Proceedings: 3rd Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conference 1964

The Natural History

of Lightning

E. V. KOMAREK, SR.
Tall Timbers Research Station

THE NATURAL history of a subject such as

lightning is fraught with pitfalls in both observation and interpreta-
tion, but when we delve into natural processes this is generally true.
It b.ecomes particularly so with a subject that travels with "lightning
speed."
In fact, it is so quick that lightning current durations are measured
in microseconds-millionths of a second. It is a short piece of time,
when you consider that a microsecond is to a second what one
minute is to 23 months, or what one inch is to 16 miles. (Towne
1956)
This gigantic spark, electrical charges rushing to meet their oppo-
sites, has a core of electrical energy which may be ten or more inches
in diameter but generally ranges from Yz to % of an inch. This is sur-
rounded by a channel of intensely-heated air several inches thick. The
voltage rises hundreds of thousands of volts, and the current has been
measured as high as 340,000 amperes. The length of the stroke may
be 15,000 feet or more, but the average has been given as about
4000 feet. The bolt or lightning flash we see is actually made up of
many repeated currents traveling back and forth from cloud to earth,
much like a vast sewing machine with electricity as its thread. As
many as 47 separate strokes have been counted, and these may come
very quickly or be spaced as much as a half second apart (Fig. 1).
The primary generator of this tremendous electrical discharge is
the thundercloud or thunderstorm, and the popular phrase, "where
there is thunder there is also lightning" is well stated. Every thunder-

139
 Fig. 1. A lightning storm in
the prairie state of Kansas.
Photo by U. S. Weather Bu-
reau.

storm is made up of one or more "cells" which consist of downdrafts

and updrafts. When humid air is brought into the "generator," it con-
denses into raindrops. These toss about and turn to ice crystals inside
the violent air currents. As a consequence, there is a separation of
electrical charges, the positive usually, though not always, concen-
trate in the upper portion of the cloud mass and the negative in the
lower section. As the thunderstorm travels across the surface of the
ground, the potential of the earth's surface and anything on it, which
in fair weather is negative switches and becomes positive. Thus we
get a situation where there are positive charges in the upper part of
the thundercloud, negative charges in the lower part, and positive on
the surface of the earth. When these charges become strong and the
air is no longer able to keep them separate, we get the electric spark
we call lightning. It can be from cloud to cloud, within the same
cloud, or from cloud to earth, and its intensity depends much on the
size and intensity of the "generator," the thundercloud itself. Gen-
erally, the larger and taller the thunderclouds, the more lightning
there is both in amount and intensity (Fig. 2).

140
 + + + +
Fig. 2. Diagram of a thunderstorm cloud showing distribution of electrical
charges.

During fair weather there is a slow leakage of negative electricity

from the earth because air is not a perfect non-conductor. As the
thundercloud approaches, this charge changes by induction to aposi-
tive charge and this "leakage" or leader becomes stronger and literally
reaches upward because of the strong negative attraction at the base
of the cloud. These accumulations, both in the cloud and on earth,
become extremely large because of the mass of the cloud and the
earth below it. If we could see this effect in vegetations as a thunder-
storm approaches, we would see waving electric leaders of positive
charge and these leaders, given the same conductivity, will be longer,
and larger, depending upon the height of the vegetation. This is why
lightning usually will strike the highest objects although this is not
always true because of the difference in the conductivity of the sur-
face and perhaps for other reasons (Fig. 3).
This electrical phenomena occurs where-ever the type of clouds
called thunder-clouds or cumulo-nimbus clouds are found. It has been
estimated that th~r~ are 100 lightning "bolts" for every second 0f the

141
E. V. KOMAREK, SR.

day and for every day in the year in our atmosphere around the earth
(Fig. 4). This means that in the short time that I have been speaking
several thousands such flashes have occurred. Of course, many of these

Fig.. 3. Diagram showing leaders from ground and leaders from thunderstorm
cloud overhead.

never reach the ground and occur from cloud to cloud or within the
clouds themselves. However, there have been various estimates of the
lightning flashes to the ground ranging from 6 per square mile in
England, to 20 per square mile in Transvaal, South Africa to the fol-
lowing estimate for the United States:
There are from 40 to 80 lightning strikes per year within the aver-
age square mile in this country. You can compute the number of
strikes you may expect in your particular square mile by estimating
one or two strokes for the number of thunderstorms in your area.
If your area, for instance, has 50 storms yearly expect from 50 to
100 lightning bolts to hit within a half mile of your house this
year (Lightning Protection Institute).
Meteorologists have recorded thunderstorms on the basis of "thun-
derstorm days."
By international agreement, a "thunderstorm day" is defined as a
local calendar day on which thunder is heard. A thunderstorm day
is recorded as such regardless of the actual number of thunder-
storms occurring on that day. When a storm begins before mid-

142
Fig. 4. Lightning during thunderstorm in Boston. Photo by U. S. Weather Bureau.

night and ends after midnight, two thunderstorm days are record-
ed. These records, therefore, do not give information on either the
frequency of occurrence of individual thunderstorms, or on the
intensity and duration of thunderstorms. Lightning without thun-
der is not recorded as a thunderstorm.
The requirement that thunder should actually be heard limits
the area covered by each observing point to a circle with a radius
of some 20 km.; this restriction almost entirely eliminates the
possibility of the same thunderstorm being recorded by more than
one station. On the other hand, observations of thunder are af-
fected by the "personal equation" of observers and, as Dr. C. E. P.
Brooks says in his paper "The Distribution of thunderstorms over
the Globe": "Thunderstorms which pass directly over the station
may be noted, but those at a distance of several miles are often ig-
nored; this is specially the case in tropical regions where thunder-
storms are severe but extremely local-at certain times of the day
in the rainy seasons distant thunder is so common that it simply
does not occur to the observer to enter it in the register. For this
reason the number of days are probably too low at many of the
second and third order stations." (W orId Meteorological Organi-
zation, 1956).

143
E. V. KOMAREK, SR.

The "thunderstorm day" data gathered together by this organiza-

tion, is the best information available on the thunderstorms on a
world wide basis. It will be noted from their maps that there are not
many regions of the world during the years these data were gathered
that were free of these "lightning generators." Nationally, the U. S.
Weather Bureau has gathered together the data on thunderstorm days
which are more detailed and perhaps. more accurate for United States
(Fig. 5-6-7).
It is of interest to note in passing that these lightning flashes "fix"
a considerable amount of nitrogen from the air and this is brought to
earth in the form of nitric and nitrous acid by rains. The amount pro-
duced has been variously estimated at more than 100,000,000 tons
yearly, 250,000 tons a day, or as much as two pounds of nitrogen per
acre per year.
Now lightning is but an expression, spectacular to be sure but still
only an expression, of a vital force or process in nature. The structure
of matter itself consists of, or at least involves, positive charged parti-
cles (protons), negative charged particles (electrons) and those par-
ticles with no electrical charge or in a neutral state (neutrons). This
force was first named "electrics" by Gilbert in 1600 because of the
effect obtained when amber was brushed and "electron" is the Greek
word for amber. Benjamin Franklin in 1746 found that like charges
repelled each other but that opposite charges attracted each other
and thereby tended to combine and neutralize one another, or in
other words to develop into a neutral state. He named these opposite
charges so attracted to each other as "positive" and as "negative." To-
day we know that we live in an "electric" universe and that electrical
energy is a fundamental force on earth; that living cells are them-
selves but miniature batteries and that you and I are in many respects
living electrical machines.
In late 1800 and early 1900 many investigators became interested
in the electrical properties and potentials of plants as well as the
effect of electricity on the plants themselves. Stone (I903, 1904,
1914); Kinney (1897), at the Massachusetts Agriculture Experiment
Station, and others, found that plants not only varied in electrical
potential from species to species, but from winter to summer in the
same species, and that certain parts of vegetations were better con-
ductors of electricity than others. The -cambium layer in some trees

144
 Fig. 5. AnnuaL distribution of thunderstorm days in North and South America.
(From World Meteorological Organization-1956)

145
 Fig. 6. Annual distribution of thunderstorm days in Europe and Africa. (From
World Meteorological Organization-1956)

146
 '-~~-.
----'---

'.

Fig. 7. Annual distribution of thunderstorm days in Asia and the Pacific. (From
World Meteorological Organization-1956)

147
E. V. KOMAREK, SR.

for example, may have good conductivity while the sap apparently
has little effect on conductivity.
Plummer (1912) reported studies of the Dendrological Labora-
tories of the U. S.. Forest Service on wood samples of many species
which showed that electric conductivity was directly related to the
moisture in the wood samples. However German investigators, par-
ticularly Jonescu (Sarauer, 1922),
. . . found that the electric spark struck through fresh wood the
more poorly, the richer it was in fatty oil. In the same plantation
the beech is rarely struck by lightning, while the oak is most fre-
quently injured. A microscopic investigation showed the reason;
the wood cells of beech contained oil; those of the oak were almost
free of it.
They stated that "fatty trees" were those in which the starch turned
to oil in winter and spring. Lund (1932) suggested that electric cur-
rents continually flow along certain circuits in the tree, thus cor-
relating the living parts of the whole tree and making it a definite and
continuous electrified system.
Foresters and others also became interested in lightning and its
effect on trees. Most of these studies indicate that there is a differ-
ential effect on different species of trees as to their susceptibility to
lightning strikes. It would appear that thin barked trees such as beech
are not as apt to be injured as much as thick-barked trees such as oaks
or pines. However, it is apparent that trees of some species can absorb
a lightning discharge without much external damage. '
LaRue (I 922) concerning lightning injury to rubber trees 10
Malaya writes:
Lightning rarely manifests itself on the Para rubber tree (Hevea
brasiliensis) in tearing or breaking of the trunks or branches. Usu-
ally a single branch at the top of the tree dies first. From this point
the death of the branch continues downward until the trunk is
reached, then the trunk dies back until the root is reached and fi-
nally the whole tree is killed. Several days elapse from the time the
injury is first visible until the whole tree is dead, the progressive
death of the tissues is extremely suggestive of invasion of the tree
by some destructive organism.
In fact, "die-back" in rubber trees was long considered a disease.
The effect of lightning on a large number of crop plants has been
studied. This for a long time was confused with disease or other

148
 NATURAL HISTORY OF LIGHTNING

pathological conditions. In most cases with such plants as tomatoes,

potatoes, and cabbage, very little external damage, such as scorching,
is noted on the plants themselves. They suddenly begin to wilt and
gradually die, usually in an area progressing outwards from where
the lightning hit, and this is of much more common occurrence than
is generally believed. In fact, experimental plots of such crops have
actually been hit by lightning on experiment station grounds.
In Ceylon, tea plantations are likewise damaged by lightning, and
here again such damage was originally considered a disease. Here too,
lightning strikes without apparent damage such as blasting or scorch-
ing. Hader (1956) writes:
Lightning frequently strikes small areas of tea and kills the
bushes, the roots of which are then very liable to root disease
whilst at the same time there appears to be an upset in the soil
micro-flora. After lightning the dead bushes should be up-rooted
and the area planted with a leguminous crop. Tea may be re-
planted after a year.
There are repeated references in the literature that tea bushes will
die if replanted in such areas immediately. In tea orchards the shade
tree Grevilleas are interplanted. These likewise are affected by light-
ning but at a much slower rate, the tea bushes dying out first. The
symptoms however are very similar.
For years bud-rot in coconut plantations was considered a disease
and is now called false bud-rot and is due to lightning damage.
Sharples (1933) states that in Malaya "the primary initiating cause of
bud-rot of the coconut palm is injury by lightning." In this species
the bud of the tree begins to gradually die after being hit by lightning
without any external evidences of lightning damage. He goes on
to say:
The typical cases, locally known as budrot due to lightning strike,
show a group of 10-12 trees, of which one, two or three die rap-
idly; on examination the bud tissues are found to be in a badly
decayed condition. The surrounding trees show disease symptoms
of varying intensity; . . . The large areas of affected palms,
groups in which over 100 diseased palms may be found, are of
rare occurrence.
He points out that after the lightning strike the tree is quickly in-
vaded by the boring beetle, Saprosites pygmaeus, bud rot disease

149
E. V. KOMAREK, SR.

Phytophthora sp., root disease Ganoderma lucidum and the stem

bleeding disease Thiealaviopsis.
That the same sort of effect may be occurring in our cabbage palm
trees (Sabal palmetto) is indicated by the following interesting note
given me by Mr. H. C. Peeples, Fire Control Chief, Florida Forest
Service:
In the summer of 1952 a fire occurred after a lightning storm on
a protected area in Hendry county. The ranger, Russel Hill, know-
ing that no person was in the area and not being able to find a
struck tree made a further investigation later. About a week later
he noted that a cabbage palm was wilting. He cut it down and
found that lightning had apparently gone down inside the tree,
then thru the sandy soil some several feet and then had ap-
parently ignited the fire in a clump of palmetto bushes which con-
tained much flammable material. Where the discharge went through
the soil it fused some of the sand.

Such fused sand tubes called fulgurites are found in a great many
places over the world and in some areas in great abundance.
Schonland (1950) writes in his Flight of the Thunderbolts:
In one sand-dune patch of 5,000 acres at Witsands, on the south-
eastern border of the Kalahari Desert, Lewis estimated that there
were not less than 2,000 fulgurites. Since lightning is at the present
time very infrequent in this area, some of these tubes must have
been formed many thousands of years ago. .
It is of interest that some of the fulgurites from the Kalahari
Desert show fairly definite evidence that the discharge in these
cases followed the roots of bushes and plants growing in the sand.
The shattering effect of lightning on forest trees is well known but
the details of how,' why, where and when are not. In fact, little in-
vestigation has been made into the effect of lightning on trees where
such spectacular effects have not occurred. From personal observa-
tion in the Southeast, I am of the opinion that there is much more
damage to forest trees than at first might seem apparent, even from
the large number of trees that are known to be killed by lightning,
and that the "scatter effect" mentioned in connection with the coco-
nut plantations is also of common occurrence among forest trees. The
tree or trees where the direct bolt hits are of course much in evidence.
What is not always apparent, except by day to day study over a

150
 NATURAL HISTORY OF LIGHTNING

period of time, is that the electrical discharge has weakened the sur-
rounding trees so that they in turn become ravaged by several species
of pine beetles. In fact, lightning and its effect on trees might be an
important environmental factor in the natural populations of these
insects.
Likewise, the vegetation around the base of such struck trees is also
profoundly affected-sometimes for a radius of more than fifty feet.
The effect of the charge on the forbs and grasses appears to be some-
what selective; that is, certain species such as bracken fern (Pteridium
aquilinum) die within a few days while runner oak (Quercus
minima) has appeared to be unaffected.
The igniting of trees and grasses and then consequently the firing
of the forest or grassland has been well documented and a few such
examples are here given.
Fobes (1944) has written about such examples in the forest of
Maine:
In most cases the lightning strikes an old stump or tree stub, the
wood of which is so punky that the fire does not break into a
flame but smolders. Furthermore, the precipitation from the pass-
ing storm often adds to the moisture content of the stump which
is in condition to absorb water readily. This slowly burning fire is
difficult to locate because the amount of smoke is not sufficient to
rise above the forest canopy in large volumes and is seen only in-
termittently by the lookout men. Many hours of search are neces-
sary to determine the exact location of the fire. The area burned
is usually less than a quarter of an acre. However, there is a po-
tential hazard that may become serious when the area begins to
dry, particularly if the fire goes underground, where it can travel
many feet to favorable fuel.
Chapman (1950) writes in connection with the longleaf pine for-
ests of the Southeast:
How do lightning fires start in the longleaf forest? In several re-
cent instances of which careful record was made by observers, it
was found that the trees struck for the most part were alive,
which merely indicates that live trees constituted the most numer-
ous targets. In one instance recorded, the lightning storm was ac-
companied by a very light rain, and fires spread rapidly.
Figures 8-9-10 show such actual examples in these forests.
Lightning fires are also common in the coastal marshes of the South

151
 Fig. 8. Tree hit by lightning and set afire June 24, 1963 Fig. 9. Close-up of same tree in Fig. 8. A drizzling rain
on Greenwood Plantation. The bole of this relatively young was still falling when these photographs were made.
longleaf pine had a decayed center which was combustible. Photo by Roy Komarek.
The area around the tree had been control burned less than
four months previously and would not carry fire even in dry
weather. Photo by Roy Komarek.
 Fig. 10. Woods fire from lightning
struck tree. The fire started at the base
of the tree in grass and pine needles.
Reported from Madison County, Flor-
ida Fire Report No. 21, April 21,
1960. Photo by Florida Forest Service.

being caused by direct strikes in the marshes as well as on the small

islands so common to these regions. Figure 11 shows such a small
pine island on the St. Marks Wildlife Refuge in Florida that was set
afire by lightning on August 7, 1962. This was suppressed by refuge
control crews and then the marshland around this island was con-
trolled burned for geese the following fall.
Mr. Larry Requa, Fire Control Officer, Yukon Forest Service has
informed me that lightning strikes in the tundra will set fire to peat
and compressed moss accumulations. These may burn and smoulder
for a long time, even months, and then suddenly develop into a tundra
fire. Special type fire fighting nozzles have been developed for use in
fighting fire underground.
Mr. Henry A. Hanson, Supervisor, Waterfowl Investigations, Bu-
reau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife, Juneau, Alaska (1963) has
written me as follows and has furnished the photos of tundra fires
(Fig. 12-13):
The lightning-strike fire you referred to was in upland tundra at
the 1000 ft. level about 35 miles north of Tanana, Alaska-July 15,
1957. I was flying from the coast near Kotzebue into Fairbanks
about 500 ft. above the ground. Visibility was very poor with
smoke from many forest and tundra fires. I was flying along the

153
 Fig. 11. Along the Gulf Coast marshlands of Florida, lightning strikes are of com-
mon occurrence. This photo shows a small pine island on Saint Marks Wildlife Ref-
uge, typical of those that occur throughout the coastal area, that was hit by light-
ning on August 7, 1962 and set afire. The fire was suppressed by refuge control
crews and the marshland around the island was control burned for geese the follow-
ing fall. Photo by E. V. Komarek, Sr.

ridge on the north side of a shallow valley about 6: 30 pm when a

bolt of lightning .hit the ridge on the southside off my right wing
tip. A small mushroom of dust or smoke exploded out of the dry
tundra followed by flames where the lightning struck. The en-
closed photo (fig. 13) is another tundra fire burning on June 3,
1948 about 60 miles S.E. of Selawik, lat. 66 degrees 30 minutes
long. 159 degrees 30 minutes. I shot the picture from an altitude
of about 1000'. The fire had been burning for no more than 48
hours when I discovered it during an operational waterfowl popu-
lation survey. Apparently a fire travels quite rapidly even on a
relatively flat, treeless terrain.
Project "Skyfire" a most thorough study of lightning and lightning
fires in the northwestern part of the United States is now going on
and Mr. Arnold's excellent report has only been able to touch upon
parts of it because of the limitations of time (Fuquay 1962).
There are a great many eye-witness accounts of lightning caused
fires throughout the United States in many of the issues of American
Forests, the journal of the American Forestry Association-too many
to enumerate here.
There are likewise many such accounts in the fire records, of both
the original fire reports by the personnel concerned directly with the
fire, as well as in the published statistics of such agencies as the U. S.

154
 Fig. 12. Tundra fire 35 miles north of Tanana, Alaska started by lightning July 15,
1957. Photo by H. C. Hansen, U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service.

Fig. l3. Tundra fire no more than 48 hours old southeast of Selawik, Alaska
June 3, 1948. Photo by H. C. Hansen, U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
E. V. KOMAREK, SR.

Forest Service, U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, National Park Service,

U. S. Bureau of Land Management, and U. S. Bureau of Indian
Affairs, and in the reports of the many state forest and wildlife agen-
cies concerned with the protection of forest and grassland. Likewise
the Canadian counterparts of these agencies have full reports on fires.
(Komarek 1962).
There has been much discussion, largely in ethnological or anthro-
pologicalliterature, on fire in grasslands with little if any comment on
the natural fires caused there-in by lightning. Much of our grasslands
have either been plowed up and put into crops or overgrazed to the
extent that such natural phenomena have been obscured. However,
there are many such observations in the fire records of the several
National Grasslands as well as in the grasslands of some of our na-
tional forests and parks. As an example, Figure 14 shows the fire
data from the Laramie Peak Division at Douglas, Wyoming. This is
also the headquarters for the Thunder Basin National Grassland, and
the original fire reports show a great many observations on fires
caused by lightning in grasslands. The following is taken directly
from such a fire report on the Rabon Fire, August 21, 1960 by Dis-
trict Ranger Chas. W. Stavely and is typical of such fires:
Some weather records have been furnished which indicate a build
up ()f drouth preceding the occurrence of the fire. . . .
'This fire was a little east of north from De Haven. The fire
fighting advantage was that there was no timber. The pastures
were over-grazed and they were easy of access. In some places
there appears not to be enough vegetation to carry fire. It burned
none the less, and crossed barriers that would ordinarily stop it.
This fire typifies what may be expected from a dry lightning a
term in this short-grass area under a given set of circumstances.
The personnel at the Douglas, Wyoming office as well as at
Chadron, Nebraska (headquarters for Oglala National Grassland and
the Nebraska Grasslands south of Nenzel) were all of the opinion
that lightning is of even greater importance as an ignitor of grasslands
than their records would indicate. Pastures are heavily grazed in the
summer months and stockmen put out most of the fires themselves
wherever possible before calling on Forest Service personnel.
That lightning is quite prevalent throughout the Midwest even
though the natural grasslands are no longer there is very evident by

156
 NATURAL HISTORY OF LIGHTNING

no
fir es
caused b
-!Jl-----
[ ] man
• lightning

-1JL----

aug
Fig. 14. Graph showing relationship and occurrence of lightning and man-caused
fires, primarily in grasslands. Data (1960) from Laramie Peak Division, Medicine Bow
National Forest and Thunder Basin National Grasslands, Douglas, Wyoming.

the chart (Fig 15) by the Lightning Protection Institute, Chicago,

Illinois.
One of the most thorough and most documented research papers
on lightning fires is "Forest Fires in Alaska," by Charles E. Hardy
and James W. Franks, U. S. Forest Service Research Paper Int-5
which should be studied by anyone interested in this or related sub-
jects. In Chapter 6, Fire Statistics, they write:
Ideas about the general cause of fires in Interior Alaska have
gradually changed. Heintzleman (1936) stated, "Fires in Alaska are
almost wholly man-caused (lightning being a negligible factor) ...
Also, the Alaska Fire Control Service Annual Report for 1940
stated that there were no lightning-caused fires in Interior Alaska
(Robinson 1960). Evidence now on hand shows that these state,

157
E. V. KOMAREK, SR.

BARNS STRUCK BY LIGHTNING

1961 V962 by month
1_

~I I"-
~ . I~
A
~-
.....
I.r •
1:-
...,_
.- lI-
it •

19(1 f \I.
_
t.-'l1
ill 'i

300

. \i,
E
.
\~
-\
150
:
j I
E 1.,"61 \\.Jj
l• ~

t..
Ir
lJ ii,
_. .,11 li. ""'. '
0
>- c ..
.- :a >
0 U

-
.0 Q.
C
.2. • e CI Q.
CI
CI
E ~
~
CI •... U
0
0
C •
."

FIG. 15. Chart (for a section of the Midwest) from the Lightning Protection In-
stitute, Chicago, Illinois.

ments were in error; they were made before there was any or-
ganized fire protection force or even reporting procedure. Fires
that actually were started by lightning were attributed to trappers,
miners, and natives. One-fourth of all fires between 1950 and 1958
were reported as lightning-caused, and they accounted for three-
fourths of the total acreage burned. (italics mine)
They point out that:
Eighty percent of all lightning fires occur in June and July; but
73 percent of the acreage burned by these lightning fires is burned
in June. Fifty-seven percent of man-caused fires occur in May.
They state that the rate of fire spread or flammability of tundra is
even greater than that of grasslands and that:
Seventy-four percent of all fires in Interior Alaska burn in the
highly flammable spruce and tundra types. The final size of a light-

158
 NATURAL HISTORY OF LIGHTNING

ning fire averages 10 times the size of a man-caused fire primarily

because lightning fires are common in the Interior Basin. . . .
Most man caused fires occur near population centers, as would
be expected. More than a usual number of reported lightning fires
also burn in a somewhat similar pattern; the distribution will no
doubt appear different when better detection and reporting proce-
dures are developed.
They also report lightning fires occur in areas where present infor-
mation indicates a low frequency of lightning, so that lightning fires
are not necessarily correlated with the frequency of thunderstorm
data. Figures 16-17-18 are reproduced from this excellent paper and
are typical of the kind of information the report contains. A series of
fine maps showing lightning fire frequency are also included in their
paper.
Bennett (1960) reported upon lightning fires throughout Canada
from Newfoundland to British Columbia and the Yukon. On a series
of maps he plotted over 10,000 such fires in his "Survey of Lightning
Occurrences in Canada's Forests-1950-1959. These maps show that
although there is an apparent difference of frequency in such fires
geographically, there seem to be no regions of any size free from
them. The large areas where there are no records consist of the
heavily settled parts of Canada and these are not under forest fire pro-
tection reporting facilities.
Mr. R. H. Kendall, Supt. of Forestry, Fort Smith, Northwest Ter-
ritories has written me (I 96 3) :
In 1960, lightning caused 72 fires throughout the MacKenzie dis-
trict, in 1961; 96, and in 1962; 38, equivalent to 75%,59%,43% of
the total number of fires caused by all causes respectively. The
fires thus started spread throughout all types of vegetation. Rec-
ords show several fires of over 100,000 acres over a period of
years. . . .
Fobes (1944) reports the following in regard to lightning fires in
the forests of Maine:
The number of lightning fires varied from a maximum of 45 in
1937 to a minimum of 2 in 1928. The average for the 15 year pe-
riod was 18.3 fires per year, or 15 percent of the total fires from
all causes.
The greatest number of fires reported in a single day was 13 on
September 2, 1937. All of these were the result of a severe electri-

159
E. V. KOMAREK, SR.

ACREAGE SURNfO BY MONTH

LIGHTNIN5 ANO MAN-CAUSED FlIlES
AVERAGE 19S()-1958

£eJel1d
AREA BURNE/)
- - LIGHTNING FIRES
550 - - -IMN-cAUSEP FIRES
J ~TOrAI. !'IRES

II ~ ()F AREA 8VRNe/)

D LI(fIlTNINtf FIRES
1/
I
ot::::l MAN-CAUSEIJ FIRES
T()TAL FIRES

I
II
I ~

I' \1 ~\
100
1/ ./'\ \\
l II \
'\,
Y
\
\ -
"..-'~ .....
........ '"'-

Fig. 16. This chart is reproduced from Forest Fires in Alaska by Charles E.
Hardy and James W. Franks, U. S. Forest Service Research Paper INT-5, 1963.

160
 NATURAL HISTORY OF LIGHTNING

NUM13ER OF FIRES
AVERAGE 1950 - 1958

Lesen~------------~

II ~
IIi-M IU.M All A6£NI:1t'S
A~ASK'" OTHUn:4TEf OTNEIlSTArES

6t 22t ~005

t.t 4.6 f68.0

FIRES PER MIU.ION
t92 4f9 91,848 ACRES PROTECTED

Fig. 17. This chart is reproduced from Forest Fires in Alaska by Charles E. Hardv
and James W. Franks, U. S. Forest Service Research Paper INT-5, 1963. .

161
E. V. KOMAREK, SR.

NIIMBE/? AIEA BURNED

200 I - - - - - - - - - - - - - l 900r-----~

"Sr-------~~~--~ ~ 800 I - - - f h - - - - - ;
« ISO I - - - - - - - - - - f i ~mol--~'~-----;
~ 600 1-----.0'1:::-----;
l.a...J 126 I--------~~"'"
~ ~ $00 r----'-I!.'fJ----~
~/OO
~ 400 l---"fi1f-------l
~7S I----,~~--~~~~~~-~
~~ I----~~-~~~~*-~
;g 300 r-~'(f---~
~ 200 r--I.~~'1-~-~
25 1---r-~~-~9,'w~~-~ '" 100~--"if-~f--_l

LI&IfTNINf9
. : : : :, :. r:

MAN-CAV5'EP

P£RCENTA<f£ PERCENTAGE

NUMBER OF FIRES
AND AREA 6URNfD
BY t9ENEHAl CAUSE

Fig. 18. This chart if reproduced from Forest Fires in Alaska by Charles E.
Hardy and James W.Franks, U. S. Forest Service Research Paper INT-5, 1963.

cal storm that passed over Washington and Hancock counties.

(23 lightning fires occurred in two days)
In 1927 Dr. R. Mitsuda reported in a Lightning Survey in Japan
(General Electric Review, March, 192 7) on more than 2500 re-
corded lightning strikes during four years from 1921 to 1924. He

162
 NATURAL HISTORY OF LIGHTNING

shows the geographical distribution as well as frequency of these

strokes and writes:
Geographical Distribution
The lightning spots are scattered according to local conditions, be-
ing dense in the K wanto district in the vicinity of Tokyo, in the
Kinki district which is the middle part of the country, and in the
northern part of Kiushu. [Fig. 19].
Frequency of Lightning Strokes
The frequency of lightning strokes in a district may be compared
to those of other districts by means of percentage representation,
and the average frequency or density may be chosen conveniently
as the basis of comparison or hundred percent, which really
corresponds to one case of lightning stroke per 480 square kilome-
ters (approximate) of area per year.
Fig. 2 [Fig. 20] shows the lightning frequencies of local dis-
tricts, laid out from the standpoint of lightning densities.
Intensity of Lightning Strokes
. . . the more frequent the lightning strokes are in any district,
the more intense they are. In other words, the intensity is directly
proportional to the frequency.
Routes of Lightning
Lightning stonns depend as much on the local topographical
conditions as they do on the atmospheric conditions. In so far as
these conditions do not differ materially, and are repeated from
year to year, lightning storms will naturally have the same definite
characteristics each year.
Where the topographical variations are conspicuous, as in the
K wanto district, the lightning characteristics are most settled and
are inherent to that locality . . .
It is very interesting to note that the routes of lightning storms
follow the valleys from among the mountains of high altitude
down to the plains.
Seasonal Changes of Lightning
... lightning strokes are most frequent, irrespective of objec-
tives, in August, amounting during that month to 41 percent of the
total for the year, and are next in order of frequency in July
and in September, amounting to 24 percent and 14 percent of the
total respectively.
Through the helpful interest and cooperation of the Florida Forest
Service we have been furnished with IBM records of all of their re-

163
E. V. KOMAREK, SR.

0. c
".
;~ orr
..0

Fig. 1. Geographical Distribution of Lightning Strokes in Japan

Fig. 19. Geographical distribution of lightning strokes in Japan. Reproduced from

Lightning Survey in Japan, Mitsuda, 1927.

ported lightning fires in their protection districts, access to the original

fire reports, and other interesting and valuable data for 1963 and
1964. In particular I wish to thank -Messrs. C. H. Coulter, Forester,
John Bethea, Associate Forester, and H. C. Peeples, Assistant Chief
Fire Control of the Florida Forest Service for their valuable assistance
and their patience for my many requests which they so willingly
filled. Before discussing the data in detail I would like to point out
that the Florida Forest Service in common with the U. S. Forest
Service, other State Forest Services, and Canadian and Provincial

164
 NATURAL HISTORY OF LIGHTNING

g More then 200"

~
Le5~ than 200"
More than 100%

B Le55 than 100%

MOre than
.50"
m Les,t.han
SO"
0 Unc.e.rtain

"9 '.
Fig. 2. Comparative Frequency of Lightning Strokes in Different Districts of Japan
Fig. 20. Lightning frequency in local districts in Japan from the standpoint of
lightning densities. Reproduced from Lightning Survey in Japan, Mitsuda, 1927.

Forestry Offices define a lightning caused fire as a fire where men

and equipment have had to be used to extinguish it. Such fires are not
listed as lightning fires unless there is reasonable proof that a lightning
strike actually was the cause of ignition. If two or more lightning
fires come together before prote<;:tive action takes place the fires are
considered only as one lightning caused fire.
These records on Florida lightning caused fires comprise data on
1146 reported lightning fires in 1962 and of 1048 in 1963. The data

165
E. V. KOMAREK, SR.

do not include, for the present, information on such fires in Florida

National Forests and the St. Marks Refuge furnished us by these
agencies for fear of duplication. These will however in time be dou-
ble checked and included in our data at the Tall Timbers Station at
a later date.
You will note by the map of Florida (Fig. 21) that there appear to
be certain patterns evident. These are not necessarily patterns of light-
ning occurrence locally for lightning fires cannot start unless there is

Fig. 21. Lightning caused fires in Florida during 1962. Data from Florida Forest
Service.

166
 NATURAL HISTORY OF LIGHTNING

fuel upon which they can feed. Thus you will note that in Leon and
Jefferson counties there are many records of lightning fires south of
Tallahassee and virtually none to the north. The region in the north-
ern part of these counties consist of hunting plantations where an
annual rotation of burning is practiced. It also appears that there are
fewer lightning fires on the Apalachicola National Forest, though
this is subject to further check, where much of the forest land is on a
three-year rotation or there-abouts. Wherever wiregrass predomi-
nates, and it occurs ov~r much of the forest in the deep south, even a
three-year "rough" will burn very readily from a lightning fire but
is not as easily ignited as say a "20 year rough."
It would also appear from some preliminary data that as the length
of fire exclusion increases the incidence of lightning fires increases at
a much more rapid ratio. The chart (Fig. 22) of Levy county where
protection was first established in 1954 shows this quite clearly. In
Florida, the man-caused fires occur largely in the winter months
whereas the lightning ignited fires are ne:lrly all summer fires (Figs.
23,24).
Though the number of fires per day are different the pattern
seems to be the same-that is late May, June, July are the months
when most such fires are started. This ties in quite nicely with what
we know of the "thunderstorm days" and other such data of this
same region (Fig. 24).
That lightning is a major element in forest or grassland fires is now
an accepted fact by most foresters. However, it is not always so gen-
erally known as to how great such a factor exists. Such a lightning
factor however does exist world-wide in nearly all vegetative types
where there is enough fuel to burn. If the area is being burned by
man, either by controlled burning or wildfire, or if the area is being
intensively pastured, cultivated, or built up, lightning fires cannot de-
velop. But the lightning potential is always there. Insurance people
writing in the Eastern Underwriter Journal say:

Lightning will start fires on 30,000 American farms this year. It

will kill one American every day, injure four others, and frighten
thousands more. No crystal ball is needed to make these predic-
tions. These figures are averages of what has occurred in recent
years and what can be expected in 1953.

167
E. V. KOMAREK, SR.

300
FIRES IN LEVY COUNTY
1954·1963

200 man-caused fires

lightning-caused firos---·

100

I
I

It....
",
, ' , ,~... I
/
--~ '- ......... '
,,; -~
• I
•
, I , • I • I

54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63
Fig. 22. Fires in Levy County, Florida, 1954-1963.

Lightning continues to be the greatest single cause of farm and

rural fires. Fire underwriters state that lightning causes 37 out of
every 100 such fires, exacting a $35,000,000 toll, year after year, on
farms alone. No figures are available for the unreported or unin-
sured losses . . .
The National Board of Fire Underwriters has reported under
Leading Causes of Fire in U. S. 1953-1961 (The World Almanac-
1964) that out of a total of 2,022,672 reported fires, 243,276 or 12%
of the total were caused by lightning.
These totals are for reported fires where the cause was ascertained
and do not represent either the total number of fires or the total
property loss in the United States. Excluded are all unreported
losses as well as all fires with cause of ignition unknown.

168
 NATURAL HISTORY OF LIGHTNING

Fig. 23. A comparison of lightning and man-made forest fires in Florida during
the years 1962 and 1963.

169
E. V. KOMAREK, SR.

30 00
• lightning fires

D thunderstorm days
20u-------------- ~----------------------'200

1ou--------------- ~~~h4~~--------------100

feb mar apr may J un j uI aug .so poet nov

Fig. 24. Correlation of lightning fire from Florida Forest Service data with
"thunderstorm days" reported from eight U. S. Weather Bureau stations in pro-
tected Florida forest area.

With all the data that has been presented there should be no ques-
tion as to the magnitude of lightning in the environment of plants and
animals. In fact lightning may have also been responsible for the
evolution of life itself from inorganic materials, at least according to
certain theories now prevalent. Oparin (1938) suggested that in the
earliest beginnings on earth that the constant striking of lightning on
the "primordial soup" of the oceans may have started what we call
life. Urey (1952) later enlarged upon this thesis and Miller in 1945
produced some 25 or more amino acids and other organic compounds,
the building blocks of living matter so to speak, by the constant bom-
bardment of such an experimental "primordial soup" with "artificial"
lightning.
It is a truism in ecological thought that any environmental force
acting upon living matter, plants or animals, by a process of natural
selection, will cause those genes to be selected out of the germ plasm
or "gene banks" that will best allow that living matter to succeed in
a struggle for existence. Not only has lightning developed fire adap-
tations, or as most geneticists would prefer, selected out those "pre-

170
 NATURAL HISTORY OF LIGHTNING

adaptations" for the most succe.ssful existence with conditions

created by fires; but also that plants at least have developed similarly
in regard to lightning itself. This is to say, that the reaction to the
lightning stroke and attendant conditions are different in different
vegetations. Plants, animals, and possibly life itself, have evolved
through a long process of natural selection in an environment where
lightning and fires so initiated have been an important factor, more
important than many ecologists may realize. Today, in many regions
lightning ignited fires are the primary cause of forest and grassland
fires; in other areas increased and more effective fire protection has
created conditions whereby, percentage wise at least, lightning fires
are beginning to become quite a problem.

CONCLUSION
The natural history of lightning wherever studied has shown a
preponderance of evidence that:
1. Lightning is an inherent component of the earth's atmosphere and
is ecologically fully as important as such better known factors as
temperature, rainfall, soils, etc.
2. Although plants and perhaps some animals show a differential re-
sponse to the electrical charge we call lightning it is of greatest
importance in the environment as the causative agent of natural
fires (as differentiated from man-caused).
3. Lightning is of suc!). frequency and magnitude that there are not
many lands, if any on earth, that at some time or other have not
been subjected to re-occurring lightning caused fires. These have
occurred at frequent enough intervals to have lasting effect on
plant and animal communities.
4. Plant and animal communities have evolved largely as the effect
of summer fires.
5. The effect of such an environmental agent as lightning has long
been obscured because of man's activities and use of fire. It is im-
portant to note that although in the far north man-caused fires
occur nearly at the same time of year as lightning-caused fires, this
is not so in more temperate and sub-tropical climates where man-
caused fires occur mainly in late fall, winter, or early spring and
the lightning caused fires develop in the summer months.

171
E. v. KOMAREK, SR.

6. Lightning as an environmental factor was on earth long before the

evolution of man. The antiquity of fire seems apparent in that the
most ancient of tree families, such as the conifers, and the appar-
ently oldest genera of grasses, such as Aristida, Stipa, Andropogon,
etc., have the greatest concentration of those genes responsible for
resistance and adjustment to a "fire environment." In fact, it ap-
pears that during long periods of time fire type communities of
plants and animals have covered vast areas of the earth's land
surface.
7. The evidence accumulated since our first fire ecology conference
continues to substantiate the following concept then expressed:
In nature, fire is a great regenerative force, one might even say
rejuvenative force, without which plant and animal succession, in
the absence of climatic upheaval or physiographic cataclysm (or
at least of great climatic or physiographic change), would be re-
tarded so that old, senescent, and decadent communities would
cover the earth (Komarek 1962).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

This is by no means a complete bibliography on lightning but only represents

material consulted in preparation of this paper. Beginning about a half century ago,
with the wide-spread use of electrical power and the necessary distribution lines
over various parts of the globe a very large literature has developed in regard to
lightning and its effect on these power distribution installations. There are well
over 2000 such titles. The American Institute of Electrical Engineers Library in New
York is trying to maintain relatively current bibliographies in this field.
The. material on lightning of primary interest to biologists, however, is scattered
throughout many journals (including the field of electrical engineering), books, and
other publications and only rarely is indexed. Much of this material is of consider-
able value for a proper understanding of the ecological aspects of lightning. We
would appreciate from interested readers, any references not included in the present
bibliography for we will continue to gather such information as time will permit.
The writer wishes to acknowledge the interest and valuable help furnished him by
the librarians of the Robert Dozier Library of Florida Slate University, National
Agricultural Library, Library of Congress, Library of the American Institute of
Electrical Engineers, Illinois Institute of Technology, and by the Georgia Coastal
Plains Experiment Station Library, Tifton, Georgia.
Adam, D. B. 1938. The injury of grapevines by lightning strike. J. Australian Inst.
Agr. Sci. 4: 162-164.
Albright, J. G 1937a. A lightning flash and its component strokes. J. Applied Physics
8:313-18.

172
 NATURAL HISTORY OF LIGHTNING

1937b. Apparatus for photographing lightning flashes. Review of Scientific

Instruments 8: 36-37.
Allard, H. A. 1936. Remarkable lighming bolt. Science 8: 136-137.
American Institute of Electrical Engineers. 1950. Lightning Reference Bibliography
1936-1949.
--.1962. Lighming Reference Bibliography 1950-1960.
Anderson, A. E. 1925. Sand fulgurites from Nebraska-their structure and formative
factors. The Neb. State Mus. Bull. 1 (7).
Anderson, R. B., and R. D. Jenner. 1954. A summary of eight years of lightning in-
vestigation in Southern Rhodesia. Trans. South Africa lEE Part 7, 45:215-241;
Part 9, 45:261-294.
Anonymous. 1924. Trees and lightning stroke. Rural New York 83:1499.
- - . 1931. Tea Research Institute of Ceylon Bull. 8.
- - . 1936. Lightning discharge research in South Africa. Trans. South African Inst.
Electrical Engineers 27: 158.
- - . 1939. Some beliefs about lightning and trees. Garden Digest 11:24-6, Illustra-
tions from "Beautiful Shade Trees." The Davey Tree Expert Co.
--.1941. Lighming and trees. Flower Grower 28:375.
- - . 1942a. Trees lighming does not strike. Garden Digest 14:78.
- - . 1942b. Lighming fertilizes soil. American Fertilizer 96:20+.
--.1944. "Klydonogram" reproduced on golf green by lightning stroke. Electrical
Engineering 63: 56.
- - . 1945. Lighming functions as nitrogen fertilizer. Electrical World 123 :99.
-~. 1952. Thunderbolts: The Electric phenomena of thunderstorms (discussions).
Nature 169(4301) :561-563.
- - . 1953a. Lighming is expected to cause 30,000 farm fires during 1953. Eastern
Underwriter (succeed J. Ins. Eco.) 54:25.
- - . 1953b. Loss ofrnillions from lightning. Am. Poultry J. (midwest) 84: 12.
- - . 1955. Protect against lightning. Am. Poultry J. (midwest) 86:26.
- - . 1956a. Lighming accidents. (editorial) Am. Vet. Med. Assn. J. 129:243.
- - . 1956b. Lighming protection. Maryland Fruit Grower 26:8+.
--.1957. Project Skyfire. Agr. Res. 5:8-9.
- - . 1958. Sequelae of lightning stroke. Am. Vet. Med. Assn. J. 132:sup. 42
- - . 1959a. Lightning a hazard in rural areas. Wallaces Farmer 84:51.
- - . 1959b. Lightning the destroyer. Farm Quarterly 14:54-54+.
- - . 1959c. Check livestock losses on pasture. Wallaces Farmer 84:72.
- - . 1959d. Effects of lighming awesome and costly. Am. Cattle Producer 41:29.
- - . 1964a. Leading causes of fire in U. S. 1953-1961. The World Almanac-New
York World-Telegram. (source National Board of Fire Underwriters). p. 683.
- - . 1964b. Lightning and man cause many forest fires. [source: Forest Service
USDA]. The World Almanac-New York World-Telegram p. 689.
- - . 1952. Lightning and Buildings. Statistical investigation of lightning strokes in
Switzerland from 1925-1947. Bull. Assoc. Suisse. Elect. 43:428-432. [In Frenc):l].
Appel, O. 1907. Lightning in potatoes. (from Jones and Gilbert). Mitte a de Kaiserl.
BioI. Anst. f. Land, U. Forstw. 5:19.
Augur, H. 1946. Zapotec. Garden City, N. Y.
Barbour, E. H. 1925. Notes on Nebraska fulgurites. The Neb. State Mus. Bull 1 (6).
Barrows, J. S. 1954. Lighming fire research in the Rocky Mountains. J. Forestry
52:845-847.
- - , Vincent J. Schaefer, and Paul B. MacCready. 1954. Project Skyfire, a progress
report on lighming fire and atmospheric research. Research Paper 35, Inter-
mountain. Forest and Range Expt. Sta.
- - . 1956. The Skyfire cloud survey. Paper presented at 143rd National meeting,
A.M.S., New York City.

173
E. V. KOMAREK, SR.

--.1958. Project Skyfire. Final Report of the advisory committee on weather con-
trol Vol. II. Washington, D. C.
- - - . 1960. Control of lightning fires in American forests. Proc. Fifth World For-
estry Congress 2:851-856.
- - - . 1962. 1962 status and activities of Forest Fire Research Laboratories. Proc.
Ann. Meet. Western Forest Fire Res. Comm., Western Forest and Consv.
Assoc., Seattle, Washington.
- - - . 1963a. Fire weather aspects of research at the Northern Forest Fire Labora-
tory. 1963 West. Fire Weather Meteorol. Conf., Portland, Ore .. 15 pages.
[No reprintsl.
- - . 1963b. Forest fire science. Naturalist 14(4): 18-25, illus. [No reprintsl.
Baxter, L. F. 1956. Lightning demolishes hive of bees. Gleanings (bee) 84:560.
Bear, Firman E. 1929. Theory and practice in the use of fertilizers. Wiley. pp. 10, 60.
Beard, F. H. 1946. Annual Report. East MaIling Res. Sta. Kent, England, Chpt. VIII
on Hops, 1945, pp. 41-43.
Bell, R. 1897. The geographical distribution of forest trees in Canada (with map).
Reprinted from The Scottish Geographical Magazine for June. 1897.
Bellaschi, P. L. 1939. Lightning strokes in field and laboratory. Electrical Engineer-
ing 58:466-468.
Bennett, W. D. 1958. The control of lightning-caused forest fires. Pulp and Paper
Res. Inst. of Canada. Woodlands Research Index 106.
- - . 1960. Survey of lightning fire occurrences in Canada's forests. -1950 to 1959.
Pulp and Paper Res. Inst. of Canada. Woodlands Research Index 120.
Berger, K. 1946. Swiss lightning research on Monte San Salvatore, near Lugano. (in
French). Bull. Assoc. Suisse des Electriciens 37:319-326.
Biswell, H. H. 1963. Research in wildland fire ecology in California. Proc. Second
Ann. Tall Timbers Fire Ecol. Conf. pp. 62-97. Tall Timbers Res. Sta.
Bower, S. Morris. 1950. Recent work of the thunderstorm census organization. Quart.
J. Meteorol. Soc. 76:455-478.
Brown, H. D., and M. W. Gardner. 1923. Lightning injury to tomatoes. Phyto. 13:147.
Browne, I. C., H. P. Palmer and T. W. Wormell. 1954. The physics of rainclouds.
Quart. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc. (London). 80:291-327.
Brook, M., and N. Kitagawa. 1960. Some aspects of lightning activity and related
meteorological conditions. J. Geophys. Res. 65:1203-1210.
Brooks, C. F. 1922. The local, or heat, thunderstorm. Monthly Weather Review
50(6) :281-287.
Bruce, C. E. R., and R. H. Golde. 1941. The lightning discharge. J. Instimtion of
Electrical Engineers II, 88:487-505.
- - - . 1958. Terrestrial and cosmic lightning discharges. Rept. British Elec. Res.
Assoc., ZlT119, 8 pages.
- - . 1959. Cosmic thunderstorms. J. Franklin Inst. 268:425-445.
Bumstead, A. P. 1943. Sunspots and lightning fires. J. Forestry 41:69-70.
Burr, H. S. 1956. Effect of a severe storm on electric properties of a tree and the
earth. Science 124: 1204-1205.
Burr, S. 1933. Lightning damage to potatoes. Garden Chron. 94:48.
Busgen, M. 1929. The strucmre and life of forest trees. (3rd edition-by E. Munch)
(translated by Thomas Thomson) New York.
Byers, H. R. 1949. Strucmre and dynamics of the thunderstorm. Science 110:291-294.
- - . 1950. Suggestions and plans for future work in thunderstorm electricity. Rept.
Thunderstorm Elec. Conf., Univ. Chicago, Dept. Meteorol.
- - - , and H. R. Rodebush. 1948. Causes of thunderstorms of the Florida peninsula.
J. Meteorol. 5(6).
- - , and R. R. Braham. 1948. Thunderstorm structure and circulation. J. Meteorol.
5 (3) :71-86.

174
 NATURAL HISTORY OF LIGHTNING

Calvin, M. 1956. Chemical evolution and the origin of life. Am. Scientist. 44:248-263.
- - . 1959. Evolution of enzymes and the photosynthetic apparatus. Science
130: 1170-1174.
Chalmers, J. A. 1951. The origin of the electric charge on rain. Quart. J. Roy.
Meteorol. Soc. 77:249-259.
Chapman, H. H. 1950. Lightning in the longleaf. J. Am. Forestry 56:10-11+.
Chapman, Seville. 1949. Mechanisms of charge generation in thunderclouds (ab-
stract). Physical Review 75:1333.
Clarence, N. D., and D. J. Malan. 1957. Preliminary discharge processes in lightning
flashes to ground. Quart. J. Meteorol. Soc. 83: 161-172.
Clark, W. G. 1937. Polar transport of auxin and electrical polarity in coleoptile of
Avena. Plant Physiol. 12:737-754.
Cleveland, A. 1904. Lightning on water, etc. (from Jones & Gilbert 1915). Monthly
Weather Review 32:323.
Colladon, D. 1872. Effets de la foudre sur les arbes it las plantes lignenses. Meme
de la sec. de phys et d'histore note de Geneve.
Collins, H. W. 1937. Lightning currents measured. AlEE Lightning Ref. Bk. pp.
1337-1338. (Orig. in Elec. World, May 12, 1934).
Conwell, R. N., and C. L. Fortescue. 1937 Lightning Laboratory of Stillwater, New
Jersey-30 to 40 lightning storms a year-6 miles from Newton. AlEE Light-
ning Ref. Bk. pp. 746-750:
Cook, H. J. 1925. Manganese fulgurites. The Neb. State Mus. 1 (5).
Covarrubias, Miguel. 1946. Mexico South: the Isthmus of Tehuantepic. Alfred A.
Knopf, Inc., New York.
Cox, H. J., and J. H. Armington. 1914. The weather and climate of Chicago. The
Geographic Soc. Chicago Bull. 4.
Craig, R. W. 1940. Lightning storm. Am. Forests 46:354-356+ illus.
Creighton, E. F. 1937. Lightning. AIEE Lightning Ref. Bk. pp. 104-110.
Davis, H. M. 1938. Multiple strokes in lightning. Science 88:593.
Defandorf, F. M. 1956. Electrical resistance to the earth of a live tree. AlEE Trans.
III,75:936-941.
De Fonvielle, W. 1868. Thunder and lightning. London: Sampson Low, Son, and
Marston, Milton House, Ludgate Hill.
Dillard, E. W. 1937. Lightning investigation on New England powers systems around
Amhurst, Mass., New Boston (Merrimac River). AIEE Lightning Ref. Bk. pp.
292-294.
Dodge, A. W. 1936. Lightning damage to trees. Nat!. Shade Tree Conf. Proc. 43:55.
Dorsey, N. E. 1937. Lightning. AIEE Lightning Ref. Bk. pp. 180-182+.
Evans, E. A., and K. B. McEachron. 1936. The thunderstorm. General Electric Re-
view 398:413-425.
Fenska, R. E. 1952. Your shade trees; what is your shade tree worth. Am. Forests
58:17+.
Fitzgerald, O. A. 1956. Lightning still a troublemaker. Am. Forests 62:24-25+.
Flowers, J. W. 1941. The direct measurement of lightning. J. Franklin Institute
232:425-450.
- - . 1944. Lightning. General Electric Review 47:9-15.
Fobes, C. B. 1944. Lightning fires in the forests of.Maine. J. For., 42:291-293. biblio-
table.
Forrest, J. S. 1950. Variations in thunderstorm severity in Great Britain. Quart. J.
Meteorol. Soc. 76:277-386.
Fortescue, C. L. 1937a. Slow cloud ionization confirms direct-strike theory. AlEE
Lightning Ref. Bk. pp. 700-701.
- - . 1937b. A theory of lightning. AIEE Lightning Ref. Bk. pp. 317-320.

175
E. V. KOMAREK, SR.

- - . 1937c. Lightning-Its behaviour-How it is controlled. AlEE Lightning Ref.

Bk. pp. 95-100. (Orig., 1930, Elec. J. Vol. 27, Feb. 1930).
Freeman, J. F. 1924. Nitrogen in the rainwater at different points in Kentucky. J. Am.
Soc. Agron. 16:356-358.
Frenkel, J. 1947. Atmospheric electricity and lightning. J. Franklin Institute 243:287-
307.
Fritsch, Volker. 1960. Lightning risk and lightning damage in Austria. Elektrotech. u.
Maschinenbau 77(4) :78-82. [In German].
Fuquay, Donald M. 1962. Project Skyfire progress report, 1958-1960 Research Paper
71, Intermountain Forest & Range Expt. Sta. U. S. Forest Service, Ogden, Utah.
Gadd, C. H. 1944. Report of the Mycologist for 1944. Bull., Tea Research Inst.,
Ceylon, 26:23-30.
Gaumann, E. 1950. Principles of plant infection. Hafner, New York, page 543. (trans.
Brierley, William B. of Gaumann "Pfianzliche Infektionslehre")
Georgia Forest Research Council. 1963. Lightning fires increase in state. Forest
Research and Development (2) 5 pp.
Gisborne, H. T. 1942. New facts on lightning. Research Note No. 20, Northern
Rocky Mt. Forest Expt. Sta. USFS- mimeo.
Gish, O. H. 1950. Comments on thunderstorm electricity. Rept. Conf. on Thunder-
storm elec., Chicago, April 10-13, 1950, Univ. Chicago, Dept. of Meteorol.
- - , and G. R. Wait. 1059. Thunderstorms and the earth's general e.lectrification.
J. Geophys. Res. 55:473-484.
Gleizer, M. D. 1953. Thunderstorms in central Asia. Elekt. Stantsii, No.5, pp. 42-44.
(In Russian).
Goodlet, B. L. 1937. Lightning. J. Inst. Electrical Engineers 81:1-26.
Graham, H. E. 1960. Lightning probability forecast. July Fire Control Notes 21(3):
69-74.
Grubb, N. H. 1949. Lightning damage to raspberries. East MaIling Res. Sta. Rept.
1948:81.
Gunn, Ross. 1954. Electric-field regeneration in thunderstorms. J. Meteorol. 11 (2):
130-138.
- - . 1955. Electrification of cloud and rain drops by ionic diffusion and droplet as-
sociation. Science 121 :623-624.
Hagenguth, J. H. 1940. Lightning recording instruments. General Electric Review
43:195-201; 248-255.
--.1947. Photographic study of lightning. AlEE Trans. 66:577-585.
Harder, E. L., and J. M. Clayton. 1951. Lightning phenomena. West. Engr.11:106-111.
- - , and J. M. Clayton. 1952. Properties of lightuing strokes. Electrical World
137(22) :106.
Hardy, Charles E., and James W. Franks. 1963. Forest Fires in Alaska. U. S. Forest
Service Research Paper Int. -5.
Harler, C. R. 1956. The culture and marketing of tea. 2nd ed. Oxford Univ. Press,
London.
Hawkins, S. 1933. Some effects of lightning on tomato plants. Proc. Indiana Acad.
Sci., 42 (1932) :57-59.
Henry, A. J. 1901. Loss of life in the United States from lightning. Weather Bur.
Bull. (30) :21.
- - . 1912. Lightning and lightning conductors. USDA Farmers Bull. 367, orig.
issued 1909.
Hirshberg, B. 1950. Lightning demands respect, not fear. Successful Farmer 48:60+.
Holzer, R. E., E. J. Workman, and L.B. Snoddy. 1938. Photographic study of light-
ning. J. Applied Phys. 9: 134-138.
- - , and E. J. Workman. 1939. Photographs of unusual discharges occurring during
thunderstorms. J. Applied Physics. 10:659-662.

176
 NATURAL HISTORY OF LIGHTNING

Houghton, H. G. 1958. Atmospheric explorations. Publ. jointly by Technology Press,

Mass. Inst. Tech. & John Wiley & Sons, N. Y.
Hudig, J. 1912. The amounts of nitrogen as ammonia and nitric (and nitrous) acid
in the rainwater collected at Uithuizermeeden, Gronigen. J. Agr. Sci. 4:260-
269.
Humphreys, W. J. 1931. Monthly Weather Review. U. S. Weather Bur.
--.1940. Physics of the air. 3rd ed. McGraw-Hill Book Company. New York. 676.
Hylten-Cavallius, N., and A. Stromberg. 1956. The amplitude, time to half-value and
steepness of lightning currents. ASEA J. 29: 129-134.
- - , and A. Stromberg. 1959. Field measurements of lightning currents. Eleknik
2 (7): 109-113.
Immelman, M. N. S. 1938. Point-discharge currents during thunderstorms. The
Philosophical Magazine 25: 159-163. Seventh Series.
Isaac, Leo A. 1963. Fire-a tool not a blanket rule in Douglas-fir ecology. Proc. Sec-
ond Ann. Tall Timbers Fire Ecol. Conf. pp. 1-17. Tall Timbers Res. Sta.
Isted, G. A. 1957. The measurement of world wide thunder-storm activity at a single
locality. Marconi Rev. 20: 130-132.
Ives, R. L. 1938. Weather phenomena of the Colorado Rockies. J. Franklin Inst. 226:
691-755.
Jackson, L. W. R. 1940. Lightning injury of black locust seedlings. Phyto. 30: 183-184.
Jacobs, H. L. 1947. Trees and lightning. Horticulture 25: 365.
- - . 1936. The Dodge, Nebraska, "Fireball." Science 83:574-575.
Jensen, J. C. 1937. The branching of lightning and the polarity of thunderclouds.
AlEE Lightning Ref. Bk. pp. 1075-1086.
Jones, A. T. 1945. The rumbling of thunder. Science 102:407-408.
Jones, L. R., and W. W. Gilbert. 1914. Lightning injury to cotton and potato plants.
Phyto.4:406.
- - , and W. W. Gilbert. 1915. Lightning injury to potato and cotton plants. Phyto.
5:94-101.
- - , and W. W. Gilbert. 1918. Lightning injury to herbaceous plants. Phyto. 8:270-
282.
--.1917. Lightning injury to kale. Phyto. 7:140-142.
- - , W. W. Gardner, and M. W. Gardner. 1918. Lightning injury to crops. Rec-
ords of observations. Phyto. 8:80.
Juritz, C. F. 1914. Chemical composition of rain in the Union of South Africa. So.
Afric. J. Sci. 10: 170-193.
Kandiko, B. A. 1944. Thunderstorm. Cornell Countryman 41:9.
Kauffman, E. 1937. Death in Blackwater Canyon. Am. Forests 43:534-535+.
Keen, W. W. 1925. Struck by lightning. Country Gentlemen. 90:6.
Kellner, L. 1963. Alexander von Humboldt. Oxford Univ. Press, London.
Kichin, J. T. 1953. Lightning strikes tomato plot. N. J. State Hort. Soc. N34:2582+.
Kinney, A. S. 1897. Electro-Germination. Mass. Agr. Expt. Sta. Ann. Rpt. Bull. 43..
Kithgawa, N. 1957. On the mechanism of cloud flash and junction or final process
in flash to ground. Papers Meteorol. Geophys. 7 (4) :415-424.
- - , and M. Brook. 1960. Some aspects of lightning activity and related meteoro-
logical conditions. J. Geophys. Res. 65:1203-1210.
- - , M. Brook, and E. J. Workman. 1960. The role of continuous discharges in
, cloud to-ground lightning. J. Geophys. Res. 65:1965.
Klingelfus, F. 1905. A lightning spiral observed near Basel. Ann. Rept. Smithson. Inst.
(1904) pp. 261-262. (Trans. from Annalan Der Physik, Leipsig No.8, 1904).
Knight, Nicholas. 1911. Nitrogen in rain and snow. Proc. Iowa Acad. Sci. 18:75-77.
Komarek, E. V., Sr. 1962. Fire ecology. Proc. First Ann. Tall Timbers Fire Ecol.
Conf. pp. 95-107 Tall Timbers Res. Sta.

177
E. V. KOMAREK, SR.

- - - . 1963. Fire, research and education. Proc. Second Ann. Tall Timbers Fire Ecol.
Conf. pp. 181-187 Tall Timbers Res. Sta.
Konow, R. V. 1960. The thunderstorm as a chemical phenomena. J. Franklin Inst.
269:439-444.
Kutnewsky, Fremont. 1949. Probing the secret of lightning. Compressed Air Magazine
54:273-275.
Lansing, L. 1939. Weather preceding forest fires in New Hampshire. Am. Meteorol.
Soc. Bull. 20 (1) .
LaRue, C. D. 1921. Lightning injury in Hevea brasiliensis. Phyto. 11:46.
- - . 1922. Lightning injury to Hevea brasiliensis. Malayan Agr. J. 10:234. Abs. in
Phyto-12:386-389.
Lewis, G. F. 1920. Lightning, its origin and control. Presentation 15th Ann. Conv. of
Fire Marshals Assoc. of N. A., New York.
Lightning Protection Institute. 1962. Lightning facts and figures. Lightning Protection
Institute, Chicago, Ill.
Lissman, M. A. 1937. High-voltage phenomena in thunderstorms. AlEE Lightning
Ref. Bk., pp. 455-461.
Loeb, L. B. 1948. The mechanism of lightning discharge. J. Franklin Inst. 246:123-148.
Loebsack, T. 1959. Our atmosphere. Pantheon Books Inc., New York. 256 pages.
London- Meteorological Office. 1936. Analysis of frequency of lightning discharge
(July 1932-Dec. 1934). Geophysical Memoirs, N. 68(1936) p. 12.
Lorant, S. 1646. Notes on the French Settlements. The New World. The first
pictures of America-made by John White and Jacques LeMoyne and en-
graved by Theodore DeBry with contemporary narratives of the Huguenot
• Settlement in Fla. 1562-1565 & the Virginia Colony 1585-1590. Edited &
Annotated by Stefan Lorant. Duell, Sloan & Pearce, New York.
Lund, E. J., and W. A. Kenyon. 1927. Relation between continuous bioelectric cur-
rents and cell respiration. J. Expt. Zool. 48:333-357.
- - - . 1928. Relation between continuous bioelectric currents and cell respiration
II. J. Expt. Zool. 51:265-290.
- - . 1929a. Electric polarity in the Douglas fir. Publ. Puget Sound BioI. Sta. 7:1-28.
- - - . 1929b. The relative electrical dominance of growing points in the Douglas fir.
Publ. Puget Sound BioI. Sta. 7:29-37.
- - . 1930. Internal distribution of the electric correlation potentials in the Douglas
fir. Publ. Puget Sound BioI. Sta. 7:259-287.
- - . 1931a. Electric correlation between living cells in cortex and wood in the
Douglas fir. Plant PhysioI. 6:631-652.
- - - . 1931b. External polarity potentials in the apex of Douglas fir before and after
mechanical stimulation. Plant Physiol. 6:507-517.
- - - . 1932a. Comparison of the effects of temperature on the radial and longitudinal
electric polarities in wood and cortex of Douglas fir. Plant Physiol. 7:505-515.
---.1932b. Control of the flux equilibrium of electrochemical processes and eleCtric
polarity in the Douglas fir by temperature. Plant Physiol. 7:297-307.
Lyon, T. Lyttleton, and Harry O. Buckman. 1948. The nature and properties of soils.
4th ed. Macmillan. pp. 393-394.
MacDougal, J. 1902. J. N. Y. Botanical Gardens 3 (31).
Mactavish, J. S., and M. R. Lockman. 1963. Forest fire losses in Canada. Ottawa,
Canada Forest Res. Branch, Dept. Forests 19 pp.
Maine Forest Commissioner. 1924. Biennial Repts. from 1924-1936.
Marier, D. 1963. Lightning detection with the WSR-57 Radar at Washington Airport.
Memo. to all First Order Sta., Prog. Rept. No. 12, WSR-57 Radar Program,
U. S. Weather Bureau.

178
 NATURAL HISTORY OF LIGHTNING

Masson, O. 1916. The influence of weather conditions upon the amounts of nitrogen
acids in the rainfall and atmosphere in Australia. Rept. British Assoc. Adv. Sci.
86:128-130.
Mathias, A. 1937. German field studies of lightning. AlEE Lightning Ref. Bk. pp.
537-538.
- - . 1943. Lighming. Electric Light and Power 21:91.
McAdie, A. G. 1893. Casualties due to lightning. U. S. Weather Bureau, Rept. of the
chief, page 510.
- - . 1899. Lightning and the electricity in the air. U. S. Weather Bureau Bull. 74,
p.26.
McDonald, W. J. 1939. Fire under the Midnight Sun. Am. Forests 45:168-169+.
McEachron, K. B. 1937. New England lightning checks African Studies. AlEE Light-
ning Ref. Bk. pp. 1321-1322. (Orig. in Elec. World, March 1931, page 490 and
May 5, page 666).
- - . 1940a. Wave shapes of successive lightning current peaks. Electric World
113:56-59; 126-127.
- - . 1940b. Playing with lightning. (in collaboration with Kenneth Patrick). Ran-
dom House, New York.
Meek, J. M. 1939. The mechanism of the lightning discharge. Physical Review
55:972-977.
Meerten, E. J. 1931. Protection of thatched rendavels against lightning. Farming in
South Africa 6:386-387.
Metcalf, W. 1918. Fire protection for grain fields. Calif. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bull. 295.
Berkeley.
Meyer, B. S., and D. B. Anderson. 1952. Plant physiology. D. Van Nostran Co., Inc.,
N.Y.
Miller, E. C.1938. Plant physiology. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York.
Miller, N. H. J. 1905. The amounts of nitrogen as ammonia and as nitric acid and of
chlorine in the rainwater collected at Rothamsted. J. Agr. Sci. 1:280-303.
Miller, Stanley S. 1953. A production of amino acids under possible earth conditions.
Science 117: 528-529.
- - . 1955. Production of some organic compounds under possible primitive earth
conditions. J. Am. Chern. Soc. 77:2351-2361.
Mitsuda, R. 1927. Lightning survey in Japan. General Electric Review 30(3):124-128,
and AlEE Lightning Ref. Bk., pp. 240-244.
Monahan, N. F. 1905. The influence of electrical potential on the growth of plants.
Mass. Agr. Expt. Sta. Ann. Rept. Public Document No. 33.
Montgomery, F. A. 1941. Amber-Gold from ancient trees. Am. Forests 47:163-165+.
Morris, W. G. 1932. A preliminary report on lightning fires. USFS Pacif. N. W.
Forest Expt. Sta., Portland. p. 3.
- - . 1934a. (review by A. F. Hill). Lightning storms and fires on the National
Forests of Oregon and Washington. J. Forestry 32:897-898.
- - . 1934b. Lightning storms and fires on the National Forests of Oregon and
Washington. USFS Pacif. N. W. Forest Expt. Sta. Portland, Oregon.
Munn, M. T. 1915. Lightning injury to onions. Phyto. 5:197.
Norinder, H. 1928. Some electrophysical conditions determining lightning surges.
J. Franklin lnst. 205 (6).
--.1937. On the nature of lightning discharges. AlEE Lightning Ref. Bk. pp. 1277-
1283.
- - . 1950. Lightning protection for buildings in thunderstorm electricity. Rept.
Conf. on Thunderstorm Electricity. Univ. of Chicago, Dept. of Meteorol.
Oakley, K. P. 1954. Evidence of fire in South African cave deposits. Nature 174
(4423): 261-262.

179
E. V. KOMAREK, SR.

Oparin, A. I. 1938. The Origin of -Life. MacMillan. New York. (translation of

Russian edition 1936).
Orton, C. R. 1921. Lightning injury to potatoes and cabbage. Phyto. 11:96-98. illus.
Osborne, H. T. 1931. Lightning on the lookouts. Am. Forests 37:514-518.
Overton, J. B. 1930. Seasonal variations in the hydrostatic-pneumatic system of cer-
tain trees. Am. J. Botany 17:1043.
Peek, F. W., Jr. 1937a. Lightning data and line protection. AlEE Lightning Ref. Bk.
pp. 1071-1074. (Orig. Elec. World, Aug. 20, 1932).
- - . 1937b. AlEE Lightning Ref. Bk. p. 111 (Orig.).
- - . 1937c. Lightning-Characteristics of lightning-AlEE Lightning Ref. Bk. pp.
428-439.
- - . 1937d. Lightning-Progress in lightning research in the field and laboratory.
AlEE Lightning Ref. Bk. pp. 415-427.
Perry, F. R. 1941. The measurement of lightning voltages and currents in South
Africa and Nigeria, 1935 to 1937. J. Inst. Elec. Engineers Vol. 88, Part II, April,
pp.69-87.
- . - , G. H. Webster, and P. W. Baguley. 1942. The measurement of lightning
voltages and currents in Nigeria (Part 2, 1938-1939). J. Inst. Elec. Engineers
Vol. 89, Part II, June, pp. 185-203.
Phillips, J. 1930. Some important communities in the central provinces of Tanganyika
Territory (formerly Geiman East Africa). J. Ecol. 28: 194-232.
Phillips, Walter S. 1962. Fire and vegetation of arid lands. Proc. First Ann. Tall
Timbers Fire Ecol. Conf. pp. 81-93 Tall Timbers Res. Sta.
Pierce, E. T. 1955. The development of lightning discharges. Quart. J. Roy. Meteo-
rol. Soc. 81:229-240; 626-628.
Plummer, F. G. 1912. Lightning in relation to forest fires. USDA Forest Service Bull.
111.
Quast, A. 1952. Lightning losses to cattle and settlement of claims on turkeys. Natl.
Agr. Lib. No. 284:6 Q2.
Rankin, W. H. 1921. Lightning injury of field-grown tomatoes. Canada Expt. Farms,
Interim Rept. Dominion Bot. 1920-21:92-93.
Rao, K. N., and P. K. Raman. 1961. Frequency of days of thunder in India. Indian J.
Meteorol. and Geophysics 12: 103-108.
Reddick, D. 1914. N. Y. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bull. 389:471.
- - . 1918. Lightning injury to grape vines. Phyto. 8.:289.
Reinking, O. A. 1938. Lightning injury in banana plantations. Phyto. 28:224-225.
Reynolds, S. E. 1953. Thunderstorm precipitation growth and electrical charge
generation. Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc. 34(3) :117-123.
Reynolds, R. 1956. Thesis on lightning fires f7-58. Colo. Univ.
Richardson, L. S. 1944. Dairy cows killed by lightning. Am. Vet. Med. Assn. J.
105:67. (also in Holstein World 41:1074, Aug. 1944).
Robertson, 1m. M., W. W. Lewis, and C. M. Foust. 1942. Lightning investigation at
high altitudes in Colorado. AlEE Trans. 61:201-208.
Robertson, William B. 1962. Fire and vegetation in the Everglades. First Ann. Tall
Timbers Fire Ecol. Conf. pp. 66-80 Tall Timbers Res. Sta.
Robinson, R. R. 1960. Forest and range fire control in A.laska. J. Forestry 58:448-453.
Russell, Sir E. John. 1950. Soil conditions and plant growth. 8th ed. p. 304.
- - , and E. H. Richards. 1919. The amount and composition of rain falling at
Rothamsted. J. Agr. Sci. 9:309-337.
Samuel, G. 1940. Lightning injury to potato tubers. Ann. Appl. BioI. 27:196-198.
Schaffner, J. H. 1925. Effect of lightning on trunk of Platanus occidentalis. Bot. Ga:IJ..,
80: 226-227.
Schonland, B. F. J. 1936. Report on work of lightning research committee. Trans.
South African Inst. of Elec. Engineers 27:26-29.

180
 NATURAL HISTORY OF LIGHTNING

- - . 1937a. The diameter of the lightning channel. The Philosophical Magazine

23:503-508, 7th series.
- - . 1937b. The lightning discharge. Trans. South African Inst. Elec. Engineers
28:204-212.
- - . 1938a. Progressive lightning, IV-The discharge mechanism. Proc. Roy. Soc.
London, Series A, 164: 132-150.
- - . 1938b. The lightning discharge (pamphlet). Oxford University Press, London,
England, 20 pp.
- - . 1938c. Photography of lightning in daytime. Nature 141:115.
- - . 1943. Thunderstorms and their electrical effects. Proc. Phys. Soc. 55:445-458.
- - . 1950. The flight of thunderbolts. Oxford at the Clarendon Press.
Schrank, A. R. 1950. Plant Tropisms. Plant Physiol. Vol. 1, Ann. Rev. of Plant
Physiol.
Science News Letter. 1964a. Thunderstorm ozone toxic to onion crops. Sci. News
Letter 85 (11) : 168.
- - . 1946b. Lightning strokes found to come in two sizes. Sci. New Letter 85 (12:
185.
Secor, A. 1926. Lessening the damage from lightning. Successful Farmer 24:27.
Seelhorst, V. 1904. Lightning in beet fields in Europe. (from Jones and Gilbert 1915)
D. Landw. Presse, 31:515. Rubenbeschadigung dursch Blitz.
Sharples, A. 1933a. Lightning storms and their significance in relation to diseases of
(1) Cocos nucifera and (2) Hevea brasiliensis. Annals Applied BioI. 20(1).
Cambridge Univ. Press, London.
- - . 1933b. Injury to coconut palms by lightning. Malayan Agr. J. 21:295-296.
- - . 1933c. Review. Annals Applied BioI. 20(1), Malayan Agr. J. 21:314-320.
Shipley, J. W. 1919. Ammonia and nitrous nitrogen in the rainwater of Southwestern
Alaska. Ohio J. Sci. 19:230-234.
Shulman, M. D., and L. Raniere. 1964. Thunderstorms in New Jersey. N. J. Agr.
46(3):3-5.
Shutt, F. T., and R. L. Dorrance. 1917. The nitrogen compounds in rain and snow.
Proc. and Trans. Roy. Soc. Canada 11 (3) :63-71.
Simpson. G. C. 1929. Lightning. J. Inst. Elec. Eng. London 67:1279.
- - . 1933. Lightning. 20th Kelvin Lecture, Inst. of Elec. Eng. (from Editorial in
Malayan Agr. J. 21:295-296).
- - , and F. J. Scrase. 1937. The distribution of electricity in thunderclouds. Proc.
Roy. Soc. London Series A, 161:309-352.
- - , and G. D. Robinson. 1941. The distribution of electricity in thunderclouds II.
Proc. Roy. Soc. London Series A, 177:281.
Smith, A. L. 1943. Lightning injury to cotton. Phyto. 33: 150-155.
Smith, L. G. 1955. The electric charge of raindrops. Quart. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc.
81:23-47.
- - . 1958. Recent advances in atmospheric electricity. Proc. 2nd Conf. on Atmos.
Elec., Portsmouth, N. H.
Smith, W. C., and A. F. Ayres. 1940. Lightning geography is key to protection.
Electrical West. 85:45-47.
Sorauer, P. 1909. Potatoes. (from Jones & Gilbert 1915). Handb. d Pflanzenkr. 1:495
1909 (3rd ed.).
- - . 1922. Manual of plant diseases. Berlin Trans. by Dorrance, Francis 3rd ed.,
Vol. 1.
Spaulding, Perley. 1912. Notes upon tree diseases in the eastern states. Phyto. 2:93.
Spence, M. T. 1956. Damage to crops by lightning. J. Ministry Agr. 63:387-389.
Stekolnikov, I., and A. Beliakov. 1937. The selection of a path by lightning. Proc.
Internat. Conf. on Large Electric High-Voltage Systems. Paper No. 327, 18 pp.

181
E. V. KOMAREK, SR.

Stevens, N. E. 1916. Recovery of a chestnut tree from a lightning stroke. Phyto.

6(2) :204-206.
- - - . 1918. Lightning in citrus trees in Florida. Phyto. 8:283-285.
Stevenson, J. A. 1917. Lightning injury to sugar cane. Phyto. 7:317-318.
Stickel, P. W. 1932. Weather and forest fire hazard with special references to spruce-
fir region of northern Maine. Ann. Rept. Maine Forestry Comm.
Stoddard, Herbert L., Sr. 1963. Bird habitat and fire. Proc. Second Ann. Tall Timbers
Fire Ecol. Conf. pp. 163-175. Tall Timbers Res. Sta.
Stone, G. E. 1903. Injuries to shade trees from electricity. Mass. Agr. Expt. Sta.
Ann. Rept. Bull. No. 91.
- - - . 1904. The influence of current electricity on plant growth. Mass. Agr. Expt.
Sta. Ann. Rept. Public Document No. 33.
- - - , and G. H. Chapman. 1912. Electrical resistance of trees. Mass. Agr. Expt Sta.
24th Ann. Rept. Public Document No. 31. p. 144.
- - - . 1914. Electrical injuries to trees. Mass. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bull. 156. (from Jones
and Gilbert 1915).
Tamura, Y. 1949. On the distribution of electricity in thunderclouds. J. Geomag.
Geoelectr., Kyoto. 1 (1) :22-25.
- - - , T. Ogawa, and A. O. Okawati.1958. The electrical structure of thunder-
storms. J. Geomagn. Geoelect. 10(1) :20-27.
Taylor, A. R. 1964. Lightning damage to Douglas-fir trees. Fire Control Notes. U. S.
Dept. Agr. 25 (1) :6-7.
Thomas, A. B. 1939. Bioelectrical summarised in. Rec. trav. botan. neerland 36:373-
437.
Tirana, T. W. 1963. Protecting a national treasure. Sunday Mag. The Washington
Star. Oct. 13, 1963.
Tonks, L. 1960. Electromagnetic standing waves and ball lightning. Nature 187:1013-
1014.
Torok, J. J., and W. R. Ellis. 1937. Lightning, its formation and behaviour. AlEE
Lightning Ref. Bk., pp. 1100-1102+. (orig. June 1933, Elec. J.).
Towne, H. M. 1956. Lightning-Its behavior and what to do about it. United
Lightning Protection Assn., Inc., Onandaga, N. Y.
Tracy, S. M. 1895. Ammonia in rain water. Miss. Agr. Expt. Sta. 8th Ann. Rept., p.
102.
United States Forest Service. 1944 to 1963. Annual Fire Reports for the National
Forests. U. S. Dept. of Agr., Forest Service, Washington, D. C.
- - - . 1944 to 1963. Forest Fire Statistics-Annual Reports. Div. of Coop. Forest Fire
Control, U. S. Forest Service, Washington, D. C.
Urey, Harold C. 1952. On the early chemical history of the earth and the origin of
life. Nat. Acad. S~ience Proc. 38:351-363.
Van Doren, M. 1928. The travels of William Bartram. Macy-Masius Publ.
Viemeister, Peter E. 1961. The Lightning Book. Doubleday and Co. Inc., New York.
Visher, S. S. 1948. Thunderstorms. Scientific Monthly 66:335-340.
Vonnegut, B., and Charles B. Moore. 1958. Giant electrical storms in recent advances
in atmospheric electricity, New York. Proc. 2nd Conf. on Atmos. Elec. at
Portsmouth, N. H. ed. L. E. Smith.
- - - , C. B. Moore, and A. T. Botka. 1959. Preliminary results of an experiment to
determine initial precedence of organized electrification and precipitation in
thunderstorms. J. Geophys. Res. 64(3) :347-357.
Wadsworth, F. H. 1943. Lightning damage in ponderosa pine stands of northern
Arizona. J. Forestry 41:684-685.
Wagner, C. F., and E. Beck. 1939. Direct stroke proves length of lightning tail. Elec.
World 112:37; 125.

182
 NATURAL HISTORY OF LIGHTNING

- - , and G. D. McCann. 1940a. New instruments for recording lightning currents.

AlEE Trans. 59: 106-108. supplement.
- - , and G. D. McCann. 1941b. Lightning phenomena: I-General characteristics;
II-Instruments for the measurement of lightning surges; III-Field studies.
Elec. Engineering 60:374-384; 438-443; 483-500.
- - , and G. D. McCann. 1941c. Lightning phenomena. Reprinted from Elec. Eng.,
Aug., Sept., and Oct. 1941. (Reprint 1010, Westinghouse Elec. and Mfg. Co.,
East Pittsburgh, Pa.).
Walker, J. C. 1937. Injury to cabbage by lightning. Phyto. 27:858-861.
--.1950. Plant Pathology. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York. pp. 1-699.
Warmell, A. D. 1953. Lightning. Quart. J. Roy. Meteorol. 79:474-489.
Watson, W. K. R. 1960. A theory of ball lightning formation. Nature 185:449-450.
Weaver, J. E., and F. W. Albertson. 1956. Grasslands of the Great Plains; their nature
and use. Johnsen Publ. Co., Lincoln, Neb.
Weber, G. F. 1931. Lightning injury of potatoes. Phyto. 21:213.
Whipple, O. C. 1941. Injury to tomatoes by lightning. Phyto. 31:1017.
Wilson, Benjamin D. 1921. Nitrogen in the rainwater at Ithaca, New York. Soil
Science 11:101-110.
- - . 1926. Nitrogen and sulfur in rainwater in New York. J. Am. Soc. Agron.
18:1108-1112.
Woodward, E. W. 1926. Trees favored and hated by Jove. Am. Forests 32:259-261.
Workman, E. J., J. W. Beams, and L. B. Snoddy. 1936. Photographic study of light-
ning. Physics 7:375-379.
World Almanac. 1964. Annual fire losses in the United States. The World Almanac.
New York World-Telegram, New York p. 683.
World Meteorological Organization. 1953-1956. World distribution of thunderstorm
days. WMO/Omm No. 21,1953-56. World Meteorological Organization.
Wray, L. 1893a. On the experimental culture of silkworms, etc. Malay States.
- - . 1893b. A note on a lightning discharge in Taiping. Perak Mus. Notes, Taiping,
Perak Govern. Printing Office.
Zim, H. S. 1952. Lightning and thunder. William Morrow & Co., New York.

183