Puritanism

Puritanism was a 16th and 17th-century English Protestant reform movement that
profoundly influenced English literature by emphasizing biblical authority, personal
piety, and strict moral discipline. Its literature focused on religious and moral
instruction, characterized by simplicity and directness, often in a first-person narrative.
Key writers like John Milton produced powerful works during this politically tumultuous
era, which culminated in the Commonwealth and Oliver Cromwell’s rule, before the
restoration of the monarchy in 1660.

Historical Context:
Puritanism emerged in 16th-century England as a reform movement within the
Protestant Church of England. Its adherents, the Puritans, sought to “purify” the church
from remnants of Catholic practices and emphasized a return to strict Biblical
principles, moral discipline, and personal piety.

The movement gained strength after the Reformation (1517 onward) and became
influential during the reign of Elizabeth I (1558–1603). However, their opposition to
certain religious and cultural practices brought them into conflict with both the
monarchy and the established Anglican Church.

The seventeenth century was the high point of Puritan influence, especially during the
period of the English Civil War (1642–1651) and the Commonwealth under Oliver
Cromwell (1649–1660), when Puritan values shaped politics, society, and culture. After
the Restoration of Charles II (1660), Puritan power declined, but its moral and religious
ideals left a lasting impact on English life and literature.

Major Political Developments:

Major Political Developments include:

1: Divine Right Theory:

In the Puritan age, the theory of the divine right of kings held that a monarch’s authority
to rule was directly granted by God, not by the people or any earthly institution. This
belief positioned the monarch as God’s chosen representative on Earth, possessing
absolute power and demanding unquestioning obedience from subjects. While the
theory provided a strong justification for monarchical rule and could even justify tyranny
as a divine punishment for sin, the Puritans, through figures like King James I, ultimately
challenged its dominance, contributing to the broader struggle that eventually led to the
secularization of politics and the separation of church and state.

2: Suspension Of Parliament:
Particularly under the rule of monarchs like Charles I, Parliament was frequently
suspended or dissolved by the king to prevent Puritan challenges to his authority and
the established Church of England. These actions, and Parliament’s persistent efforts to
limit royal power and promote religious reform, escalated tensions that led to the
English Civil War, the temporary abolition of the monarchy, and the establishment of a
Puritan-dominated republic under Oliver Cromwell before the monarchy’s restoration in
1660.

In 1629, King Charles I suspended and dissolved the English Parliament after repeated
quarrels over taxation and religion. Many members of Parliament, strongly influenced by
Puritan ideals, resisted his belief in the Divine Right of Kings and opposed his religious
policies that seemed too close to Catholicism. After the suspension, Charles ruled
alone for eleven years (1629–1640), a period known as the Personal Rule or the Eleven
Years’ Tyranny. During these years, he imposed heavy taxes such as ship money without
Parliament’s consent and tried to enforce strict religious conformity, which angered
both Puritans and the wider public. The absence of Parliament created resentment
across the nation, and when Charles finally recalled it in 1640 due to financial and
military pressures, the conflict quickly escalated, leading to the outbreak of the English
Civil War.

Civil War in England:

The English Civil Wars (1642–1651) were a series of conflicts between supporters of the
monarchy (Cavaliers) and Parliament (Roundheads), primarily over issues of religion,
power, and taxation, culminating in the execution of King Charles I. The war arose from
Charles I’s belief in the divine right of kings and his attempts to rule without Parliament’s
consent, clashing with Parliament’s desire for greater control and religious freedom. The
conflict ended with a Parliamentarian victory, the execution of Charles I, and an 11-year
period without a monarch, though the monarchy was restored in 1660 with limitations
on royal power.

Outcomes of English Civil War:

Execution of Charles I:

For the first time in history, a ruling monarch was put on trial and executed.

The Commonwealth:
England was ruled without a monarchy for eleven years, with Oliver Cromwell becoming
the dominant figure.

Restoration of Monarchy:

Charles I’s son, Charles II, was invited back to the throne in 1660, but he had to accept
limitations on royal power.

Commonwealth
The Commonwealth in the Puritan Age refers to the period from 1649 to 1660 when
England was declared a republic after the execution of King Charles I. The monarchy
and the House of Lords were abolished, and the government was officially known as the
Commonwealth of England. In practice, it was dominated by Oliver Cromwell and the
Puritan leaders in Parliament. Later, under Cromwell’s rule as Lord Protector (1653–
1658), it became more of a military dictatorship, guided by Puritan principles of strict
morality and religious discipline. The Commonwealth ended in 1660 with the
Restoration of Charles II, but during this time Puritan ideals strongly shaped English
politics, society, and literature.

The Restoration Period

After the Restoration in 1660, when Charles II came to the throne, there was a complete
repudiation of the Puritan ideals and the way of living. In English Literature, the period
from 1660 to 1700 is called the period of Restoration, because monarchy was restored
in England, and Charles II, the son of Charles I who had been defeated and beheaded,
came back to England from his exile in France and became the King. It is called the Age
of Dryden, because Dryden was the dominating and most representative literary figure
of the age. As the Puritans who were previously controlling the country, and were
supervising the literary and moral and social standards, were finally defeated. A
reaction was launched against whatever they held sacred. All restrains and discipline
were thrown to the winds, and a wave of licentiousness and frivolity swept the country.
Charles II and his followers who had enjoyed a gay life in France during exile, did their
best to introduce that type of foppery and looseness in England also. They renounced
old ideals and demanded that English poetry and drama should follow the style to
which they had become accustomed in the gaiety of Paris. Instead of having
Shakespeare and the Elizabethans as their models, the poets and dramatists of
Restoration period began to imitate French writers and especially their vices.

The Restoration period in England signifies the return of the monarchy with the
crowning of Charles II after the previous republican rule under Oliver Cromwell’s
Commonwealth. The era was marked by a revival of drama and literature, the
restoration of the Anglican Church, political and religious tensions leading to the
Glorious Revolution in 1688, and a growing emphasis on reason and scientific thought,
influencing both society and the arts.

Restoration Drama:
In 1642, the theatres were closed by the authority of the parliament which was
dominated by Puritans and so no good plays were written from 1642 till the Restoration
(coming back of monarchy in England with the accession of Charles II to the throne) in
1660 when the theatres were re-opened. The drama in England after 1660, called
Restoration drama, showed entirely new trends on account of the long break with the
past. Moreover, it was greatly affected by the spirit of the new age.

Metaphysical Poets:
Metaphysical poets flourished in the early to mid-17th century, not the Restoration
period (1660-1700), which saw a different literary style emerge. Their poetry is known for
intellectual, witty, philosophical, and argumentative works, often exploring religion and
love through elaborate “conceits”—unexpectedly yoking dissimilar ideas. Key figure in
metaphysical poetry includes John Donne. The term “Metaphysical” was coined by
Samuel Johnson in the 18th century to describe their unique, complex style.

John Donne:
John Donne is considered the preeminent metaphysical poet of his time, leading the
movement with his intellectual and emotional style that blends philosophy with
passion. His work is characterized by its witty conceits, paradoxes, intellectual
arguments, and exploration of universal themes like love, faith, and mortality, often
using ordinary language for dramatic effect.

Key Characteristics of Donne’s Metaphysical Poetry

Conceits:

Donne famously used extended metaphors (conceits), such as comparing lovers to the
two points of a compass, to create unique and often surprising connections between
disparate ideas.

Intellectualism and Passion:

His poetry combines rigorous intellectual thought with intense emotion and passion,
rather than focusing solely on lyrical beauty.

Argumentative Style:
Donne’s poems often adopt a philosophical or argumentative tone, employing logical
reasoning, antitheses, and paradoxes to explore complex themes.

John Milton:
John Milton was the foremost literary figure and representative writer of the Puritan Age
(1600-1660), a tumultuous period of English history marked by political strife, religious
reform, and the rise of Puritanism. While religious and political idealism influenced
literature, Milton’s own monumental epic poem, Paradise Lost, stands as the era’s
defining work, masterfully blending classical epic conventions with Christian themes.

Paradise Lost is the most famous and widely regarded work of John Milton.

Cavalier Poets:
The Cavalier poets were a group of 17th-century English aristocratic poets, such as
Robert Herrick, Richard Lovelace, Thomas Carew, and Sir John Suckling, who supported
King Charles I and the royalist cause during the English Civil War. Their poetry is
characterized by its straightforward, unaffected language, focus on sensual love and
pleasure, the theme of carpe diem (seize the day), and celebration of courtly life and
worldly delights, often in contrast to the moral complexities of the metaphysical poets.

Key Aspects of Cavalier Poetry:

Royalist Sympathy:

The poets were staunch supporters of King Charles I and the monarchy, and their work
often reflected this devotion and loyalty to the crown and aristocratic lifestyle.

Aristocratic and Courtly Life:

Many were members of the aristocracy and courtiers, deeply involved in the social
circles and pleasures of the royal court.

Carpe Diem (Seize the Day):

A central theme in their work is the urgency to enjoy the present, emphasizing that life is
short and opportunities should be seized before they pass.

Focus on Sensual Love and Pleasure:

Cavalier poetry frequently celebrated romantic and sensual love, as well as other
material and social pleasures, often taking precedence over strict moral codes.

The Glorious Revolution:

The Glorious Revolution of 1688–89 was the overthrow of King James II of England by a
union of English Parliamentarians with the Dutch Stadtholder, William of Orange, and
his wife, Mary. The revolution was caused by James II’s promotion of Catholicism, his
suspension of legal rights, and the birth of a Catholic heir, which alarmed the Protestant
majority. William of Orange’s invasion led to James II’s flight and the crowning of William
and Mary as co-rulers, who agreed to significant restrictions on royal power, such as
those outlined in the Bill of Rights, thus establishing a constitutional monarchy and
shifting power to Parliament.

Causes

Religious conflict:

James II was a Catholic monarch who favored Catholics and issued policies that
promoted Catholicism, alarming the Protestant population, who were the majority.

Abuse of power:

James II suspended the legal rights of Dissenters (non-Anglican Protestants) and

showed a disregard for parliamentary power and constitutional law.

Birth of an heir:

The birth of James’s son in 1688, who was expected to be raised Catholic, cemented
fears of a Catholic dynasty and prompted Protestant leaders to take action.

It brought the constitutional monarchy in England, where the power of monarch was
limited by law and shared with parliament.