UNIT – 1

1. Define the term political science. Explain its scope (any 6)

An:

• The word Political science comes from a Greek word “polis”, which means “city-state”.
Political science focuses on theory and practice of government and politics at the local
level, state, national and international level.
• Political science is the systematic study of governance.
• The first person to use the term political science was Aristotle, a Greek philosopher who
argued in favor of living a virtuous life.

Meaning

• Political science is the science of state and government. It deals with nature and
formation of state and tricks to understand various forms and functions of government. It
includes understanding political ideas, ideologies, institutional policies, etc.

Definitions

• The word political science was defined in various ways by various thinkers. It was
defined in two ways: a) traditional b)modern

• Traditional definition: Dr. Garner - “Political Science begins and ends with the state”
• Modern View: David Easton - “Politics is the authoritative allocation of values.”

Scope of political science:

1. Study of state or government:

• Political science is the science of state or government.
• It is a part of social science which lays the foundation of state and government.
• It deals with the nature and formation of state and various formations and
functions of state. It conducts scientific study of both state and government.

2. Study of associations and institutions:

• It includes the study of constitutions and comparative public and private
institutions.
• It deals with the nature of associations, explains their merits, demerits, structure
and working.
• These are useful to nation to have unity in society.

3. Study of national and international problems:

 • It covers a wide range and also includes diplomacy international problems,
national laws, organizations, etc.
• It is concerned with the purpose, ends and limits of obligation.
• It takes up political problems and brings up with solutions based on particular
solution and provides framework for the elevation.
4. Study of political behavior of man:
• Political science studies the nature of relationship between an individual and man.
• It mainly concentrates on the behavior of man and the way he adjusts in the
society.
• The state guarantees about certain rights and liberties to its citizens and it also
gives some restrictions.

5. Study of past, present and future:

• Political science studies about the past, present and future needs of the state.
• It deals with the ongoing objective of the state and all the accomplished will and
the objectives of the state.
• It also studies about the future objectives that should be done in future in
particular time.

6. Study of political theory:

• On the basis of political thinkers, political theory is a major branch of political
science.
• Political theory formulated definitions like liberty, democracy, equality, etc.
• The other part of political science is distinct from political theory.

2. What is political theory? Explain its major features.

An:
Introduction:

• Political refers to “matter of public concern”.

• Theory refers to “a systematic knowledge”.
• Political theory refers to “a body of knowledge related to the phenomenon of
state”.

Meaning:

• David held - Political theory is a ‘network of concepts and generalizations about

political life involving ideas, assumptions and statements about the nature,
purpose and key features of government, state and society, and about the political
capabilities of human beings’.
 Features of political theory:

1. Political theory is concerned with the study of the phenomena of the state both in
philosophical as well as empirical terms.
It not only involves explanation, description and prescription regarding the state and
political institutions but also evaluation of their moral philosophical purpose.
2. It helps us to understand the nature or’ the socio-economic system and its problems like
poverty, violence, corruption, ethnicity etc.
3. Political theory helps us to evolve ways and means to change society either through
reform or revolution.
4. Political theory can be viewed as an activity which involves posing questions, developing
responses to those questions and creating imaginative perspectives on the public life of
human beings.
5. Political theory, sometimes also called “normative political theory”, is a subfield of
philosophy and political science that addresses conceptual, normative, and evaluative
questions concerning politics and society.

3. What are the two major theories of political science? Explain normative and
empirical theory.

An:

Normative political theory:

• Normative political theory is concerned with what ought to be. It is concerned

about how world should be and focused on the exploration of values and what
should be done based upon those values.
• In this theory, there is a committed to certain ideals or values like liberty or social
justice and speculation about the type of the state which can achieve those ideals.
• Normative proposes goals and stands that should be achieved, or at least are
desirable even they cannot be achieved at the moment.
• Normative political theory is concerned with norms or normative principles.
• Normative principles can be defined as “ a general directives that tells agents
what to do”
• A normative theory tries to determine what stands ought to be followed in a
political community.
• Norms determine the values of social phenomena and the major point of reference
in the process of judging social phenomena as desirable or undesirable.

Empirical political theory

• Empirical political theory is focused on explaining “ what is through observation”

• In this approach, scholars seek to generate a hypothesis, which is proposed
explained for some phenomena that can test imperially.
• After formulating a hypothesis a study will be designed to test the hypothesis.
 • E.g.: Mary is interested in the role of money in modern senate elections. She
develops a hypothesis that candidates who spend more money on their campaigns
then their opponents will win. Mary then goes about designing a study to test her
hypothesis by examing election results and campaigns finance reporting
disclosure. Mary must be careful to control for other variables that may affect the
result after collecting the data, she will determine through statistical analysis if it
tends to support or not support her hypothesis.

4. Importance of study of political science.

An:

Introduction:

• Political Science is a premier social science. It is mainly concerned with the

study of the state in its relation with society, Citizens, Associations and the world
at large. Aristotle is regarded as the father of political science. He wrote famous
book the politics.

Meaning:

• The world politics is derived from Latin word Polis meaning city. Politics came to
mean the study of state and Government and the institutions of State.

1. Political science explains concepts and theories:

• Political science studies the relations between the individual, society and state. It
helps to protect the liberty and freedom of the individuals. Study of political
science aids to know the political theories, concepts and ethical principles useful
for the creation of the progressive society.

2. Political science examines forms and organs of the government:

• The study of political science enhances the knowledge of the systems of the
governments. It details about monarchy aristocracy, democracy, dictatorship and
other forms of government. It speaks about the organs of the government like
legislature, executive and judiciary, their functions inter relations

3. Political science enlightens on rights and duties:

• Fundamental rights essential for the people to live a good life in a political
society. The observations made in political science help to enlighten the citizens
about their respective rights and duties. All their pros and cons to contribute for a
good citizenship.
 4. Political science provides the knowledge of the political thinkers:

• The study of political science provides knowledge of the political thinkers and
theories which had influenced the world in different times. There were many
political theories which became popular in different times. The philosophers like
Rousseau and Voltaire laid the foundations for French revolution through their
works.
• In the same way the writings of Karl Marx led to revolution in Russia and the
ideas of Mao led to a revolutionary trend in china. Mahatma Gandhi provided
constructive political leadership to Indian freedom struggle. The study of political
science educates about political thinkers.

5. Political science deal with international relations:

• The significance of the political science gradually increased as many sovereign

independent countries joined the world political system. It speaks about inevitable co-
oration between different countries. The international relations as a network became
very important due to the industrial revolution and its effects.
• Modernization, technological development and transport facilities led to formation of
regional groups between neighboring countries resulting I growing importance of
international relations. Study of political science enlightens about all these subjects in
detail.

6. Political science explains word organization:

• The United Nations organization has been put in continuous efforts to promote peace,
co-operation and friendship among nations of the world. Its agencies spread
throughout the world undertaking various activities for the development of human
kind. Political science acquaints us with all these matters.
 UNIT – 2

1. Define state. What are the various elements of state?

An:

• The state is the most universal and most powerful of all social institutions. Aristotle said
man is a social animal and by nature he is a political being. To him, to live in the state
and to be a man were identical.
• The modern term “state” is derived from the word “status”. It was Niccole Machiavelli
who first used the term “state” in his writings. His important work is titled as “Prince”.

Definitions

• Woodrow Wilson –“State is a people organized for law within a definite territory”.
• Burgess - “the state as a particular portion of mankind”.

Elements of State

Population:

• It is the people who make the state. Population is essential for the state. Greek thinkers
were of the view that the population should neither be too big nor too small.
- According to Plato the ideal number would be 5040.
- According to Aristotle, the number should be neither too large nor too small. It
should be large enough to be self – sufficing and small enough to be well
governed.
- Rousseau determined 10,000 to be an ideal number for a state.
- Greek thinkers like Plato and Aristotle thinking on the number was based on
small
- City-states like Athens and Sparta; which are modern states vary in population.

Territory:

• There can be no state without a fixed territory. People need territory to live and organize
them socially and politically.
- It may be remembered that the territory of the state includes land, water and air space.
The modern states differ in their sizes. Territory is necessary for citizenship.
- As in the case of population, no definite size with regard to extent of area of the state can
be fixed. There are small and big states.
Government:

• Government is the third element of the state. There can be no state without government.
Government is the working agency of the state. It is the political organization of the
state. It is defined government as the agency through which the will of the State is
formulated, expressed and realized.

Sovereignty:

• The fourth essential element of the state is sovereignty. The word ‘sovereignty” means
supreme and final legal authority above and beyond which no legal power exists.
- The concept of “sovereignty” was developed in conjunction with the rise of the modern
state. The term Sovereignty is derived from the Latin word ‘superanus’ which means
supreme.
- Sovereignty has two aspects: Internal sovereignty means that the State is supreme over all
its citizens, and associations. External sovereignty means that the state is independent and
free from foreign or outside control.

2. Explain the theory of monistic theory of sovereignty?

An:

• In the 19th century the theory of sovereignty as a legal concept was perfected by John
Austin. He is regarded as a greatest exponent of Monistic Theory.
• According to Austin, in every state there exists an authority to which a large mass of
citizen show obedience. This authority is absolute, unlimited and indivisible.
• Austin’s theory of sovereignty depends mainly upon his view on nature of law.
• Austin’s Law is a command given by a superior to inferiors.
• The main tenets of Austin’s theory of sovereignty are as follows:
1. Sovereign power is essential in every political society. Sovereignty is a person or body of
persons. It is not necessary that sovereign should be a single person. Sovereignty may
reside in many persons also. Austin explains that a Sovereign is not necessarily a single
person, in the modern western world he is rarely so; but he must have so much of the
attributes of a single person as to be a determinate.
2. To Austin state is a legal order, in which there is a supreme authority, which is source of
all powers. Sovereignty is concerned with man, and every state must have human
superior who can issue commands and create laws.
3. Sovereign power is indivisible. Division of sovereignty leads to its destruction. It cannot
be divided.
4. The command of sovereignty is superior to over all individuals and associations.
Sovereign is not bound to obey anyone’s order. His will is supreme. There is no question
of right or wrong, just or unjust, all his commands are to be obeyed.
5. Austin’s theory says that the obedience to sovereign must be habitual. It means that
obedience should be continuous. He also includes that is not necessary that obedience
should come from the whole society. It is sufficient, if it comes from the lay majority of
people.
6. Obedience should come from bulk of the society otherwise there is no sovereign. In brief
we can say that sovereignty according to Austin is supreme, indivisible and
unquestionable.

3. What is a) monism & b) pluralism

An:

a) Monism

• In the 19th century the theory of sovereignty as a legal concept was perfected by John
Austin. He is regarded as a greatest exponent of Monistic Theory.
• According to Austin, in every state there exists an authority to which a large mass of
citizen show obedience. This authority is absolute, unlimited and indivisible.
• Austin’s theory of sovereignty depends mainly upon his view on nature of law.
• Austin’s Law is a command given by a superior to inferiors.
• The main tenets of Austin’s theory of sovereignty are as follows:
i. Sovereign power is essential in every political society. Sovereignty is a person or
body of persons. It is not necessary that sovereign should be a single person.
Sovereignty may reside in many persons also. Austin explains that a Sovereign is not
necessarily a single person, in the modern western world he is rarely so; but he must
have so much of the attributes of a single person as to be a determinate.
ii. To Austin state is a legal order, in which there is a supreme authority, which is source
of all powers. Sovereignty is concerned with man, and every state must have human
superior who can issue commands and create laws.
iii. Sovereign power is indivisible. Division of sovereignty leads to its destruction. It
cannot be divided.
iv. The command of sovereignty is superior to over all individuals and associations.
Sovereign is not bound to obey anyone’s order. His will is supreme. There is no
question of right or wrong, just or unjust, all his commands are to be obeyed.
v. Austin’s theory says that the obedience to sovereign must be habitual. It means that
obedience should be continuous. He also includes that is not necessary that obedience
should come from the whole society. It is sufficient, if it comes from the lay majority
of people.
vi. Obedience should come from bulk of the society otherwise there is no sovereign. In
brief we can say that sovereignty according to Austin is supreme, indivisible and
unquestionable.
 b) Pluralism

Introduction:
Another exponent of pluralist theory Robert M. MacIver propounds that state is one of
the several human associations.

Principles of pluralism:

• The pluralist views that state is simply a state in which there is no single source of
authority.
• They recognized several roles of associations in formed men in pursuance of their
various interests.
• State is not above the various associations as the state itself is an association of
associations.
• They claim the state is superior which possess coercive power but the pluralist
view that the state rather it imposes a higher moral responsibility from the state.
• The pluralist object the view that the society is unified whole they maintained that
there is a diversity rather than unity in society. Even if there is unity it is unity in
diversity.
• He also includes that it is not necessary that obedience should come from the
whole society.
• Obedience should come from bulk of the society otherwise there is no sovereign

Conclusion: in brief we can say that sovereignty according to Austin is supreme,

individual and unquestionable.

4. Discuss the evolutionary theory on the origin of the state.

An:
• The evolutionary theory regarding the origin of the state was neither created by God nor
by the contract. It has grown gradually and many factors have played their part in its
evolution.
• According to Dr. Garner, the state is neither the handiwork of God nor the result of
superior physical force, nor the creation of convention or a contract, nor a mere
expansion of family but an institution of natural growth. The states must have come into
existence owing to a variety of cause, some operating in one place and some in other
places.

Kinship

• Many factors have played their part in the evolution of the state and kinship is the most
important among them. Family was the unit of society at the beginning.
 • The blood relationship brought the members of the family together and they all accepted
the authority of the head of the family. With the passage of time, the family expanded and
the clans came into existence. And with the expansion of clans, tribes came into existence
and ultimately the state came into existence.

Religion

• Another factor which brought the people together in ancient society was religion. The
people who were bound by the blood were also brought together by the bonds of religion.
The worship of a common ancestor and common gods created a sense of social solidarity.
• The priest was considered to have mastery over the forces of nature and this fact created
awe among the people and thus they were willing to obey the orders of such person.
• It is in this way the religion paved way for the evolution of the state.
• According to Gettle, kinship and religion were simply two aspects of the same thing.
Common worship was more important than kinship in making people obey some
authority.
• Even now, religion plays an important part in various parts of the world. States like
Pakistan, Saudi-Arabia, Algeria and Malaysia is created based on religion.

Property and Defense

• The institution of property and the necessity of defense facilitated the creation of the
state. The need for property and defense involves the changes in the methods of
economic production and these changes determine the changes of social relationships.
• The primitive people have passed three main economic stages: the huntsman stage, the
herdsman or pastoral stage and the husbandman or agricultural stage.
• The huntsman just managed to live on with no property except his crude weapons and
tools. When he realized that the domestic animals that he kept as a pet can be kept as a
permanent and can gain more, he became a herdsman and herds and flocks became his
wealth.
• Organized military force was also necessary to check the raids from the neighboring
tribes. In due course of time, the office of the chieftain became hereditary. When the
herdsman settled in a particular territory the state began and agriculture also developed.

Political consciousness

• Political Consciousness also brought the people together. Just as the forces of nature
operated before the discovery of the law of gravitation, political organization really rested
on the community of minds, consciously or unconsciously. When the primitive people
gave up hunting and wandering habits, many changes took place.
 • Population began to multiply, contact increased and wealth began to accumulate and the
idea of property captured the minds of the people. All this required some organization
which could give them order and protection.
• Such a need was felt in the minds of a few natural leaders in the beginning and late on
the idea spread among the people. It is under these circumstances that they got ready to
give their whole hearted support to the state.

Force

• Force also played its part in the evolution of the state. People with stronger military
power were able to establish their hold over those who were weak from the military point
of view. It was the use of physical force that was responsible for the growth of kingdoms
and empires.
• It is the natural instinct of man to live in society and this social instinct must be partly
responsible for the creation of the state. Man is a gregarious animal and he wants to live
in a company of others.

5. Explain the feature of social contract theory.

An:
• The social contract theory has been emerged since the time of the state.
• The names of the great philosophers were John Locke, Thomas Hobbes and Jean
Jacques Rousseau they are known as scholar’s controversialist gave a systematic
explanation to the theory of social contract.
• The term social stands for society where there is individual person’s life two or
more individuals and a group or society.
• The theory states that the society or the state came into a contract it states that the
condition in the state of the nature that point become worst. The people will
surrender some part of their right to the sovereign.

Thomas Hobbes

• Thomas Hobbes sought to justice the absolute power of the sovereign in his
famous work levithan. His view about human nature that man is selfish, all his
passion refers to his self or ego.
• Man is self centered life men thus become a perpetual which acceases only in
death.

John Locke

• He sought to justify that the glorious revolution of 1688. He was an ardent

advocate of constitutional monarchy.
 • According to Locke state of nature was one of the peace, good will, natural
assistance and preservation.
• Therefore in the state of nature people that created trouble, anarchy and disorder.

Jean Jacques Rousseau

• Rousseau was born in Geneva in 1712 but he settled down in Paris after many
wanderings.
• His ideas were elementary criticized and his books were burnt. However, his views
had tremendous influence on the outbreak of the French revolution in 1789.
• His first are those which he owns to himself if men were not endowed with this
Instinet.
• According to him, the individual is free in state because he does not surrender his
rights. Any restrictions on the liberty of individuals are self imposed.

6. Discuss the divine theory of rights.

An:
• Dr. Garner says that the origin of state is the matter of speculation (guessing) and
controversial discursion.
• J.W. Burgess says the state is a gradual and continuous development of human
society impact, towards a perfect and universal organization of mankind.
• Political scientist and historian only imagine the various factors which might have
contributed. Most of the theories are only imaginary.
• This is the oldest theory among the origin of state the right of kings and the state has
been established by and ordinates of God.
• James in his work “The Law of Free Monarchies”, kings are justly called God, for
they exercise a manner of resemblance of divine power on earth, King are
accountable for God only. The people cannot question him for the right or wrong
done by him.
• James has stated the following rights of the king in Law of free Monarchies:
a. Monarchy is divinely oriented.
b. Hereditary right is indispensable.
c. Kings are accountable for God alone.
d. Resistance to lawful king is sin.
• According to this doctrine, king began to become despot (with absolute power and
authority) and tyrant (a ruler with absolute power). This theory was rejected as
unsound in theory.
• The power of the ruler is derived from God for the happy ordering of human life. So,
the moral purpose of Government is paramount (more important than anything else).
 • The theory of the divine origin of the state, later on, was transformed into the theory
of the Divine rights of the state. As a matter of fact, it happened in the 16th and 17th
century.
1. The advent of a more acceptable theory like the social contract theory.
- When Social contract theory came out, it was rejected by people as they realized
that the state is a creation of men and not a grace of God.
2. Reforms for the separation of the church from the state.
- This reformation degraded the value of the divine theory. This movement led to
the non-religious politics. Therefore the secular outlook made the divine theory
completely unacceptable.
3. The emergence of democracy.
- The emergence of democracy gave a big blow for the principles of mixing
religion with politics and thereby it blunted the edge of identifying God with the
King.
- Democracy not only gave value to the individuals but also denied the divine
origin of the slate.
4. The growth of scientific enquiry.
• The growth of scientific temperament and value to the materialism resulted in the
rejection of blind faith and superstition. This encouraged people to accept only
those things which stood the test of rationality and verification.

7. Write a note on a) power & b) pluralism.

An:

a) Power

Meaning:

• Power is central to the study of politics. Politics is nothing but struggle of power.
All state possess power which is one of the most important and essential
components of the state.
• Power is the key concept because if politics is the resolution of conflict it is the
distribution of power within a community that determines how the conflict is to
be resolved.
• Robert Dahl - power as a special case of influence involving losses for non-
compliance.

Features of power:

1. Power is the capacity to influence the behavior of others.

- Power is the capacity of an individual to get things done from others according to
his desires.
2. Power is situational.
- It depends on situation, circumstances and position. An officer any use power and
power authority on his subordinates but they may not accept his power when he
retires.
- The president of India has powers but he does not use them as he is merely a
constitutional head. If the capacity of the person to get work done from others is
devoid of coercion.
3. Power is not absolute but relative only.
- If an individual has power, power depends upon time. Power relation changes
with the change in circumstances.

b) Pluralism

Introduction:

Another exponent of pluralist theory Robert M. MacIver propounds that state is one of
the several human associations.

Principles of pluralism:

• The pluralist views that state is simply a state in which there is no single source of
authority.
• They recognized several roles of associations in formed men in pursuance of their
various interests.
• State is not above the various associations as the state itself is an association of
associations.
• They claim the state is superior which possess coercive power but the pluralist
view that the state rather it imposes a higher moral responsibility from the state.
• The pluralist object the view that the society is unified whole they maintained that
there is a diversity rather than unity in society. Even if there is unity it is unity in
diversity.
• He also includes that it is not necessary that obedience should come from the
whole society.
• Obedience should come from bulk of the society otherwise there is no sovereign

Conclusion: in brief we can say that sovereignty according to Austin is supreme,

individual and unquestionable.
8. Write a note on a) Sovereignty & b) Territory as an element of state.
An:
a) Sovereignty

• Another important element of state is sovereignty. Without sovereignty, there can

be no state in the legal sense.
• It is sovereignty which distinguishes state from other organizations. It is only the
sovereignty which can keep all the sections of the society in its places.
• It is by the virtue of the sovereignty that the state declares its laws and decisions
to issues commands which are binding on all citizens.
• Commands of the state are treated as superior to those of any association or
institution because sovereignty is the sole preserve of the state.
• By virtue of sovereignty, a state deals independently with other states.
• Internal sovereignty means the state is supreme in all the internal matters.
• No other state can be permitted to exercise its authority over the institutions and
people of the state.
• In federal government the power is divided amongst the state and the central, but
sovereignty does not affect in this matter.

b) Territory as an element of state.

• The state is the most universal and most powerful of all social institutions.
Aristotle said man is a social animal and by nature he is a political being. To him,
to live in the state and to be a man were identical.
• The modern term “state” is derived from the word “status”.

• There can be no state without a fixed territory. People need territory to live and
organize them socially and politically.
- It may be remembered that the territory of the state includes land, water and air.
The modern states differ in their sizes. Territory is necessary for citizenship.
- As in the case of population, no definite size with regard to extent of area of the
state can be fixed. There are small and big states.
9. Write an essay on theories on origin of state.
An:

➢ Evolutionary theory on the origin of state

• The evolutionary theory regarding the origin of the state was neither created by God
nor by the contract. It has grown gradually and many factors have played their part in
its evolution.

Kinship

• Kinship is the most important factor. Family was the unit of society at the beginning.
• The blood relationship brought the members of the family together and they all
accepted the authority of the head of the family. With the passage of time, the
family> clans>tribes >state came into existence.

Religion

• The people who were bound by the blood were also brought together by the bonds of
religion. The worship of a common ancestor and common gods created a sense of
social solidarity.
• The priest was considered to have mastery over the forces. It is in this way the
religion paved way for the evolution of the state.
• E.g.: Pakistan, Saudi-Arabia, is created based on religion.

Property and Defense

• The institution of property and the necessity of defense facilitated the creation of the
state. The need for property and defense involves the changes in the methods of
economic production and these changes determine the changes of social relationships.

Political consciousness

• Political Consciousness also brought the people together. When the primitive people
gave up hunting and wandering habits, many changes took place.

Force

• Force also played its part in the evolution of the state. People with stronger military
power were able to establish their hold over those who were weak from the military
point of view. It was the use of physical force that was responsible for the growth of
kingdoms and empires.
 ➢ Social contract theory.
• The social contract theory has been emerged since the time of the state.
• The names of the great philosophers were John Locke, Thomas Hobbes and Jean
Jacques Rousseau they are known as scholar’s controversialist gave a systematic
explanation to the theory of social contract.
• The term social stands for society where there is individual person’s life two or more
individuals and a group or society.
• The theory states that the society or the state came into a contract it states that the
condition in the state of the nature that point become worst. The people will surrender
some part of their right to the sovereign.

Thomas Hobbes

• Thomas Hobbes sought to justice the absolute power of the sovereign in his famous
work levithan. His view about human nature that man is selfish, all his passion refers
to his self or ego.
• Man is self centered life men thus become a perpetual which acceases only in death.

John Locke

• He sought to justify that the glorious revolution of 1688. He was an ardent advocate
of constitutional monarchy.
• According to Locke state of nature was one of the peace, good will, natural assistance
and preservation.
• Therefore in the state of nature people that created trouble, anarchy and disorder.

Jean Jacques Rousseau

• Rousseau was born in Geneva in 1712 but he settled down in Paris after many
wanderings.
• His ideas were elementary criticized and his books were burnt. However, his views
had tremendous influence on the outbreak of the French revolution in 1789.
• His first are those which he owns to himself if men were not endowed with this
Instinet.
• According to him, the individual is free in state because he does not surrender his
rights. Any restrictions on the liberty of individuals are self imposed.

➢ The divine theory of rights.

An:
• Dr. Garner says that the origin of state is the matter of speculation (guessing) and
controversial discursion.
 • Political scientist and historian only imagine the various factors which might have
contributed. Most of the theories are only imaginary.
• This is the oldest theory among the origin of state the right of kings and the state has
been established by and ordinates of God.
• The theory of the divine origin of the state, later on, was transformed into the theory of
the Divine rights of the state. As a matter of fact, it happened in the 16th and 17th
century.
a. The advent of a more acceptable theory like the social contract theory.
- When Social contract theory came out, it was rejected by people as they realized that
the state is a creation of men and not a grace of God.
b. Reforms for the separation of the church from the state.
- This reformation degraded the value of the divine theory. This movement led to the
non-religious politics. Therefore the secular outlook made the divine theory
completely unacceptable.
c. The emergence of democracy.
- The emergence of democracy gave a big blow for the principles of mixing religion
with politics and thereby it blunted the edge of identifying God with the King.
- Democracy not only gave value to the individuals but also denied the divine origin of
the slate.
 UNIT – 3

1. Explain the views of feminist theory on a) liberty, b) Equality & c) Justice

An:

• Feminism is about all genders having equal rights and opportunities. It’s about respecting
diverse women’s experiences, identities, knowledge and strengths, and striving to
empower all women to realize their full rights.
• It is also about leveling the playing field between genders, and ensuring that diverse
women and girls have the same opportunities in life available to boys and men.
• According to Dr. Susan Currie Sivek, Feminism is a movement that seeks equality for
people of any gender. It is founded on the belief that people should be able to pursue any
opportunity and demonstrate any characteristic regardless of gender.

On equality:

• Mary Wollstonecraft's "A Vindication of the Rights of Woman" (1792) was one of the
first steps where women started demanding that women are no less than man though there
are differences in physical structure.
• Wollstonecraft made the case that women's equality to men manifests itself in education
and worker's rights.
• Equality of women has also been a movement in 19th and 20th century that focuses on the
basic similarities between men and women, and whose ultimate goal is the equality of the
sexes in all domains.
• This includes economic and political equality, equal access within the workplace,
freedom from oppressive gender stereotyping, and an androgynous worldview.

On liberty:

• Feminists hold that women should enjoy personal autonomy. That is, they hold that
women should live lives of their own choosing. To enjoy personal autonomy means they
are entitled to a broad range of autonomy-enabling conditions.
• Liberty of women also means opposing laws against sex discrimination in education,
employment, and public accommodations. The state must effectively protect women from
violence, regardless of where that violence takes place.
• In the late eighteenth century, feminists premised legal reform efforts on two distinct
channels of thought; Ellen Dubois, historian and professor at Northwestern University,
terms these positions the "egalitarian-feminist" and the "domestic-feminist" positions.
• The egalitarian-feminist argument was based on the belief that men and women share a
common humanity, and that the denial of this common humanity to women resulted in an
unfair apportionment of rights, privileges, duties, and resources in favor of men. The
 domestic-feminist position, instead, was based on the idea that women are different from
men, arguing that, by insisting that women are the same as men, women will therefore be
regarded as inferior versions of men.

2. Briefly comment on the liberal political theory and their ideas on

a) Liberty & b) Justice.

An:

On Liberty:

• Liberals have typically maintained that humans are naturally in “a State of perfect
Freedom to order their actions.
• Liberals such as Locke not only advocate the Fundamental Liberal Principle, but also
maintain that justified limitations on liberty are fairly modest. Only a limited
government can be justified; indeed, the basic task of government is to protect the
equal liberty of citizens.
• Isaiah Berlin famously advocated a negative conception of liberty where he said that
he is normally free said to the degree to which no man or body of men interferes with
my activity.
- Political liberty in this sense is simply the area within which a man can act
unobstructed by others.
- If I am prevented by others from doing what I could otherwise do, I am to that
degree unfree; and if this area is contracted by other men beyond a certain
minimum, I can be described as being coerced, or, it may be, enslaved.
- Coercion (forcing) implies the deliberate interference of other human beings
within the area in which I could otherwise act.
• For Berlin and those who follow him, then, the heart of liberty is the absence of
forcing by others.
• Many liberals have been attracted to more ‘positive’ conceptions of liberty.

On Justice:

• Since people are born equal, they should have equal political rights and be equal
before the law. Everyone should have equality of opportunity, so that they are able to
benefit from their talents and willingness to work Political and legal justice.
• Social Justice- Individuals are not expected to be equal in economic terms since
prosperity results from individual talents
• Classical liberals – free economy and limited state would guarantee social justice.
• Rawls developed a theory of social justice and equality based on the right to
discriminate in favor of the disadvantaged. The state was expected to create a system
 whereby equality of opportunity was available to all. This could be achieved through
the welfare state, progressive taxation, and positive discrimination.
• Modern liberals- Welfare state needed to deliver social justice, extend social rights
and entitlements. Welfare state provides ‘positive rights’ – health, education, and
housing. Differing levels of ability would still result in inequalities

3. How does the Marxist present their views on equality and justice?

An:

• Marx did not believe in absolute equality of human beings. He was opposed to
leveling. Wherever there are classes in there Marxian sense, there must be inequality.
If there are no classes, there is no equality.
• Societies that have no use for private property such as nomadic and hunting tribes
find it easy to be egalitarian, but societies that enable individuals to collect such
property do not. Marxian analyzes the whole issue of equality and property and
associates it with the abolition of classes and establishment of classless society. To
quote Lenin, “we want to abolish classes and in this sense we are for equality”.

Equality:

• The Marxian view is that inequality emerged with the emergence of the private
property and there will be no inequality after the abolition of private property.
• Societies that have no use for private property such as nomadic and hunting tribes
find it easy to be egalitarian (all people are equal and deserve equal rights and
opportunities), but societies that enable individuals to collect such property do not.
• Marxian analyzes the whole issue of equality and property and associates it with the
abolition of classes and establishment of classless society.
• The Marxian view is that the economic equality is the most fundamental and all other
equalities are based on it. The state cannot create equality in a class divided society
through welfare measures and economic policies

Justice:

• The term justice suggests the equality of being just or right or reasonable. Karl Marx
declared the talk of social justice in a capitalist society. He said that the socialist
failed to realize the irrelevance of the idea of justice to the social problem.
• The concept of justice in a capitalist society is based on the capitalist mode of
production and the capitalist relations of production. The result is that justice has
meaning for those only who own the means of production. For the working classes,
this justice in form is injustice in reality. There will be justice for the working classes
only when the means of production were collectivized and the exploiters were
expropriated.
 UNIT – 4

1. Define law. Explain various sources of law.

An:

Introduction

• Law is an important concept in the study of political science. It is an important feature

of modern state. Law regulates the external behavior of individuals. It determines and
regulates the nature of individual’s activities.

Meaning

• The term law is derived from German word “lag” which means “to lay”, “to set” or
something fixed.
• John Austin – law is command of the sovereign.

Sources of the law: law is a product of history. It has passed through various stages of
development. Several elements have contributed to its elevation. In legal sense, the state is the
main source of law. The six types of law are:

1. Customs, practices and traditions:

• There is one of the important sources of law. In primitive societies, there were no
written forms of law. All the disputes were solved according to social customs and
traditions.
• Customs regulated the social life in the societies. Customs and laws cannot be laws in
practical sense. But when the state recognizes such traditions, they in turn become
laws. E.g. the laws of marriage and divorce in present times were the traditions from
the past itself.

2. Religion:

• In ancient times customary laws and religious laws were mixed. The religious teachers
enjoyed unlimited power in that time. The private men believed that the judgments of
the religious teachers had divine sanction.
• The ancient religious laws were merely the religious laws. The Hindu and Muslims
laws derived mainly inspiration from religion.

3. Judicial Decisions

• The judgments of judges also serve as a source of law. Generally judges interpret laws
and apply them to particular cases and deliver judgments. Their judgments become
 precedents and are usually followed by other judges in similar cases. In course of time
such judgments acquire the status of law.
• In this way judges add laws to the country. There are many instances that new laws
have evolved by way of interpretation.

4. Scientific commentaries

• These are the great works of jurists the views of the jurist have expressed in their works
acts as an important source of law. The jurist collect and compare the past customs and
laws with those of the present.
• While doing so, they point out the defects in the existing laws and suggest ways for their
improvement the view of the jurist however, do not become laws. But they become laws
when they are recognized by the courts.

5. Equality

• Equality means fairness or justice. It is also a kind of judge made law. It is an informal
way of making new law. Sometimes the court may be confronted with the disputes about
which the law is silent.
• Under such situations the judge will give relief to the aggrieved party by using the
principles of social justice and common sense. In source of time they acquire the status of
law.

6. Legislature.

• This is the most and important source of law. Most of the laws now a day are passed by
the legislature only. However legislature is regarded as the ‘law making body’. They
frame new laws amend the existing laws and if necessary, abolish old laws. The other
sources of laws have been replaced by the legislature.
• This however, does not mean that have no role in play in influencing laws. While framing
laws the legislature bear in mind the customs, religious practices, judicial decisions, etc.

2. Explain the various types of law. Explain any 6

An:

Many political thinkers gave their classification on laws in different ways. Of them the
classification given by MacIver is mentioned worthy which are

1. Natural laws
• Natural law is known as divine law. It is abstract. It is not created by any human
agency. It is considered as the gift of nature, based on metaphysical power.
 • It refers to the use of reason to analyze human nature. It is written in the hearts of
human beings by the finger of God.

2. Positive law

• Positive law is created by the human agency. It is known as human agency. It is framed
on the bases of existing social and political conditions. It is sanctioned by the sovereign
political authority. Violation of positive laws leads to punishments.

3. Constitutional law

• It is basic law of any state. It defines political system. All the basic principles of
administration are included in this type. All the other laws in the state are subservient to
constitutional laws. It is framed by the constituent assembly.

4. Ordinary law

• It determines the relation between the state administration and people. These laws are
formed by a group of officials authorized by the law.

5. Public law

• It regulates the relationship between people and the state. These laws are formulated by
state for society.

6. Private law

• It regulated relationship between the citizens. It protects the rights of the citizens. It also
known as civil law.

7. Administrative law

• It regulates the administrative relations between the authorities and the people.
Administrative laws bring discipline among the personnel in the government. Now its
implementing in France and India.

8. General Law

• It deals with the private affairs of individual in relation to the state. It covers the laws
relating to marriage, divorce, contract, etc.

9. Common law

• It is a customary law. It is a product of customs and traditions which are popular among
the people. The courts accept common law as a part of legal system.
3. Explain political concepts a) citizenship & b) duties

An:

a) Citizenship

Introduction

• Citizenship is a privilege of individual residing in democratic states. People held that

citizenship enables them to lead a happy, honorable and harmonious life in the state.
Citizenship instills the feeling of patriotism, sacrifice, broad outlook etc. among the
people.

Definitions

• Prof. Laski – citizenship is ones contribution of instructed judgment to the public good.

Types of citizenship

• There are three types of citizenship. They are:

1. Single citizenship
• It means possessing one type of citizenship, identical rights, privileges and immunities by
the citizens. Citizens enjoy this type of citizenship without any discrimination. It is
prevalent in many states in the modern period. For instance the constitution of India
provided for single citizenship to every Indian citizen irrespective of his birth place,
residence, etc.

2. Dual citizenship

• Dual citizenship possession of two citizenships in two states. It is in vogue in some

developed and developing countries. For instance, children born to American state
another in the state where they are born.
• However, persons having dual citizenship are not entitled to the special privileges. They
are subject to the laws of both countries. Dual citizenship applies to the children until
they attain adulthood. Later they have to choose citizenship of one of the two states.

3. Global or Universal citizenship

• It is the latest phenomena in the contemporary international and national policies, the
dramatic events that took place after 1980s and 1990s created great awareness among the
people all over the world.
b) Duties

• Duty is an obligation of an individual towards other individuals residing in the society. It

is regarded as an obligation or duty towards others. The term duty denotes what one is
bond to do.
• Every individual must abide by certain rules of behavior in society for his own good and
for the good for others. These include dos and don’ts. Duties are both positive and
negative in nature.

Types of duties: they are of two types moral and legal.

1. Normal duties

• Moral duties are those which bound the individuals together on moral grounds. They may
not be upheld and supported by the laws of the state. They are based on the moral beliefs
of the people. They are sanctioned by the community basing on some customs, traditions
and usages. Any violation of moral duties may lead to punishments.

2. Legal duties

• Legal duties are implemented through the courts and with the support of the statutory
laws. They carry statutory significance. They are very clear and precise. They are
compulsory and coercive in nature. So those who violate these duties will be punished.
They are of two types: Positive duties and Negative duties.

4. Define rights. Explain any 6 political rights.

An:

Introduction

• Rights are essential conditions for the development of the personality of the individuals.
They are upheld by the laws of the state. They are regarded as a power or privilege which
the law invests in a person.
• They are treated as the sum of total of the opportunities meant for enhancing ones
personality. Individuals cannot achieve progress in the absence of the rights.

Political rights are those rights which enable the individuals to participate in the political affairs
of the state.

Types of political rights

 1. Right to vote
• Right to vote is a most important feature enjoyed by the citizens in modern
democratic states. It serves as a powerful weapon for adult citizens in choosing
their representatives to various legislative bodies. It makes them as real sovereign.
• All the citizens are entitled to this right without any discrimination based on
creed, color, language, race, religion. Sex, etc. however persons such as aliens and
minors are deprived of this right
2. Right to contest in elections
• The right empowers the citizens to contest as candidates to various legislative
bodies in the state. It increases political enthusiasm among the citizens. Such an
element is considered as a base of democratic policy.
3. Right to hold public affairs.
• This right provides opportunities to the citizens to hold various public offices for
a definite period. It gives no scope for exclusion of citizens to excersice authority
in a dignified manner.
4. Right to petition
• This right enables the citizens to forward petitions denoting their requirements. It
is considered as a vital political right in the modern state.
• The citizens could be able to find solutions to their immediate or long pending
issues by bringing them to the notice of the government through this right.
• It also helps the public authorities to know the grievances of the people and to
attend to them properly and promptly.
5. Right to criticism
• This right gives opportunity to the citizens to criticize the various public policies
and programmers. It also enables them to highlight the omission and commission
of the leaders and administrative personnel at various levels.
• It also gives scope for the citizens to render positive and constructive criticism
about the on goings in the government from time to time; ultimately it keeps the
administrative authorities and policies makers to be vigilant in discharging their
obligations.

5. What are civil rights? Explain any 6 civil rights with suitable examples

An:

• Civil rights aim at providing basic conditions for individual to lead a happy and dignified
life. These rights are considered vital for a civilized society. Social life becomes
impossible in their absence.
• Individuals in a civilized society enjoy the following rights
1. Right to life

This is most important civil right. This right provides security to individual’s life
individuals cannot lead their lives in the absence of this right. This right is based on the
premise that the life of an individual is valuable not only to himself but also to the society
and the state as a whole.

• Hence it prescribes at large the state to extend protection to the life of individuals.
However, it empowers the state to impose some reasonable restrictions upon the
individuals. The state can insist any person to sacrifice his life for the sake of the
nation. This right also includes the right of self defense.
2. Right to liberty
• This right enables individuals to have freedom in various walks of life. It makes
their lives worth living. It enables them to develop their personality in various
spheres.
• It includes various freedoms such as freedom of movement, speech, expression,
thought, residence, etc.
3. Right to equality
• This right implies that individuals are equal before the law. It forbids
discrimination on the basis of one’s caste, creed, education, region, race, religion,
wealth, etc.
• It enables equal treatment to all persons. It provides scope for uniform application
of laws. It enables equal opportunities to all persons in social, economic and
political fields.
4. Right to property
• This right enables every individual to acquire, enjoy, donate or inherit the
property. It is essential to the individual for securing higher standards of living.
This right is crucial for the growth of individual’s personality.
5. Right to religion
• This right allows the individuals to have freedom to practice, propagate and
profess any religion of their choice. Every individual is at liberty to preach or
practice the religious doctrines as they like. The secular states provide religious
freedoms to their citizens.
6. Right to education
• In the modern era education is regarded as vital to every individual. Uneducated
and innocent individuals cannot play an active role in public affairs.
• Similarly, illiterate persons cannot fully make use of their abilities. Education and
literacy enable the people to understand the problems of the society and policies
of the government.
• This right guarantees a minimum level of education to every citizen in democratic
states.
6. Explain the term human rights. What are the types of human rights?

An:

• Human rights are rights we have simply because we exist as human beings;
they are not granted by any state. These universal rights are inherent to us all,
regardless of nationality, sex, national or ethnic origin, color, religion,
language, or any other status.
• They range from the most fundamental the right to life to those that make life
worth living, such as the rights to food, education, work, health, and liberty.
• The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), adopted by the UN
General Assembly in 1948, was the first legal document to set out the
fundamental human rights to be universally protected.
• The UDHR, which turned 70 in 2018, continues to be the foundation of all
international human rights law.
• Its 30 articles provide the principles and building blocks of current and future
human rights conventions, treaties and other legal instruments.

Features of human rights

Universal

• The principle of universality of human rights is the cornerstone of

international human rights law. This means that we are all equally entitled to
our human rights.
• This principle, as first emphasized in the UDHR, is repeated in many
international human rights conventions, declarations, and resolutions.

Inalienable

• They should not be taken away, except in specific situations and according to
due process. For example, the right to liberty may be restricted if a person is
found guilty of a crime by a court of law.

Indivisible and interdependent

• All human rights are indivisible and interdependent. This means that one set
of rights cannot be enjoyed fully without the other. For example, making
progress in civil and political rights makes it easier to exercise economic,
social and cultural rights.
 • Similarly, violating economic, social and cultural rights can negatively affect
many other rights.

Equal and non-discriminatory

• Article 1 of the UDHR states: "All human beings are born free and equal in
dignity and rights." Freedom from discrimination, set out in Article 2, is what
ensures this equality.

Civil and political rights (first generation rights)

• These rights began to emerge as a theory during the seventeenth and

eighteenth centuries and were based mostly on political concerns. It had begun
to be recognized that there were certain things that the all-powerful rulers
should not be able to do and that people should have some influence over the
policies that affected them. The two central ideas were those of personal
liberty, and of protecting the individual against violations by the state.

Social, economic and cultural rights (second generation rights)

• These rights concern how people live and work together and the basic
necessities of life. They are based on the ideas of equality and guaranteed
access to essential social and economic goods, services, and opportunities
• They became increasingly a subject of international recognition with the
effects of early industrialization and the rise of a working class. These led to
new demands and new ideas about the meaning of a life of dignity.

Solidarity rights (third generation rights)

• The idea at the basis of the third generation of rights is that of solidarity; and
the rights embrace collective rights of society or peoples, such as the right to
sustainable development, to peace or to a healthy environment.
• In much of the world, conditions such as extreme poverty, war, ecological and
natural disasters have meant that there has been only very limited progress in
respect of human rights. For that reason, many people have felt that the
recognition of a new category of human rights is necessary: these rights would
ensure the appropriate conditions for societies, particularly in the developing
world, to be able to provide the first and second generation rights that have
already been recognized.
7. Write a note on a) Human Rights & b) Women Rights

An:

a) Human rights

• Human rights are rights we have simply because we exist as human beings;
they are not granted by any state. These universal rights are inherent to us all,
regardless of nationality, sex, national or ethnic origin, color, religion,
language, or any other status.
• They range from the most fundamental the right to life to those that make life
worth living, such as the rights to food, education, work, health, and liberty.
• The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), adopted by the UN
General Assembly in 1948, was the first legal document to set out the
fundamental human rights to be universally protected.

b) Women rights
• Women have struggled for equality and against oppression for centuries, and
although some battles have been partly won – such as the right to vote and
equal access to education – women are still disproportionally affected by all
forms of violence and by discrimination in every aspect of life.
• Women’s rights are the fundamental human rights that were enshrined by the
United Nations for every human being on the planet nearly 70 years ago.
These rights include the right to live free from violence, slavery, and
discrimination; to be educated; to own property; to vote; and to earn a fair and
equal wage.
• As the now-famous saying goes, “women’s rights are human rights.” That is
to say, women are entitled to all of these rights. Yet almost everywhere
around the world, women and girls are still denied them, often simply because
of their gender.
a. Natural rights
b. Right to movement
c. Equal employment
d. Right to vote
e. Property rights
f. Informing women about their legal rights
g. Right to health
h. Right to education.
 UNIT – 5

1. Define the Socialism and explain its features.

An:

Features of Socialism:

1. More emphasis on society.

2. Elimination of capitalism.

3. Stands for equality.

4. Elimination of private property.

5. Considers state as an instrument of exploitation.

6. Elimination of competition.

2. What is Nationalism? Explain the factors of Nationalism

An:

• National is a spiritual concept which originates in the people having the same race,
language, traditions and cultures, religion inhabiting a territory of a geographic unity.
• Hans Kohn writes, Nationalism is a state of mind, permeating the large majority of
people and claiming to permeate all its members. It recognizes the nation state as the
ideal form of political organization and the nationality as the source of all creativity
energy and of economic well being.
• The supreme loyalty is therefore due to his nationality as his own life is supposedly
rooted in and made possible by its welfare.

Factors for the growth of nationalism:

1. Common territory or geographical unity

2. Common historical background

3. Common interest of the people

4. Common race

5. Common language

6. Common religion
7. Common suffering

8. Merits and demerits

9. Creates love for the country

10. Preserves national culture

11. Healthy spirit of national rivalry

12. Demands liberation of every country

13. Checked the tide of imperialism

3. Define liberalism. Discuss the features of Liberalism.

An:

• The word liberal is derived from the Latin word liber who means free men Liberal is also
a derivative of liber. The central idea of all these words is freedom or liberty. Liberal also
denotes generosity or open-mindedness. Open-mindedness/generosity indicates liberty in
taking food, drink, social attitude, behavior and selection of the alternatives.
• Liberalism is a group of political, social and economic theories that centers on the values
of individual liberty, equality, economic freedom, limited and democratic government
and the rule of law.

Elements of liberalism:

Individualism:

• Individualism is the central idea or theme of liberalism. It believes that the interests or
welfare of the individual should be given primacy over all other values and principles.
Individual is the basic concept of political theory and arrangements shall be made to
safeguard his interest.
• Liberalism says that since a political system consists of individuals it should be the chief
objective of this system to see that their interests are fully protected and the individuals
are quite capable of doing their own job. The role of the state is to some extent like a
night watchman.

Freedom:

• Another important core value, principle or element of liberalism is freedom. To the

liberals it is the value of supreme importance because without it the individual will
simply be a unit without any dignity.
 • Moreover, liberty or freedom is the best vehicle for developing the best qualities. But the
liberals do not advocate for absolute or unrestricted freedom because freedom/liberty will
do more harm.

Reason:

• Liberalism harbors upon reason. To put it in other words, liberalism and reason are
inseparable from each other. Mention has been made earlier that liberalism partially the
product of Enlightenment which strongly emphasizes that man is rational being and
guided by reason and rationality.
• The advent of Enlightenment emancipated man from age- old superstition, ignorance and
bondage. Enlightenment also established the age of reason. Since individuals are rational
and reasonable they are quite capable of taking any decision and to judge what is good
and what is bad for them.

Toleration:

• Toleration is another important element of liberalism. In any society there is found

different opinions, religious sects or communities of belief and faith. All of them must
live side by side peacefully and for this is required toleration.
• Also various ideologies and opinions make a society diverse. It is the basic feature of
any society. Liberalism believes that all these diversities must exist side by side.

Equality

• Liberalism is based on another principle and it is equality. In any society all the
individuals cannot claim same levels of merit, intelligence and capacity of hard work and
in that case there must raise clear differences in remuneration. This must be admitted.
• Idleness and hard work cannot be equally remunerated and if done so that will make way
for the appearance of gross injustice. None will be ready to demonstrate his ability. This
type of social inequality does not infringe upon the concept of equality.
• Equality as a principle in political science asserts that none will be allowed to enjoy
special privileges ignoring the common minimum privileges to which everyone has
legitimate claims.

Justice

• Though justice is a principle of both socialism and liberalism, the latter gives it more
importance and politically declares that the very basis of liberalism is justice. It is the
declared policy of liberalism that each individual will have his due share and since all
men are born equal none can deprive other of the share.
• All the persons have same status in society and there shall be an atmosphere so that
people can enjoy the status. “Liberals, fiercely disapprove of any social privileges or
 advantages that are enjoyed by some but denied to others on the basis of factors such as
gender, race, color, creed, religion or social background.
• Rights should not be reserved for any particular class of persons. The most important
forms of equality are legal equality and political equality”. Liberal conception of justice
further draws our attention to the point that the door of opportunity shall be open to all.
Everyone will get the chance to have a share of opportunity. Liberalism also speaks of
social equality.
 UNIT – 6

1. What do you mean by legislature? Discuss the types of legislature

a) Unicameral & b) Bicameral

An:

• The term ‘legislature’ is a generic term meaning a body which legislates. The term “Legg
– law” and “lature - the place” and “Legislature - a place for law-making”.
• Another term, which is used as a synonym of Legislature, is ‘Parliament.’ This word
stands derived from the French word ‘Parley’ which means to ‘talk’ or to discuss and
deliberate.
• The legislature is that organ of the government which passes the laws of the government.
It is the agency which has the responsibility to formulate the will of the state and vest it
with legal authority and force.
• In simple words, the legislature is that organ of the government which formulates laws.
Legislature enjoys a very special and important in every democratic state. It is the
assembly of the elected representatives of the people and represents national public
opinion and power of the people.

Types of legislature:

Bicameral and Unicameral Legislatures:

• A modern legislature is either Bicameral or Unicameral. Bicameralism means a

legislature with two houses/chambers while uni-cameralism means a legislature with a
single house/chamber. A large number of modern legislatures, particularly of big states,
are bicameral i.e. legislatures with two houses (Bi = Two, Cameral = House).
• However several states, mostly the small states and provinces of a federal system, have
unicameral legislatures, i.e. legislatures with single houses. Where the legislature is
bicameral, “the first house is usually called the lower house, and the second house is
called the upper house.
• India, USA, UK, France, Russia, Switzerland, Australia and a large number of other
states have bicameral legislature. 22 states of India have bicameral legislatures.
• The unicameral legislatures are working in China, New Zealand, Zimbabwe, Turkey,
Portugal and several other states. The state legislatures of all the Canadian and Swiss
cantons (provisions) are unicameral.
2. What are the powers and functions of the legislature?

An:

Functions of a Legislature:

1. Legislative or Law-making Functions:

• The first and foremost function of a legislature is to legislate i.e. to make laws. In ancient
times, laws used to be either derived from customs, traditions and religious scriptures, or
were issued by the kings as their commands.
• However, in the contemporary era of democracy, legislature is the chief source of law. It
is the legislature which formulates the will of the state into laws and gives it a legal
character. Legislature transforms the demands of the people into authoritative
laws/statutes.

2. Deliberative Functions:

• To deliberate upon matters of national importance, public issues, problems and needs is
an important function of a modern legislature. Through this function, the legislature
reflects the public opinion over various issues. The debates held in the legislature have a
great educative value for the people.

3. Custodian of National Finances:

• A near universal rule is that “the legislature of the state is the custodian of national
purse.” It holds the purse of the nation and controls the finances. No money can be raised
or spent by the executive without the approval of the legislature.
• Each year the executive has to prepare and get passed from the legislature the budget for
the coming financial year. In the budget, the executive has to place the account of the
actual income and expenditure of the previous year and estimated income and
expenditure for the New Year.
• Not only the legislature passes the budget but also it alone can approve the imposition, or
repeal or collection of any tax whatsoever.

4. Control over the

• of government, like the one which is at work in India, for all its actions, decisions, and
policies, the executive is collectively responsible before the legislature. It is accountable
before the legislature.
• The legislature has the power to remove the executive by passing a vote of no-confidence
or by rejecting a policy or budget or law of the executive.

The Prime Minister Executive:

 • A modern legislature has the power to exercise control over the executive. In a
parliamentary system and all other ministers are essentially the members of the
legislature. They are bound by the rules and procedures of the Parliament.
• In a Presidential form of government, like the one which is at work in the USA, the
legislature exercises some checks over the executive. It can appoint investigation
committees to probe the functioning of government departments.

5. Constituent Functions:

• In almost every state, it is the legislature which has the power to amend the constitution.
For this purpose legislature has to pass special laws, called amendments, in accordance
with the procedure laid down in the Constitution.
• In some states the requirement is that the legislature must pass the amendment with 2/3rd
or 3/4th or an absolute majority of votes.

6. Electoral Functions:

• A legislature usually performs some electoral functions. The two houses of the Indian
Parliament elect the Vice-President. All elected MPs and MLAs form the Electoral
College which elects the President of India.
• In Switzerland, the Federal Legislature elects the members of the Federal Council
(Executive) and the Federal Tribunal (Judiciary).

7. Judicial Functions:

• It is customary to give some judicial power to the legislature. Usually, the legislature is
assigned to act as a court of impeachment i.e. as an investigating court for trying high
public officials on charges of treason, misdemeanor and high crimes and remove them
from office.
• In India, the Union Parliament can impeach the President. It has also the power to pass a
resolution for the removal of Judges of the Supreme Court and of the High Court’s on the
ground of misbehavior or incapacity.

3. Explain the term Executive and discuss the powers and function of the Executive?

An:

• It is that organ which implements the laws passed by the legislature and the policies of
the government. The rise of welfare state has tremendously increased the functions of the
state, and in reality of the executive.
• In common usage people tend to identify the executive with the government.
 • The term ‘Executive’ has been defined both in its broad and narrow forms. In its broad
form, it is taken to mean all the functionaries, political power-holders (Political
Executive) and permanent civil servants who undertake the execution of laws and
policies and run the administration of state.
• In its narrow form, it is taken to mean only the executive head (ministers i.e. the political
Executive), who head the government departments, formulate the policies and supervise
the implementation of the laws and policies of the government. In the narrow form, the
civil service and its administrative functions are not included in the realm of the
Executive.

Two Parts of Executive:

(i) The Political Executive (Ministers):

(ii) The Non-political Permanent Executive (Civil Servants)

Functions of executive:

1. Enforcement of Laws:

• The primary function of executive is to enforce laws and to maintain law and order in the
state. Whenever a breach of law takes place, it is the responsibility of the executive to
plug the breach and bring the offenders to book.
• Each government department is responsible for the implementation of the laws and
policies concerning its work. For maintaining law and order in the state, the executive
organizes and maintains the police force.

2. Appointment-making Functions:

• All major appointments are made by the chief executive. As for example, the President of
India appoints the Chief Justice and other Judges of the Supreme Court and High Courts.
Ambassadors, Advocate General of India, Members of Union Public Service
Commission, Governors of States etc.
• Likewise, the President of the United States makes a very large number of key
appointments. All the secretaries who head various government departments, Judges of
the Supreme Court and other Federal Courts, the Federal officials in the States etc., are
appointed by the US President. However, all such appointments require the approval of
the US Senate (Upper House US Congress i.e. Parliament).
3. Treaty-making Functions:

• It is the responsibility of the executive to decide as to which treaties are to be signed with
which other countries. The executive negotiates the treaties in accordance with the
procedure defined by international law and also in accordance with the provisions the
constitution of the state.

4. Defense, War and Peace Functions:

• One of the key functions of the state is to defend and preserve the unity and integrity of
the country and protect it in the event of an external aggression or war. It is the
responsibility of the executive to undertake this work.
• To organize military for the defense of the state, to prepare for and fight the war, if it
becomes necessary, and to negotiate and sign peace settlement after every war, are the
functions performed by the executive.
• The executive is the final judge of the nature of the threat to the security of the country. It
has the prime responsibility to take all such steps as are needed in the interest of the
security and integrity of the state. The chief executive of the state is also the supreme
commander of the armed forces of the state.

5. Foreign Policy-making and the Conduct of Foreign Relations:

• In this age of ever-increasing global interdependence, it has become one of the most
important functions of a government to formulate the foreign policy of the state and to
conduct foreign relations. This function is also performed by the executive.
• The executive formulates the goals of national interest and fixes the priorities. It first
formulates the foreign policy of the nation and then implements it for securing the
defined goals of national interest. The executive appoints the ambassadors of the state to
other states.

6. Financial Functions:

• It is the legislature which is the custodian of all finances. It has the power to impose, or
reduce or eliminate a tax. However, in actual practice, the executive exercises a number
of financial functions. It has the responsibility prepare the budget. It proposes the levy of
new taxes or changes in tax structure and administration. It collects and spends the
money as sanctioned by the legislature.

7. Law-making under the system of Delegated Legislation:

• The system of delegated legislation has considerably increased the law- making role of
the executive. Under this system, the legislature delegates some of its law-making powers
to the executive. The executive then makes rules on the basis of these powers. The
 amount of delegated legislation made by the executive far out-weighs the laws passed by
the legislature.

4. What do you mean by a) Parliamentary Executive b) Plural Executive & c) Real

Executive? Explain them briefly with suitable examples.

An:

5. What are the powers and junctions of the judiciary? Explain any six.

An:

• The judiciary is the system of courts that interprets, defends and applies the law in the
name of the state. The judiciary can also be thought of as the mechanism for the
resolution of disputes.

Functions of judiciary:

6. Explain the meaning and importance of judicial review in the modern days.

An:

• Judicial review is a process under which executive or legislative actions are subject to
review by the judiciary. A court with authority for judicial review may invalidate laws,
acts and governmental actions that are incompatible with a higher authority: an executive
decision may be invalidated for being unlawful or a statute may be invalidated for
violating the terms of a constitution.

Importance of judicial review:

1) The court reviews the laws and rules of the legislature and the executive in cases that
come before them in litigation cases.

2) The court determines the constitutional validity of the law and rules of the government.

3) The court rejects that law or any part of it is found to be unconstitutional or against the
constitution.
7. What is a) Judicial activism b) Judicial review

An:

Judicial activism

• It is a concept that originated in the US in 1947 which was coined by the American
historian Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., in an article in Fortune. The judiciary plays an
important role in upholding and promoting the rights of citizens in a country.
• The active role of the judiciary in upholding the rights of citizens and preserving the
constitutional and legal system of the country is known as judicial activism.
• Judicial activism is a judicial philosophy that the courts can and should go beyond the
applicable law to consider broader societal implications of its decisions.
• It is sometimes used as an antonym of judicial restraint. It is usually a pejorative term,
implying that judges make rulings based on their own political agenda rather than
precedent.

b) Judicial Review

• Judicial review is a process under which executive or legislative actions are subject to
review by the judiciary. A court with authority for judicial review may invalidate laws,
acts and governmental actions that are incompatible with a higher authority: an executive
decision may be invalidated for being unlawful or a statute may be invalidated for
violating the terms of a constitution.

Importance of judicial review:

1) The court reviews the laws and rules of the legislature and the executive in cases that
come before them in litigation cases.

2) The court determines the constitutional validity of the law and rules of the government.

3) The court rejects that law or any part of it is found to be unconstitutional or against the
constitution.

8. What are political parties? Explain the types of political parties with suitable examples.

An:

• A political party is defined as an organized group of people with at least roughly similar
political aims and opinions, that seeks to influence public policy by getting its candidates
elected to public office.
 • Political parties are often described as institutionalized mediators between civil society
and those who decide and implement decisions. As such, they enable their members’ and
supporters’ demands to be addressed in parliament and in government.
• Even though parties fulfill many vital roles and perform several functions in a democratic
society, the nomination and presentation of candidates in the electoral campaign is the
most visible function to the electorate.

Role of political parties:

1. Contesting elections by identifying members and supporters.

2. Forming of Government.

3. Educating voters and citizens in the functioning of the political and electoral system and the
generation of general political values.

4. Balancing opposing demands and converting them into general policies.

5. Activating and mobilizing citizens into participating in political decisions and transforming
their opinions into viable policy options.

6. Presenting public opinion from citizens to government.

7. Recruiting and training candidates for public office.

9. What do you mean by bi-party? What are its merits and demerits?

An:

10. Make a note on the role of a) Pressure Groups & b) Media in a Democracy.

An:

a) Pressure groups

• A pressure group or an interest group is an association of people having common interest

who try to achieve that object by influencing the government.
• Pressure groups may be of different types. They may be temporary or permanent, large or
small, powerful or weak. The pressure groups (interest groups also) formed on the basis
of economic, professional, academic and ideological considerations have become a part
of the democratic process.
• These groups often attempt to spur legislative and political actions that protect or advance
the group’s economic or other interests.
 • Different writers on comparative government have classified interest groups or pressure
groups on the basis of their structure and organization.
• According to Almond and Powell, interest groups can be classified into four categories:
i) Institutional Interest Groups
ii) The Associational Interest Groups
iii) Anomic Interest Groups
iv) Non-Associational Interest Groups

b) Media in a democracy

• The term media, which is the plural of medium, refers to the communication channels
through which we disseminate news, music, movies, education, promotional messages
and other data.
• It includes physical and online newspapers and magazines, television, radio, billboards,
telephone, the Internet, fax and billboards.
• When talking about reaching a very large number of people we say mass media.
• Media constitute the fourth pillar of democracy. The role of the media is vital in
generating a democratic culture that extends beyond the political system and becomes
engrained in the public consciousness over time. Media is supplying the political
information that voters base their decisions on. They identify problems in our society and
serve as a medium for deliberation. They also serve as watchdogs that we rely on for
uncovering errors and wrongdoings by those who have power.

Role of media

• The role of the press as ‘watchdog’ is a traditional characterization of the role of the news
media in particular. This watchdog role can take many forms depending on the nature of
the medium concerned, as well as on the state of democracy and development in a
particular country.
• Essentially, this role is to provide information – to be the ‘eyes and ears’ of the public in
monitoring what is happening in public life by reporting on daily events as they unfold.

11. What are Interest Groups? Explain with suitable examples.

An:

• A pressure group or an interest group is an association of people having common interest

who try to achieve that object by influencing the government.
• They are a part of political process and they attempt to support or change the direction of
government policy but they do not wish to become the government. They do not draft
party programmers or nominate candidates for public office.
 • Their goal could be a policy that exclusively benefits group members or one segment of
society (e.g., government subsidies for farmers) or a policy that advances a broader
public purpose (e.g., improving air quality).
• They attempt to achieve their goals by lobbying—that is, by attempting to bring pressure
to bear on policy makers to gain policy outcomes in their favor.
• Pressure groups may be of different types. They may be temporary or permanent, large or
small, powerful or weak.
• These groups often attempt to spur(move forward) legislative and political actions that
protect or advance the group’s economic or other interests.
• Different writers on comparative government have classified interest groups or pressure
groups on the basis of their structure and organization.
• According to Almond and Powell, interest groups can be classified into four categories,
i. Institutional Interest Groups
ii. The Associational Interest Groups
iii. Anomic Interest Groups
iv. Non-Associational Interest Groups

Institutional Interest Groups

• These groups are formally organized which consist of professionally employed persons.
They are a part of government machinery and try to exert their influence. But they do
have much autonomy. These groups include political parties, legislatures, armies,
bureaucracies and churches.
• An example of institutional group can be the West Bengal Civil Services Association.
Whenever such an association raises protest it does so by constitutional means and in
accordance with the rules and regulations.

Associational Interest Groups

• These are organized specialized groups formed for interest articulation, but to pursue
limited goals. These include trade unions, organizations of businessmen and industrialists
and civic groups. Some examples of Associational Interest Groups in India are Bengal
Chamber of Commerce and Industry, Indian Chambers of Commerce, Trade Unions such
as AITUC (All India Trade Union Congress) Teachers Associations, Students
Associations such as National Students Union of India (NSUI) etc.

Anomic Interest Groups

• These are the groups that have analogy with individual self-representation. In such type
of groups, perpetual infiltrations such as riots, demonstrations are observed. These groups
are found in the shape of movement demonstrations and processions signature
 campaigns, street corner meetings, etc. Their activities may either be constitutional or
unconstitutional.

Non-Associational Interest Groups

• These are the kinship and lineage groups and ethnic, regional, status and class groups that
articulate interests on the basis of individuals, family and religious heads. These groups
have informal structure. These include caste groups, language groups, etc.

Role of pressure groups

• Pressure groups are vital link between government and the governed.
• They are able to express the views of minorities in the community who might not
otherwise receive a hearing
• They are able to use their expertise to provide government with relevant information
• They offer an alternative source of advice to the government
• They generally promote opportunities for political participation for citizens, without a
need to join a political party. Above all they allow democratic rights of the people.