Buddhism

Professor:- Nobonita Ma'am

Date:- 24/10/24

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Short Questions:-

Chapter:- 2

1. Buddhism is Vedic/non-Vedic system.

:- Non Vedic.

2. Who is the founder of Buddhism?

:- Siddhartha Gautama.

3. What does 'Buddha' mean?

:- The enlightened.

# what does Arya mean?

:- the meaning of Arya is noble.

4. What is Tripitaka?

:- the moral and religious teaching of Gautam Buddha work later written in pale

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language by his disciples. The Pitaka's are 3 in number and together they are known as
Tripitaka. The meaning of Pitaka is basket and therefore the meaning of basket is
knowledge. The three pitaka's are:- i. Vinaya Piṭaka, ii. Sutta Piṭaka, iii. Abhidhamma
Piṭaka.

5. What are the three Pitakas of Buddhism?

:- i. Vinaya Piṭaka, ii. Sutta Piṭaka, iii. Abhidhamma Piṭaka.

6. What is the meaning of the word 'Nirvana'?

:- The meaning of Nirvana is blowing out.

7. Name the four philosophical schools of Buddhism.

:- i. Madhyamaka school.

ii. Yogācāra school.

iii. Sautrāntika school.

iv. Vaibhāṣika school.

8. What are the religious sects of Buddhism?

:- Hinayana and Mahayana.

9. Name the philosophical theory of Madhyamika school.

:- Shunyavada (śūnyatā).

10. Name the philosophical theory of Yogacara school.

:- Vijnanvada.

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11. Name the philosophical theory of Sautrāntika school.

:- Bayanumeyavada.

12. Name the philosophical theory of Vaibhasika school.

:- Bayapratyksavada.

13. Who is the founder of Madhyamika school or Shunyavada?

:- Nāgārjuna.

14. Who is the author of 'Mula-madhyamika-Karika'? '

:- Nāgārjuna.

15. What are the two types of trurths, according to Nagarjuna?

:- i. Conventional truth.

ii. transcendental truth.

16. Who is the founder of Yogacara school or Vijnanvada?

:- Gurudev Maitreya-nātha.

17. Why is Yogacara view called Vijnanvada?

:- Yogacara view is called Vijnanvada because according to this school Vijnanvada or

consciousness is the only realm.

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18. Why is Madhyamika school called Sunyavada?

:- according to the Madhyamaka school the universe is zero(Suniya) or the void of reality.
The word zero means ordinary void or empty but Madhyamaka by Sunyavada really
denies only the phenomenal world and not only Śūnyatā or voidness is the name for the
indeterminable, indiscriminable real nature of things.

19. Why is Vaibhasika school called Bayapratyksavada?

:- Vaibhasika school called Bayapratyksavada because according to this school is

existence of the extra world can be known by perception or pratkyasa.

20. Why Sautrāntika school is called Bayanumeyavada?

:- The Sautrāntika school believes in the reality not only of the mind, but also external
objects; they point out that without the supposition of some external object it is not
possible to experience even the illusionary appearance of external objects. According to
them we cannot have knowledge of the external world by perception, we can have this
by inference only. The existence of the object is not of course perceived, because what
the mind immediately knows is the copy or representation of the object in its own
consciousness. But from this it can infer the object without which the copy would not
arise.

The Sautrāntika theory is therefore also called the theory of inferability of external
objects of external objects Bāhyān-numeya-vada.

21. What are the two types of Vijnan, according to Yogācāra?

:- The two types of vijñāna are:-

i. Individual consciousness.

ii. Absolute consciousness or Ālaya-vijñāna.

22. What is Alaya Vijnan?

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:- The mind considered in its aspect of being a store house or home of all impressions is
called the vijñāna-vādms Ālaya-vijñāna. It may be regarded as the potential mind and
answers to the soul or ātman of other systems, with the differences that it is not soul, but
unchanging substance like the soul, but is a stream of continuously changing states.

23. Why is Alaya Vijnan called Mula-vijnan?

:- Alaya Vijnan is called Mula-vijnan because Alaya Vijnanis regarded as the storehouse
of all impressions. All kinds of sanskaras and gayanas reside in Alaya Vijnana in a hidden
form.

24 Who is the founder of Sautrantika School?

:-

25. What are the four conditions of perception, according to Sautrantika school?

:- According to the perception of things deception four conditions non object are:-

1. Alambana:- Alambana is the reason for external things like tree, jug etc, because the
form of knowledge is born out of it. In other words, we can say there ought to be an
object to give its form to consciousness.

2. Samanantara:- Samanantara means parallel and is so called because it is only after the
previous mental stage that the next stage achieves consciousness. In other words, we can
say there ought to be the conscious mind to cause the consciousness of the form.

3. Adhipati:- The senses have been known as the Adhipati pratyaya of knowledge. It is
also known as normative cause. For this school, without the senses, there can be no
external knowledge of objects even when the first two causes are available. The
knowledge of the forms, touch, etc of objects that are external depends on the existence
of the senses. In other words, we can say there ought to be the sense to figure out the
kind of the consciousness, that is, whether the consciousness of an object would be
visual, tactual, and olfactory and so on.

4. Sahakari Pratyaya:- Sahakari pratyaya is the subsidiary condition which is natural for

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knowledge. For instance- light, form etc without which knowledge does not become
possible.

26. What do you mean by Sarvāstivāda?

:- Sarvāstivāda is a Sanskrit term according to which all that exist in the past, the present
and the future the three times according to Sarvāstivāda both mental and physical reality
has existence. Sarvāstivāda is a school of early buddhism. Survā means all the āsti means
existence and vāda means doctrum therefore according to which all things exist.

27 Which religious school of Buddhism is called Theravada?

:- Hinayana school.

28. Does Abhidhamma believe in God?

:- No.

29 Does Mahayana believe in God?

:- Yes.

30 What is Bodhisattva?

:- In Buddhism Bodhisattva is a being who is on the path to becoming enlightened or

bodhi. Bodhisattva is an aspirant to buddo wood who works to enlighten all sentient
beings rather than just themselves. Bodhisattva are worships as deities, and they may
delay their own enlightenment to save others or offer salvation to earth bound
worshippers.

31. What are the Trinity of Buddha?

:- 1. Dharmakaya.

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2. Sambhogakaya.

3. Nirmanakaya.

32. Which religious school of Buddha believes in the existence of self?

:- Mahayana school.

33. Why does Nagarjuna call Sunyavada the middle path?

:- The name Madhyamika is derived from the Middle way (madhyama pratipad) that the
Buddha taught. Shunyavadins call themselves Madhyamikas or the followers of the
middle path as realized by Buddha during his Enlightenment. Buddha avoided the
extreme doctrines of being and Non-being, existence and non- existence, affirmation and
negation, eternalism and nihilism and the extreme practices of self-indulgence and
self-mortification. Nagarjuna rejected the alternative standpoints of 'is' and 'is not', and
their conjunction as well as disjunction. So, the name Madhyamika was perfect for his
philosophy. It is also known as "Shunya-vada", as sunyata (Voidness), according to it, is
the ultimate reality. This view is known as the middle (madhyama) because it avoids
extreme views by denying both absolute reality and absolute unreality of things by
asserting their conditional existence. This was also the reason why Buddha called the
theory of dependent origination (Pratityasamutpada) as the middle path. Nagarjuna also
said that shunyavada is called the middle path as it implies the theory of dependent
origination.

Long Questions:-

1. What is sarvastivada? Explain theory of sarvastivada.

:- The Sarvāstivāda school cannot be said to be the real teaching of the Buddha. It has
ignored some important implications in the teachings of the Master and has
misinterpreted many. Some of the main doctrines of the Buddha have been taken to their
reductio ad absurdum pitch. As a matter of fact, there was nothing in the teachings of the
Buddha which would seriously militate against the Upaniṣads. The Lamp of Dharma
bequeathed by the Buddha to his disciples was borrowed from the Upaniṣads. But the

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Hinayana made the constant and the luminous light of this Lamp flickering and faint.
"The Sakyan mission', says Mrs. Rhys Davids, 'was out "not to destroy, but to fulfil", to
enlarge and enhance the accepted faith-in-God of their day, not by asseverating or
denying, but by making it more vital. It were Brahmans who became the leading
disciples.' The Hinayana, therefore, represents not the real teaching of the Buddha, but,
as Mrs. Rhys Davids says, 'the verbal superstructures, the formulas often being held up as
what he (Buddha) taught. Mahāyāna also says that Hinayāna philosophy is either due to
the adjustment in the teaching by the Buddha to suit the needs of the less qualified
disciples (upāya-kaushalya) or due to their lack of under- standing the real significance of
the teachings of the Master.

2. What do you mean by abhidhamma buddhism? What are the characteristics of

abhidhamma buddhism?

:- The technical term abhidharma is a propositional compound composed of abhi and

dharma, which has two principal meanings: (1) pertaining to or with regard to (abhi) the
doctrine (dharma); (2) the highest or advanced (abhi) doctrine (dharma). While the first
etymology is favored by the Sarvâstivâda School, and the Theravada tradition endorses
the second interpretation. Taken together, these two interpretations clearly indicate that
the term abhidharma is styled as a systematized and definitive exposition of the Dharma
that is articulated in a variety of ways in the discourses of the Buddha and his immediate
disciples.

Like all great teachers of ancient times Buddha taught by conversation, and his
teachings were also handed down for a long time through oral instruction imparted by
his disciples to successive generations. Our knowledge about Buddha's teachings depends
today basically on the tripitakas or the three baskets of teachings that are claimed to
contain his views as reported by his most intimate disciples. The three main canonical of
Buddhism are Vinayapitaka, Suttapitaka and Abhidhammapitaka. Vinayapitaka deals
with the rules of conduct for the congregation (sangha). It is the basket of discipline that
supplies the regulations for the management of the order. The Vinayapitaka is for the
conduct of the daily life of monks and nuns. Suttapitaka contains Buddha's sermons and
dialogues. The Suttapitaka is our best source for the dharma or religion of the Buddha
and his earliest disciples. It consists, in prose and verse, the most important products of
the Buddhist literature, grouped in five minor collections called nikâyas. The
Abhidhammapitaka or 'basket of higher religion' which treated the same subjects as the
Sutta-pitaka, though in a more scholastic manner. The Abhidhammapitaka includes

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expositions of philosophical theories. All these three works of Buddhism are in the Pali
dialect.

During the centuries after the Buddha's demise, the Buddha's followers made efforts to
gather and systematize his teaching. The efforts to gather his teaching resulted in due
course in the collection of the Vinaya and Sûtra Pimakas. Abhidharma (or Abhidhamma
in Pali) is a detailed scholastic reworking of doctrinal material appearing in the Buddhist
sutras, according to schematic classifications and analyses. It represents a systematized,
philosophical, and analytical elaboration of the teachings found in the Suttapitaka. The
efforts to systematize his teachings induced controversies, and resulted in the
fragmentation of the Sangha into schools, and the composition of sectarian Abhidharma
texts. Generally, the Tripitaka (Vinaya, Sutra, Abhidharma) is treated as the Buddha
Word. However, particularly in the case of the Abhidharma texts, historical and textual
studies indicate that their crystallization into the Abhidharma Pimaka took several
centuries after the Buddha.

Conventionally, the Abhidharma is said to provide a systematization of the Dharma

taught by the Buddha, but in effect it offers more than that. As such the term
Abhidharma encompasses a body of literature and doctrine. In terms of literature, the
roots of the Abhidharma Pimaka are often traced to mnemonic lists called mâtrkâ in
Sanskrit, and mâtrkâ in Pâli. Basic lists are already present in the Sûtra Pitaka, for
instance, in the Sangiti and Dasuttara suttas of the Dighanikāya. Starting with such lists,
Buddhist masters produced more lists, which they grouped and collated to form the
foundation of Buddhist doctrine and practice. The phases that culminated in the
compilation of the mature Abhidharma Pitakas, as we have them, remain enigmatic. In
terms of doctrine, the Abhidharma does not represent a mere systematization of the
Buddha's legacy. In addition to safeguarding his teaching, the Abhidharma casts new
horizons for classifying and analyzing the phenomena of existence. One of its seminal
aspects is its focus on taxonomy of the entire spectrum of existence in terms of the
ultimate realities called dharmas (factors, phenomena). The dharmas are differentiated
into conditioned and unconditioned, and correlated with the threefold stratification of
the cosmos. The conditioned dharmas are analyzed in terms of their ethical and other
qualities, and arranged into taxonomic groups. A clear distinction is made between
dharmas that perpetuate existence or suffering, and dharmas that are conducive to the
soteriological progress and attainment of the unconditioned state, nirvâna. The
Abhidharma adepts also produced innovative theories and pragmatic stages of the path

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leading to emancipation. Thus the Abhidharma adepts formulated an innovative
scenario of Buddhist doctrines, which they placed under the Buddha's authority, and at
the same time proclaimed them as the ultimate teaching.

The doctrines of Abhidharma are extensive and cover various aspects of Buddhist
psychology, philosophy, and ethics. Here are some key doctrines of Abhidharma:

1. Dhammas (Dharmas): In Abhidharma, dhammas are considered the ultimate

constituents of reality. They are the fundamental, irreducible elements of existence.

Categories:

Citta (Consciousness): The primary awareness or mind. Cetasikas (Mental Factors):

Associated mental states or mental factors that arise with consciousness. Rupa (Material
Form): Physical phenomena.

Nibbana (Nirvana): The unconditioned state, representing the cessation of all suffering.

2. Khandhas (Aggregates): The Abhidharma further analyzes the five aggregates that
constitute a sentient being: Form (Rupa): Physical body and material form.

Feeling (Vedana): Sensations or feelings like pleasant, unpleasant, and neutral.

Perception (Sanna): Recognition or identification of objects. Mental Formations

(Sankhara): Various mental factors and volitional activities.

Consciousness (Vinnana): Awareness or cognitive consciousness.

3. Patityasamutpada (Dependent Origination): A central doctrine in Buddhism that

explains the process of birth, death, and rebirth through a chain of twelve
interconnected links. The Abhidharma provides an in-depth analysis of each link,
emphasizing the interdependent nature of existence and the cycle of samsara.

4. Citta and Cetasikas: The classification and analysis of different types of consciousness
(citta) and associated mental factors (cetasikas).

Citta: There are 89 or 121 types of consciousness categorized based on their ethical
quality (wholesome, unwholesome, or neutral), their roots, and their functions

Cetasikas: mental factors that can arise with consciousness, including universal factors
(e.g., contact, feeling), unwholesome factors (e.g., greed, hatred), and wholesome factors
(e.g., faith, mindfulness).

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5. Kamma (Karma) and Vipaka (Result): Detailed analysis of the law of cause and effect,
particularly focusing on the ethical dimension of actions (kamma) and their results
(vipaka). The Abhidharma examines how different types of actions lead to corresponding
results, influencing future rebirths and experiences.

6. Rupa (Material Phenomena): Comprehensive analysis of physical phenomena, divided

into 28 types of material forms, including the four great elements (earth, water, fire, air)
and derived forms (e.g., eye, ear, nose, tongue). Understanding the nature of physical
phenomena is essential for realizing the impermanent and non-self nature of all
conditioned phenomena. 7. Nibbana (Nirvana): The ultimate goal of Buddhist practice,
representing the cessation of all defilements and suffering. The Abhidharma provides a
detailed analysis of Nibbana, emphasizing its unconditioned and transcendent nature. 8.
Bhavana (Mental Development): The systematic practice of mental development, divided
into two main types: Samatha (Calm): Techniques for developing concentration and
tranquility.

Vipassana (Insight): Techniques for developing insight into the true nature of reality,
leading to liberation. The Abhidharma outlines the stages and processes involved in
meditation, providing a structured approach to mental cultivation.

9. The Four Noble Truths: In-depth analysis of the foundational teachings of Buddhism:
Dukkha (Suffering): The nature of suffering.

Samudaya (Origin): The causes of suffering, primarily craving and ignorance.

Nirodha (Cessation): The cessation of suffering, i.e., Nibbana.

Marga (Path): The path leading to the cessation of suffering, elaborated as the Noble
Eightfold Path.

The Abhidharma examines these truths in detail, exploring their implications and
applications in the path to liberation.

10. The Three Marks of Existence: Analysis of the three characteristics of all conditioned
phenomena:

Anicca (Impermanence): The transient nature of all phenomena.

Dukkha (Suffering): The unsatisfactory nature of conditioned existence.

Anatta (Non-Self): The absence of a permanent, unchanging self.

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 Understanding these marks is crucial for developing insight and overcoming
attachment and delusion. The Abhidharma literature provides a detailed and systematic
framework for understanding the Buddha's teachings, offering profound insights into the
nature of reality and the path to liberation. It remains a vital aspect of Buddhist study
and practice, particularly within the Theravada tradition

3. What do you mean by mahayana buddhism? What are the characteristics of

mahayana buddhism?

:- Mahayana Buddhism is one of the major branches or traditions of Buddhism,

distinguished from Theravada Buddhism by its broader scope of teachings, emphasis on
universal compassion, and the aspiration for all beings to attain Buddhahood. Here's an
overview of Mahayana Buddhism:

Origins and Development

Mahayana Buddhism emerged around the 1st century BCE to the 1st century CE in India
as a movement that sought to expand and reinterpret the teachings of the Buddha
(Siddhartha Gautama). It arose in response to the perceived limitations of earlier forms
of Buddhism (like Theravada) in addressing the needs and spiritual aspirations of a
wider audience.

Basic Teachings and Beliefs

1. The Bodhisattva Ideal: Central to Mahayana Buddhism is the ideal of the Bodhisattva -
an enlightened being who vows to attain Buddhahood for the benefit of all sentient
beings. Bodhisattvas postpone their own final liberation (nirvana) to help others achieve
liberation.

2. The Universal Compassion (Karuna): Mahayana emphasizes compassion as the

guiding principle of ethical and spiritual practice. Bodhisattvas cultivate boundless
compassion and actively work for the welfare and enlightenment of all beings.

3. The Concept of Sunyata (Emptiness): Mahayana philosophy explores the concept of

emptiness (shunyata), which asserts that all phenomena lack inherent, independent

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existence. This teaching is crucial for understanding the interdependent nature of reality
and the cessation of suffering.

4. Sutra Literature: Mahayana scriptures include a vast collection of sutras (scriptures),

such as the Prajnaparamita Sutras (Perfection of Wisdom Sutras), Lotus Sutra, and
Avatamsaka Sutra. These texts expound upon advanced teachings on emptiness, skillful
means (upaya), and the Bodhisattva path.

Practices

1. Threefold Training: Like other forms of Buddhism, Mahayana practice includes the
Threefold Training.

Sila (Ethical Conduct): Upholding moral precepts to avoid harming others and cultivate
virtues.

Samadhi (Concentration): Developing concentration through meditation practices to

attain deep states of mental tranquility and insight.

Prajna (Wisdom): Cultivating wisdom through the understanding of impermanence,

suffering, and emptiness.

2. Six Paramitas (Perfections): Bodhisattvas practice six virtues to perfect their path
towards Buddhahood. They are like:

Generosity (dana)

Ethical conduct (sila)

Patience (kshanti)

Diligence (virya)

Meditative concentration (dhyana) Wisdom (prajna)

3. Devotional Practices: Mahayana Buddhism also incorporates devotional practices, such

as chanting sutras, making offerings to Buddhas and Bodhisattvas, and engaging in
rituals to accumulate merit and purify karma.

Mahayana Buddhism has had a profound impact on art, culture, philosophy, and
spirituality across Asia and beyond. Its teachings on compassion, wisdom, and the
Bodhisattva path continue to inspire millions of practitioners worldwide, contributing to
the development of humanistic values, social welfare initiatives, and interfaith dialogue.

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It continues to evolve and adapt to contemporary contexts while remaining rooted in the
profound teachings attributed to the historical Buddha and subsequent Mahayana
sutras.

4. Explain the Madhyamika theory of Sunyavada.

:- Sunyavada is one of the most significant schools of Buddhism. Nagarjuna is the first
systematic expounder of it. Nagarjuna was a Brahmin born in South India during 2nd
century A.D. Asvaghosa, the author of Buddhacarita is also considered as a pioneer of
this school. Nagarjuna, in his famous book "Madhyamikasastra" stated the philosophy of
Madhyamika School. The other important works of Nagarjuna are
Mulamadhyamika-karika, Vigraha-vyavartani (The Dispeller of Disputes) and the
Ratnavali, and Madhyamakâvatâra (Introduction to the Middle Way) and Prasannapadâ
(Clear Words) by Chandrakirti.

Nagarjuna's seminal work, the "Mülamadhyamakakârikä (Fundamental Verses on

the Middle Way), is a foundational text of the Madhyamika School. In this text, Nagarjuna
systematically deconstructs various philosophical concepts and arguments to
demonstrate the emptiness of all phenomena.

The Madhyamika (or Madhyamaka) school of Buddhism, also known as the "Middle
Way" school, is a significant philosophical tradition within Mahayana Buddhism. It was
founded by the Indian philosopher Nagarjuna in the 2nd century CE. The school is
known for its profound and sophisticated teachings on the nature of reality, emptiness
(úûnyata), and the middle way between extreme views.

The Madhyamika School is divided into two sub-schools i.e., the Prasangika and the
Svatantrika. While the Prasangika School emphasizes the negative dialectic of
Nagarjuna, the second school, Svatantrika stresses upon the positive implication of
Nagarjuna's teaching. Buddhapalita is associated with the Prasangika branch, and the
Bhavaviveka is concerned with the Svatantrika branch.

These are two sub-schools within Madhyamika. PrâsaEgika Madhyamika, associated

with Chandrakirti, uses a method of reductio ad absurdum (prasaEga) to demonstrate the
emptiness of phenomena. Svâtantrika Madhyamika, associated with Bhavaviveka,
employs independent logical arguments (svatantra) alongside reductio ad absurdum.

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 The name Madhyamika is derived from the Middle way (madhyama pratipad) that
the Buddha taught. Shunyavadins call themselves Madhyamikas or the followers of the
middle path as realized by Buddha during his Enlightenment. Buddha avoided the
extreme doctrines of being and Non-being, existence and non- existence, affirmation and
negation, eternalism and nihilism and the extreme practices of self-indulgence and
self-mortification. Nagarjuna rejected the alternative standpoints of 'is' and 'is not', and
their conjunction as well as disjunction. So, the name Madhyamika was perfect for his
philosophy. It is also known as "Shunya-vada", as sunyata (Voidness), according to it, is
the ultimate reality. This view is known as the middle (madhyama) because it avoids
extreme views by denying both absolute reality and absolute unreality of things by
asserting their conditional existence. This was also the reason why Buddha called the
theory of dependent origination (Pratityasamutpada) as the middle path. Nagarjuna also
said that shunyavada is called the middle path as it implies the theory of dependent
origination.

The term "Middle Way" reflects the Madhyamika's approach to avoiding the
extremes of eternalism (the belief in an eternal, unchanging essence) and nihilism (the
belief that nothing exists at all). By recognizing the interdependent and empty nature of
all phenomena, Madhyamika navigates a path that transcends these extreme views. So,
the Madhyamika School advocates a middle path between the extremes of eternalism
(the belief that things exist inherently and permanently) and nihilism (the belief that
nothing exists at all).

However, the term "Shunya" has been gravely misunderstood in different

philosophies. The literal meaning of the word that is negation or void has been the cause
of much misunderstanding. The word "Shunya" is used by the Madhyamikas in a
different philosophical sense. By ignoring the real philosophical meaning of the word
"Shunya", and taking only the literal sense of the term, many thinkers, eastern and
western, ancient, medieval and modern have unfortunately committed a blunder that
has led them towards a thoroughly misunderstand Shunyavada and to condemn it as a
hopeless skepticism and a self-condemned nihilism.

Madhyamika philosophy centers around the concept of emptiness, which posits that
all phenomena are devoid of inherent existence or essence. This does not mean that
things do not exist at all, but rather that they do not possess an independent, unchanging
nature. Instead, they exist dependently, arising due to causes and conditions.
Madhyamika teaches that all phenomena are empty of inherent existence or intrinsic
nature (svabhava). This does not mean that things do not exist at all, but rather that they

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do not exist in the independent, self-sufficient manner that we typically assume.

"Shunya", according to the Madhyamika School, does not mean 'nothing' or an

'empty void' or a 'negative abyss'. Shunya necessarily means Indescribable (avachya or
anabhilapya) and it is something which is beyond the four categories of intellect
(chatuskoti-vinirmukta). It is reality that ultimately transcends existence, non-existence,
both and neither. It is neither affirmation nor negation nor both nor neither. From the
empirical point of view, it means Relativity (Pratityasamutpada) which is phenomena
(samsara); in its absolute sense it means Reality (tattva) which is release from plurality
(nirvana). The world is said to be Indescribable because it is neither existent nor
non-existent. The Absolute is also Indescribable as it is neither transcendental and no
category of intellect can adequately describe it. Everything is Shunya; appearances are
Svabhava-shunya or devoid of ultimate reality. Reality is known to be Prapancha-shunya
or devoid of plurality. Thus, the term "Shunya" has double meaning. It means relative as
well as the Absolute, Relativity as well as Reality, Samsara as well as Nirvana,
phenomenal and relative in the sense of dependent and conditional that cannot be
ultimately real. All appearances (dharmas) being relative has no real origination and
hence, they are devoid of ultimate reality. However, they are not absolutely unreal, they
must belong to Reality. It is the Real itself which appears and it is the Real that is
Absolute, the non- dual Harmonious Whole where all plurality is merged. Shunya only
means the conditional character of things, and their consequent constant changeability
and indeterminability or indescribability.

Madhyamika distinguishes between two levels of truth: conventional truth and

ultimate truth. Conventional truth refers to the everyday, pragmatic understanding of
reality, where things appear to exist in a certain way. Ultimate truth, on the other hand,
reveals the emptiness of all phenomena, recognizing that they lack inherent ) existence.

This is only a stepping-stone to the level to the attainment of the higher reality. The
nature of the experience of nirvana that takes us beyond the ordinary experience cannot
be at all described. It can be only explained negatively using some words that describe
our ordinary common experience. Hence, Nagarjuna explained the concept of nirvana
with the help of a series of negative phrases as, "That which is not known (ordinarily),
not acquired anew, not destroyed, not eternal, not supposed, not generated is called
nirvana." Same is the case with the concept of Tathagata or one who has realized
nirvana. The nature of Tathagata cannot be explained and so, regarding the status of
Tathagata after attaining nirvana, Buddha declined to discuss such question.

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5. Discuss Yogacara theory of Vijnanvada.

:- The Yogacara School of Buddhism also known as the Vijnanavada or

"Consciousness-Only" school is one of the major philosophical systems in Mahayana
Buddhism. It originated in India during the 4th to 5th centuries CE. The founders of the
Yogacara School are traditionally considered to be the brothers Asanga and Vasubandhu.
Asanga is credited with numerous foundational texts, while Vasubandhu is known for
his influential works that systematized the school's doctrines. Vasubandhu was first a
follower of the Vaibhasika and after that he was converted by his brother to the Yogacara
mode of thinking.

The name 'Yogacara' means 'practice of Yoga'; this indicates that the emphasis placed
on Yoga-practice, i.e., in this system it means meditative exercises. Another name of this
school of Buddhism is Vijnanavada that refers to its metaphysical position which is that
consciousness is the only reality, and not the external objects. objects.

The Yogacara School provides a profound and complex understanding of the mind
and reality, offering a distinctive perspective within the broader Mahayana Buddhist
tradition. The Yogacara or the Vijnanavada school of Buddhism maintained that the
mind or citta cannot be regarded as unreal. Though the Vijnanavada School agreed with
the Madhyamika School regarding the unreality of external objects, yet the former
deviates from the later considering the reality of the mind. If the viewpoint of the
Madhyamika School is accepted, then all reasoning and thinking would be false and they
could not even establish their own arguments. According to the Yogacara school of
Budhhism, it is dangerous to say that everything, mental or non-mental s unreal. The
reality of the mind should be at least admitted for making correct thinking possible.

The central thesis of the Yogacara school of Buddhism is that there is no extra-mental
reality. The Yogacara School questions the Sautrantika's view that the object cannot be
directly known, and if it is so, then why should we postulate its existence? If we do not
presume the existence of the external objects, then nothing would be unintelligible.
What the mind knows is its own idea, and not the object. The mind does not know the
relation between the idea and the so-called object, and hence, it cannot know even if the
idea is a copy or representation of the object. From such contention, question arises as if
it so, then why should we unnecessarily believe that the object exists outside? The
answer of this question can be given as that the mind need not to encounter the objects,
in fact, the mind creates its own objects and this the mind does with the help of the past
residual impressions that forms into some ideas by the mind. Hence, the mental facts or

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consciousness are the only realities. The only reality is therefore vijnana-matra or mere
thought. The distinctions between the knower, known, and knowledge are within
thought or consciousness itself. There is no duality between mind and matter
(dvaya-sunyata). The mind posits things as if it is external.

The Yogacaras pointed out two kinds of problems in admitting an object external
to the mind: (a) If an external object is admitted, it must be either partless i.e., atomic or
composite i.e., composed of many parts, then either these atoms or composite objects
must be perceived. But atoms cannot be perceived as they are too small to be perceived.
Also, a composite thing also cannot be perceived because it is not possible to perceive
simultaneously all the sides and parts of the object. Nor can it be said to be perceived
part by part or as composite objects. Hence, the perception of these objects cannot be
explained. But if the objects are nothing but consciousness, then the question of parts
and whole will not arise at all. (b) Again, the consciousness of any object cannot arise
until the object come into existence. Nor can it arise afterwards because if the object is
momentary, then it will vanish as soon as it arises. The external objects cannot be the
cause of consciousness because the former cannot be simultaneous with the later.

Therefore, the Yogacara School of Buddhism or Vijnanavada maintains that

Consciousness is the only reality. The Vijnanavada School provided certain arguments in
favour of their theory by which they try to establish that Consciousness is the only kind
of reality. This view of the Yogacara School is known as Vijnanavada or idealism
according to which there is only one reality which is called Consciousness (Vijnana) and
the objects that are material or external to consciousness are really ideas or states of
consciousness. This theory can be referred to as subjective idealism because the
existence of an object perceived is not different from the subject or the perceiving mind.
The term Alaya-Vijnana is used in the Yogacara School to indicate the abiding or
storehouse of Consciousness. The mind is considered as the storehouse of all impressions
is called by Vijnanavadins as Alaya-Vijnana. The Alaya-Vijnana may be considered as the
potential mind and it is not one unchanging substance like the soul, rather it is a stream
of continuously changing states. Consciousness, in itself, is pure and non-dual, but due to
the factor of phenomenality, it becomes overlaid with duality and defilement. So, the
expression Alaya-Vijnana is sometimes used to refer to the continuously changing stream
of consciousness and sometimes it referred to the absolute Being. This is the eighth
consciousness, considered the foundational layer where all karmic seeds are stored. It
functions as the basis of individual existence and the continuity of life. However, through
the factors like culture and self-control the Alaya-Vijnana or the potential mind can
gradually stop the arising of the undesirable mental states and develop into the ideal

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state of nirvana. Otherwise, it will lead towards the fictitious external world. According
to the Yogacara School of Buddhism, the consciousness itself can make heaven of hell and
hell of heaven.

6. Explain and examine Bayanumeyavada of Sautrantika school.

:- The Sautrantika School of Representationism:- The Sautrantikas believe in the reality

not only of the mind, but also of external objects. They point out that without the
supposition of some external objects, it is not possible to explain even the illusory
appearance of external objects. If one never perceived anywhere any external object, he
could not say, as a Vijñāna vädin does, that, through illusion, consciousness appears like
an external object. The phrase like an external object' is as meaningless as like the son of
a barren mother, because an external object is said by the Vijñāna-vādin to be wholly
unreal and never perceived. Again, the argument from the simultaneity of consciousness
and object to their identity is also defective. Whenever we have the perception of an
object like a pot, the pot is felt as external and consciousness of it as internal (i.e. to be in
the mind). So the object, from the very beginning, is known to be different from and not
identical with consciousness. If the pot perceived were identical with the subject, the
perceiver would have said, "I am the pot." Besides, if there were no external objects, the
distinction between the consciousness of a pot and the consciousness of a cloth could not
be explained, because as consciousness both are identical; it is only regarding the objects
that they differ.

7. Critically discuss Vaibhasika theory of Bayapratyksavada.

:- While agreeing with Sautrāntikas regarding the reality of both the mental and the
non-mental, Vaibhāşikas, like many modern neo-realists, point out that unless we admit
that external objects are perceived by us, their existence cannot be known in any other
way. Inference of fire from the perception of smoke is possible because in the past we
have perceived both smoke and fire together. One who has never perceived fire
previously cannot infer its existence from the percep- tion of smoke. If external objects
were never perceived, as Sautrāntikas hold, then they could not ren be inferred, simply
from their mental forms. To one unacquainted with an external object, the mental form
would not appear to be the copy or the sign of the existence of an extra-mental object,

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but an original thing which does not owe its existence to anything outside the mind.
Either, therefore, we have to accept subjective idealism (vijñāna-vāda) or, if that has been
found unsatisfactory, we must admit that the external object is directly known. The
Vaibhāsikas thus come to hold a theory of direct realism (bāhya-pratyaksa-vāda).

8. What are the differences between Sautrantika and Vaibhasika school?

:-

9. Distinguish between Abhidhamma and Mahayana.

:- Abhidhamma is a collection of texts in the Buddhist canon that analyzes mind and
matter, while Mahayana is a religious tendency that focuses on the idea of attaining
Buddhahood for the benefit of all beings:

Abhidhamma:- A collection of texts that includes topics such as ethics, psychology, and
epistemology. The Abhidhamma is the last major division of the Buddhist canon and is
known as the "Higher Teaching" of the Buddha. The Abhidhamma uses a specialized and
analytical approach to explore reality, unlike the more conventional teachings in the
Sutta Pitaka.

Mahayana:- A religious tendency that focuses on the idea of attaining Buddhahood for
the benefit of all beings. Mahayana accepts some ideas from Buddhist Abhidharma
thought, but also adds its own texts and doctrines. Mahayana is characterized by the
"bodhisattva ideal", which is the idea that enlightened beings can remain in the cycle of
rebirth to guide others in achieving liberation.

10. What is bodhisattva? What are bodhisattvas? Explain briefly.

:- Unlike Theravada Buddhism, which emphasizes individual enlightenment (arhatship),

Mahayana Buddhism emphasizes the ideal of the bodhisattva. A bodhisattva is someone
who seeks enlightenment not just for themselves but for all sentient beings. They vow to
postpone their own final enlightenment until they have helped others achieve it.
Bodhisattva is the central concept in Mahayana Buddhism. Bodhisattvas delay their own

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final enlightenment to help others attain it.

As we know, there is currently no consensus among scholars about the chronology

of the Bodhisattva doctrine. N. Dutt gives that be around the 2nd or 1st century B.C.
Nakamura and A.K Warder have maintained that Bodhisattva doctrine might have come
into existence probably towards the beginning of the Christian Era.

The Encyclopedia of Religion 11 holds that the concept of Bodhisattva apparently

emerged between the beginning of the first century B.C and the middle of the 1st century
AD... Such are several representative ideas on the chronology of Bodhisattva doctrine
accepted and used by scholars. It may, however, be supposed that these views actually
refer to the outburst of the worship of Bodhisattva ideal assignable to the development of
Bodhisattva doctrine philosophy in Mahāyāna.

The concept of Bodhisattva as depicted in the Majjhima Nikāya was compiled

around the fourth and third centuries B.C.12 The admission of Siddhārtha Gotama of
being a Bodhisattva before enlightenment should be taken to be a simple statement of
the Bodhisattva ideal in the Pāli Nikāya: “...before awakening, while I was still the
Bodhisattva....”13 In this, we meet with the idea of the transform development of the
Arahant ideal to the Bodhisattva ideal.

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