

the

elastic

regime,

and
the

rest

of

the

parameters

as

de
#
ned

per

Eq.

1
.
K

¼
D
P
:
L
3
4
D
f

:
bh
3
ð
2
Þ
2.3.2.

Compressive
strength

test
After

completion

of

the

#
exural

tensile

tests,

the

remaining

halves

were

subjected

-on

20

mm

side-

to

compression
(
Fig.

4
a).

To

this

end,

an

INCOTECNIC

press
equipped

with

maximum

load

cell

of

300

kN

was

used

and

the

test

procedure
was

carried

out

according

to

UNE-EN

19 6
#
1

[
62
]

(
Fig.

4
b).
The

compressive

strength
is

computed

as

f
c
=

P
max
/A,

where

is

the

total

area

of

the

rectangular

plate

placed

between

the
loading

jack

and

the

specimen

tested.

Twelve

specimens

were

tested
for

each

sample

at

each

age.
2.3.3.

Durability

test

and

microscope

analyses
Durability

in

environments

where

wet-dry

cycles

are

predominant

is

considered

one

of

the

main

problems

in

vegetable
#
bers
[
35
,
36
].

In

this

sense,

those

TW

specimens

resulted

to

provide

better

mechanical

properties

subjected

to

durability
test.

This

consisted

of

applying

25

dry-wet

cycles,

after

28

days
of

curing

in

climatic

chamber,

according

to

the

EN

12467.
Each

dry-wet

cycle

consisted

of

drying

for

at

60
#
C

and

60

of

RH

followed

by
18

of

immersion

in

water

at

20
#
C.

The
climatic

chambers

for

this

process

as

well

as

the

samples

after

accelerated

aging

cycles

are

shown

in

Fig.

5
.
Fig.
3.

Flexural

tests

set-up:

(a)

20

40

160

mm

specimens;

(b)

#
exural

test

con
#
guration;

(c)

cross-section

of

tested-to-failure

specimen.
Fig.

4.

Compressive

strength

tests:

(a)

remaining
halves

of

the

#
exural

tests

and

(b)

test

con
#
guration.
P.

Sadrolodabaee

et

al.

Case

Studies

in

Construction

Materials

14

(2021)

e00492
5

Finally,

the

scanning

electron

microscope

observation

was
carried

out

by

using

Jeol

JSM

5610

SEM

device

in

order

to
analyze

the

fractured

surface

microstructure

and

the

effects

of

the

wet-drying

cycles.
3.

Results

and

discussions
3.1.

Flexural
test
In

Fig.

6
,

representative

#
exural

stress-displacement

curves

derived

from

the

bending

tests

are

depicted.

Likewise,
Tables

2,3

gathers

the

mean,

minimum,

maximum

and

CoV

of

the

Limit

of
proportionality

(LOP)

and

the

Modulus

of

rupture
(MOR)

obtained

for

each

composite

at

different

ages.
Fig.

5.

Durability

test:

(a)

CCI

chamber

(b)

Specimens

after

25

cycles.
Fig.

6.

Representative

stress
Œ

de
#
ection

relationships

obtained

from

the

#
exural

tests

at

(a)

7;

(b)

28

and

(c)

56

days.
P.

Sadrolodabaee

et

al.

Case

Studies

in

Construction

Materials

14

(2021)

e00492
6

According

to

the

results

depicted

in

Fig.

6
,

the

bending

response

consists

of

three

stages:

First,

an

elastic

range
represented

by

linear

tendency

until

the

appearance

of

the
#
rst

crack

when

the

LOP

strength

is

achieved;

the

LOP
magnitude

is

mainly

governed

by

the

strength

of

the

matrix.

Second,

post

cracking

branch

with

decreasing

positive
slope
in

which

both

matrix

and

#
bers

contribute

to

the

strength

of

the

composite

and

increase

the

toughness

and

ductility.

Finally,
a

post-failure

regime

with

decreasing

negative

slope

that
represents

the

pre-and

failure

of

the

composite.
Based

on

the

LOP

values

of

the

TWF

composites

presented

in

Table

it

can

be

concluded

that

#
exural

resistance

to

the

#
rst
crack

decreased

averagely

10

with

the

addition

of

#
bers.

This

was

due

to

the

reduction

of

the

cement

amounts

with

the
increase

of

the

number

of

#
bers

(see
Table

1
).

In

this

sense,

it

must

be

remarked

that

the

#
bers

barely

contribute

to

the
resistant

mechanism

before

the

occurrence

of

the

#
rst

crack.

The

reduction

of
LOP

for

CTR

composites

was

less

than

2%,

this
indicating

that

kraft

pulp

#
bers

were

mixed

more

homogeneously

inside

the

matrix

and

creating

fewer

voids.

The

LOP

values
were

higher
in

TWF

composite

respect

to

CTR

when

6%

#
ber

dosage

was

used,

while

by

increasing

the

amount

of

#
ber

to

10
%,

the

trend

was

reversed.

Finally,

it
can

also

be

observed

an

increase

in

the

LOP

with

the

aging

of

the

samples

from

to

56
days

by

25

for

both

composites

due

to

the

cement
hydration

and

the

hardening

time-dependent

processes.
On

the

other

hand,

the

values

of

MOR

gathered

in

Table

permit

to

con
#
rm

that

the

addition

of

these

type

of

#
bers
provide

post-cracking

#
exural

strength

capacity

(MOR
m
>

LOP
m
)

to

the

composite,

this

presenting,

thus,

#
exural-
hardening

response.

In

this

regard,

#
bers

bridge

the

cracks

by

controlling
the

opening

and

guaranteeing

stress

transfer
mechanism

across

the

crack

height.

The

results

gathered

in

Fig.

highlight

that

the

MOR

increased

with

the

increase

of

the
#
ber

content
up

to

8%

for

both

types

of

#
bers

whilst

this

decreases

for

higher

#
ber

amounts,

independently

of

the

composite
age.

This

phenomenon

could

be

caused

by

the

technical

dif
#
culties

associated

with

the

mixing,

balling

effect,

and
compaction

for

these

high

amounts

of

#
bers

[
4
].

In

fact,

an

8%

#
ber

dosage

had

the

highest

contribution

in

the
post

#
exural
resistance,
i.e.,

highest

MOR
m
/LOP
m
.

This

result

is

in

agreement

with

the

#
nding

of

[
63
],

in

which

the

MOR

of

cement

boards
reinforced

by

different

amounts
of

waste

kraft

pulp

#
ber

(1
Œ
14

%)

was

investigated

and

it

was

proved

that

with

increasing
contents

up

to

8%,

MOR

increased

whilst

adding

#
bers

content

superior

than
8%

had

the

opposite

effect.
According

to

the

results

presented

in

Table

and

Fig.

7
,

TW6

and

TW10

composites

presented

similar

MOR

while

TW8
composites

evidenced

averagely

15,

6,
and

17

higher

MOR

at

7,

28

and

56

days

curing,

respectively.

Nonetheless,

kraft

pulp
Table

2
LOP

in

N/mm
2
(CoV

in

%)

of

the

composites

at

different

ages.
Ages
TW6

TW8

TW10

CTR6

CTR8

CTR10
7

days

LOP
m
11.6(18)

11.1(16)

10.7(4)

11.5(3)

11.1(13)

10.6(15)
LOp
min
Œ
LOP
max
10.0
Œ
15.0

9.3
#
14.0

10.5
#
11.1

11.0
Œ
12.0

9.0
Œ
12.3

8.1
Œ
12.1
28
days

LOp
m
12.7(12)

11.1(10)

10.7(10)

12.4(8)

11.9(14)

12.4(9)
LOp
min
Œ
LOp
max
12.1
Œ
14.1

11.0
Œ
12.0

9.1
Œ
12.0

10.8
Œ
13.1

10.2
Œ
14.0

11.0
Œ
13.5
56

days

LOp
m
13.5(5)

14.4(6)

12.9(14)

13.3(8)

14.0(8)
15.0(12)
LOp
min
Œ
LOP
max
12.3
Œ
14.1

12.0
Œ
15.2

11.0
Œ
15.0

12.2
Œ
14.9

13.0
Œ
15.1

12.2
Œ
17.0
Table

3
MOR

in

N/mm
2
(CoV

in

%)

of

the

composites

at

different

ages.
Ages

TW6
TW8

TW10

CTR6

CTR8

CTR10
7

days

MOR
m
13.7(19)

15.4(8)

13.4(4)

13.7(12)

15.8(10)

15.0(25)
MOR
min
Œ
MOR
max
11.2
Œ
17.2

13.7
Œ
17.1

12.5
Œ
14.0

10.6
Œ
15.0

13.7
Œ
18.6

9.0
Œ
18.3
MOR
m
/LOP
m
1.2
1.4

1.2

1.2

1.4

1.4
28

days

MOR
m
14.7(9)

15.6(20)

14.9(23)

14.7(18)

16.8(14)

16.5(19)
MOR
min
Œ
MOR
max
12.8
Œ
16.5

11.7
Œ
20.2

10.1
Œ
19.1

10.5
Œ
17.4

13.0
Œ
18.9

10.5
Œ
19.6
MOR
m
/LOP
m
1.1

1.4

1.4

1.2

1.4

1.3
56

days

MOR
m
16.0(9)

17.7(8)

15.1(11)

17.6(29)

19.8(5)

18.9(30)
MOR
min
Œ
MOR
max
14.5
Œ
18.2

18.4
Œ
20.3

14.7
Œ
19.1

11.0
Œ
21.5

19.1
Œ
21.8

11.0
Œ
22.0
MOR
m
/LOP
m
1.2

1.2

1.2

1.3

1.4

1.2
Fig.

7.

Results

of

MOR
m
at

different

ages

for

the

tested

composites.
P.

Sadrolodabaee

et

al.

Case

Studies

in

Construction

Materials

14

(2021)

e00492
7
samples

(CTR)

presented

differences

in

terms

of

MOR

smaller

than

5%

for

the

different

amounts

considered.

This

could
indicate

that

pulp

#
bers

distribute

more

homogeneously

for

high

amounts

(
>
8%)

respect

to

the

TWF.

The

average

MOR

of

the
TWF

composite

(17.7

N/mm
2
)

was

lower

than

kraft

pulp

control

(19.8

N/mm
2
)

by

9%

for

8%

of

both
#
bers

at

56

days.

Hence,

an
8%

#
ber

dosage

has

been

considered

the

optimum

amount

for

both

composites

in

terms

of

MOR.

It

can

also

be

noticed

slight
increase
of

the

MOR

with

the

composite

aging

from

to

56

days,

15

(TW)

and

26

(CTR).
Table

and

Fig.

present

the

toughness

(I
G
)

of
the

samples

tested.

In

this

regard,

the

results

denoted

an

increase

of

I
G
with
the

#
ber

dosage,

the

composites

with

10

of

#
bers

performing

with

the

higher

energy
absorption,

with

81

and

100

higher
values

than

6%

composites

for

TW

and

CTR

respectively.

The

average

I
G
of

the

CTR

composites

evidenced

slightly

greater
magnitudes

in

comparison

with
those

made

of

TWF

in

almost

all

the

samples,

possibly

owing

to

the

better

#
ber

distribution
in

the

matrix.

Nonetheless,

the

toughness

index

showed

for

those

composites

with

#
ber
amounts

of

and

10

%,

all

above

KJ/
m
2
,

can

be

suf
#
cient

for

low-performance

structural

purposes,

for

which

deformability

capacity

is

required.

Finally,

it

must
be

highlighted
that

no

relation

between

I
G
and

the

composite

age

can

be

established.
The

#
exural

stiffness

(K)

showed

the

opposite

trend

respect

to

the

toughness

since

decreases

with

the
increase

of

the
#
ber

amount,

by

5%

for

TWF

composites

(see

Table

5
).

In

fact,

is

mainly

dependent

on

the

matrix

characteristics

and

as

the
amount

of

cement

is
reduced

by

#
ber

dosage,

this

parameter

decreases

accordingly,

by

following

similar

trend

as

the

LOP.
Averagely,

the

stiffness

of

the

TWF

composites

was

12

higher

than

those
CTR

composites.
3.2.

Compressive

test
Table

gathers

the

mean

minimum,

maximum

and

CoV

of

the

compressive

strength

(f
c
),

obtained

for

each

composite,
and

Fig.

depicts

the

results

graphically.
In
this

sense,

f
c
decreased

signi
#
cantly

with

the

increase

of

the

#
ber

content,

independently

of

the

#
ber

type.

Thus,

the
TWF

composite

with

6%

of

#
bers

had

the
highest

values

(
f
cm
from

85.8

N/mm
2
to

119.1

N/mm
2
for

and

56

days)

while

those
with

10

had

the

lowest

(
f
cm
from

43.2

N/mm
2
at

days
to

88.9

N/mm
2
at

56

days).

This

decrease

could

be

explained

by

the
fact

that

increasing

#
ber

content

induces

more

voids

which

lightens

and

weakens

the

material.
Fig.

8.

Results
of

I
Gm
at

different

ages

for

the

tested

composites.
Table

4
I
G
in

KJ/m
2
(CoV

in

%)

of

the

composites

at

different

ages.
Ages

TW6

TW8

TW10

CTR6

CTR8

CTR10
7

days
I
Gm
1.6(22)

2.2(32)

3.1(26)

2.0(10)

2.3(26)

3.7(11)
I
Gmmin
Œ

I
Gmax
1.1
Œ
2.1

1.5
Œ
3.5

2.2
Œ
4.1

1.7
Œ
2.3

1.6
Œ
2.9

3.3
Œ
4.3
28

days

I
Gm
1.6(31)

2.1(19)

2.5(24)

1.6(25)

2.8(28)
2.9(21)
I
Gmmin
Œ

I
Gmax
1.1
Œ
2.3

1.6
Œ
2.6

1.6
Œ
3.4

1.2
Œ
2

1.7
Œ
3.8

2.1
Œ
3.6
56

days

I
Gm
1.6(31)

2.7(18)

3.2(16)

1.7(29)

2.3(13)

3.6(11)
I
Gmmin
Œ

I
Gmax
1.1
Œ
2.3

1.6
Œ
3.3

2.9
Œ
3.9

1.3
Œ
2.6

1.7
Œ
2.4

3.2
Œ
4
Table

5
K

in

GPa

(CoV

in

%)

of

the

composites

at

different

ages.
Ages

TW6

TW8

TW10

CTR6

CTR8

CTR10
7

days
K
m
3.8(21)

3.7(24)

3.5(29)

3.4(21)

3.1(26)

3.1(29)
K
min
Œ
K
max
2.8
Œ
5.1

2.5
Œ
4.8

1.8
Œ
4.6

2.8
Œ
4.4

2.3
Œ
4.4

2.0
Œ
4.1
28

days

K
m
4.0(19)

3.9(15)

3.7(19)

3.8(13)

3.3(9)

3.1(10)
K
min
Œ
K
max
2.9
Œ
4.7

3.4
Œ
4.8

3.0
Œ
4.8

3.1
Œ
4.5

2.7
Œ
3.5

2.7
Œ
3.5
56

days

K
m
4.0(18)

4.0(22)

4.0(25)

3.7(29)

3.5(17)

3.1(23)
K
min
Œ
K
max
3.2
Œ
4.8

3.1
Œ
5

2.7
Œ
4.7

1.9
Œ
4.7

3.0
Œ
4.2

2.5
Œ
4.1
P.

Sadrolodabaee

et

al.

Case

Studies

in

Construction

Materials

14

(2021)

e00492
8

Previous

studies

also

indicated

similar

negative

effects

for

cementitious

materials
reinforced

with

other

natural

#
bers
with

less

than

mm

of

length

[
10
,
64
].

The

reduction

in

compressive

strength

can

also

be

attributed

to

the

congestion

or
balling

of
the

#
bers

which

weaken

the

bond

between

the

#
bers

and

the

matrix.

Khedari

et

al.

[
65
]

related

the

reduction

in
compressive

strength

of

#
ber-reinforced

cementitious

materials

to

the
low

density

of

the

specimens.

Hence,

specimens
containing

#
exible

#
bers

are

expected

to

have

lower

density

as

compared

to

an

unreinforced

specimen

since

these

#
bers
induce

more

voids,
which

reduces

the

mass

of

the

material

[
66
].
It

must

be,

however,

remarked

that

f
c
increased

with

the

curing

time

and

that

the

f
c
#

25

N/mm
2
broadly

accepted
as

the
minimum

required

for

structural

applications

was

achieved

by

all

the

composites

at

any

age.

The

results

gathered

in

Table

6
allow

stating

that

the

TWF

composites

achieved

an
average

of

12

higher

f
cm
than

the

CTR

composites.
3.3.

Durability

test
Based

on

the

previous

results,

#
ber

dosage

of

8%

by

weight

fraction

of

the

cement

has
resulted

to

lead

to

better

#
exural
tensile

strength

results

with

also

suitable

compressive

strength

for

low/medium-performance

structural

applications.
Therefore,

the

accelerated

aging

cycles

were

carried

out

on

composites

with
this

#
ber

dosage.
In

Fig.10
,

the

representative

#
exural

stress-displacement

curves

derived

from

the

#
exural

tests

on

specimens

subjected

to
accelerated

aging

are

depicted

(D

indicates

specimen

subjected

to

aging).
Likewise,

Table

gathers

the

mean

and

CoV

of

the
LOP,

MOR,

I
G,
K

and

f
c
obtained

for

the

composited

subjected

to

aging.

As

it

can

be

noticed

in

Fig.10
,

after

the

accelerated

aging
test

drop

in

the

reinforcing

capacity

of

the

#
bers

was

observed,

this

represented

by

the

drastic

fall

of

the

stress-de
#
ection
curve

immediately

after
reaching

the

MOR.
Table

6
f
c
in

N/mm
2
(CoV

in

%)

of

the

composites

at

different

ages.
Ages

TW6

TW8

TW10

CTR6

CTR8

CTR10
7

days

fc
m
85.8(20)

83.0(13)

43.2(31)

82.2(18)

73.7(15)
33.9(26)
fc
min
Œ
fc
max
60.3
Œ
105.7

59.1
Œ
92.7

25.9
Œ
60.8

54.5
Œ
10 0.0

55.5
Œ
90.1

23.4
Œ
50.2
28

days

fc
m
112.1(20)

103.1(24)

86.7(26)

109.2(20)

79.9(28)

77.8(18)
fc
min
Œ
fc
max
74.5
Œ
144.2

60.8
Œ
133.5
48.8
Œ
116.0

75.0
Œ
121.9

45.6
Œ
112.1

55.5
Œ
102.0
56

days

fc
m
119.1(17)

107.0(25)

88.9(29)

108.3(13)

105.4(12)

78.1(14)
fc
min
Œ
fc
max
92.0
Œ
156.7

61.8
Œ
145.0

50.5
Œ
133.7

80.3
Œ
126.7

91.8
Œ
122.0

65.9
Œ
96.2
Fig.

9.

Results

of

f
c
at

different

ages

for

the

tested

composites.
Fig.10.

Representative

stress

de
#
ection

relationships

obtained

from

the

#
exural

tests

at

28

days

after

25
cycles

of

accelerated

aging

for

specimens

with

8%
of

TWF

and

reference

#
ber.
P.

Sadrolodabaee

et

al.

Case

Studies

in

Construction

Materials

14

(2021)

e00492
9

The

toughness

(I
G
)
of

the

samples

after

the

durability

test

decreased

dramatically,

dropped

to

1.2

and

1.1

KJ/m
2
for

TW

and
CTR

samples,

respectively

(reduction

of

42

and

62

%).

Similarly,

the

MOR
for

the

aged

TW

composite,

showed

minor
reduction

of

3%

whilst

the

reduction

for

the

CTR

sample

was

about

20

%.

This

deterioration

effect

can

be

justi
#
ed

by
the
following

process:

when

the

#
ber-reinforced

composite,

mainly

cellulose

#
bers,

is

subjected

to

various

wet-dry

cycles

the
#
bers

lose

adherence

and

bond

with

the

matrix;

reprecipitation

of

the

hydrated
compounds

within

the

void

space

at

the
#
ber
Œ
cement

interface

and

#
nally

full

mineralization

occurred,

this

resulting

in

the

embrittlement

of

the

vegetable

#
bers
[
36
,
67
].
Regarding

the

compressive
resistance,

it

was

reduced

by

2%

(TW)

and

20

(CTR).

Indeed,

the

reduction

of

vegetal

#
ber
durability

is

caused

mainly

by

the

alkaline

environment

(PH

#
12-13)

of

the
cement

matrix

and

gradually

#
lling

of

the

inner
cores

of

the

vegetal

#
bers

with

the

cement

hydration

products,

this

leading

to

the

embrittlement

of

the

#
bers,

and

reducing
their
mechanical

performance

[
37
].
The

elastic

pre-cracking

properties

(LOP

and

K)

resulted

in

averagely

unaltered,

or

even

higher

amounts

due

to

further
cement

hydration

since

these

are

mainly

dependent

on
the

matrix,

which

is

not

affected

by

the

aging

procedure.

This

result

is
in

agreement

with

the

#
nding

of

[
21
].
As

it

can

be

seen

in

Table

7
,

all
the

aged

mechanical

properties

were

higher

for

TWD

respect

to

CTRD.

The

negative

effect

of
aging

on

the

#
exural

and

compressive

resistance

in

TW

composite

was

negligible,

both

less
than

3%,

while

in

the

CTR

sample
both

strengths

were

reduced

by

25

%.

The

reason

for

the

better

behavior

of

TW

composite

could

be

that

the

TWF

is
constituted

of
vegetable

#
ber

(cotton)

together

with

synthetics

(polyester)

while

the

KPF

is

exclusively

composed

of
vegetable

#
ber

and,

consequently,

the

latter

is

more

vulnerable

to

the

alkaline

environment

produced

by
the

Portland
cement.
This

#
nding

is

in

agreement

with

the

results

of

[
36
],

in

which

the

mechanical

properties

of

the

cement

composites
reinforced

with

4%

Pinus

Kraft

Pulp

(KP)
was

compared

with

those

reinforced

by

4%

cotton

linter

(CL)

in

both

normal

and
aging

conditions.

Based

on

that

study,

the

reduction

of

MOR

after

accelerated

aging

was

23

and
17

for

KP

and

CL
respectively.

Regarding

the

I
G
,

the

deterioration

was

more

signi
#
cant,

70

(KP)

and

23

%(CL).

Moreover,

the

compressive
Table

7
Results

of

durability
tests

(CoV

in

%).
Samples

LOP
m
[N/mm
2
]

MOR
m
[N/mm
2
]

I
Gm
[KJ/m
2
]

K
m
[GPa]

f
cm
[N/mm
2
]

MOR
m
/LOP
m
TWD8

13.3(11)

15.2(10)

1.2(21)

4.0(17)

101.8(30)

1.1
CTRD8

11.9(10)

13.3(15)
1.1(17)

3.0(20)

63.5(21)

1.1
Fig.

11.

SEM

micrographs

of

the

fracture

surfaces

of

the

Composites:

(a)

TW28

(b)

TWD

(c)

CTR28

(d)

CTRD.
P.

Sadrolodabaee

et

al.

Case

Studies

in
Construction

Materials

14

(2021)

e00492
10

resistance

loss

was

about

24

and

11

for

KP

and

CL

samples,

respectively.

Thus,

the

detrimental

effect

of

accelerated

aging
could

be

more

signi
#
cant

on

Kraft

Pulp,

followed

by

cotton

linter

and

Textile

Waste

#
ber.
3.4.

SEM

observations
In

Fig.

11
,

micrographs

of

the

fracture

surfaces

of

TW

and

CTR

composite

exposed
to

normal

aging

and

accelerated

are
depicted

while

Fig.

12

focuses

on

the

micrographs

regarding

the

#
ber

surfaces.
The

TWF

and

KPF

were

averagely

longer

in

the

composite

cured

in
the

normal

condition

respect

to

accelerate

aging.

This
occurred

since

the

#
ber

pull-out

mechanism

was

predominant

in

#
ber-cement

interactions

in

unaged

samples,

this
generating

considerable

frictional

energy

losses,

which

contribute
to

toughness.

For

example,

Fig.

11
a

depicts

break

section
of

sample

TW28

where

it

can

be

noticed

large

set

of

#
bers

protruding

from

the

cement

matrix.

In
this

group

of

#
bers,
including

synthetic

(
#
ne)

and

natural

(thick)

#
bers,

the

surface

of

the

#
ber

is

smooth

and

has

no

particles

attached

onto

the
surface.

Moreover,

almost
none

of

the

#
bers

have

been

broken.

This

is

an

indication

that

#
bers

detached

from

the

matrix

by
following

pull-out

mechanism.
On

the

other

hand,

in

Fig. 11
-b

it
can

be

observed

that

the

#
bers

in

the

composites

exposed

to

dry-wet

cycles

had

generally
shorter

lengths

since

most

of

the

#
bers

detached

due

to

rupture,

which

reduce

the
toughness.

Therefore,

it

can

be

stated

that
Fig.

12.

SEM

micrographs

of

the

#
bers

surfaces:

(a)

Kraft

Pulp

(b)

Kraft

Pulp-Durability

(c)

Cotton

(d)

Cotton-Durability

(e)Synthetic

(f)Synthetic-Durability.
P.

Sadrolodabaee

et
al.

Case

Studies

in

Construction

Materials

14

(2021)

e00492
11

the

damage

induced

by

the

durability

test

led

to

an

increase

in

the

number

of

#
bers

failing

due

to
rupture

and

consequently,
to

decrease

in

#
bers

presenting

pull-out.
As

it

is

shown

in

Fig.

12
a

to

d,

the

vegetable

#
bers

including

the

kraft

pulp

and

cotton

#
bers
were

cracked

and

wrinkled
after

accelerated

aging

respect

to

those

polyester-based

due

to

the

alkali

attack.

The

kraft

pulp,

with

some

pits

on

its

surface,
could

favor

the

precipitation

of
hydration

products

of

the

cement

in

the

lumen

of

the

#
bers

and,

consequently,

facilitate

the
degradation

of

the

#
bers

in

the

cementitious

matrix.

Thus,

the

permeability

of

the

kraft
pulp

and

cotton

#
bers

facilitated

the
degradation

and

the

loss

of

resistance

[
36
].

The

precipitation

of

the

calcium

hydroxide

onto

the

#
bers

due

to

the

dry-wet
cycles

follows

this
mechanism

[
35
]:

a)

loss

of

#
ber

adherence

and

the

appearance

of

void

spaces

at

the

#
ber-matrix

interface
in

the

#
rst

dry

cycle

since

the

transverse

section

of
the

vegetable

#
bers

shrunk

due

to

the

loss

of

water;

b)

the

water

dissolves
the

hydration

compounds

of

the

cement

in

the

subsequent

wet

cycle.

The

vegetable

#
bers

absorb
this

dissolution

of

calcium
hydroxide

and

thus

swell;

c)

water

is

lost

by

evaporation

in

the

second

dry

cycle,

and

the

calcium

hydroxide

precipitates

on
the

surface

and

in

the

lumen
of

the

#
bers.
On

the

other

hand,

Fig.

12
f

shows

the

synthetic

#
ber

accumulated

with

some

hydrated

cement

products

without

any
signi
#
cant

crack

or

damage.

This

might

be
an

objective

explanation

regarding

the

better

mechanical

performance

of

the

TW
composite

after

the

accelerated

aging.
4.

Conclusions
The

objective

of

this

research

was

to

verify

both

the

mechanical

and

durability
properties

of

short

randomly

textile

waste
#
ber

(TWF)

as

potential

reinforcement

for

cement

composites

oriented

to

building

components

with

low

structural
responsibility

(ex.,

aesthetic

façade

panels,

cladding,).

These

recycled
#
bers

are

constituted

of

cotton

and

polyester

from

the
garment

and

textile

waste

industries.

The

use

of

these

plate

composites

for

producing

building

components

can

valorize

this
waste

while

reducing
the

impact

of

construction.
Three

different

mixtures

considering

6
Œ
10 %

of

TWFs

were

investigated

within

the

context

of

an

extensive

experimental
program.

Flexural

and

compressive

tests

were

carried

out

after
7,

28

and

56

days.

Moreover,

tests

simulating

accelerated
aging

conditions

and

SEM

observations

were

included

to

assess

the

mechanical

suitability

of

this

material

in

terms

of
durability.

The

same

tests
were

performed

for

reference

samples

with

kraft

pulp

pine

(CTR).

The

following

conclusions

were
derived

from

the

results:
#

The

results

showed

that

the

control

sample

had

higher

bending

resistance
and

toughness

index

on

average,

almost

by

9%
respect

to

TWF

composite.

However,

both

composites

showed

post

cracking

performance

and

improvement

in

energy
absorption

suitable

for

the

targeted

building

components,

mainly
non-structural

ones.

On

the

other

hand,

the

compressive
strength

and

#
exural

stiffness

of

the

TW

composite

were

averagely

12

higher

respect

to

the

CTR

sample.
#

Compressive

and

#
exural

maximum

strengths

were

observed

for

those

composites

with

8%

of

the

TWF.

The

#
exural
stiffness

was

found

to

be

maximum

for

composites

with

6%

of

the

TWF

while

the
maximum

toughness

was

obtained

when
10

of

this

TWF

is

used.

Based

on

the

standard

mechanical

requirements

for

non-structural

building

components,

8%

of
the

TWF

resulted

in

the

optimum
#
ber

dosage.
#

TWF

and

reference

composites

were

exposed

to

accelerated

aging

conditions.

The

results

for

the

TWF

composites

proved

a
better

mechanical

performance

(at

least

10

%)

respect

to
the

reference

samples.

The

SEM

observation

results

con
#
rmed
that

this

TWF

was

barely

affected

by

the

Portlandite

contained

in

the

cement.
After

these

promising

results,

the

possibility

of

producing

nonwoven
textile

fabric

composites

from

this

short

textile
waste

#
ber

is

under

investigation

since

it

is

expected

that

the

post

cracking

performance

and

energy

absorption

can

be
further

enhanced

and

the
range

of

the

applications

widened

thereof.
Declaration

of

Competing

Interest
The

authors

declare

that

they

have

no

known

competing

#
nancial

interests

or

personal

relationships

that

could

have
appeared

to

in
#
uence

the

work

reported

in

this

paper.
Acknowledgments
The

authors

express

their

gratitude

to

the

Spanish

Ministry

of

Economy,

Industry

and

Competitiveness

for

the

#
nancial
support

received

under

the

scope

of
the

projects

RECYBUILDMAT

(PID2019-108067RB-I00)

and

CREEF

(PID2019-108978RB-
C32).
References
[1]

B.

Mobasher,

Mechanics

of

Fiber

and

Textile

Reinforced

Cement

Composites,

CRC

Press,

2012.

(accessed

April

4,

2019)

https://www.crcpress.com/
Mechanics-of-Fiber-and-Textile-Reinforced-Cement-Composites/Mobasher/p/book/
9781439806609
.
[2]

O.S.
Abiola,

Natural

Fibre

Cement

Composites,

Elsevier

Ltd,

2016,

doi:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-10 0411-1.000 08-X
.
P.

Sadrolodabaee

et

al.

Case

Studies

in

Construction

Materials

14

(2021)

e00492
12

[3]

E.

Erdogmus,

Use

of

#
ber-reinforced

cements
in

masonry

construction

and

structural

rehabilitation,

Fibers

(2015)

41
Œ
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