A N ILLUSTRATED

HISTORY OF
BRITAIN
David McDowall
Pearson Education Limited,
Edinburgh Gate, Harlow,
Essex CM20 2]E, England
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A n illustrated history of Britain.
1. Great Britain-History
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Acknowledgements

W e are grateful to P e n g u i n Books L t d for permission to reproduce a n

extract from The Canterbury Tales by Geoffrey C h a u c e r , translated by
N e v i l l C o g h i l l ( P e n g u i n C l a s s i c s , 1951, 1958, 1 9 6 0 ) , copyright ( c )
N e v i l l C o g h i l l , 1951, 1958, 1960.

W e are grateful to the following for permission to reproduce copyright 115 ( l e f t ) , 127 ( t o p ) , 136 and 140; T h e Marquess of B a t h , Longleat
photographs: H o u s e , W a r m i n s t e r , W i l t s h i r e for page 8 3 ; T h e Marquess of Salisbury
Aerofilms for page 6 (left) a n d 24 (top left); B a m a b y ' s Picture L i b r a r y for page 82; T h e Marquess of T a v i s t o c k a n d the Trustees of the
for page 170 a n d 176 ( b o t t o m ) ; B B C H u l t o n Picture Library for pages Bedford Estates, W o b u m A b b e y for page 74; Marylebone C r i c k e t C l u b
141, 144, 151, 154, 163 a n d 165; Bibliotheque R o y a l e A l b e r t ler, for page 153; K e n n e t h M c N a l l y for page 19; M u s e u m of L o n d o n for
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C o l l e c t i o n of the D u k e of B u c c l e u c h a n d Queensberry, K . T . for page trust for page 13; W i n d s o r C a s t l e , R o y a l Library © H e r Majesty the
9 2 ; S t a n l e y G i b b o n s for page 135 (left); T h e G u a r d i a n for page 9 6 ; Q u e e n for page 30; W o o d m a n s t e m e / M u s e u m of L o n d o n for page 10.
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the Q u e e n for pages 86, 111 a n d 135 (right); R o y a l C o m m i s s i o n o n C o v e r photographs by: B o d l e i a n Library, O x f o r d ( M s Bodley 764 f •
the H i s t o r i c a l M o n u m e n t s of E n g l a n d for page 24 (top r i g h t ) ; M i c h a e l 4 1 v ) (top r i g h t ) ; A . F . K e r s t i n g (middle left); T h e Marquess of
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41, 58, 65 a n d 81; L a m b e t h P a l a c e L i b r a r y for page 54; L i n e n H a l l & b o t t o m tight); N a t i o n a l Portrait G a l l e r y , L o n d o n (top left);
L i b r a r y , Belfast for page 122 ( t o p ) ; Lloyd's of L o n d o n for page 104; Popperfoto ( b o t t o m l e f t ) ; T o n y S t o n e P h o t o l i b r a r y - L o n d o n for the
L o n d o n D o c k l a n d s D e v e l o p m e n t C o r p o r a t i o n for page 181; L o n d o n background.
T r a n s p o r t M u s e u m Photographic A r c h i v e for page 158; M a n c h e s t e r
C i t y A r t G a l l e r i e s for page 137; M a n s e l l C o l l e c t i o n for pages 90, 98, Picture R e s e a r c h by S a n d r a A s s e r s o h n
Contents
Earliest times
Chapter 1 T h e foundation stones 3
The island • Britain's prehistory • The Celts • T h e Romans • Roman life
Chapter 2 T h e Saxon invasion 11
The invaders • Government and society • Christianity: the partnership of C h u r c h
and state • The Vikings • W h o should be king?
Chapter 3 T h e Celtic kingdoms 18
Wales • Ireland • Scotland

The early Middle Ages

Chapter 4 Conquest and feudal rule 23
The Norman Conquest • Feudalism • Kingship: a family business • Magna Carta
and the decline of feudalism
Chapter 5 T h e power of the kings of England 29
Church and state • T h e beginnings of Parliament • Dealing w i t h the Celts
Chapter 6 Government and society 34
The growth of government • Law and justice • Religious beliefs • Ordinary people
in country and town • The growth of towns as centres of wealth • Language,
literature and culture

The late Middle Ages

Chapter 7 T h e century of war, plague and disorder 43
War w i t h Scotland and France • T h e age of chivalry • T h e century of plagues •
The poor i n revolt • Heresy and orthodoxy
Chapter 8 T h e crisis of kings and nobles 51
The crisis of kingship • Wales i n revolt • T h e struggle i n France • The Wars of the
Roses • Scotland
Chapter 9 Government and society 57
Government and society • The condition of women • Language and culture

The Tudors
Chapter 10 T h e birth of the nation state 67
The new monarchy • T h e Reformation • T h e Protestant—Catholic struggle
Chapter 11 England and her neighbours 73
The new foreign policy • The new trading empire • Wales • Ireland • Scotland and
England • Mary Queen of Scots and the Scottish Reformation • A Scottish king for
England
Chapter 12 Government and society * 79
Tudor parliaments • Rich and poor i n town and country • Domestic life •
Language and culture
The Stuarts
Chapter 13 C r o w n and Parliament 87
Parliament against the C r o w n • Religious disagreement • C i v i l war
Chapter 14 Republican and Restoration Britain 92
Republican Britain • Catholicism, the C r o w n and the new constitutional
monarchy • Scotland and Ireland • Foreign relations
Chapter 15 Life and thought 98
The revolution i n thought • Life and work i n the Stuart age • Family life

The eighteenth century

Chapter 16 T h e political world 107
Politics and finance • Wilkes and liberty • Radicalism and the loss of the American
colonies • Ireland • Scotland
Chapter 17 Life in town and country 114
T o w n life • T h e rich • T h e countryside • Family life
Chapter 18 T h e years of revolution 121
Industrial revolution • Society and religion • Revolution i n France and the
Napoleonic Wars

The nineteenth century

Chapter 19 T h e years of power and danger 131
The danger at home, 1815-32 • Reform • Workers revolt • Family life
Chapter 20 T h e years of self-confidence 138
The railway • T h e rise of the middle classes • T h e growth of towns and cities •
Population and politics • Queen and monarchy • Queen and empire • Wales,
Scotland and Ireland
Chapter 21 T h e end of an age 151
Social and economic improvements • T h e importance of sport • Changes i n
t h i n k i n g • T h e end of "England's summer" • T h e storm clouds of war

The twentieth century

Chapter 22 Britain at war
The First W o r l d W a r • T h e rise of the Labour Party • T h e rights of
women • Ireland • Disappointment and depression • T h e Second World War
Chapter 23 T h e age of uncertainty
The new international order • T h e welfare state • Youthful Britain • A popular
monarchy • T h e loss of empire • Britain, Europe and the U n i t e d States • Northern
Ireland • Scotland and Wales • T h e years of discontent • The new politics •
Britain: past, present and future
Author's acknowledgement

1 could not possibly have written this brief account of Britain's history
without considerable help from a number of other books. Notable among these
are the following:

Maurice Ashley: The People of England (Weidenfeld and Nicolson 1982)

Maurice Ashley: England in the Seventeenth Century (Penguin 1961)
S.T. Bindoff: Tudor England (Penguin 1965)
Asa Briggs: A Social History of England (Weidenfeld and Nicolson 1983)
Valerie Chancellor: Medieval and Tudor Britain (Penguin 1967)
Dorothy George; England in Transition (Penguin 1962)
j . D . Mackie: A History of Scotland (Penguin 1984)
K.O. Morgan (ed.): The Oxford Illustrated History of Britain (Oxford University
Press 1984)
A . L . Morton: A People's History of England (Lawrence and Wishart 1984)
Maire and Conor Cruise O'Brien: A Concise History of Ireland (Thames and
Hudson 1972)
A.J. Patrick: The Making of a Nation, 1603-1789 (Penguin 1982)
J.H. Plumb: England in the Eighteenth Century (Penguin 1966)
M . M . Postan: The Medieval Economy and Society (Weidenfeld and Nicolson 1972)
Jasper Ridley: The History of England (Routledge and Kegan Paul 1981)
Alan Sked and Chris Cook: Post-War Britain (Penguin 1984)
D . M . Stenton: English Society in the Early Middle Ages (Penguin 1967)
Lawrence Stone: The Family, Sex and Marriage in England 1500-1800 (Weidenfeld and
Nicolson 1977)
David Thomson: England in the Nineteenth Century (Penguin 1970)
David Thomson: England in the Twentieth Century (Penguin 1983)
G . M . Trevelyan: A Shortened History ofEnglaryi (Penguin 1983)
Gwynn Williams: When was Wales? (Penguin 1985)

1 owe an entirely different k i n d of debt to my wife, Elizabeth. She not only

persuaded me to write this book, but i n many places suggested an elegance
and clarity quite beyond my o w n ability. T o her, then, I dedicate the end-product,
with my love and thanks.
Earliest times
1 The foundation stones
The island * "Britain s prehistory * The Celts * The Romans * Roman life

The island Britain's prehistory

However complicated the modern industrial state Britain has not always been an island. I t became
may be, land and climate affect life i n every one only after the end of the last ice age. The
country. They affect social and economic life, temperature lose and the ice cap melted, flooding
population and even politics. Britain is no the lower-lying land that is now under the N o r t h
exception. I t has a milder climate than much of the Sea and the English Channel.
European mainland because it lies i n the way of the
T h e Ice Age was not just one long equally cold
Gulf Stream, which brings warm water and winds
period. There were warmer times when the ice cap
from the Gulf of Mexico. W i t h i n Britain there are
retreated, and colder periods when the ice cap
differences of climate between north and south,
reached as far south as the River Thames. Our first
east and west. The north is o n average 5°C cooler
evidence of human life is a few stone tools, dating
than the south. A n n u a l rainfall i n the east is o n
from one of the warmer periods, about 250,000 B C .
average about 600 m m , while i n many parts of the
These simple objects show that there were two
west it is more than double that. The countryside is
different kinds of inhabitant. The earlier group
varied also. The north and west are mountainous or
made their tools from flakes of flint, similar i n kind
hilly. Much of the south and east is fairly flat, or
to stone tools found across the n o r t h European
low-lying. This means that the south and east on
plain as far as Russia. T h e other group made tools
the whole have better agricultural conditions, and
from a central core of flint, probably the earliest
it is possible to harvest crops i n early August, two
method of human tool making, w h i c h spread from
months earlier than i n the north. So it is not
surprising that southeast Britain has always been A h a n d axe, made from flint, found at Stt^anscombe i n north Kent.

the most populated part of the island. For this

reason it has always had the most political power.

Britain is an island, and Britain's history has been

closely connected w i t h the sea. U n t i l modern times
it was as easy to travel across water as it was across
land, where roads were frequently unusable. A t
moments of great danger Britain has been saved
from danger by its surrounding seas. Britain's
history and its strong national sense have been
shaped by the sea.
Stonehmge is the most powerful monumerxt of B r i t a i n ' s prehistory. Its
purpose is still not properly understood. Those who built Stonehenge knew
how to cut and move very large pieces of stone, and place horizontal stone
beams across the upright pillars. They also had the authority to control large
numbers of workers, and to fetch some of the stone from distant parts of
Wales.
A n Illustrated History of Britain

Africa to Europe. H a n d axes made i n this way have how to make potteiy. They probably came from
been found widely, as far n o r t h as Yorkshire and as either the Iberian (Spanish) peninsula or even the
far west as Wales. N o r t h A f r i c a n coast. They were small, dark, and
long-headed people, and may be the forefathers of
However, the ice advanced again and Britain
dark-haired inhabitants of Wales and Cornwall
became hardly habitable until another milder
today. They settled i n the western parts of Britain
period, probably around 50,000 B C . During this
and Ireland, from C o m w a l l at the southwest end of
time a new type of human being seems to have
Britain all the way to the far north.
arrived, who was the ancestor of the modem
British. These people looked similar to the modem These were the first of several waves of invaders
British, but were probably smaller and had a life before the first arrival of the Romans i n 55 B C . It
span of only about thirty years. used to be thought that these waves of invaders
marked fresh stages i n British development. How-
A r o u n d 10,000 B C , as the Ice Age drew to a close,
ever, although they must have brought new ideas
Britain was peopled by small groups of hunters,
and methods, i t is now thought that the changing
gatherers and fishers. Few had settled homes, and
pattern of Britain's prehistory was the result of local
they seemed to have followed herds of deer w h i c h
economic and social forces.
provided them w i t h food and clothing. By about
5000 B C Britain had finally become an island, The great "public works" of this time, which
and had also become heavily forested. For the needed a huge organisation of labour, tell us a little
wanderer-hunter culture this was a disaster, for the of how prehistoric Britain was developing. The
cold-loving deer and other animals o n w h i c h they earlier of these works were great "barrows", or
lived largely died out. burial mounds, made of earth or stone. Most of
these barrows are found on the chalk uplands of
A b o u t 3000 B C Neolithic (or New Stone Age)
south Britain. Today these uplands have poor soil
people crossed the narrow sea from Europe i n small
and few trees, but they were not like that then.
round boats of bent wood covered w i t h animal
They were airy woodlands that could easily be
skins. Each could carry one or two persons. These
cleared for farming, and as a result were the most
people kept animals and grew corn crops, and knew

There were Stone Age sites from

one er\d of Britain to the other.
This stone hut, at Skara Brae,
Orkney, off the north coast of
Scot/and, was suddenly covered
by a sandstorm before 2 0 0 0 BC.
U n l i k e southern sites, where
wood was used which has since
rotted, Skara Brae is ail stone,
and the stone furniture is still
there. B e h i n d the fireplace
( b o t t o m left) there are storage
shelves against the back wall. On
the right is probably a stone sided
bed, in which rushes or heather
were placed for w a r m t h .

4
 1 T h e foundation stones

easily habitable part of the countryside. Eventually,

and over a very long period, these areas became
overfarmed, while by 1400 B C the climate became
drier, and as a result this land could no longer
support many people. I t is difficult today to imagine
these areas, particularly the uplands of Wiltshire
and Dorset, as heavily peopled areas.

Yet the monuments remain. After 3000 B C the

chalkland people started building great circles of
earth banks and ditches. Inside, they built wooden
buildings and stone circles. These "henges", as they
are called, were centres of religious, political and
economic power. By far the most spectacular, both
then and now, was Stonehenge, which was built
in separate stages over a period of more than a
thousand years. The precise purposes of Stonehenge
remain a mystery, but during the second phase of
building, after about 2400 B C , huge bluestones were
brought to the site from south Wales. This could
only have been achieved because the political
authority of the area surrounding Stonehenge was
recognised over a very large area, indeed probably
over the whole of the British Isles. The movement
of these bluestones was an extremely important
event, the story of which was passed on from
generation to generation. Three thousand years The grave of one of the "Beaker" peopk, at Bamack, Cambridgeshire,
about 1800 BC. It contains a finely decorated pottery beaker and a copper or
later, these unwritten memories were recorded i n
brome dagger. Both items distinguished the Beaker people from the earlier
Geoffrey of Monmouth's Histor^)! of Britain, written inhabitants. This grave uios the main buria! place beneath one of a group of

in 1136. "barrows", or burial mounds.

Stonehenge was almost certainly a sort of capital, Neolithic Britons because of their military or metal-
to which the chiefs of other groups came from all working skills. T h e i r influence was soon felt and, as
over Britain. Certainly, earth or stone henges were a result, they became leaders of British society.
built in many parts of Britain, as far as the Orkney T h e i r arrival is marked by the first individual
Islands north of Scotland, and as far south as graves, furnished w i t h pottery beakers, from w h i c h
Cornwall. They seem to have been copies of the these people get their name: the "Beaker" people.
great Stonehenge i n the south. I n Ireland the
W h y did people now decide to be buried separately
centre of prehistoric civilisation grew around the
and give up the o l d communal burial barrows? I t is
River Boyne and at Tara i n Ulster. The importance
difficult to be certain, but it is thought that the old
of these places i n folk memory far outlasted the
barrows were built partly to please the gods of the
builders of the monuments.
soil, i n the hope that this would stop the chalk
After 2400 B C new groups of people arrived i n upland soil getting poorer. T h e Beaker people
southeast Britain from Europe. They were round- brought w i t h them from Europe a new cereal,
headed and strongly built, taller t h a n N e o l i t h i c barley, w h i c h could grow almost anywhere. Perhaps
Britons. It is not known whether they invaded by they felt it was no longer necessary to please the
armed force, or whether they were invited by gods of the chalk upland soil.

5
A n Illustrated History of Britain

Maiden Castle, Dorset, is one oj the largest Celtic hill-forts A reconstructed Iron Age farm, farms like this were established in southeast Britain
of the early Iron Age. Its strength can still he clearly seen, from about 700 BC onu^ards. This rruxy have been the main or even only building; large
hut even these fortifications were no defence against rourui huts increasingly took the pkice of smaller ones. "Their houses are large, round,
disciplined Roman troops. built of phxnks and wickerwork, the roof being a dome of thatch,'' wrote the Greek
philosopher Strabo. In most of Celtic Europe huts were square.

T h e Beaker people probably spoke an Indo- From this time, too, power seems to have shifted to
European language. They seem to have brought a the Thames valley and southeast Britain. Except for
single culture to the whole of Britain. They also short periods, political and economic power has
brought skills to make bronze tools and these began remained i n the southeast ever since. Hill-forts
to replace stone ones. But they accepted many of replaced henges as the centres of local power, and
the old ways. Stonehenge remained the most most of these were found i n the southeast,
important centre u n t i l 1300 B C . T h e Beaker suggesting that the land successfully supported more
people's richest graves were there, and they added a people here than elsewhere.
new circle of thirty stone columns, this time
There was another reason for the shift of power
connected by stone lintels, or cross-pieces. British
eastwards. A number of better-designed bronze
society continued to be centred on a number of
swords have been found i n the Thames valley,
henges across the countryside.
suggesting that the local people had more advanced
However, from about 1300 B C onwards the henge metalworking skills. Many of these swords have
civilisation seems to have become less important, been found i n river beds, almost certainly thrown
and was overtaken by a new form of society i n i n for religious reasons. This custom may be the
southern England, that of a settled farming class. origin of the story of the legendary King Arthur's
A t first this farming society developed i n order to sword, which was given to h i m from out of the
feed the people at the henges, but eventually it water and which was thrown back into the water
became more important and powerful as it grew when he died.
richer. The new farmers grew wealthy because they
learned to enrich the soil w i t h natural waste
materials so that i t d i d n o t become poor and The Celts
useless. This change probably happened at about A r o u n d 700 B C , another group of people began to
the same time that the chalk uplands were arrive. Many of them were tall, and had fair or red
becoming drier. Family villages and fortified hair and blue eyes. These were the Celts, who
enclosures appeared across the landscape, i n lower- probably came from central Europe or further east,
lying areas as well as o n the chalk hills, and the old from southern Russia, and had moved slowly
central control of Stonehenge and the other henges westwards i n earlier centuries. The Celts were
was lost. technically advanced. They knew how to work w i t h

6
 1 T h e foundation stones

iron, and could make better weapons than the

people who used bronze. I t is possible that they
drove many of the older inhabitants westwards into
Wales, Scotland and Ireland. The Celts began to
control all the lowland areas of Britain, and were
joined by new arrivals from the European mainland.
They continued to arrive i n one wave after another
over the next seven hundred years.

The Celts are important i n British history because

they are the ancestors of many of the people i n
Highland Scotland, Wales, Ireland, and Cornwall
today. The Iberian people of Wales and Cornwall
took on the new Celtic culture. Celtic languages,
which have been continuously used i n some areas
since that time, are still spoken. The British today
are often described as Anglo-Saxon. I t would be
better to call them A n g l o - C e l t .

Our knowledge of the Celts is slight. As w i t h

previous groups of settlers, we do not even know for
certain whether the Celts invaded Britain or came
peacefully as a result of the lively trade w i t h Europe
from about 750 B C onwards. A t first most of Celtic
Britain seems to have developed i n a generally
similar way. But from about 500 BC trade contact
with Europe declined, and regional differences
between northwest and southeast Britain increased.
The Celts were organised into different tribes, and
tribal chiefs were chosen from each family or tribe,
The Sianwick horse mask shows the fine artistic work of Cehic metalworkers
sometimes as the result of fighting matches between in about A D 5 0 . T h e simple lines and lack of detail have a very powerful
individuals, and sometimes by election. effect.

introduction of more advanced ploughing methods

The last Celtic arrivals from Europe were the Belgic made i t possible for them to farm heavier soils.
tribes. It was natural for them to settle i n the However, they continued to use, and build, h i l l -
southeast of Britain, probably pushing other Celtic forts. T h e increase of these, particularly i n the
tribes northwards as they did so. A t any rate, when southeast, suggests that the Celts were highly
Julius Caesar briefly visited Britain i n 55 B C he saw successful farmers, growing enough food for a much
that the Belgic tribes were different from the older larger population.
inhabitants. "The interior is inhabited", he wrote,
T h e hill-fort remained the centre for local groups.
"by peoples who consider themselves indigenous,
T h e insides of these hill-forts were filled w i t h
the coast by people who have crossed from
houses, and they became the simple economic
Belgium. Nearly all of these still keep the names of
capitals and smaller "towns" of the different tribal
the [European] tribes from which they came."
areas into w h i c h Britain was now divided. Today
The Celtic tribes continued the same k i n d of the empty hill-forts stand on lonely hilltops. Yet
agriculture as the Bronze Age people before them. they remained local economic centres long after the
But their use of iron technology and their Romans came to Britain, and long after they went.

7
A n Illustrated History of Britain

W i t h i n living memory certain annual fairs were powerful Celt to stand up to the Romans was a
associated w i t h hill-forts. For example, there was an woman, Boadicea. She had become queen of her
annual September fair on the site of a Dorset h i l l - tribe wherTTier husband had died. She was tall,
fort, which was used by the writer Thomas Hardy i n w i t h long red hair, and had a frightening
his novel Far from the Madding Crowd, published i n appearance. I n A D 61 she led her tribe against the
1874. Romans. She nearly drove them from Britain, and
she destroyed London, the Roman capital, before
The Celts traded across tribal borders and trade was
she was defeated and killed. Roman writers
probably important for political and social contact
commented on the courage and strength of women
between the tribes. Trade w i t h Ireland went
i n battle, and leave an impression of a measure of
through the island of Anglesey. T h e two main trade
equality between the sexes among the richer Celts.
outlets eastwards to Europe were the settlements
along the Thames River i n the south and on the
Firth of Forth i n the n o r t h . I t is no accident that The Romans
the present-day capitals of England and Scotland
stand on or near these two ancient trade centres. The name " B r i t a i n " comes from the word
M u c h trade, b o t h inside and beyond Britain, was "Pretani", the Greco-Roman word for the
conducted by river and sea. For money the Celts inhabitants of Britain. The Romans mispronounced
used iron bars, u n t i l they began to copy the Roman the word and called the island "Britannia".
coins they saw used i n Gaul (France). The Romans had invaded because the Celts of
Britain were working w i t h the Celts of Gaul against
According to the Romans, the Celtic men wore
them. The British Celts were giving them food, and
shirts and breeches (knee-length trousers), and
allowing them to hide i n Britain. There was
striped or checked cloaks fastened by a p i n . I t is
another reason. The Celts used cattle to pull their
possible that the Scottish tartan and dress
ploughs and this meant that ticher, heavier land
developed from this "striped cloak". T h e Celts were
could be farmed. Under the Celts Britain had
also "very careful about cleanliness and neatness",
become an important food producer because of its
as one Roman wrote. "Neither m a n nor w o m a n , "
mild climate. I t now exported c o m and animals, as
he went o n , "however poor, was seen either ragged
well as hunting dogs and slaves, to the European
or d i r t y . "
mainland. The Romans could make use of British
The Celtic tribes were ruled over by a warrior class, food for their own army fighting the Gauls.
of which the priests, or Druids, seem to have been
The Romans brought the skills of reading and
particularly important members. These Druids
writing to Britain. The written word was important
could not read or write, but they memorised all the
for spreading ideas and also for establishing power.
reUgious teachings, the tribal laws, history,
As early as A D 80, as one Roman at the time noted,
medicine and other knowledge necessary i n Celtic
the governor Agricola "trained the sons of chiefs i n
society. The Druids from different tribes all over
the liberal arts . . . the result was that the people
Britain probably met once a year. They had n o
who used to reject Latin began to use i t i n speech
temples, but they met i n sacred groves of trees, on
and writing. Further the wearing of our national
certain hills, by rivers or by river sources. W e know
dress came to be valued and the toga [the Roman
little of their kind of worship except that at times i t
cloak] came into fashion." W h i l e the Celtic
included human sacrifice.
peasantry remained illiterate and only Celtic-
During the Celtic period women may have had speaking, a number of town dwellers spoke Latin
more independence t h a n they had again for and Greek w i t h ease, and the richer landowners i n
hundreds of years. W h e n the Romans invaded the country almost certainly used Latin. But Latin
Britain two of the largest tribes were ruled by completely disappeared both i n its spoken and
women who fought from their chariots. The most written forms when the Anglo-Saxons invaded

8
 1 T h e foundation stones

Britain i n the fifth century A D . Britain was probably Germanic groups, Saxons and Franks, began to raid
more literate under the Romans t h a n i t was to be the coast of Gaul. I n A D 409 Rome pulled its last
again until the fifteenth century. soldiers out of Britain and the Romano-British, the
Romanised Celts, were left to fight alone against
Julius Caesar first came to Britain i n 55 B C , but i t
the Scots, the Irish and Saxon raiders from
was not until almost a century later, i n A D 43, that
Germany. T h e following year Rome itself fell to
a Roman army actually occupied Britain. The
raiders. W h e n Britain called to Rome for help
Romans were determined to conquer the whole
against the raiders from Saxon Germany i n the
island. They had little difficulty, apart from
mid-fifth century, no answer came.
Boadicea's revolt, because they had a better trained
army and because the Celtic tribes fought among
themselves. The Romans considered the Celts as
war-mad, "high spirited and quick for battle", a
Roman life
description some would still give the Scots, Irish The most obvious characteristic of Roman Britain
and Welsh today. was its towns, w h i c h were the basis of Roman
administration and civilisation. Many grew out of
The Romans established a Romano-British culture
Celtic settlements, military camps or market
across the southern half of Britain, from the River
centres. Broadly, there were three different kinds of
Humber to the River Severn. This part of B r i t a i n
t o w n i n Roman Britain, two of w h i c h were towns
was inside the empire. Beyond were the upland
established by Roman charter. These were the
areas, under Roman control but not developed.
coloniae, towns peopled by Roman settlers, and the
These areas were watched from the towns of York,
municipia, large cities i n w h i c h the whole
Chester and Caerleon i n the western peninsula of
population was given Roman citizenship. T h e third
Britain that later became k n o w n as Wales. Each of
k i n d , the dvitas, included the o l d Celtic tribal
these towns was held by a Roman legion of about
capitals, through w h i c h the Romans administered
7,000 men. The total Roman army i n Britain was
the Celtic population i n the countryside. A t first
about 40,000 men.
these towns had no walls. T h e n , probably from the
The Romans could not conquer "Caledonia", as end of the second century to the end of the t h i r d
they called Scotland, although they spent over a century A D , almost every town was given walls. A t
century trying to do so. A t last they built a strong first many of these were no more t h a n earthworks,
wall along the northern border, named after the but by A D 300 all towns had thick stone walls.
Emperor Hadrian who planned i t . A t the time,
Hadrian's wall was simply intended to keep out The Romans left about twenty large towns of about
raiders from the north. But i t also marked the 5,000 inhabitants, and almost one hundred smaller
border between the two later countries, England ones. Many of these towns were at first army camps,
and Scotland. Eventually, the border was and the Latin word for camp, castra, has remained
established a few miles further north. Efforts to part of many town names to this day ( w i t h the
change it i n later centuries did not succeed, mainly ending chester, caster or cester): Gloucester, Lei-
because on either side of the border an invading cester, Doncaster, Winchester, Chester, Lancaster
army found its supply line overstretched. A natural and many others besides. These towns were built
point of balance had been found. w i t h stone as well as wood, and had planned
streets, markets and shops. Some buildings had
Roman control of Britain came to an end as the central heating. They were connected by roads
empire began to collapse. The first signs were the w h i c h were so well built that they survived when
attacks by Celts of Caledonia i n A D 367. The later roads broke up. These roads continued to be
Roman legions found it more and more difficult to used long after the Romans left, and became the
stop the raiders from crossing Hadrian's wall. T h e main roads of modern Britain. Six of these Roman
same was happening on the European mainland as roads met i n London, a capital city of about 20,000

9
A n Illustrated History of Britain

The reconstruction of a Roman

kitchen about AD 100 shows pots
and equipment. The tall pots, or
amphorae, were for wine or oil.
The Romans produced wine in
Britain, but they also imported it
from southern Europe.

people. L o n d o n was twice the size of Paris, and I t is very difficult to be sure how many people were
possibly the most important trading centre of living i n Britain when the Romans left. Probably it
northern Europe, because southeast Britain was as many as five m i l l i o n , partly because of the
produced so much c o m for export. peace and the increased economic life which the
Romans had brought to the country. The new wave
Outside the towns, the biggest change during the
of invaders changed all that.
Roman occupation was the growth of large farms,
called "villas". These belonged to the richer Britons
who were, like the townspeople, more Roman than
Celt i n their manners. Each villa had many
workers. T h e villas were usually close to towns so
that the crops could be sold easily. There was a
growing difference between the rich and those who
did the actual work o n the land. These, and most
people, still lived i n the same k i n d of round huts
and villages w h i c h the Celts had been living i n four
hundred years earlier, when the Romans arrived.

In some ways life i n Roman Britain seems very

civilised, but i t was also hard for all except the
richest. T h e bodies buried i n a Roman graveyard at
York show that life expectancy was low. H a l f the
entire population died between the ages of twenty
and forty, while 15 per cent died before reaching
the age of twenty.

10
2 The Saxon invasion
The invaders * Government and society * Christianity: the partnership of
Church and state * The Vikings * Who should he king?

The invaders
The wealth of Britain by the fourth century, the
result of its mild climate and centuries of peace, was
a temptation to the greedy. A t first the Germanic
tribes only raided Britain, but after A D 430 they
began to settle. The newcomers were warlike and
illiterate. We owe our knowledge of this period
mainly to an English monk named Bede, who lived
three hundred years later. His story of events i n his
Ecclesiastical History of the English People has been
proved generally correct by archaeological
evidence.

Bede tells us that the invaders came from three

powerful Germanic tribes, the Saxons, Angles and
Jutes. The Jutes settled mainly i n Kent and along
the south coast, and were soon considered no dif-
ferent from the Angles and Saxons. The Angles
settled i n the east, and also i n the n o r t h Midlands,
while the Saxons settled between the Jutes and the
Angles i n a band of land from the Thames Estuary
westwards. The Anglo-Saxon migrations gave the
larger part of Britain its new name, England, " t h e
The Anglo-Saxon invasions and the kingdoms they estabUshed.
land of the Angles".
k n o w n as Scotland. Some Celts stayed behind, and
The British Celts fought the raiders and settlers
many became slaves of the Saxons. Hardly anything
from Germany as well as they could. However,
is left of Celtic language or culture i n England,
during the next hundred years they were slowly
except for the names of some rivers, Thames,
pushed westwards until by 570 they were forced
Mersey, Severn and A v o n , and two large cities,
west of Gloucester. Finally most were driven into
London and Leeds.
the mountains i n the far west, which the Saxons
called "Weallas", or "Wales", meaning "the land of T h e strength of Anglo-Saxon culture is obvious
the foreigners". Some Celts were driven into even today. Days of the week were named after
Cornwall, whete they later accepted the rule of Germanic gods: T i g (Tuesday), W o d i n
Saxon lords. I n the north, other Celts were driven (Wednesday), T h o r (Thursday), Frei (Friday). N e w
into the lowlands of the country w h i c h became place-names appeared o n the map. The first of

11
A n Illustrated History of Britain

these show that the earhest Saxon villages, like the duty was to his own family. However, things were
Celtic ones, were family villages. T h e ending -ing changing. T h e Saxon kings began to replace loyalty
meant folk or family, thus "Reading" is the place of to family w i t h loyalty to lord and king.
the family of Rada, "Hastings" of the family of
Hasta. Ham means farm, ton means settlement.
Birmingham, N o t t i n g h a m or Southampton, for Government and society
example, are Saxon place-names. Because the T h e Saxons created institutions which made the
Anglo-Saxon kings often established settlements, English state strong for the next 500 years. One of
Kingston is a frequent place-name. these institutions was the King's Council, called the
T h e Anglo-Saxons established a number of Witan. The W i t a n probably grew out of informal
kingdoms, some of w h i c h still exist i n county or groups of senior warriors and churchmen to whom
regional names to this day: Essex (East Saxons), kings like Offa had turned for advice or support on
Sussex (South Saxons), Wessex (West Saxons), difficult matters. By the tenth century the W i t a n
Middlesex (probably a kingdom of Middle Saxons), was a formal body, issuing laws and charters. It was
East Anglia (East Angles). By the middle of the not at all democratic, and the king could decide to
seventh century the three largest kingdoms, those ignore the Witan's advice. But he knew that i t
of Northumbria, Mercia and Wessex, were the might be dangerous to do so. For the Witan's
most powerful. authority was based on its right to choose kings,
and to agree the use of the king's laws. W i t h o u t its
support the king's o w n authority was i n danger.
T h e W i t a n established a system which remained an
important part of the king's method of government.
Even today, the king or queen has a Privy Council,
Left: A silver penny showing Offa, king of Mercia (AD 757-896). Off a
was. more powerful than any of the other Anglo-Saxon kings of his time or
a group of advisers o n the affairs of state.
before him. His coins were of a higher qwdity than any coins used siru:e the
departure of the Ronums four hur\dred years earlier. T h e Saxons divided the land into new adminis-
Right: A gold coin of King Offa, a direct copy of an Arab dinar of the year trative areas, based on shires, or counties. These
AD 774. Most of it is in Arabic, but on one side it also has "OFFA REX". shires, established by the end of the tenth century,
It tells us that the Angio-Saxoru of Britain were well aware of a more
advanced ecorumdc system in the distant Arab empire, and also that even as remained almost exactly the same for a thousand
far away as Britain and northern Europe, Arab-type gold coirts were more years. "Shire" is the Saxon word, "county" the
trusted than any others. It shows how great were the distances covered by
international trade at this Ume.
N o r m a n one, but both are still used. ( I n 1974 the
counties were reorganised, but the new system is
I t was n o t u n t i l a century later that one of these very like the old one.) Over each shire was ap-
kings. King Offa of Mercia ( 7 5 7 - 9 6 ) , claimed pointed a shire reeve, the king's local administrator.
"kingship of the English". He had good reason to I n time his name became shortened to "sheriff".
do so. H e was powerful enough to employ thou-
Anglo-Saxon technology changed the shape of
sands of men to build a huge dyke, or earth wall,
English agriculture. The Celts had kept small,
the length of the Welsh border to keep out the
square fields w h i c h were well suited to the light
troublesome Celts. But although he was the most
plough they used, drawn either by an animal or two
powerful king of his time, he did not control all of
people. This plough could turn comers easily. The
England.
Anglo-Saxons introduced a far heavier plough
T h e power of Mercia did not survive after Offa's w h i c h was better able to plough i n long straight
death. A t that time, a king's power depended o n lines across the field. It was particularly useful for
the personal loyalty of his followers. A f t e r his death cultivating heavier soils. But it required six or eight
the next king had to work hard to rebuild these oxen to pull i t , and it was difficult to turn. This
personal feelings of loyalty. Most people still heavier plough led to changes i n land ownership
believed, as the Celts had done, that a man's first and organisation. I n order to make the best use of

12
 2 T h e Saxon invasion

land. As a result, almost all the villages which

appear o n eighteenth-century maps already existed
by the eleventh century.

I n each district was a "manor" or large house. This

was a simple building where local villagers came to
pay taxes, where justice was administered, and
where men met together to j o i n the Anglo-Saxon
army, the fyrd. The lord of the manor had to
organise all this, and make sure village land was
properly shared. I t was the beginning of the
manorial system w h i c h teached its fullest
development under the Normans.

Reconstruction of an Anglo-Saxon village. Each house had probably only

A t first the lords, or aldermen, were simply local
one room, mth a wooden floor with a pit beneath it. The pit may have been officials. But by the beginning of the eleventh
used far storage, but more probably to keep the house off the damp ground.
century they were warlords, and were often called
Each village had its lord. The word "lord" means "kiaf ward" or "bread
keeper", while "lady" means "loaf kneader" or "bread maker", a reminder by a new Danish name, earl. Both words, alderman
that the basis of Saxon society was farming The duty of the villt^e head, or
and earl, remain w i t h us today: aldermen are
hrd, was to protect the farm and its produce.
elected officers i n local government, and earls are
high ranking nobles. I t was the beginning of a class
village land, it was divided into two or three very system, made up of king, lords, soldiers and workers
large fields. These were then divided again into on the land. One other important class developed
long thin strips. Each family had a number of strips during the Saxon period, the men of learning.
in each of these fields, amounting probably to a These came from the Christian C h u r c h .
family "holding" of twenty or so acres. Ploughing
these long thin strips was easier because it avoided
Christianity: the partnership of
the problem of turning. Few individual families
could afford to keep a team of oxen, and these had Church and state
to be shared on a co-operative basis. W e cannot know how or when Christianity first
reached Britain, but i t was certainly well before
One of these fields would be used for planting
Christianity was accepted by the Roman Emperor
spring crops, and another for autumn crops. The
Constantine i n the early fourth century A D . I n the
third area would be left to rest for a year, and w i t h
last hundred years of Roman government
the other areas after harvest, would be used as
Christianity became firmly established across
common land for animals to feed on. This A n g l o -
Britain, both i n Roman-controlled areas and
Saxon pattern, which became more and more
beyond. However, the Anglo-Saxons belonged to
common, was the basis of English agriculture for a
an older Germanic religion, and they drove the
thousand years, until the eighteenth century.
Celts i n t o the west and n o r t h . I n the Celtic areas
It needs only a moment's thought to recognise that Christianity continued to spread, bringing paganism
the fair division of land and of teams of oxen, and to an end. The map of Wales shows a number of
the sensible management of village land shared out place-names beginning or ending w i t h llan,
between families, meant that villagers had to work meaning the site of a small Celtic monastery around
more closely together than they had ever done which a village or town grew.
before.
I n 597 Pope Gregory the Great sent a monk,
The Saxons settled previously unfarmed areas. They Augustine, to re-establish Christianity in England.
cut down many forested areas i n valleys to farm the He went to Canterbury, the capital of the king of
richer lowland soil, and they began to drain the wet Kent. He did so because the king's wife came from

13
A n Illustrated History of Britain

to village teaching Christianity. I n spite of the

differences between Anglo-Saxons and Celts, these
bishops seem to have been readily accepted i n
Anglo-Saxon areas. T h e bishops from the Roman
C h u r c h lived at the courts of the kings, which they
made centres of C h u r c h power across England. The
two Christian Churches, Celtic and Roman, could
hardly have been more different i n character. One
was most interested i n the hearts of ordinary
people, the other was interested i n authority and
organisation. T h e competition between the Celtic
and Roman Churches reached a crisis because they
disagreed over the date of Easter. I n 663 at the
Synod (meeting) of W h i t b y the king of
Northumbria decided to support the Roman
C h u r c h . T h e Celtic C h u r c h retreated as Rome
extended its authority over all Christians, even in
Celtic parts of the island.

England had become Christian very quickly. By 660

only Sussex and the Isle of W i g h t had not accepted
the new faith. Twenty years later, English teachers
returned to the lands from which the Anglo-Saxons
had come, bringing Christianity to much of
Germany.

Saxon kings helped the Church to grow, but the

The opening page of St Luke's Gospel, mode at tfie Nort/iunvbrion island of C h u r c h also increased the power of kings. Bishops
Lindisfame, about AD 698. In his History, Bede iwote Jiou; one man toid
gave kings their support, which made it harder for
the pagan Northumbrian king, "when you are simtig in winter unth your
lords in the /easting liaJI, with a good fire to warm and light it, a sparrow flies royal power to be questioned. Kings had "God's
in from the storms of rain and snow outside. It flies in at one door, across the approval". The value of Church approval was all
lifted room and out t/irough the other door itito the darkness and storms
outside. In the same way nuin comes into the li^ for a short time, but of the greater because of the uncertainty of the royal
what came before, or what is to follow, man is ignorant. If this r\ew teaching succession. A n eldest son did not automatically
tells us something more certain, it seems wordi following." Christiaruty
gave the Anglo-Saxon world new certainty.
become king, as kings were chosen from among the
members of the royal family, and any member who
had enough soldiers might try for the throne. I n
Europe and was already Christian. Augustine addition, at a time when one king might try to
became the first Archbishop of Canterbury i n 601. conquer a neighbouring kingdom, he would
H e was very successful. Several ruling families i n probably have a son to whom he would wish to pass
England accepted Christianity. But Augustine and this enlarged kingdom when he died. A n d so when
his group of monks made little progress w i t h the King Offa arranged for his son to be crowned as his
ordinary people. This was partly because Augustine successor, he made sure that this was done at a
was interested i n establishing Christian authority, Christian ceremony led by a bishop. It was good
and that meant bringing rulers to the new faith. political propaganda, because i t suggested that kings
were chosen not only by people but also by God.
I t was the Celtic C h u r c h w h i c h brought
Christianity to the ordinary people of Britain. The There were other ways i n w h i c h the C h u r c h
Celtic bishops went out from their monasteries of increased the power of the English state. I t
Wales, Ireland and Scotland, walking from village established monasteries, or minsters, for example

14
r
2 T h e Saxon invasion

Westminster, which were places of learning and

The Vikings
education. These monasteries trained the men who
could read and write, so that they had the necessary Towards the end of the eighth century new raiders
skills for the growth of royal and C h u r c h authority. were tempted by Britain's wealth. These were the
The king who made most use of the Church was Vikings, a word w h i c h probably means either
Alfred, the great king who ruled Wessex from 8 7 1 - "pirates" or "the people of the sea inlets", and they
899. He used the literate men of the Church to came from Norway and Denmark. Like the A n g l o -
help establish a system of law, to educate the Saxons they only raided at first. They burnt
people and to write down important matters. He churches and monasteries along the east, n o r t h and
started the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, the most west coasts of Britain and Ireland, London was itself
important source, together w i t h Bede's Eccfesiostical raided i n 842.
Histor;y of the English People, for understanding the I n 865 the Vikings invaded Britain once it was
period. clear that the quarrelling Anglo-Saxon kingdoms
During the next hundred years, laws were made o n could not keep them out. This time they came
a large number of matters. By the eleventh century to conquer and to settle. The Vikings quickly
royal authority probably went wider and deeper i n accepted Christianity and d i d not disturb the local
England than in any other European country. population. By 875 only King Alfred i n the west
of Wessex held out against the Vikings, who had
This process gave power into the hands of those already taken most of England. A f t e r some serious
who could read and write, and i n this way class defeats Alfred w o n a decisive battle i n 878, and
divisions were increased. The power of landlords, eight years later he captured London. He was strong
who had been given land by the king, was increased enough to make a treaty w i t h the Vikings.
because their names were written down. Peasants,
who could neither read nor write, could lose their
traditional rights to their land, because their rights
were not registered.

The Anglo-Saxon kings also preferred the Roman

Church to the Celtic Church for economic reasons.
Villages and towns grew around the monasteries
and increased local trade. Many bishops and monks
in England were from the Prankish lands (France
and Germany) and elsewhere. They were invited by
English rulers who wished to benefit from closer
Church and economic contact w i t h Europe. Most
of these bishops and monks seem to have come
from churches or monasteries along Europe's vital
trade routes. I n this way close contact w i t h many '
parts of Europe was encouraged. I n addition they all
used Latin, the written language of Rome, and this
encouraged English trade w i t h the continent.
Increased literacy itself helped trade. Anglo-Saxon
England became well k n o w n i n Europe for its
exports of woollen goods, cheese, hunting dogs,
pottery and metal goods. It imported wine, fish,
pepper, jewellery and wheel-made pottery.
The Viking invasions and the areas they brought under their control.

15
A n Illustrated History of Britain

The story of the battle of Hastings and t

Norman conquest of Saxon Englaiul is
told in the Bayeux tapestry cartoon.
"Harold the king is killed" says the
Latin writing, and beneath it stands a
man with an arrow in his eye, believed
to be King Harold. In the picture strip
below the main scene, men are seen
stealing tJie clothing from the dead and
wourtded, a common practice on
battlefields through the centuries.

The Oseberg Vifcing ship, made in

about AD 800, uias 21 metres long and
carried about 35 men. Although this
particular ship was probably only used
along the coast, ships of similar size
were used to invade Britain. Their
design was frriiliant. When an exact
copy of similar ship was used to cross
the Atlantic to America in 1893, its
captain urote, "the finest merchant
ships of our day . .. have practicaRy
the same type of bottom as die Viking
ships."

V i k i n g rule was recognised i n the east and n o r t h of W h e n Ethelred died C n u t (or Canute), the leader
England. I t was called the Danelaw, the land where of the Danish Vikings, controlled much of
the law of the Danes ruled. I n the rest of the England. He became king for the simple reason
country Alfred was recognised as king. During his that the royal council, the W i t a n , and everyone
struggle against the Danes, he had built walled else, feared disorder. Rule by a Danish king was far
settlements to keep them out. These were called better than rule by no one at all. C n u t died i n
burghs. They became prosperous market towns, and 1035, and his son died shortly after, i n 1040. The
the word, now usually spelt borough, is one of the W i t a n chose Edward, one of Saxon Ethelred's sons,
commonest endings to place names, as well as the to be king.
name of the unit of municipal or town
Edward, k n o w n as " t h e Confessor", was more
administration today.
interested i n the Church than i n kingship. Church
building had been going on for over a century, and
Who should be king? he encouraged i t . By the time Edward died there
was a church i n almost every village. The pattern of
By 950 England seemed rich and peaceful again the English village, w i t h its manor house and
after the troubles of the V i k i n g invasion. But soon church, dates from this time. Edward started a new
afterwards the Danish Vikings started raiding church fit for a king at Westminster, just outside
westwards. The Saxon king, Ethelred, decided to the city of London. I n fact Westminster Abbey was
pay the Vikings to stay away. T o find the money he a Norman, not a Saxon building, because he had
set a tax on all .his people, called Danegeld, or spent almost all his life i n Normandy, and his
"Danish money". I t was the beginning of a regular mother was a daughter of the duke of Normandy.
tax system of the people w h i c h would provide the As their name suggests, the Normans were people
money for armies. The effects of this tax were most from the north. They were the children and
heavily felt by the ordinary villagers, because they grandchildren of Vikings who had captured, and
had to provide enough money for their village settled i n , northern France. They had soon become
landlord to pay Danegeld.

16
 2 T h e Saxon invasion

French in their language and Christian i n their promise, and that because it was made unwillingly
religion. But they were still well k n o w n for their he was not tied by i t .
fighting skills.
Harold was faced by two dangers, one i n the south
Edward only lived until 1066, when he died and one i n the n o r t h . The Danish Vikings had not
without an obvious heir. The question of who given up their claim to the English throne. I n 1066
should follow him as king was one of the most Harold had to march n o r t h into Yorkshire to defeat
important in English history. Edward had brought the Danes. N o sooner had he defeated them than
many Normans to his English court from France. he learnt that W i l l i a m had landed in England w i t h
These Normans were not liked by the more an army. His men were tired, but they had no time
powerful Saxon nobles, particularly by the most to rest. They marched south as fast as possible.
powerful family of Wessex, the Godwinsons. It was
Harold decided not to wait for the whole Saxon
a Godwinson, Harold, whom the W i t a n chose to
army, the fyrd, to gather because William's army
be the next king of England. Harold had already
was small. He thought he could beat them w i t h the
shown his bravery and ability. He had no royal
men who had done so well against the Danes.
blood, but he seemed a good choice for the throne
However, the N o r m a n soldiers were better armed,
of England.
better organised, and were mounted on horses. If he
Harold's right to the English throne was challenged had waited, Harold might have won. But he was
by Duke William of Normandy. W i l l i a m had two defeated and killed i n battle near Hastings.
claims to the English throne. His first claim was
W i l l i a m marched to London, w h i c h quickly gave
that King Edward had promised it to h i m . The
i n when he began to burn villages outside the city.
second claim was that Harold, who had visited
He was crowned king of England i n Edward's new
William in 1064 or 1065, had promised W i l l i a m
church of Westminster Abbey on Christmas Day,
that he, Harold, would not try to take the throne
1066. A new period had begun.
for himself Harold did not deny this second claim,
but said that he had been forced to make the
3 The Celtic kingdoms
Wales * Ireland * Scotland

England has always played the most powerful part

i n the history of the British Isles. However, the
other three countries, Wales, Ireland and Scotland,
have a different history. U n t i l recently few
historians looked at British history except from an
English point of view. But the stories of Wales,
Ireland and Scotland are also important, because
their people still feel different from the A n g l o -
Saxon English. The experience of the Welsh, Irish
and Scots helps to explain the feeling they have
today.

Wales
By the eighth century most of the Celts had been
driven into the Welsh peninsula. They were kept
Waks and its Celtic kingdoms.
out of England by Offa's Dyke, the huge earth wall
built i n A D 779. These Celts, called Welsh by the The early kings travelled around their kingdoms to
Anglo-Saxons, called themselves cymry, "fellow remind the people of their control. They travelled
countrymen". w i t h their hungry followers and soldiers. The
ordinary people ran away into the hills and woods
Because Wales is a mountainous country, the cymry
when the king's men approached their village.
could only live i n the crowded valleys. The rest of
the land was rocky and too poor for anything Life was dangerous, treacherous and bloody. I n
except keeping animals. For this reason the 1043 the king of Glamorgan died of old age. I t was
population remained small. I t only grew to over an unusual event, because between 949 and 1066
half a m i l l i o n i n the eighteenth century. Life was no less than thirty-five Welsh rulers died violently,
hard and so was the behaviour of the people. usually killed by a c^mr^i, a fellow countryman.
Slavery was common, as it had been all through
I n 1039 Gruffydd ap (son o f ) Llewelyn was the first
Celtic Britain.
Welsh high king strong enough to rule over all
Society was based on family groupings, each of Wales. He was also the last, and i n order to remain
which owned one or more village or farm i n control he spent almost the whole of his reign
settlement. One by one i n each group a strong fighting his enemies. Like many other Welsh rulers,
leader made himself king. These men must have Gruffydd was killed by a cymry while defending'
been tribal chiefs to begin w i t h , who later managed Wales against the Saxons. Welsh kings after h i m
to become overlords over neighbouring family were able to rule only after they had promised
groups. Each of these kings tried to conquer the loyalty to Edward the Confessor, king of England.
others, and the idea of a high, or senior, king The story of an independent and united Wales was
developed. over almost as soon as it had begun.
 3 T h e C e l t i c kingdoms

Ireland
Ireland was never invaded by either the Romans or
the Anglo-Saxons. It was a land of monasteries and
had a flourishing Celtic culture. As i n Wales,
people were known by the family grouping they
belonged to. Outside their tribe they had no
protection and no name of their o w n . They had
only the name of their tribe. The kings i n this
tribal society were chosen by election. T h e idea was
that the strongest man should lead. I n fact the
system led to continuous challenges.

Five kingdoms grew up i n Ireland: Ulster i n the

north, Munster i n the southwest, Leinster i n the
southeast, Connaught i n the west, w i t h Tara as the
seat of the high kings of Ireland.

Christianity came to Ireland i n about A D 430. T h e

beginning of Ireland's history dates from that time,
because for the first time there were people who
could write down events. The message of
Christianity was spread i n Ireland by a British slave,
Patrick, who became the "patron saint" of Ireland.
Christianity brought writing, which weakened the
position of the Druids, who depended o n memory
and the spoken word. Christian monasteries grew
A page from the Book of Kelh, the /inest surviving Irish Celtic manuscript.
up, frequently along the coast.

This period is often called Ireland's "golden age".

Invaders were unknown and culture flowered. But it
is also true that the five kingdoms were often at
war, each trying to gain advantage over the other, The round tower of Devenish is one of only two that still stand at Celtic
monastic sites in Ulster, Ireland. This one was built in the twelfth century
often with great cruelty.
A D . The entrance is about three metres above ground level, and had a ladder
that could be pulled in so that enemies could not enter. This design may well
have been introduced after the Viking raids began in the ninth century.

19
A n Illustrated History of Britain

This "golden age" suddenly ended w i t h the arrival

of V i k i n g raiders, who stole all that the monasteries
had. Very little was left except the stone memorials
that the Vikings could not carry away.

T h e Vikings, who traded w i t h Constantinople

(now Istanbul), Italy, and w i t h central Russia,
brought fresh economic and political action into
Irish life. V i k i n g raids forced the Irish to unite. I n
859 Ireland chose its first high king, but i t was n o t
an effective solution because of the quarrels that
took place each time a new high king was chosen.
V i k i n g trade led to the first towns and ports. For
the Celts, who had always lived i n small
lona, the western Scottish island on which St Colwmba established his abbey
settlements, these were revolutionary. D u b l i n , in AD 563 when he came hekmd. From lona Columba sent his missionaries
Ireland's future capital, was founded by the Vikings. to bring Christianity to the Scots. The present cathedral was built in about
1500.

As an effective method of rule the high kingship of

Ireland lasted only twelve years, from 1002 to 1014, Scotland was populated by four separate groups of
while Ireland was ruled by Brian Boru. He is still people. The main group, the Picts, lived mostly i n
looked back o n as Ireland's greatest ruler. H e tried the north and northeast. They spoke Celtic as well
to create one single Ireland, and encouraged the as another, probably older, language completely
growth of organisation - i n the C h u r c h , i n unconnected w i t h any known language today, and
administration, and i n learning. they seem to have been the earliest inhabitants of
the land. The Picts were different from the Celts
Brian Boru died i n battle against the Vikings. One
because they inherited their rights, their names and
of the five Irish kings, the king of Leinster, fought
property from their mothers, not from their fathers.
on the Vikings' side. Just over a century later
another king of Leinster invited the Normans of The non-Pictish inhabitants were mainly Scots.
England to help h i m against his high king. This The Scots were Celtic settlers who had started to
gave the Normans the excuse they wanted to move into the western Highlands from Ireland i n
enlarge their kingdom. the fourth century.

I n 843 the Pictish and Scottish kingdoms were

united under a Scottish king, who could also
probably claim the Pictish throne through his
Scotland mother, i n this way obeying both Scottish and
As a result of its geography, Scotland has two Pictish rules of kingship.
different societies. I n the centre of Scotland
The third group were the Britons, who inhabited
mountains stretch to the far n o r t h and across to the
the Lowlands, and had been part of the Romano-
west, beyond w h i c h lie many islands. T o the east
British world. (The name of their kingdom,
and to the south the lowland hills are gentler, and
Strathclyde, was used again i n the county
much of the countryside is like England, rich,
reorganisation of 1974.) They had probably given
welcoming and easy to farm. N o r t h of the
up their old tribal way of life by the sixth century.
" H i g h l a n d L i n e " , as the division between highland
Finally, there were Angles from Northumbria who
and lowland is called, people stayed tied to their
had pushed northwards into the Scottish Lowlands.
own family groups. South and east of this line
society was more easily influenced by the changes U n i t y between Picts, Scots and Britons was
taking place i n England. achieved for several reasons. They all shared a

20
 3 T h e C e l t i c kingdoms

0 100 k m N SHETLAND Jf'

their way of life. A l t h o u g h they kept some animals,

I • ISLANDS ^ « c- 1 J • I I
' W Scotland: its early peoples.
they spent more time growing crops. This meant
that land was held by individual people, each man
working i n his o w n field. Land was distributed for
farming by the local lord. This system encouraged
the Angles of Scotland to develop a non-tribal
system of control, as the people of England further
south were doing. This increased their feeling of
difference from the Celtic tribal Highlanders further
north.

Finally, as i n Ireland and i n Wales, foreign invaders

increased the speed of political change. Vikings
attacked the coastal areas of Scotland, and they
settled o n many of the islands, Shetland, the
Orkneys, the Hebrides, and the Isle of M a n
southwest of Scotland. I n order to resist them, Picts
and Scots fought together against the enemy raiders
common Celtic culture, language and background.
and settlers. W h e n they could not push them out of
Their economy mainly depended on keeping
the islands and coastal areas, they had to deal w i t h
animals. These animals were owned by the tribe as
them politically. A t first the Vikings, or
a whole, and for this reason land was also held by
"Norsemen", still served the k i n g of Norway. But
tribes, not by individual people. The common
communications w i t h Norway were difficult. Slowly
economic system increased their feeling of
the earls of Orkney and other areas found i t easier
belonging to the same k i n d of society and the
to accept the king of Scots as their overlord, rather
feeling of difference from the agricultural Lowlands.
than the more distant king of Norway.
The sense of common culture may have been
increased by marriage alliances between tribes. This However, as the Welsh had also discovered, the
idea of common landholding remained strong u n t i l English were a greater danger than the Vikings. I n
the tribes of Scotland, called "clans", collapsed i n 934 the Scots were seriously defeated by a Wessex
the eighteenth century. army pushing northwards. The Scots decided to
seek the friendship of the English, because of the
The spread of Celtic Christianity also helped to likely losses from war. England was obviously
unite the people. The first Christian mission to stronger than Scotland but, luckily for the Scots,
Scotland had come to southwest Scotland i n about b o t h the n o r t h of England and Scotland were
A D 400. Later, i n 563, Columba, known as the difficult to control from London. The Scots hoped
"Dove of the C h u r c h " , came from Ireland. that if they were reasonably peaceful the
Through his work both Highland Scots and Picts Sassenachs, as they called the Saxons (and still call
were brought to Christianity. He even, so i t is said, the English), would leave them alone.
defeated a monster i n Loch Ness, the first mention
of this famous creature. By the time of the Synod of Scotland remained a difficult country to rule even
Whitby i n 663, the Picts, Scots and Britons had all from its capital, Edinburgh. A n y o n e looking at a
been brought closer together by Christianity. map of Scotland can immediately see that control
of the Highlands and islands was a great problem.
The Angles were very different from the Celts. Travel was often impossible i n winter, and slow and
They had arrived i n Britain i n family groups, but difficult i n summer. I t was easy for a clan chief or
they soon began to accept authority from people noble to throw off the rule of the king.
outside their own family. This was partly due to

21

i
The early Middle Ages
4 Conquest and feudal rule
The Norman Conquest * Feudalism * Kingship: a family business *
Magna Carta and the decline of feudalism

The Norman Conquest and only two bishops were Saxon. W i l l i a m gave the
Saxon lands to his N o r m a n nobles. A f t e r each
William the Conqueror's coronation did not go as English rebellion there was more land to give away.
planned. W h e n the people shouted " G o d Save the His army included N o r m a n and other French land
King" the nervous N o r m a n guards at Westminster seekers. Over 4,000 Saxon landlords were replaced
Abbey thought they were going to attack W i l l i a m . by 200 N o r m a n ones.
In their fear they set fire to nearby houses and the
coronation ceremony ended i n disorder.

Although W i l l i a m was now crowned king, his

FeudaUsm
conquest had only just begun, and the fighting W i l l i a m was careful i n the way he gave land to his
lasted for another five years. There was an A n g l o - nobles. T h e king of France was less powerful than
Saxon rebellion against the Normans every year many of the great landlords, of w h o m W i l l i a m was
until 1070. The small Norman army marched from the outstanding example. I n England, as each new
village to village, destroying places i t could not area of land was captured, W i l l i a m gave parts of i t
control, and building forts to guard others. I t was a as a reward to his captains. This meant that they
tiue army of occupation for at least twenty years. held separate small pieces of land i n different parts
The north was particularly hard to control, and the of the country so that no noble could easily or
Norman army had no mercy. W h e n the Saxons quickly gather his fighting men to rebel. W i l l i a m
fought back, the Normans burnt, destroyed and only gave some of his nobles larger estates along the
killed. Between Durham and York not a single troublesome borders w i t h Wales and Scotland. A t
house was left standing, and it took a century for the same time he kept enough land for himself to
the north to recover. make sure he was much stronger than his nobles.
O f all the farmland of England he gave half to the
Few Saxon lords kept their lands and those who did N o r m a n nobles, a quarter to the C h u r c h , and kept
were the very small number who had accepted a fifth himself. He kept the Saxon system of
William immediately. A l l the others lost sheriffs, and used these as a balance to local nobles.
everything. By 1086, twenty years after the a n i v a l As a result England was different from the rest of
of the Normans, only two of the greater landlords Europe because it had one powerful family, instead
A n argument between King Henr> I I and his archbishop, Thomas Becket.
of a large number of powerful nobles. W i l l i a m , and
Behind Becket stand two knights, probably those who killed him to please the kings after h i m , thought of England as their
Henry. The picture illustrates the struggle between Church and state during
the early Middle Ages. The Church controlled money, land (including towns
personal property.
and feudal estates), and men. As a result, the kings of England had to be
my careful in their dealings with the Church. They tried to prevent any W i l l i a m organised his English kingdom according
inaease in Church power, and tried to appoint bishops who would be more
loyal to the king than to the Church. Becket died because he tried to prevent
to the feudal system w h i c h had already begun to
the king from gaining more control of Church affairs. develop i n England before his arrival. The word

23
A n Illustrated History of Britain

Castle Rising in Norfolk, a fine example of the stone-built keeps the Normans built in the early The great hall in Castle Headingham, built in 1140, gives an
twelfth century. These replaced the earlier Norman "motte and bailey" castles, which were earth idea of the inside of a Norman castle. The floor was covered
mounds surrounded by a wooden fence or palUsade. A stone-built keep of the new kind was with rushes or reeds, cut from a rtearby marsh or wetland
extremely difficult to capture, except by surprise. Keeps of this kind had a well, providing fresh area. The waRs were decorated with woven woollen
water for a long siege. embroidered hangings, for which England was famous, the
furniture is of a much later date. In Norman times there was
probably a large but simple table and chair for the hrd of the
"'feudalism" comes from the French word feu, w h i c h castle. Others sat on benches, or might have stood for meals.
the Normans used to refer to land held i n return for
duty or service to a lord. The basis of feudal society
was the holding of land, and its main purpose was
economic. The central idea was that all land was
owned by the king but it was held by others, called
"vassals", i n return for services and goods. The king
gave large estates to his main nobles i n return for a
promise to serve h i m i n war for up to forty days.
The nobles also had to give h i m part of the produce
of the land. The greater nobles gave part of their
lands to lesser nobles, knights, and other
"freemen". Some freemen paid for the land by
doing military service, while others paid rent. T h e
noble kept "serfs" to work on his own land. These
were not free to leave the estate, and were often
little better than slaves.

There were two basic principles to feudalism: every

man had a lord, and every lord had land. The king
was connected through this " c h a i n " of people to
the lowest man i n the country. A t each level a man A thirteenth-cenluT^y kni^t pays hcrmage. The
rwbility of Britain still pay homage to the
had to promise loyalty and service to his lord. This sovereign during the coronation ceremony. Ever
promise was usually made w i t h the lord sitting o n since the Mitidle Ages, west European Christiarts
have used the feudal homage position when
his chair and his vassal kneeling before h i m , his
praying, a reminder of their relatiortship to God,
hands placed between those of his lord. This was their lord and protector.

24
 4 Conquest and feudal rule

called "homage", and has remained part of the Kingship: a family business
coronation ceremony of British kings and queens
T o understand the idea of kingship and lordship in
until now. O n the other hand, each lord had
the early Middle Ages it is important to realise that
responsibilities to his vassals. He had to give them
at this time there was little or no idea of
land and protection.
nationalism. W i l l i a m controlled two large areas:
When a noble died his son usually took over his Normandy, w h i c h he had been given by his father,
estate. But lirst he had to receive permission from and England, w h i c h he had won i n war. Both were
the king and make a special payment. If he was still personal possessions, and it did not matter to the
a child the king would often take the produce of rulers that the ordinary people of one place were
the estate until the boy was old enough to look English while those of another were French. T o
after the estate himself. I n this way the king could W i l l i a m the important difference between
benefit from the death of a noble. If all the noble's Normandy and England was that as duke of
family died the land went back to the king, who Normandy he had to recognise the king of France
would be expected to give it to another deserving as his lord, whereas i n England he was king w i t h no
noble. But the king often kept the land for some lord above h i m .
years, using its wealth, before giving it to another
W h e n W i l l i a m died, i n 1087, he left the Duchy of
noble.
Norrnandy to his elder son, Robert. He gave
If the king did not give the nobles land they would England to his second son, W i l l i a m , k n o w n as
not fight for h i m . Between 1066 and the m i d - "Rufus" (Latin for red) because of his red hair and
fourteenth century there were only thirty years of red face. W h e n Robert went to fight the Muslims i n
complete peace. So feudal duties were extremely the H o l y Land, he left W i l l i a m 11 (Rufus) i n charge
important. The king had to make sure he had of Normandy. After all, the management of
enough satisfied nobles who would be willing to Normandy and England was a family business.
fight for h i m .
W i l l i a m Rufus died i n a h u n t i n g accident i n 1100,
William gave out land all over England to his shot dead by an arrow. He had not married, and
nobles. By 1086 he wanted to know exactly who therefore had no son to take the crown. A t the
owned which piece of land, and how much it was time of William's death, Robert was o n his way
worth. He needed this information so that he could home to Normandy from the H o l y Land. Their
plan his economy, find out how much was produced younger brother, Henry, knew that if he wanted
and how much he could ask in tax. He therefore the English crown he would have to act very
sent a team of people all through England to make quickly. He had been w i t h W i l l i a m at the time of
a complete economic survey. His men asked all the accident. He rode to Winchester and took
kinds of questions at each settlement: How much charge of the king's treasury. He then rode to
land was there? W h o owned it? H o w much was it Westminster, where he was crowned king three
worth? How many families, ploughs and sheep were days later. Robert was very angry and prepared to
there? .A.nd so on. This survey was the only one of invade. But it took h i m a year to organise an army.
Its kind in Europe. N o t surprisingly, it was most
The Norman nobles i n England had to choose
unpopular with the people, because they felt they
between Henry and Robert. This was not easy
could not escape from its findings. It so reminded
because most of them held land i n Normandy too.
them of the paintings of the Day of Judgement, or
In the end they chose Henry because he was in
"doom", on the walls of their churches that they
London, w i t h the crown already on his head.
called it the "Domesday'" Book. The name stuck.
Robert's invasion was a failure and he accepted
The Domesday Book still exists, and gives us an
payment to return to Normandy. But Henry wanted
extraordinary amount of information about England
more. He knew that many of his nobles would
at this time.
willingly follow h i m to Normandy so that they

25
A n Illustrated History of Britain

A t the time both the possible heirs to Henry were

o n their own estates. Matilda was w i t h her husband
in A n j o u and Henry's nephew, Stephen of Blois,
was i n Boulogne, only a day's journey by sea from
England. As Henry had done before h i m , Stephen
raced to England to claim the crown. Also as
before, the nobles i n England had to choose
between Stephen, who was i n England, and
Matilda, who had quarrelled w i t h her father and
who was still i n France. Most chose Stephen, who
seems to have been good at fighting but little else.
He was described at the time as "of outstanding
skill i n arms, but i n other things almost an idiot,
except that he was more inclined towards e v i l . "
O n l y a few nobles supported Matilda's claim.

Matilda invaded England four years later. Her fight

w i t h Stephen led to a terrible civil war i n which
villages were destroyed and many people were
killed. Neither side could w i n , and finally i n 1153
Matilda and Stephen agreed that Stephen could
keep the throne but only if Matilda's son, Henry,
could succeed h i m . Fortunately for England,
Henr-y U's empire.
Stephen died the following year, and the family
possessions of England and the lands i n France were
united under a king accepted by everyone. It took
could w i n back their N o r m a n lands. I n 1106 Henry years for England to recover from the civil war. As
invaded Normandy and captured Robert. someone wrote at the time, "For nineteen long
Normandy and England were reunited under one winters, God and his angels slept." This kind of
ruler. disorder and destruction was common i n Europe,
Henry I's most important aim was to pass on both but i t was shocking i n England because people were
Normandy and England to his successor. He spent used to the rule of law and order.
the rest of his life fighting to keep Normandy from Henry I I was the first unquestioned ruler of the
other French nobles who tried to take i t . But i n English throne for a hundred years. He destroyed
1120 Henry's only son was drowned at sea. the castles w h i c h many nobles had built without
During the next fifteen years Henry hoped for royal permission during Stephen's reign, and made
another son but finally accepted that his daughter, sure that they lived i n manor houses that were
Matilda, would follow h i m . Henry had married undefended. The manor again became the centre of
Matilda to another great noble i n France, Geoffrey local life and administration.
Plantagenet. Geoffrey was heir to A n j o u , a large
Henry I I was ruler of far more land than any
and important area southwest of Normandy. Henry
previous king. As lord of A n j o u he added his
hoped that the family lands would be made larger
father's lands to the family empire. After his
by this marriage. He made all the nobles promise to
marriage to Eleanor of Aquitaine he also ruled the
accept Matilda when he died. But then Henry
lands south of A n j o u . Henry II's empire stretched
himself quarrelled publicly w i t h Matilda's husband,
from the Scottish border to the Pyrenees.
and died soon after. This left the succession i n
question.

26
 4 Conquest and feudal rule

Four kings of the early Middle

Ages: (top row) Henry 11, Richard
I, (bottom row) John and Henry
III Richard's shield carries the
badge of the English kings. The
three gold Uons (called "leopards"
^1 in heraldic language) on a red field
still form two of the four
"quarters" of the Royal Standard
or shield today.

England provided most of Henry's wealth, but the popular kings, although he spent hardly any time i n
heart of his empire lay i n A n j o u . A n d although England. He was brave, and a good soldier, but his
Henry recognised the king of France as the overlord nickname Coeur de Lion, "lionheart", shows that
of all his French lands, he actually controlled a his culture, like that of the kings before h i m , was
greater area than the king of France. Many of French. Richard was everyone's idea of the perfect
Henry's nobles held land o n both sides of the feudal king. He went to the Holy Land to make war
English channel. o n the Muslims and he fought w i t h skill, courage
and honour.
However, Henry quarrelled w i t h his beautiful and
powerful wife, and his sons, Richard and John, took O n his way back from the H o l y Land Richard was
Eleanor's side. It may seem surprising that Richard captured by the duke of Austria, w i t h w h o m he had
and John fought against their own father. But i n quarrelled i n Jerusalem. The duke demanded money
fact they were doing their duty to the king of before he would let h i m go, and i t took two years
France, their feudal overlord, in payment for the for England to pay. Shortly after, i n 1199, Richard
lands they held from h i m . I n 1189 Henry died a was killed i n France. He had spent no more than
broken man, disappointed and defeated by his sons four or five years i n the country of w h i c h he was
and by the French king. king. W h e n he died the French k i n g took over
parts of Richard's French lands to rule himself.
Henry was followed by his rebellious son, Richard.
Richard I has always been one of England's most

27
A n Illustrated History of Britain

Richard had no son, and he was followed by his Magna Carta and the decline of
brother, John. John had already made himself
unpopular w i t h the three most important groups of
feudalism
people, the nobles, the merchants and the Church. This new agreement was known as "Magna Carta",
the Great Charter, and was an important symbol of
John was unpopular mainly because he was greedy.
political freedom. The king promised all "freemen"
The feudal lords i n England had always r u n their
protection from his officers, and the right to a fair
own law courts and profited from the fines paid by
and legal trial. A t the time perhaps less than one
those brought to court. But John took many cases
quarter of the English were "freemen". Most were
out of their courts and tried them i n the king's
not free, and were serfs or little better. Hundreds of
courts, taking the money for himself.
years later. Magna Carta was used by Parliament to
It was normal for a feudal lord to make a payment protect itself from a powerful king. I n fact Magna
to the king when his daughter was married, but Carta gave no real freedom to the majority of
John asked for more than was the custom. I n the people i n England. The nobles who wrote it and
same way, when a noble died, his son had to pay forced King John to sign i t had no such thing i n
money before he could inherit his father's land. I n m i n d . They had one main aim: to make sure John
order to enlarge his o w n income, John increased did not go beyond his rights as feudal lord.
the amount they had to pay. I n other cases when a
Magna Carta marks a clear stage i n the collapse of
noble died without a son, i t was normal for the land
English feudalism. Feudal society was based on links
to be passed o n to,another noble family. John kept
between lord and vassal. A t Runnymede the nobles
the land for a long time, to benefit from its wealth.
were not acting as vassals but as a class. They
He did the same w i t h the bishoprics. As for the
established a committee of twenty-four lords to
merchants and towns, he taxed them at a higher
make sure John kept his promises. That was not a
level than ever before.
"feudal" thing to do. I n addition, the nobles were
I n 1204 King John became even more unpopular acting i n co-operation w i t h the merchant class of
w i t h his nobles. T h e French king invaded towns.
Normandy and the English nobles lost their lands
The nobles did n o t allow John's successors to forget
there. John had failed to carry out his duty to them
this charter and its promises. Every king recognised
as duke of Normandy. H e had taken their money
Magna Carta, until the Middle Ages ended i n
but he had not protected their land.
disorder and a new kind of monarchy came into
I n 1209 John quarrelled w i t h the pope over who being i n the sixteenth century.
should be Archbishop of Canterbury. John was i n a
There were other small signs that feudalism was
weak position i n England and the pope knew i t .
changing. W h e n the king went to war he had the
The pope called o n the king of France to invade
right to forty days' fighting service from each of his
England, and closed every church i n the country.
lords. But forty days were not long enough for
A t a time when most people believed that without
fighting a war i n France. The nobles refused to fight
the C h u r c h they would go to hell, this was a very
for longer, so the king was forced to pay soldiers to
serious matter. I n 1214 John gave i n , and accepted
fight for h i m . (They were called "paid fighters",
the pope's choice of archbishop.
solidariuSy a Latin word from which the word
I n 1215 John hoped to recapture Normandy. H e "soldier" comes.) A t the same time many lords
called o n his lords to fight for h i m , but they no preferred their vassals to pay them i n money rather
longer trusted h i m . They marched to London, than i n services. Vassals were gradually beginning
where they were joined by angry merchants. to change into tenants. Feudalism, the use of land
Outside London at Runnymede, a few miles up the i n return for service, was beginning to weaken. But
river, John was forced to sign a new agreement. it took another three hundred years before it
disappeared completely.

28
5 The power of the kings of England
Church and state * The beginnings of Parliament * Dealing with the
Celts

Church and state wishes of the king i n the appointment of bishops

remained important. But after Anselm's death
John's reign also marked the end of the long Henry managed to delay the appointment of a new
struggle between Church and state i n England. archbishop for five years while he benefited from
This had begun i n 1066 when the pope claimed the wealth of Canterbury. The struggle between
that William had promised to accept h i m as his C h u r c h and state continued.
feudal lord. W i l l i a m refused to accept this claim.
He had created Norman bishops and given them The crisis came when Henry IPs friend Thomas
land on condition that they paid homage to h i m . Becket was appointed Archbishop of Canterbury i n
As a result it was not clear whether the bishops 1162. Henry hoped that Thomas would help h i m
should obey the Church or the king. Those kings bring the C h u r c h more under his control. A t first
and popes who wished to avoid conflict left the Becket refused, and then he gave i n . Later he
matter alone. But some kings and popes wanted to changed his m i n d again and ran away to France,
increase their authority. I n such circumstances and i t seemed as if Henry had w o n . But i n 1170
trouble could not be avoided. Becket returned to England determined to resist the
king. Henry was very angry, and four knights who
The struggle was for both power and money. During heard h i m speak out went to Canterbury to murder
the eleventh and twelfth centuries the C h u r c h Becket. They killed h i m i n the holiest place i n the
wanted the kings of Europe to accept its authority cathedral, o n the altar steps.
over both spiritual and earthly affairs, and argued
that even kings were answerable to God. Kings, on A l l Christian Europe was shocked, and Thomas
the other hand, chose as bishops men who would Becket became a saint of the Church. For hundreds
be loyal to them. of years afterwards people not only from England
but also from Europe travelled to Canterbury to
The first serious quarrel was between W i l l i a m Rufus pray at Becket's grave. Henry was forced to ask the
and Anselm, the man he had made Archbishop of pope's forgiveness. He also allowed himself to be
Canterbury. Anselm, w i t h several other bishops, whipped by monks. The pope used the event to
fearing the king, had escaped from England. A f t e r take back some of the Church's privileges. But
William's death Anselm refused to do homage to Henry I I could have lost much more than he did.
William's successor, Henry 1. Henry, meanwhile, Luckily for Henry, the nobles were also involved i n
had created several new bishops but they had no the argument, and Henry had the nobles on his
spiritual authority without the blessing of the side. Usually the C h u r c h preferred to support the
archbishop. This left the king i n a difficult position. king against the nobles, but expected to be
It took seven years to settle the disagreement. rewarded for its support. K i n g John's mistake forty
Finally the king agreed that only the Church could years later was to upset both C h u r c h and nobles at
create bishops. But in return the C h u r c h agreed the same time.
that bishops would pay homage to the king for the
lands owned by their bishoprics. I n practice the

29
A n Illustrated History of Britain

The beginnings of Parliament Henry's heavy spending and his foreign advisers
upset the nobles. Once again they acted as a class,
King John had signed Magna Carta unwiUingly, under the leadership of Simon de Montfort, earl of
and i t quickly became clear that he was not going Leicester. I n 1258 they took over the government
to keep to the agreement. T h e nobles rebelled and and elected a council of nobles. De Montfort called
soon pushed John out of the southeast. But c i v i l it a parliament, or parlement, a French word meaning
war was avoided because John died suddenly i n a "discussion meeting". This "parliament" took
1216. control of the treasury and forced Henry to get rid
John's son, Henry 111, was only nine years o l d . of his foreign advisers. The nobles were supported
During the first sixteen years as king he was under by the towns, which wished to be free of Henry's
the control of powerful nobles, and tied by Magna heavy taxes.
Carta. But some of the nobles did not support the
Henry was finally able to rule for himself at the revolutionary new council, and remained loyal to
age of twenty-five. I t was understandable that he Henry. W i t h their help Henry was finally able to
wanted to be completely independent of the people defeat and k i l l Simon de Montfort i n 1265. Once
who had controlled his life for so long. H e spent his again he had full royal authority, although he was
tifne w i t h foreign friends, and became involved i n careful to accept the balance which de Montfort
expensive wars supporting the pope i n Sicily and had created between king and nobles. W h e n Henry
also i n France. died i n 1272 his son Edward I took the throne
without question.

Edward I's parUament. Edward sits in

front of his nobies, bishops arxd shire
fcnights. O n his right sits Alexander,
king of Scots, arui on his left is
Uewelyn, Prince of Wales. It is
unhhely either ever sat in Edward's
parUament, but he Uked to think of
them as under his authority. Beyond
Alexander and Llewelyn sit the
archbishops of Canterbury and York,
and there are more bishops on the left
of the picture, a remiruler of the
poUtical and ecorwmic strength of the
Church at this time. In the centre are
woolsacks, syrrtboUc of England's
wealth.

30
 5 T h e power of the kings of England

Edward I brought together the first real parliament.

Simon de Montfort's council had been called a
parliament, but i t included only nobles. It had been
able to make statutes, or written laws, and it had
been able to make political decisions. However, the
lords were less able to provide the king w i t h money,
except what they had agreed to pay h i m for the
lands they held under feudal arrangement. I n the
days of Henry 1 ( 1 1 0 0 - 3 5 ) , 85 per cent of the
king's income had come from the land. By 1272
income from the land was less than 40 per cent of
the royal income. The king could only raise the rest
by taxation. Since the rules of feudalism did not
include taxation, taxes could only be raised w i t h
the agreement of those wealthy enough to be taxed.

Several kings had made arrangements for taxation

before, but Edward 1 was the first to create a
Harlech Castle, one of severd castles bwilt by Edward I in order to control
"representative institution" w h i c h could provide the north and west of Wales. The mountainous country of Snouidonia in die
the money he needed. This institution became the background was a place of safety for the Welsh rebels. While it was
extremely difficult for Edward to reach the rebels in these mountains, it was
House of Commons. U n l i k e the House of Lords i t also impossible for such rebels ever to capture casdes as strong as Harlech.
contained a mixture of "gentry" (knights and other These hugely expensive castles were so strong that they persuaded the Welsh
that another rising against English rule was unlikely to succeed.
wealthy freemen from the shires) and merchants
from the towns. These were the two broad classes of
people who produced and controlled England's
wealth.

In 1275 Edward I commanded each shire and each became necessary for the making of all statutes, and
town (or borough) to send two representatives to all special taxation additional to regular taxes.
his parliament. These "commoners" would have
stayed away if they could, to avoid giving Edward
money. But few dared risk Edward's anger. They
became unwilling representatives of their local Dealing with the Celts
community. This, rather than Magna Carta, was Edward I was less interested i n w i n n i n g back parts
the beginning of the idea that there should be " n o of France than i n bringing the rest of Britain under
taxation without representation", later claimed by his control.
the American colonists of the eighteenth century.
W i l l i a m I had allowed his lords to w i n land by
In other parts of Europe, similar "parliaments" kept conquest i n Wales. These Normans slowly
all the gentry separate from the commoners. extended their control up the Welsh river valleys
England was special because the House of and by the beginning of the twelfth century much
Commons contained a mixture of gentry belonging of Wales was held by them. They built castles as
to the feudal ruling class and merchants and they went forward, and mixed w i t h and married the
freemen who did not. The co-operation of these Welsh during the eleventh, twelfth and thirteenth
groups, through the House of Commons, became centuries. A new class grew up, a mixture of the
important to Britain's later poUtical and social N o r m a n and Welsh rulers, who spoke N o r m a n
development. During the 150 years following French and Welsh, but not English. They all
Edward's death the agreement of the Commons became vassals of the English king.

31
A n Illustrated History of Britain

The only Welsh who were at all free from English The Irish chiefs continued to live as they always
rule lived around Snowdon, the w i l d mountainous had done, moving from place to place, and eating
area of north Wales. They were led by Llewelyn ap out of doors, a habit they only gave up i n the i
Gruffydd, prince of Gwynedd, who tried to become sixteenth century. The Anglo-Irish lords, on the
independent of the English. Edward was determined other hand, built strong stone castles, as they had
to defeat h i m and bring Wales completely under his done i n Wales. But they also became almost |
control. I n 1282 Llewelyn was captured and killed. completely independent from the English Crown, \
Edward then began a programme of castle building and some became "more Irish than the Irish". \
which was extremely expensive and took many
I n Scotland things were very different. Although
years to complete.
Scottish kings had sometimes accepted the English
I n 1284 Edward united west Wales w i t h England, king as their "overlord", they were much stronger
bringing the English county system to the newly than the many Welsh kings had been. By the
conquered lands. But he did n o t interfere w i t h the eleventh century there was only one king of Scots,
areas the Normans had conquered earlier on the and he ruled over all the south and east of Scot-
English-Welsh border, because this would have led land. O n l y a few areas of the western coast were
to trouble w i t h his nobles. still completely independent and these all came
under the king's control during the twelfth and
The English considered that Wales had become
thirteenth centuries. I n Ireland and Wales Norman
part of England for all practical purposes. I f the
knights were strong enough to fight local chiefs on
Welsh wanted a prince, they could have one. A t a
their o w n . But only the English king w i t h a large
public ceremony at Caernarfon Edward I made his
army could hope to defeat the Scots. Most English
own baby son (later Edward I I ) Prince of Wales.
kings d i d not not even try, but Edward I was differen
From that time the eldest son of the ruling king or
queen has usually been made Prince of Wales. The Scottish kings were closely connected w i t h
England. Since Saxon times, marriages had
Ireland had been conquered by N o r m a n lords i n
frequently taken place between the Scottish and
1169. They had little difficulty i n defeating the
English royal families. A t the same time, i n order
Irish kings and tribes. Henry I I , afraid that his lords
to establish strong government, the Scottish kings
might become too independent, went to Ireland
offered land to N o r m a n knights from England i n
himself. He forced the Irish chiefs and N o r m a n
return for their loyalty. Scotland followed England
lords to accept his lordship. He did so w i t h the
i n creating a feudal state. O n the whole Celtic
authority of the pope, who hoped to bring the Irish
society accepted this, probably because the
Celtic Church under his o w n control.
Normans married into local Celtic noble families.
Henry I I made D u b l i n , the old V i k i n g t o w n , the The feudal system, however, did not develop i n the
capital of his new colony. M u c h of western Ireland Highlands, where the tribal "clan" system
remained i n the hands of Irish chiefs, while continued. Some Scottish kings held land i n
N o r m a n lords governed most of the east. Edward I England, just as English kings held lands i n France.
took as much money and as many men as he could A n d i n exactly the same way they did homage,
for his wars against the Welsh and Scots. As a promising loyalty to the English king for that land.
result Ireland was drained of its wealth. By 1318 it
I n 1290 a crisis took place over the succession to
was able to provide the English king w i t h only
the Scottish throne. There were thirteen possible
one-third of the amount it had been able to give i n
heirs. A m o n g these the most likely to succeed were
1272. The N o r m a n nobles and Irish chiefs quietly
John de Balliol and Robert Bruce, both N o r m a n -
avoided English authority as much as possible. As a
Scottish knights. I n order to avoid civil war the
result, the English C r o w n only controlled Dublin
Scottish nobles invited Edward I to settle the
and a small area around i t , k n o w n as "the Pale".
matter.

32
 5 T h e power of the kings of England

Edward had aheady shown interest i n joining another great army and marched against Robert
Scotland to his kingdom. I n 1286 he had arranged Bruce, but he died on the way n o r t h i n 1307. O n
for his own son to marry Margaret, the heir to the Edward's grave were written the words "Edward, the
Scottish throne, but she had died i n a shipwreck. Hammer of the Scots". He had intended to
Now he had another chance. He told both men hammer them into the ground and destroy them,
that they must do homage to h i m , and so accept his but i n fact he had hammered them into a nation.
overlordship, before he would help settle the
A f t e r his death his son, Edward 11, turned back to
question. He then invaded Scotland and put one of
England. Bruce had time to defeat his Scottish
them, John de Balliol, o n the Scottish throne.
enemies, and make himself accepted as king of the
De Balliol's four years as king were not happy. First, Scots. He then began to w i n back the castles still
Edward made h i m provide money and troops for held by the English. W h e n Edward 11 invaded
the English army and the Scottish nobles rebelled. Scotland i n 1314 i n an effort to help the last
Then Edward invaded Scotland again, and captured English-held castles, Bruce destroyed his army at
all the main Scottish castles. During the invasion Bannockburn, near Stirling. Six years later, i n
Edward stole the sacred Stone of Destiny from 1320, the Scots clergy meeting at A r b r o a t h wrote
Scone Abbey on w h i c h , so the legend said, all to the pope i n Rome to tell h i m that they would
Scottish kings must sit. Edward believed that never accept English authority: "for as long as even
without the Stone, any Scottish coronation would one hundred of us remain alive, we w i l l never
be meaningless, and that his o w n possession of the consent to subject ourselves to the d o m i n i o n of the
Stone would persuade the Scots to accept h i m as English."
king. However, neither he nor his successors
Edward I's corormtion chair. The Scottish Stone of Destiny which Edward
became kings of Scots, and the Scottish kings
took from Scone Abbey is under the seat, a symbol of England's desire to
managed perfectly well without i t . rule Scotland. On either side of the throne stand the symbolic state sword and
shield of Edward UI.
Edward's treatment of the Scots created a popular
resistance movement. A t first it was led by W i l l i a m
Wallace, a N o r m a n - S c o t t i s h knight. But after one
victory against an English army, Wallace's "people's
army" was itself destroyed by Edward i n 1297. The
Scots had formed rings of spearmen w h i c h stood
firm against the English cavalry attacks, but
Edward's Welsh longbowmen broke the Scottish
formations, and the cavalry then charged down on
them.

It seemed as if Edward had w o n after all. He

captured Wallace and executed h i m , putting his
head on a pole on London Bridge. Edward tried to
make Scotland a part of England, as he had done
with Wales. Some Scottish nobles accepted h i m ,
but the people refused to be ruled by the English
king. Scottish nationalism was b o m o n the day
Wallace died.

A new leader took up the struggle. This was Robert

Bruce, who had competed w i t h John de Balliol for
the throne. He was able to raise an army and defeat
the English army i n Scotland. Edward 1 gathered

33
6 Government and society
The growth of government * Law and justice * Religious beliefs •
Ordinary people in country and town * The growth of towns as centres of
wealth * Language, literature and culture

The growth of government The king kept all his records i n Westminster,
including the Domesday Book. The king's
W i l l i a m the Conqueror had governed England and administration kept a careful watch on noble
Normandy by travelling from one place to another families. It made sure the king claimed money
to make sure that his authority was accepted. H e , every time a young noble took over the lands of his
and the kings after h i m , raised some of the money father, or when a noble's daughter married. In
they needed by trying cases and fining people i n the every possible way the king always "had his hand i n
royal courts. The king's "household" was the his subject's pocket". The administration also
government, and i t was always on the move. There checked the towns and the ports to make sure that
was no real capital of the kingdom as there is today. taxes were paid, and kept a record of the fines made
Kings were crowned i n Westminster, but their by the king's court.
treasury stayed i n the old Wessex capital,
Winchester. W h e n W i l l i a m and the kings after h i m Most important of all, the officials i n Westminster
moved around the country staying i n towns and had to watch the economy of the country carefully.
castles, they were accompanied by a large number Was the king getting the money he needed in the
of followers. Wherever they went the local people most effective way? Such questions led to important
had to give them food and somewhere to stay. I t changes i n taxation between 1066 and 1300. I n
could have a terrible effect. Food ran out, and 1130 well over half of Henry I's money came from
prices rose. his own land, one-third from his feudal vassals in
rights and fines, and only one-seventh from taxes.
This form of government could only work well for a
One hundred and fifty years later, over half of
small kingdom. By the time the English kings were
Edward I's money came from taxes, but only one-
ruling half of France as well they could no longer
third came from his land and only one-tenth from
travel everywhere themselves. Instead, they sent
his feudal vassals. I t is no wonder that Edward
nobles and knights from the royal household to act
called to his parliament representatives of the
as sheriffsr-But even this system needed people who
people w h o m he could tax most effectively.
could administer taxation, justice, and carry out the
king's instructions. I t was obviously not practical I t is n o t surprising, either, that the administration
for all these people to follow the king everywhere. began to grow very quickly. W h e n W i l l i a m I
A t first this "administration" was based i n invaded Britain he needed only a few clerks to
Winchester, but by the time of Edward 1, i n 1290, manage his paperwork. Most business, including
i t had moved to Westminster. I t is still there today. feudal homage, was done by the spoken, not
However, even though the administration was i n written, word. But the need for paperwork grew
Westminster the real capital of England was still " i n rapidly. I n 1050 only the king (Edward the
the king's saddle". Confessor) had a seal w i t h which to "sign" official
papers. By the time of Edward I , just over two

34
 6 Government and society

hundred years later, even the poorest man was depended o n the choice of the king. Henry I I , the
expected to have a seal i n order to sign official most powerful English king of the twelfth century,
papers, even if he could not read. From 1199 the was k n o w n i n Europe for the high standards of his
administration i n Westminster kept copies of all the law courts. " T h e convincing proof of our king's
letters and documents that were sent out. strength," wrote one man, "is that whoever has a
just cause wants to have i t tried before h i m ,
The amount of wax used for seals o n official papers
whoever has a weak one does not come unless he is
gives an idea of the rapid growth of the royal ad-
dragged."
ministration. I n 1220, at the beginning of Flenry
Ill's reign, 1.5 kg were used each week. Forty years By the end of the twelfth century the judges were
later, in 1260, this had risen to 14 kg weekly. A n d men w i t h real knowledge and experience o f the
government administration has been growing ever law. Naturally these judges, travelling from place to
since. place, administered the same law wherever they
went. This might seem obvious now, but since
Law and justice Saxon times local customs and laws had varied from
one place to another. T h e law administered by
The king, of course, was responsible for law and these travelling judges became k n o w n as "common
justice. But kings usually had to leave the law", because i t was used everywhere.
administration of this important matter to someone
who lived close to the place where a crime was England was unlike the rest of Europe because i t
committed. I n Saxon times every district had had used common law. Centuries later, England's
its own laws and customs, and justice had often common law system was used i n the U n i t e d States
been a family matter. A f t e r the N o r m a n Conquest (the N o r t h American colonies) and i n many other
nobles were allowed to administer justice among British colonial possessions, and accepted when
the villages and people o n their lands. Usually they these became nations i n their o w n right. I n other
mixed Norman laws w i t h the old Saxon laws. They parts of Europe legal practice was based o n the C i v i l
had freedom to act more or less as they liked. More Law of the Roman Empire, and the Canon Law of
serious offences, however, were tried i n the king's the C h u r c h . But although English lawyers referred
courts. to these as examples o f legal method and science,
they created an entirely different system of law
Henry 1 introduced the idea that all crimes, even based o n custom, comparisons, previous cases and
those inside the family, were no longer only a previous decisions. I n this way traditional local laws
family matter but a breaking of the "king's peace". were replaced by common law all over the land.
It was therefore the king's duty to try people and This mixture o f experience and custom is the basis
punish them. A t first the nobles acted for the king of law i n England even today. M o d e m judges still
on their own lands, but blenry wanted the same base their decisions o n the way i n w h i c h similar
kind of justice to be used everywhere. So he cases have been decided.
appointed a number of judges who travelled from
place to place administering justice. (These The new class of judges was also interested i n how
travelling, or "circuit", judges still exist today.) the law was carried out, and what kinds of
They dealt both w i t h crimes and disagreements punishment were used. From Anglo-Saxon times
over property. I n this way the king slowly took over there had been two ways of deciding difficult cases
the administration from the nobles. when i t was n o t clear if a man was innocent or
guilty. T h e accused man could be tested i n battle
At first the king's judges had no special knowledge against a skilled fighter, or tested by "ordeal". A
or training. They were simply trusted to use typical "ordeal" was to put a hot iron o n the man's
common sense. Many of them were nobles or tongue. I f the b u m mark was still there three days
bishops who followed directly the orders of the later he was thought to be guilty. I t was argued that
king. I t is not surprising that the quality of judges

35
A n Illustrated History of Britain

God would leave the b u m mark on a guilty man's unusual. But it was still common to find a priest
tongue. Such a system worked only as long as who "kept a girl i n his house who l i t his fire but put
people believed i n i t . By the end of the twelfth out his v i r t u e . "
century there were serious doubts and i n 1215 the
There were, however, many who promised not to
pope forbade the Church to have anything to do
marry and kept that promise. This was particularly
w i t h trial by ordeal.
true of those men and women who wanted to be
In England trial by ordeal was replaced w i t h trial by monks or nuns and entered the local monastery or
jury. The jury idea dated back to the Danes of nunnery. One reason for entering a religious house
Danelaw, but had only been used i n disputes over was the increasing difficulty during this period of
land. Henry 11 had already introduced the use of living on the land. As the population grew, more
juries for some cases i n the second half of the and more people found they could not feed their
twelfth century. But i t was not the k i n d of jury we whole family easily. If they could enter a son or
know today. I n 1179 he allowed an accused man i n daughter into the local religious house there would
certain cases to claim " t r i a l by jury". The man be fewer mouths to feed. Indeed, i t may have been
could choose t\velve neighbours, "twelve good men the economic difficulties of raising a family which
and true", who would help h i m prove that he was persuaded priests to follow the Church ruling. Life
not guilty. Slowly, during the later Middle Ages, was better as a monk w i t h i n the safe walls of a
the work of these juries gradually changed from monastery than as a poor farmer outside. A monk
giving evidence tq judging the evidence of others. could learn to read and write, and be sure of food
Juries had no training i n the law. They were and shelter. The monasteries were centres of wealth
ordinary people using ordinary common sense. I t and leaming.
was soon obvious that they needed guidance. As a
result law schools grew up during the thirteenth I n 1066 there were fifty religious houses in England,
century, producing lawyers who could advise juries home for perhaps 1,000 monks and nuns. By the
about the points of law. beginning of the fourteenth century there were
probably about 900 religious houses, w i t h 17,500
members. Even though the population i n the
Religious beliefs fourteenth century was three times larger than it
The C h u r c h at local village level was significantly had been i n 1066, the growth of the monasteries is
different from the politically powerful organisation impressive.
the king had to deal w i t h . A t the time of W i l l i a m I T h e thirteenth century brought a new movement,
the ordinary village priest could hardly read at all, the "brotherhoods" of friars. These friars were
and he was usually one of the peasant community. wandering preachers. They were interested not i n
His church belonged to the local lord, and was C h u r c h power and splendour, but i n the souls of
often built next to the lord's house. A l m o s t all ordinary men and women. They lived w i t h the poor
priests were married, and many inherited their and tried to bring the comfort of Christianity to
position from their father. them. They lived i n contrast w i t h the wealth and
However, even at village level the C h u r c h wished power of the monasteries and cathedrals, the local
to replace the lord's authority w i t h its o w n , but i t centres of the Church.
was only partly successful. I n many places the lord
continued to choose the local priest, and to have
more influence over h i m than the more distant Ordinary people in country and
Church authorities were able to have. town
The C h u r c h also tried to prevent priests from There were probably between 1.5 and 2 million
marrying. I n this i t was more successful, and by the people living i n England i n 1066. The Domesday
end of the thirteenth century married priests were Book tells us that nine-tenths of them lived in the

36
 6 Government and society

countryside. It also tells us that 80 per cent of the the way the system worked between one estate and
land used for farming at the beginning of the another, one region and another, and between one
twentieth century was already being ploughed i n period and another. Local customs and both local
1086. I n fact i t was not u n t i l the nineteenth and national economic pressures affected the way
century that the cultivated area became greater things worked.
than the level recorded i n the Domesday Book.
The manorial system is often thought to be
Life in the countryside was hard. Most of the N o r m a n , but i n fact i t had been growing slowly
population still lived i n villages i n southern and throughout the Anglo-Saxon period. The Normans
eastern parts of England. I n the n o r t h and west inherited the system and developed i t to its fullest
there were fewer people, and they often lived apart extent. But the Normans were blamed for the bad
from each other, on separate farms. Most people aspects of the manorial system because they were
lived i n the simplest houses. The walls were made foreign masters.
of wooden beams and sticks, filled w i t h mud. The
I n the early days of the Conquest Saxons and
roofs were made of thatch, w i t h reeds or corn stalks
Normans feared and hated each other. For
laid thickly and skilfully so that the rain ran off
example, if a dead body was found, the Saxons had
easily. People ate cereals and vegetables most of the
to prove that i t was not the body of a murdered
time, w i t h pork meat for special occasions. They
N o r m a n . I f they could n o t prove i t , the Normans
worked from dawn to dusk every day of the year,
would burn the nearest village. The N o r m a n ruling
every year, until they were unable to work any
class only really began to mix w i t h and marry the
longer. U n t i l a man had land of his o w n he would
Saxons, and consider themselves "English" rather
usually not marry. However, men and women often
than French, after King John lost Normandy i n
slept together before marriage, and once a woman
1204. Even then, dislike remained between the
was expecting a child, the couple had no choice but
rulers and the ruled.
to marry.
Every schoolchild knows the story of Robin Hood,
The poor were divided from their masters by the
w h i c h grew out of Saxon hatred for N o r m a n rule.
feudal class system. The basis of this "manorial
According to the legend Robin H o o d lived i n
system" was the exchange of land for labour. The
Sherwood Forest near N o t t i n g h a m as a criminal or
landlord expected the villagers to work a fixed
"outlaw", outside feudal society and the protection
number of days on his own land, the "home f a r m " .
of the law. He stole from the rich and gave to the
The rest of the time they worked on their small
poor, and he stood up for the weak against the
strips of land, part of the village's "common l a n d "
powerful. His weapon was not the sword of nobles
on which they grew food for themselves and their
and knights, but the longbow, the weapon of the
family. The Domesday Book tells us that over
common man.
three-quarters of the country people were serfs.
They were not free to leave their lord's service or I n fact, most of the story is legend. The only thing
his land without permission. Even if they wanted to we know is that a man called Robert or " R o b i n "
run away, there was nowhere to run to. Anyway, a Hood was a wanted criminal i n Yorkshire i n 1230.
serf's life, under his lord's protection, was better The legend was, however, very popular w i t h the
than the life of an unprotected wanderer. Order common people all through the fourteenth,
and protection, no matter how hard life might be, fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, although the
was always better than disorder, when people would ruling class greatly disliked i t . Later the story was
starve. changed. Robin H o o d was described as a man of
noble b i r t h , whose lands had been taken by King
The manorial system was not the same all over the
John. A l m o s t certainly this was an effort by the
country, and it did not stay the same throughout
authorities to make Robin Hood "respectable".
the Middle Ages. There were always differences i n

37
A n Illustrated History of Britain

Left: Two out of twelve pictures iUustratirtg the occupaticms of each month, about 1280.
A b o v e left February: a man sits cooking arul warming fus boots by the fire. Above him hang
smoked meat and sausages, probably his only meat for the winter. I n the autumn most animals
were killed, and smoked or salted to keep them from going bad. There was only enough food to
keep breeding animals olive through the winter. Below left November: perhaps it is the same
man krujcking acorns or nuts from a tree for his pigs to eat. The complete set of pictures shows
mixed farming, which produced cereals, grapes for wine and pigs.

A b o v e : A woman milks a cow, while the cow tenderly Ucks its calf Almost all the population lived in
the country, but cows were kept by townspeople too. This domestic scene has a touching gentleness
about it.

Most landlords obtained their income directly from T h e peasants tried to farm more land. They drained
the home farm, and also from letting out some of marshland, and tried to grow food o n high ground
their land i n return for rent i n crops or money. The and o n other poor land. But much of this newly
size of the home farm depended on how much land cleared land quickly became exhausted, because the
the landlord chose to let out. I n the twelfth soil was too poor, being either too heavy or too
century, for example, many landlords found it more light and sandy. A s a result, the effort to farm more
profitable to let out almost all the home farm lands, land could not match the increase i n population,
and thus be paid i n money or crops rather than i n and this led to a decline i n individual family land
labour. I n fact it is from this period that the word holdings. It also led to an increase i n the number of
" f a r m " comes. Each arrangement the landlord made landless labourers, to greater poverty and hunger.
to let land to a villager was a "firma": a fixed or As land became overused, so bad harvests became
settled agreement. more frequent. A n d i n the years of bad harvest
people starved to death. I t is a pattern cruelly
By 1300 the population was probably just over four
familiar to many poor countries today. Among
m i l l i o n (up to the nineteenth century figures can
richer people, the pressure on land led to an
only be guessed at), about three times what it had
increase i n its value, and to an increase i n buying
been i n 1066. This increase, of course, had an
and selling. Landowning widows found themselves
effect on life i n the country. I t made i t harder to
courted by land-hungry single men.
grow enough food for everyone. T h e situation was
made worse by the Normans' love of hunting. They Unfortunately, agricultural skills improved little
drove the English peasants out of the forests, and during this period. Neither peasants nor landlords
punished them severely if they killed any forest had the necessary knowledge or understanding to
animals. " T h e forest has its o w n laws," wrote one develop them. I n addition, manorial landlords,
man bitterly, "based not o n the common law of the equally interested i n good harvests, insisted that the
kingdom, but on the personal wishes of the k i n g . " animals of the peasantry grazed o n their o w n land
to enrich it during its year of rest. Many villagers

38
 6 Government and society

tried to increase their income by other activities was no longer so, the king used popular feeling
and became blacksmiths, carpenters, tilers or against them as an excuse to expel them. I n 1290
shepherds, and i t is from the thirteenth century the Jewish community was forced to leave the
that many villagers became k n o w n by their trade country.
name.
Feudalism was slowly dying out, but the changes
Shortage of food led to a sharp rise i n prices at the often made landlords richer and peasants poorer.
end of the twelfth century. The price of wheat, for Larger landlords had to pay fewer feudal taxes,
example, doubled between 1190 and 1200. A sheep while new taxes were demanded from everyone i n
that cost four pence i n 1199 fetched ten pence i n possession of goods and incomes. As a result many
1210. Prices would be high i n a bad season, but could not afford to pay rent and so they lost their
could suddenly drop when the harvest was specially land. Some of these landless people went to the
good. This inflation weakened feudal ties, w h i c h towns, which offered a better hope for the future.
depended to a great extent o n a steady economic
situation to be workable. The smaller landed The growth of towns as centres
knights found i t increasingly difficult to pay for of wealth
their military duties. By the end of the thirteenth
England was to a very large degree an agricultural
century a knight's equipment, w h i c h had cost
society. Even i n towns and cities, many of those
fifteen shillings i n the early twelfth century, now
involved i n trade or industry also farmed small
cost more than three times this amount. A l t h o u g h
holdings of land on the edge of town. I n this sense
nobles and knights could get more money from
England was self-sufficient. However, throughout
their land by paying farm labourers and receiving
the Middle Ages England needed things from
money rents than by giving land rent free i n return
abroad, such as salt and spices. Inside England
for labour, many knights w i t h smaller estates
there was a good deal of trade between different
became increasingly indebted.
regions. Wool-growing areas, for example, imported
We know about these debts from the records of the food from food-producing areas. However, i t is
"Exchequer of the Jews". The small Jewish harder to know the extent of this internal trade
community i n England earned its living by lending because it was less formal than international trade,
money, and lived under royal protection. By the and therefore less recorded.
late thirteenth century these records show a large
W e know more about international trade, which
number of knights i n debt to Jewish money lenders.
was recorded because the king obtained a
When a knight was unable to repay the money he
considerable income from customs dues. During the
had bonowed, the Jewish money lender sold the
Anglo-Saxon period most European trade had been
knight's land to the greater landholding nobility.
w i t h the Frisians i n the Low Countries, around the
This did not please Edward 1, who feared the
mouth of the River Rhine. Following the V i k i n g
growth i n power of the greater nobility as they
invasions most trade from the n i n t h century
profited from the disappearance of smaller land-
onwards had taken place w i t h Scandinavia. By the
holders. He had wanted the support of the knightly
eleventh century, for example, English grain was
class against the greater lords, and i t was partly for
highly valued i n Norway. I n return England
this reason that he had called on them to be
imported Scandinavian fish and tall timber.
represented i n Parliament. N o w he saw the danger
However, by the end of the twelfth century this
that as a class they might become seriously
Anglo-Scandinavian trade link had weakened.
weakened. The Jews were middlemen i n an
economic process which was the result of social This was the result of the N o r m a n Conquest, after
forces at work i n the countryside. W h i l e the w h i c h England looked away from the northeast,
economic function of the Jews i n providing capital Scandinavia and Germany, and towards the south,
had been useful they had been safe, but once this France, the Low Countries, and beyond. The royal

39
A n Illustrated History of Britain

family had links w i t h Gascony i n southwest France, their produce and to kings who wished to benefit
and this led to an important trade exchange of wine from the increase i n national wealth. As a result,
for c l o t h and cereal. However, easily the most the townspeople quickly managed to free
important link was once again w i t h the Low themselves from feudal ties and interference. A t the
Countries, and the basis of this trade was wool. end of the Anglo-Saxon period there were only a
few towns, but by 1250 most of England's towns
England had always been famous for its wool, and
were already established.
i n Anglo-Saxon times much of i t had been
exported to the Low Countries. I n order to improve Many towns stood o n land belonging to feudal
the manufacture of woollen cloth, W i l l i a m the lords. But by the twelfth century kings were
Conqueror encouraged Flemish weavers and other discouraging local lords from taking the wealth from
skilled workers from Normandy to settle i n nearby towns. They realised that towns could
England. They helped to establish new towns: become effective centres of royal authority, to
Newcastle, H u l l , Boston, L y n n and others. These balance the power of the local nobility. The kings
settlers had good connections w i t h Europe and were therefore gave "charters of freedom" to many
able to begin a lively trade. However, raw wool towns, freeing the inhabitants from feudal duties to
rather than finished c l o t h remained the main the local lord. These charters, however, had to be
export. As the European demand for wool stayed paid for, and kings sold them for a high price. But
high, and since n o other country could match the it was worth the money. Towns could now raise
high quality of ErtgUsh wool, English exporters their own local taxes on goods coming i n . They
could charge a price h i g h above the production could also have their own courts, controlled by the
cost, and about twice as much as the price i n the town merchants, o n condition that they paid an
home market. T h e king taxed the export of raw annual tax to the king. Inside the town walls,
wool heavily as a means of increasing his o w n people were able to develop social and economic
income. I t was easily England's most profitable organisations free from feudal rule. I t was the
business. W h e n Richard 1 was freed from his beginnings of a middle class and a capitalist
captivity, over half the price was paid i n wool. A s a economy.
symbol of England's source of wealth, a wool sack
has remained i n the House of Lords ever since this W i t h i n the towns and cities, society and the
time. M u c h of the wool industry was built up by the economy were mainly controlled by "guilds". These
monasteries, which kept large flocks of sheep on were brotherhoods of different kinds of merchants,
their great estates. or of skilled workers. T h e word " g u i l d " came from
the Saxon word "gildan", to pay, because members
The wool trade illustrates the way i n w h i c h the paid towards the cost of the brotherhood. The
towns related to the countryside. "Chapmen" or merchant guilds grew i n the thirteenth century and
"hucksters", travelling traders, would buy wool at included all the traders i n any particular town.
particular village markets. T h e n they took the wool Under these guilds trade was more tightly
to t o w n , where i t would be graded and bundled up controlled than at any later period. A t least one
for export or for local spinning. Larger fairs, both i n hundred guilds existed i n the thirteenth century,
town and country, were important places where similar i n some ways to our modern trade unions.
traders and producers met, and deals could be The right to form a guild was sometimes included
made. These were not purely English affairs. For- in a town's charter of freedom. I t was from among
eign merchants seeking high quality wool frequently the members of the guild that the town's leaders
attended the larger fairs. were probably chosen. I n the course of time entry
into these guilds became increasingly difficult as
Such trade activities could not possibly have taken
guilds tried to control a particular trade. I n some
place under the restrictions of feudalism. But towns
cases entry was only open to the sons of guild
were valuable centres to nobles who wanted to sell
members. I n other cases entry could be obtained by

40
 6 Government and society

paying a fee to cover the cost of the training, or I n England two schools of higher learning were
apprenticeship, necessary to maintain the high established, the first at Oxford and the second at
standard of the trade. Cambridge, at the end of the twelfth century. By
the 1220s these two universities were the
During the fourteenth century, as larger towns
intellectual leaders of the country.
continued to grow, "craft" guilds came into being.
All members of each of these guilds belonged to the Few could go to the universities. Most English
same trade or craft. The earliest craft guilds were people spoke neither L a t i n , the language of the
those of the weavers i n London and Oxford. Each Church and of education, nor French, the language
guild tried to protect its own trade interests. of law and of the N o r m a n rulers. I t was a long time
Members of these guilds had the right to produce, before English became the language of the ruling
buy or sell their particular trade without having to class. Some French words became part of the
pay special town taxes. But members also had to English language, and often kept a more polite
make sure that goods were of a certain quality, and meaning than the old Anglo-Saxon words. For
had to keep to agreed prices so as not to undercut example, the word "chair", w h i c h came from the
other guild members. French, describes a better piece of furniture than
the Anglo-Saxon word "stool". I n the same way,
In London the development of craft guilds went the Anglo-Saxon word "belly" was replaced i n
further than elsewhere, w i t h a rich upper level of polite society by the word "stomach". Other
the craft community, the so-called livery Anglo-Saxon words ceased to be used altogether.
companies, controlling most of the affairs of the
city. Over the centuries the twelve main livery
Mob Quad in Merton College is the oldest of Oxford's famous
companies have developed into large financial "quadrangles", or courtyards. It was built in the first half of the fourteenth
century. Almost all the Oxford colleges were built round qmndrangles, with
institutions. Today they play an important part i n
a Ubrary on one side (in Mob Quad on the first fhor on the left), and living
the government of the C i t y of London, and the areas for both masters and students on the other sides. Merton College
yearly choice of its Lord Mayor. chapel, in the background, is the finest late fourteenth-century example in
04ord.

Language, literature and culture

The growth of literacy i n England was closely
connected w i t h the twelfth-century Renaissance, a
cultural movement which had first started i n Italy.
Its influence moved northwards along the trade
routes, reaching England at the end of the century.
This revolution i n ideas and learning brought a new
desire to test religious faith against reason. Schools
of leaming were established i n many towns and
cities. Some were "grammar" schools independent
of the Church, while others were attached to a
cathedral. A l l of these schools taught L a t i n ,
because most books were written i n this language.
Although it may seem strange for education to be
based on a dead language, Latin was important
because it was the educated language of almost all
Europe, and was therefore useful i n the spread of
ideas and learning. I n spite of the dangers, the
Church took a lead i n the new intellectual
movement.

41
5 9 ' 8 1 ^ ^
The late Middle Ages
7 The century of war, plague and disorder
War with Scotland and France * The age of chivalry * The century of
plagues * The poor in revolt * Heresy and orthodoxy

The fourteenth century was disastrous for Britain as century, and also for the strength of society against
well as most of Europe, because of the effect of wars the dangers of revolution at the end of the
and plagues. Probably one-third of Europe's eighteenth century. Finally, the habit of war
population died of plague. Hardly anywhere created a new class of armed men i n the
escaped its effects. countryside, i n place of the old feudal system of
forty days' service. These gangs, i n reality local
Britain and France suffered, too, from the damages
private armies, damaged the local economy but
of war. I n the 1330s England began a long struggle
increased the nobles' ability to challenge the
against the French Crown. I n France villages were
authority of the C r o w n . Already i n 1327 one king
raided or destroyed by passing armies. France and
had been murdered by powerful nobles, and another
England were exhausted economically by the cost of
one was murdered i n 1399. These murders
maintaining armies. England had the additional
weakened respect for the C r o w n , and encouraged
burden of fighting the Scots, and maintaining
repeated struggles for i t amongst the king's most
control of Ireland and Wales, both of w h i c h were
powerful relations. I n the following century a king,
trying to throw off English rule.
or a king's eldest son, was killed i n 1461, 1471,
k is difficult to measure the effects of war and 1483 and 1485. But i n the end the nobles destroyed
plague on fourteenth-century Britain, except i n themselves and as a class they disappeared.
deaths. But undoubtedly one effect of b o t h was an
increasing challenge to authority. The heavy
demands made by the king o n gentry and
War with Scotland and France
merchants weakened the economic strength of England's wish to control Scotland had suffered a
town and countryside but increased the political major setback at Bannockbum i n 1314. Many of
strength of the merchants and gentry whenever the English had been killed, and Edward I I himself
they provided the king w i t h money. The growth of had been lucky to escape. After other unsuccessfiil
an alliance between merchants and gentry at this attempts England gave up its claim to overlordship
time was of the greatest importance for later of Scotland i n 1328. However, i t was not long
political developments, particularly for the strength before the two countries were at war again, but this
of Parliament against the king i n the seventeenth time because of England's war w i t h France.

The repeated attempts of English kings to control

The Tower of London has been a fortress, palace and prison. One of its Scotland had led the Scots to look for allies. A f t e r
earliest prisoners was the French duke of Orleans, who was captured at the
batik of Agincoun in 1415. He spent twenty-five years in English prisons
Edward I's attempt to take over Scotland i n 1295,
before he was ransomed. H e appears in this picture, seated in the Norman the Scots turned to the obvious ally, the king of
WUte Tower, guarded by English soldiers. The White Tower itself was built
France, for w h o m there were clear advantages i n an
William I with stone brought from Normaruiy. Behind the Tower is
London Bridge, with houses built upon it. alliance w i t h Scotland. This " A u l d [old] A l l i a n c e "

43
A n Illustrated History of Britain

lasted into the sixteenth century. France benefited French C r o w n . It is unlikely that anyone, except
more than Scotland from i t , but both countries for the English, took his claim very seriously, but it
agreed that whenever England attacked one of was a good enough reason for starting a war. The
them, the other would make trouble behind war Edward began, later called the Hundred Years
England's back. The alliance did not operate the War, did not finally end until 1453, w i t h the Eng-
whole time. There were long periods when i t was lish C r o w n losing all its possessions i n France
not needed or used. except for Calais, a northern French port.

England's troubles w i t h France resulted from the A t first the English were far more successful than
French king's growing authority i n France, and his the French o n the battlefield. The English army was
determination to control all his nobles, even the experienced through its wars i n Wales and i n
greatest of them. France had suffered for centuries Scotland. I t had learnt the value of being lightly
from rebellious vassals, and the two most armed, and quick i n movement. Its most important
troublesome were the duke of Burgundy and the weapon was the Welsh longbow, used by most of
English king (who was still the king of France's the ordinary footsoldiers. I t was very effective on
vassal as duke of Aquitaine), both of w h o m refused the battlefield because of its quick rate of fire. A n
to recognise the French king's overlordship. experienced man could fire a second arrow into the
air before the first had reached its destination.
T o make his position stronger, the king of France
Writers of the time talk of "clouds" of arrows
began to interfere w i t h England's trade. Part of
darkening the sky. These arrows could go through
Aquitaine, an area called Gascony, traded its fine
most armour. The value of the longbow was proved
wines for England's c o m and woollen c l o t h . This
i n two victories, at Crecy i n 1346 and at Poitiers i n
trade was worth a lot of money to the English
1356, where the French king himself was taken
C r o w n . But i n 1324 the French king seized part of
prisoner. The English captured a huge quantity of
Gascony. Burgundy was England's other major
treasure, and i t was said that after the battle of
trading partner, because i t was through Burgundy's
Poitiers every woman i n England had a French
province of Flanders (now Belgium) that almost all
bracelet on her arm. The French king bought his
England's wool exports were made. A n y French
freedom for £ 5 0 0 , 0 0 0 , an enormous amount of
move to control these two areas was a direct threat
money i n those days.
to England's wealth. The king of France tried to
make the duke of Burgundy accept his authority. By the treaty of Bretigny, i n 1360, Edward I I I was
T o prevent this, England threatened Burgundy w i t h happy to give up his claim to the French throne
economic collapse by stopping wool exports to because he had re-established control over areas
Flanders. This forced the duke of Burgundy to make previously held by the English Crown. The French
an alliance w i t h England against France. recognised his ownership of all Aquitaine,
including Gascony; parts of Normandy and
England went to war because i t could not afford the Brittany, and the newly captured port of Calais.
destruction of its trade w i t h Flanders. I t was But because the French king had only unwillingly
difficult to persuade merchants to pay for wars accepted this situation the war did not end, and
against the Scots or the Welsh, from w h i c h there fighting soon began again. A l l this land, except for
was so little wealth to be gained. But the threat to the valuable coastal ports of Calais, Cherbourg,
their trade and wealth persuaded the rich merchant Brest, Bordeaux and Bayonne, was taken back by
classes of England that war against France was French forces during the next fifteen years. I t was a
absolutely necessary. The lords, knights and warning that winning battles was a good deal easier
fighting men also looked forward to the possibility than winning wars.
of winning riches and lands.
True to the " A u l d A l l i a n c e " the king of Scots had
Edward 111 declared war o n France i n 1337. His
attacked England i n 1346, but he was defeated and
excuse was a bold one: he claimed the right to the

44
 7 T h e century of war, plague and disorder

taken prisoner. English forces raided as far as

Edinburgh, destroying and looting. However,
Edward 111 allowed the French to ransom the Scots
king David and, satisfied w i t h his successes i n
France, Edward gave up trying to control the Scots
Crown. For a while there was peace, but the
stmggle between the French and English kings over
French territories was to continue into the fifteenth
century.

The age of chivalry

EJward 111 and his eldest son, the Black Prince,
were greatly admired i n England for their courage
on the battlefield and for their courtly manners.
They became symbols of the "code of chivalry", the
way in which a perfect knight should behave.
During the reign of Edward interest grew i n the
legendary King A r t h u r . A r t h u r , if he ever existed,
was probably a Celtic ruler who fought the A n g l o -
Saxons, but we know nothing more about h i m . The
fourteenth-century legend created around A r t h u r
included both the imagined magic and mystery of
the Celts, and also the knightly values of the court
of Edward 111.

According to the code of chivalry, the perfect Edward in receives his sword arvi shield from the mythical St George. This is
knight fought for his good name if insulted, served a propaganda picture. A s patron saint of England, and of the Order of the
Garter which Edward III has founded, St George is itsed in this way to
God and the king, and defended any lady i n need. confirm Edward's position.
These ideas were expressed i n the legend of the
Round Table, around which King A r t h u r and his
knights sat as equals i n holy brotherhood.

Edward introduced the idea of chivalry into his

court. Once, a lady at court accidentally dropped
been. The custom is still followed, and Honi Soit
her garter and Edward I I I noticed some of his
Qui Mal Y Pense is still the motto of the royal
courtiers laughing at her. He picked up the garter
family.
and tied it to his own leg, saying i n French, " H o n i
soit qui mal y pense," which meant "Let h i m be Chivalry was a useful way of persuading men to
ashamed who sees wrong i n i t . " From this strange fight by creating the idea that war was a noble and
yet probably true story, the Order of the Garter was glorious thing. War could also, of course, be
founded i n 1348. Edward chose as members of the profitable. But i n fact cruelty, death, destruction
order twenty-four knights, the same number the and theft were the reality of war, as they are today.
legendary A r t h u r had chosen. They met once a The Black Prince, who was the living example of
year on St George's Day at Windsor Castle, where chivalry i n England, was feared i n France for his
King Arthur's Round Table was supposed to have cruelty.

45
A n Illustrated History of Britain

Knights, according to the ideals of chivalry, would fight to defend a lady's

honour. In peacetime knights fought one against another in tournaments.
Here a knight prepares to /ight, and is handed his helmet and shield hy his
wife and daughter. Other kni^its could recognise hy the design on his shield
and on his horse's coat that the rider was Sir Geoffrey Luttrell.

The century of plagues

The year 1348 brought an event of far greater The Black Death was neither the first natural
importance than the creation of a new order of disaster of the fourteenth century, nor the last.
chivalry. This was the terrible plague, known as the Plagues had killed sheep and other animals earlier
Black Death, which reached almost every part of in the century. A n agricultural crisis resulted from
Britain during 1348-9. Probably more than one- the growth in population and the need to produce
third of the entire population of Britain died, and more food. Land was no longer allowed to rest one
fewer than one person in ten who caught the year in three, which meant that it was over-used,
plague managed to survive it. Whole villages resulting in years of famine when the harvest failed
disappeared, and some towns were almost This process had already begun to slow down
completely deserted until the plague itself died out. population growth by 1300.

46
 7 T h e century of war, plagut and disorder

After the Black Death there were other plagues Because of the shortage and expense of labour,
during the rest of the century which killed mostly landlords returned to the twelfth-century practice of
the young and healthy. I n 1300 the population of letting out their land to energetic freeman farmers
Britain had probably been over four m i l l i o n . By the who bit by bit added t o their own land. I n the
end of the century it was probably hardly half that twelfth century, however, the practice of letting
figure, and it only began to grow again i n the out farms had been a way of increasing the
second half of the fifteenth century. Even so, i t landlord's profits. N o w i t became a way of avoiding
took until the seventeenth century before the losses. Many "firma" agreements were for a whole
population reached four m i l l i o n again. life span, and some for several life spans. By the
mid-fifteenth century few landlords had home farms
The dramatic fall i n population, however, was not
at all. These smaller farmers who rented the
entirely a bad thing. A t the end of the thirteenth
manorial lands slowly became a new class, k n o w n
century the sharp rise i n prices had led an
as the "yeomen". They became an important part
increasing number of landlords to stop paying
of the agricultural economy, and have always
workers for their labour, and to go back to serf
remained so.
labour i n order to avoid losses. I n return villagers
were given land to farm, but this tenanted land was Overall, agricultural land production shrank, but
often the poorest land of the manorial estate. A f t e r those who survived the disasters of the fourteenth
the Black Death there were so few people to work century enjoyed a greater share of the agricultural
on the land that the remaining workers could ask economy. Even for peasants life became more
for more money for their labour. W e know they did comfortable. For the first time they had enough
this because the king and Parliament tried again money to build more solid houses, i n stone where i t
and again to control wage increases. W e also know was available, i n place of huts made of wood, mud
from these repeated efforts that they cannot have and thatch.
been successful. The poor found that they could
demand more money and did so. This finally led to There had been other economic changes during the
the end of serfdom. fourteenth century. T h e most important of these
was the replacement of wool by finished cloth as

The Black Death killed between a

half and one-third of die
lUJTmfUJimiuJim
population of Britain.

47
A n Illustrated History of Britain

England's m a i n export. This change was the natural The poor in revolt
result of the very high prices at w h i c h English wool
I t is surprising that the English never rebelled
was sold i n Flanders by the end of the thirteenth
against Edward I I I . He was an expensive king at a
century. Merchants decided they could increase
time when many people were miserably poor and
their profits further by buying wool i n England at
sick w i t h plagues. A t the time of the Black Death
half the price for w h i c h i t was sold i n Flanders, and
he was busy w i t h expensive wars against France and
produce finished cloth for export. This process
Scotland. The demands he made on merchants and
suddenly grew very rapidly after the Flemish c l o t h
peasants were enormous, but Edward I I I handled
industry itself collapsed during the years 1320 to
these people w i t h skill.
1360. Hundreds of skilled Flemings came to
England i n search of work. They were encouraged Edward's grandson, Richard, was less fortunate. He
to do so by Edward I I I because there was a clear became king on his grandfather's death i n 1377
benefit to England i n exporting a finished product because his father, the Black Prince, had died a few
rather than a raw material. T h e surname "Fleming" months earlier. Richard I I inherited the problems of
has been a common one i n England ever since, discontent but had neither the diplomatic skill of
particularly i n East A n g l i a , where many Flemings his grandfather, nor the popularity of his father.
settled. Added to this he became king when he was only
eleven, and so others governed for h i m . I n the year
A t the beginning of the century England had
he became king, these advisers introduced a tax
exported 30,000 sacks of raw wool but only 8,000
payment for every person over the age of fifteen.
lengths of c l o t h feach year. By the middle of the
T w o years later, this tax was enforced again. The
century i t exported only 8,000 sacks of wool but
people paid.
50,000 lengths of cloth, and by the end of the
century this increased to well over 100,000. The But i n 1381 this tax was enforced for a third time
wool export towns declined. They were replaced by and also increased to three times the previous
towns and villages w i t h fast-flowing rivers useful for amount. There was an immediate revolt i n East
the new process of cleaning and treating wool. A n g l i a and i n Kent, two of the richer parts of the
M u c h of the clothmaking process, l i k ^ spinning, country. The poorer parts of the country, the north
was done i n the workers' o w n homes. Indeed, so and northwest, did not rebel. This suggests that in
many young women spun wool that "spinster" the richer areas ordinary people had become more
became and has remained the word for an aware and confident of their rights and their power.
unmarried woman.
The new tax had led to revolt, but there were also
The West Country, Wales, and Yorkshire i n the other reasons for discontent. The landlords had
north all did well from the change i n clothmaking. been trying for some time to force the peasants back
But London remained much larger and richer. By into serfdom, because serf labour was cheaper than
the late fourteenth century its 50,000 inhabitants paid labour. The leader of the revolt, W a t Tyler,
were supported by trade w i t h the outside world, was the first to call for fair treatment of England's
especially the Baltic, Mediterranean and N o r t h Sea poor people: " W e are men formed i n Christ's
ports. Its nearest trade rival was Bristol. likeness," he claimed, "and we are kept like
animals." The people sang a revolutionary rhyme
suggesting that when G o d created man he had not
made one man master over another:

W h e n A d a m delved, and Eve span.

W h o was then the gentleman?

The idea that G o d had created all people equal

called for an end to feudalism and respect for

48
 7 T h e century of war, plague and disorder

honest labour. But the Peasants' Revolt, as i t was the pope could raise i n Britain, and made sure that
called, only lasted for four weeks. During that most of i t found its way into his o w n treasury
period the peasants took control of much of instead.
London. I n fact the revolt was not only by peasants
One might have expected the bishops and clergy to
from the countryside: a number of poorer
oppose the king. They did not, because almost all
townspeople also revolted, suggesting that the
of them were English and came from noble families,
discontent went beyond the question of feudal
and so shared the political views of the nobility.
service. W h e n W a t Tyler was killed, Richard I I
Most of them had been appointed by the king and
skilfully quietened the angry crowd. He promised to
some of them also acted as his officers. W h e n the
meet all the people's demands, including an end to
peasants stormed London i n 1381 they executed the
serfdom, and the people peacefully went home.
Archbishop of Canterbury, who was also the king's
As soon as they had gone, Richard's position chancellor. It was unlikely that his killers saw much
changed. A l t h o u g h he did not try to enforce the difference between the two offices. Archbishop or
tax, he refused to keep his promise to give the chancellor, he was part of an oppressive
peasants their other demands. "Serfs you are," he establishment.
said, "and serfs you shall remain." His officers
A n o t h e r threat to the C h u r c h during the
hunted down other leading rebels and hanged
fourteenth century was the spread of religious
them. But the danger of revolt by the angry poor
writings, w h i c h were popular w i t h an increasingly
was a warning to the king, the nobles and to the
literate population. These books were for use i n
wealthy of the city of London.
private prayer and dealt w i t h the death of Jesus
Christ, the lives of the Saints and the V i r g i n Mary.
Heresy and orthodoxy The increase i n private prayer was a direct threat to
the authority of the C h u r c h over the religious life
The Peasants' Revolt was the first sign of growing of the population. This was because these writings
discontent w i t h the state. During the next century allowed people to pray and t h i n k independently of
discontent w i t h the Church also grew. There had C h u r c h control. Private religious experience and
already been a few attacks o n Church property i n the increase of knowledge encouraged people to
towns controlled by the Church. I n 1381 one rebel challenge the Church's authority, and the way i t
priest had called for the removal of all bishops and used this to advance its political influence.
archbishops, as well as all the nobles.
Most people were happy to accept the continued
The greed of the Church was one obvious reason authority of the C h u r c h , but some were not. A t the
for its unpopularity. The Church was a feudal end of the fourteenth century new religious ideas
power, and often treated its peasants and appeared i n England w h i c h were dangerous to
townspeople w i t h as much cruelty as the nobles did. C h u r c h authority, and were condemned as heresy.
There was another reason why the people of This heresy was k n o w n as "Lollardy", a word w h i c h
England disliked paying taxes to the pope. Edwatd's probably came from a L a t i n word meaning " t o say
wars i n Ftance were beginning to make the English prayers". One of the leaders of Lollardy was John
conscious of their "Englishness" and the pope was a Wycliffe, an Oxford professor. He believed that
foreigner. T o make matters worse the pope had everyone should be able to read the Bible i n Eng-
been driven out of Rome, and was living i n lish, and to be guided by i t i n order to save their
Avignon i n France. It seemed obvious to the soul. He therefore translated it from L a t i n , finishing
English that the pope must be on the French side, the work i n 1396. He was not allowed to publish
and that the taxes they paid to the Church were his new Bible i n England, and was forced to leave
actually helping France against England. This was a Oxford. However, b o t h he and the other Lollards
matter on which the king and people i n England were admired by those nobles and scholars who
agreed. The king reduced the amount of tax money

49
A n Illustrated History of Britain

The Peasants' Revolt entied when the Lord Mayor of London killed Wat Tyler at Smithfield. Perhaps he feared
that Tyler wouki kill King Richard, to whom Tyler was talking. Richard U can be seen a second time, tallcitig
to the peasant army (right) and calming them with the words, "Sirs, will you shoot your king? I am your
leader, follow me." In fact he sent them to their homes, ar\d sent his officers to arrest and execute the leaders.

were critical of the Church, its wealth and the poor

quality of its clergy.

If the Lollards had been supported by the king, the

English Church might have become independent
from the papacy i n the early fifteenth century. But
Richard's successor, Henry I V , was not
sympathetic. He was deeply loyal to the C h u r c h ,
and i n 1401 introduced into England for the first
time the idea of executing the Lollards by burning.
Lollardy was not well enough organised t o resist. I n
the next few years it was driven underground, and
its spirit was not seen again for a century.

50
8 The crisis of kings and nobles
The crisis of kingship * Wales in revolt * The struggle in France * The
Wars of the Roses * Scotland

The crisis of kingship

During the fourteenth century, towards the end of
the Middle Ages, there was a continuous struggle
between the king and his nobles. The first crisis
came i n 1327 when Edward I I was deposed and
cruelly murdered. His eleven-year-old son, Edward
I I I , became king, and as soon as he could, he
punished those responsible. But the principle that
kings were neither to be killed nor deposed was
broken.

Towards the end of the fourteenth century Richard

I I was the second king to be killed by ambitious
lords. H e had made himself extremely unpopular by
his choice of advisers. This was always a difficult
matter, because the king's advisers became
powerful, and those not chosen lost influence and
wealth. Some of Richard's strongest critics had
been the most powerful men i n the kingdom.

Richard was young and proud. H e quarrelled w i t h

these nobles i n 1388, and used his authority to
humble them. He imprisoned his uncle, John of
Gaunt, the third son of Edward I I I , who was the
most powerful and wealthy noble of his time. John
of Gaunt died i n prison. Other nobles, including
John of Gaunt's son, Henry duke of Lancaster, did
not forget or forgive. I n 1399, when Richard I I was
busy trying to establish royal authority again i n
Ireland, they rebelled. Henry of Lancaster, who had
left England, returned and raised an army. Richard
was deposed.

U n l i k e Edward I I , however, Richard I I had no

children. There were two possible successors. One
was the earl of March, the seven-year-old grandson
Richard I I . This is probably the earliest portrait of a sovereign painted from
life to have survived to this day. This is a copy of the original in Westminster of Edward Ill's second son. T h e other was Henry of
Abbey. Lancaster, son of John of Gaunt. I t was difficult to

51
A n Illustrated History, of Britain

say which had the better claim to the throne. But defeat the English armies sent against h i m . He
Henry was stronger. He w o n the support of other continued to fight a successful guerrilla war which
powerful nobles and took the crown by force. made the control of Wales an extremely expensive
Richard died mysteriously soon after. problem for the English. But after 1410 Glyndwr
lost almost all his support as Welsh people realised
Henry I V spent the rest of his reign establishing his
that however hard they fought they would never be
royal authority. But although he passed the crown
free of the English. O w a i n Glyndwr was never
to his son peacefully, he had sown the seeds of c i v i l
captured. He did for Wales what W i l l i a m Wallace
war. Half a century later the nobility would be
had done for Scotland a century earlier. He created
divided between those who supported his family,
a feeling of national identity.
the "Lancastrians", and those who supported the
family of the earl of March, the "Yorkists".

Wales in revolt
Edward 1 had conquered Wales i n the 1280s, and
colonised i t . He brought English people to enlarge
small towns. Pembrokeshire, in the far southwest,
even became known as "the little England beyond
Wales". Edward's officers drove many of the Welsh
into the hills, and gave their land to English
farmers. Many Welsh were forced to j o i n the
English army, not because they wanted to serve the
English but because they had lost their land and
needed to live. They fought i n Scotland and i n
France, and taught the English their skill w i t h the
longbow.

A century later the Welsh found a man who was

ready to rebel against the English king, and w h o m
they were willing to follow. O w a i n Glyndwr was
the first and only Welsh prince to have wide and
popular support i n every part of Wales. I n fact i t
was he who created the idea of a Welsh nation. He
was descended from two royal families w h i c h had
ruled i n different parts of Wales before the
Normans came.

O w a i n Glyndwr's rebellion did not start as a

national revolt. A t first he joined the revolt of
N o r m a n - W e l s h border lords who had always tried
to be free of royal control. But after ten years of war
Owain Glyndwr's border rebellion had developed
into a national war, and i n 1400 he was proclaimed
Prince of Wales by his supporters. This was far
more popular w i t h the Welsh people than Edward
Cilgerran Castle, near Cardigan in southwest Wales, was captured by
I's trick w i t h his newborn son at Caernarfon in
Owain Glyruiwr in 1405. Although it had been built two hur\dred years
1284. However, Glyndwr was not strong enough to earUer, it was clearly strong and must have been difficuk to capture.

52
 8 T h e crisis of kings and nobles

The struggle in France

By the end of the fourteenth century, the long war
with France, known as the Hundred Years War,
had already been going on for over fifty years. But
there had been long periods without actual fighting.

When Henry I V died i n 1413 he passed on to his

son Henry V a kingdom that was peaceful and
united. Henry V was a brave and intelligent man,
and like Richard I , he became one of England's
favourite kings.

Since the situation was peaceful at home Henry V

felt able to begin fighting the French again. His
French war was as popular as Edward Ill's had been.
Henry had a great advantage because the king of
France was mad, and his nobles were quarrelsome.
The war began again i n 1415 when Henry renewed
Edward Ill's claim to the throne of France.
Burgundy again supported England, and the English
army was able to prove once more that i t was far
better in battle than the French army. A t
Agincourt the same year the English defeated a
French army three times its o w n size. T h e English
were more skilful, and had better weapons.

Between 1417 and 1420 Henry managed to capture

Henry V is remembered as possibly the most heroic of English kings because
most of Normandy and the nearby areas. By the of his brilliant campaigns in Fraru:e. His death in 1422 brought to an end the
treaty of Troyes i n 1420 Henry was recognised as English kings' hopes of ruling Fraru:e.

heir to the mad king, and he married Katherine of

Valois, the king's daughter. But Henry V never
became king of France because he died a few
months before the French king i n 1422. His nine-
month-old baby son, Henry V I , inherited the
thrones of England and France.

As with Scotland and Wales, England found it was

easier to invade and conquer France than to keep
the English. The English gave her to the Church i n
it. A t first Henry V's brother, John duke of
Rouen which burnt her as a w i t c h i n 1431.
Bedford, continued to enlarge the area under
English control. But soon the French began to fight England was now beginning to lose an extremely
back. Foreign invasion had created for the first time costly war. I n 1435 England's best general, John of
strong French national feeling. The English army Bedford, died. T h e n England's Breton and
was twice defeated by the French, who were Burgundian allies lost confidence i n the value of the
inspired by a mysterious peasant girl called Joan of English alliance. W i t h the loss of Gascony i n 1453,
Arc, who claimed to hear heavenly voices. Joan of the Hundred Years W a r was over. England had lost
Arc was captured by the Burgundians, and given to everything except the port of Calais.

53
A n Illustrated History of Britain

The battle of Agincourt in i 4 I 5 was Henry V's most famous victory against
the French. The English army with the royal standard attacks (left). The
French royal standard is to be seen on the ground (bottom right) as French
soldiers die. Although the English were outnumbered by more than three to
one, Henry's archers destroyed the French feudal cavalry.

54
 8 T h e crisis of kings and nobles

The Wars of the Roses England. This was because the Yorkists had strongly
encouraged profitable trade, particularly w i t h
Henry V I , who had become king as a baby, grew up
Burgundy. Edward returned to England i n 1471 and
to be simple-minded and book-loving. He hated the
defeated the Lancastrians. A t last Edward I V was
warlike nobles, and was an unsuitable king for
safe on the throne. Henry V I died i n the Tower of
such a violent society. But he was a civilised and
London soon after, almost certainly murdered.
gentle man. He founded two places of learning that
still exist, Eton College not far from London, and The war between York and Lancaster would
King's College i n Cambridge. He could happily probably have stopped then if Edward's son had
have spent his life i n such places of leaming. But been old enough to rule, and if Edward's brother,
Henry's simple-mindedness gave way to periods of Richard of Gloucester, had not been so ambitious.
mental illness. But when Edward I V died i n 1483, his o w n two
sons, the twelve-year-old Edward V and his younger
England had lost a war and was ruled by a mentally brother, were put i n the Tower by Richard of
ill king who was bad at choosing advisers. It was Gloucester. Richard took the C r o w n and became
perhaps natural that the nobles began to ask King Richard I I I . A m o n t h later the two princes
questions about who should be ruling the country. were murdered. W i l l i a m Shakespeare's play Richard
They remembered that Henry's grandfather Henry lU, written a century later, accuses Richard of
of Lancaster had taken the throne when Richard I I murder and almost everyone believed i t . Richard I I I
was deposed. had a better reason than most to wish his two
nephews dead, but his guilt has never been proved.
There were not more than sixty noble families
controlling England at this time. Most of them Richard 111 was not popular. Lancastrians and
were related to each other through marriage. Some Yorkists both disliked h i m . I n 1485 a challenger
of the nobles were extremely powerful. Many of w i t h a very distant claim to royal blood through
them continued to keep their o w n private armies John of Gaunt landed i n England w i t h Breton
after returning from the war i n France, and used soldiers to claim the throne. Many discontented
them to frighten local people into obeying them. lords, both Lancastrians and Yorkists, joined h i m .
Some of these armies were large. For example, by His name was Henry Tudor, duke of Richmond,
1450 the duke of Buckingham had 2,000 men i n and he was half Welsh. He met Richard I I I at
his private army. Bosworth. H a l f of Richard's army changed sides,
and the battle quickly ended i n his defeat and
The discontented nobility were divided between
death. Henry Tudor was crowned king
those who remained loyal to Henry V I , the
immediately, o n the battlefield.
"Lancastrians", and those who supported the duke
of York, the "Yorkists". The duke of York was the The war had finally ended, though this could not
heir of the earl of March, who had lost the have been clear at the time. M u c h later, i n the
competition for the throne when Richard I I was nineteenth century, the novelist Walter Scott
deposed i n 1399. I n 1460 the duke of York claimed named these wars the "Wars of the Roses", because
the throne for himself. A f t e r his death i n battle, his York's symbol was a white rose, and Lancaster's a
son Edward took up the struggle and w o n the red one.
throne i n 1461.
The Wars of the Roses nearly destroyed the English
Edward I V put Henry into the Tower of London, idea of kingship for ever. A f t e r 1460 there had been
but nine years later a new Lancastrian army rescued little respect for anything except the power to take
Henry and chased Edward out of the country. Like the C r o w n . Tudor historians made much of these
the Lancastrians, Edward was able to raise another wars and made it seem as i f much of England had
army. Edward had the advantage of his popularity been destroyed. This was not true. Fighting took
with the merchants of London and the southeast of place for only a total of fifteen months out of the

55
A n Illustrated History of Britain

whole twenty-five year period. O n l y the nobles and fourteenth century, a "clan" began to mean groups
their armies were involved. of people occupying an area of land and following a !
particular chief. N o t all the members of a clan were ;
It is true, however, that the wars were a disaster for
related to each other. Some groups joined a clan for I
the nobility. For the first time there had been no
protection, or because they were forced to choose
purpose i n taking prisoners, because no one was
between doing so or leaving the area. The most
interested i n payment of ransom. Everyone was
powerful of the Highland clans by the fifteenth
interested i n destroying the opposing nobility.
century was Clan Donald. The clan chiefs were
Those captured in battle were usually killed
almost completely independent.
immediately. By the time of the battle of Bosworth
in 1485, the old nobility had nearly destroyed itself. By the end of the Middle Ages, however, Scotland
Almost half the lords of the sixty noble families had had developed as a nation i n a number of ways.
died i n the wars. I t was this fact w h i c h made it From 1399 the Scots demanded that a parliament
possible for the Tudors to build a new nation state. should meet once a year, and kings often gathered
together leading citizens to discuss matters of
government. As i n England, towns grew i n
Scotland importance, mainly because of the wool trade
Scotland experienced many of the disasters that w h i c h grew thanks to the help of Flemish settlers.
affected England at this time. The Scots did not There was a large export trade i n wool, leather and
escape the Black Death or the other plagues, and fish, mostly to the Netherlands.
they also suffered from repeated wars. Scotland's alliance w i t h France brought some j
Scotland paid heavily for its " A u l d A l l i a n c e " w i t h benefits. A t a time when much of the farmland was j
France. Because it supported France during the repeatedly destroyed by English armies, many
Hundred Years War, the English repeatedly invaded Scotsmen found work as soldiers for the French
the Scottish Lowlands, from w h i c h most of the king. Far more importantly, the connection w i t h
Scots king's wealth came. England renewed its France helped develop education i n Scotland.
claim to overlordship of Scotland, and Edward IV's Following the example of Paris, universities were i
army occupied Edinburgh i n 1482. founded i n Scotland at St Andrews i n 1412,
Glasgow in 1451 and at Aberdeen i n 1495.
Like the English kings, the Scottish kings were Scotland could rightly claim to be equal w i t h
involved i n long struggles w i t h their nobles. England i n leaming. By the end of the fifteenth
Support for France turned attention away from century i t was obvious that Scotland was a separate
establishing a strong state at home. A n d , as i n country from England. Nobody, either in England
England, several kings died early. James I was or i n Scotland, believed i n the English king's claim
murdered i n 1437, James 11 died i n an accident to be overlord of Scotland.
before he was thirty i n 1460, and James 111 was
murdered in 1488. The early death of so many
Scots kings left government i n the hands of
powerful nobles u n t i l the dead king's son was old
enough to rule. Naturally these nobles took the
chance to make their own position more powerful.

As i n England, the nobles kept private armies,

instead of using serfs for military service as they had
done earlier. This new system fitted well w i t h the
Celtic tribal loyalties of the Highlands. The Gaelic
word for such tribes, "clan", means " c h i l d r e n " , i n
other words members of one family. But from the

56
9 Government and society
Government and society * The condition of women * Language and
culture

Government and society Society was still based upon rafik. A t the top were
The year 1485 has usually been taken to mark the dukes, earls and other lords, although there were far
end of the Middle Ages i n England. O f course, fewer as a result of war. Below these great lords
nobody at the time would have seen i t as such. were knights. Most knights, even by Edward I's
There was no reason to t h i n k that the new King time, were no longer heavily armed fighters on
Henry VI1 would rule over a country any different horses. They were "gentlemen farmers" or "landed
from the one ruled over by Richard 111. Before gentry" who had increased the size of their
looking at the changes i n England under the House landholdings, and improved their farming methods.
of Tudor it might be worth looking back at some of This class had grown i n numbers. Edward I had
the main social developments that had taken place ordered that all those w i t h an income of £ 2 0 a year
in the late Middle Ages. must be made knights. This meant that even some

Sir Geoffrey Luttrell with his family and retainers at dinner. Food was eaten without forks, at a simple
table. However, young men in particular had to remember their manners. " D o n ' t sit dovm until you
are told to and keep your hands and feet still,'' they were told. ' 'Cut your bread with your knife and do
not tear it Don't lean on the table and make a mess on the cloth or drink with a full mouth. Don't
take so much in your mouth dutt you cannot answer when sonKone speaks to you.'' Several people
shared the same cup, so a firud piece of advice was ' 'wipe your vnouth and hands clean with a cloth, so
that you do not dirty the cup and make your friervis unwilling to drink with you.''

57
A n Illustrated History of Britain

Great Cfiolfieltl manor, rebuilt in 1480, is a fine example of a late Middle

Ages manor house. It was owned by a local lar\dowr\er and lawyer who, like
many of the gentry class, profited greatly from the destruction of the rwbility
in the Wars of the Roses. The front of the house is almost exactly as it was in
1480, but the building on the right is much later. The great hall is
immediately inside the mean entrance, a typical arrangement for this period.

of the yeoman farmers became part of the "landed countryside, and became a successful merchant and
gentry", while many "esquires", who had served Lord Mayor of London three times. W h i t t i n g t o n
knights i n earlier times, now became knights was, actually, the son of a knight. He was probably
themselves. The word "esquire" became common i n an example of the growing practice of the landed
written addresses, and is only now slowly beginning families of sending younger sons to town to j o i n a
to be used less. merchant or craft guild. A t the same time, many
successful merchant families were doing the
N e x t to the gentlemen were the ordinary freemen
opposite thing, and obtaining farmland i n the
of the towns. By the end of the Middle Ages, i t was
countryside. These two classes, the landed gentry
possible for a serf from the countryside to work for
and the town merchants, were beginning to
seven years i n a town craft guild, and to become a
overlap.
"freeman" of the t o w n where he lived. T h e freemen
controlled the life of a town. Towns offered to poor I n the beginning the guilds had been formed to
men the chance to become r i c h and successful protect the production or trade of a whole town.
through trade. The most famous example of this Later, they had come to protect those already
was Dick W h i t t i n g t o n . The story tells how he enjoying membership, or who could afford to buy
arrived i n London as a poor boy from the it, from the poorer classes i n the same town. As

58
 9 Government and society

A leading citizen of Bristol is

made mayor, 1479. The
appointment of the mayor and
alderman of a city uias usually
controlled by senior members of a
city's merchant and aaft guilds.

they did not have the money or family connections I n fact, the guilds were declining i n importance
to become members of the guilds, the poorer skilled because of a new force i n the national economy.
workers tried to join together to protect their o w n During the fourteenth century a number of English
interests. These were the first efforts to form a trade merchants established trading stations, "factories",
union. Several times i n the fourteenth century i n different places i n Europe. The merchant
skilled workers tried unsuccessfully to protect organisations necessary to operate these factories
themselves against the power of the guilds. The became important at a national level, and began to
lives of skilled workers were hard, but they did n o t replace the old t o w n guilds as the most powerful
suffer as much as the unskilled, who lived i n poor trading institutions. However, they copied the aims
and dirty conditions. However, even the c o n d i t i o n and methods of the guilds, making sure English
of the poorest workers i n both town and country merchants could only export through their
was better than it had been a century earlier. factories, and making sure that prices and quality
were maintained.

59
A n Illustrated History of Britain

A l i women, from the highest, as

in this picture, to the lowest in
the Imd were expected to know
how to prepare, spin and weave
wool. From Saxon times ontfards
English women were famous for
their embroidery sldUs. Women
were expected to spend their time
in embroidery or in making
garments right up to the end of
the nineteenth century.

One of the most important of these factories was Adventurers' factories i n a number of foreign
the "Company of the Staple" i n Calais. T h e towns. But all of them, except for the Merchant
"staple" was an international term used by Adventurers i n A n t w e r p , Flanders, closed during
merchants and governments meaning that certain the fifteenth century. T h e Antwerp Merchant
goods could only be sold i n particular places. Calais Adventurers' factory survived because of its sole
became the "staple" for all English wool at the end control of c l o t h exports, a fact recognised by royal
of the fourteenth century when it defeated rival charter.
English factories i n other foreign cities. T h e staple
Wages for farmworkers and for skilled townspeople
was an arrangement which suited the established
rose faster than the price of goods i n the fifteenth
merchants, as i t prevented competition, and i t also
century. There was plenty of meat and cereal prices
suited the Crown, which could tax exports more
were low. But there were warning signs of problems
easily. T h e other important company was called the
ahead. More and more good land was being used for
"Merchant Adventurers". During the fourteenth
sheep instead of food crops. Rich and powerful
century there had been several Merchant
sheep farmers started to fence i n land which had

60
 9 Government and society

always been used by other villagers. I n the The development of Parliament at this time showed
sixteenth century this led to social and economic the beginnings of a new relationship between the
crisis. middle class and the king. Edward 1 had invited
knights from the country and merchants from the
Meanwhile, i n the towns, a new middle class was
towns to his parliament because he wanted money
developing. By the fifteenth century most
and they, more than any other group, could provide
merchants were well educated, and considered
it. But when Edward 111 asked for money from his
themselves to be the equals of the esquires and
parliament, they asked to see the royal accounts. I t
gentlemen of the countryside. The lawyers were
was an important development because for the first
another class of city people. I n London they were
time the king allowed himself to be "accountable"
considered equal i n importance to the big
to Parliament. Merchants and country gentlemen
merchants and c l o t h manufacturers. W h e n law
were very anxious to influence the king's policies
schools were first established, student lawyers lived
both at home and abroad. They wanted to protect
in inns on the western side of the C i t y of London
their interests. W h e n France threatened the wool
while they studied. Slowly these inns became part
trade w i t h Flanders, for example, they supported
of the law schools, just as the student
Edward 111 i n his war.
accommodation halls of Oxford and Cambridge
eventually became the colleges of these two During the time of Edward Ill's reign Parliament
universities. became organised i n two parts: the Lords, and the
Commons, w h i c h represented the middle class.
By the end of the Middle Ages the more successful
O n l y those commoners w i t h an income of forty
of these lawyers, merchants, c l o t h manufacturers,
shillings or more a year could qualify to be members
exporters, esquires, gentlemen and yeoman farmers
of Parliament. This meant that the poor had no
were increasingly forming a single class of people
way of being heard except by rebellion. The poor
with interests i n both town and country. This was
had no voice of their o w n i n Parliament u n t i l the
also true i n Wales and Scotland. A number of
middle of the nineteenth century.
Welsh landowners came to England; some studied
at Oxford, and some traded, or practised law i n The alliance between esquires and merchants made
London. Fewer Scots came to England, because Parliament more powerful, and separated the
they had their own universities, and their o w n Commons more and more from the Lords. Many
trade centres of Edinburgh, Glasgow and Aberdeen. European countries had the same k i n d of
parliaments at this time, but i n most cases these
The growth of this new middle class, educated and
disappeared when feudalism died out. I n England,
skilled i n law, administration and trade, created a
however, the death of feudalism helped strengthen
new atmosphere i n Britain. This was partly because
the House of Commons i n Parliament.
of the increase i n literacy. Indeed, the middle class
could be described as the "literate class". This There was another important change that had
literate class questioned the way i n w h i c h the taken place i n the country. Kings had been taking
Church and the state were organised, for b o t h law cases away from local lords' courts since the
religious and practical reasons. O n the religious side twelfth century, and by the middle of the
support for Wycliffe came mainly from members of fourteenth century the courts of local lords no
this new middle class, who believed it was their longer existed. But the king's courts could n o t deal
right to read the Bible i n the English language. w i t h all the work. I n 1363 Edward I I I appointed
They disliked serfdom partly because it was now "justices of the peace" to deal w i t h smaller crimes
increasingly viewed as unchristianj' but also for the and offences, and to h o l d court four times a year.
practical reason that it was not economic. T h e
middle class also questioned the value of the feudal These JPs, as they became k n o w n , were usually less
system because i t did not create wealth. important lords or members of the landed gentry.
They were, and still are, chosen for their fairness

61
A n Illustrated History of Britain

and honesty. T h e appointment of landed gentry as

JPs made the middle classes, that class of people
who were neither nobles nor peasants, still
stronger. Through the system of JPs the landed
gentry took the place of the nobility as the local
authority. During the Wars of the Roses the nobles
used their private armies to force JPs and judges to
do what they wanted. But this was the last time the
nobility in Britain tried to destroy the authority of
the king. T h e JPs remained the only form of local
government in the countryside until 1888. They
still exist to deal with small offences.

The condition of women

Little is known about the life of women in the
Middle Ages, but without doubt it was hard. T h e
Church taught that women should obey their
husbands. It also spread two very different ideas
about women: that they should be pure and holy
like the Virgin Mary; and that, like Eve, they could
not be trusted and were a moral danger to men.
Such religious teaching led men both to worship
•and also to look down on women, and led women
to give in to men's authority.

Marriage was usually the single most important

event in the lives of men and women. But the
decision itself was made by the family, not the
couple themselves. This was because by marriage a Women defending their castle. Througiiout the Middle Ages, if a castle or
manor was attacked while its lord was away, it was the duty of his wife, the
family could improve its wealth and social position. "chatelairK" (or "castlekeeper"), to defend it A lady had to know
Everyone, both rich and poor, married for mainly everything about administering her lord's manor and lands, for she was
resjxmsible when he was away. One lady who did not completely trust her
financial reasons. Once married, a woman had to lord's ability to manage while she was away, wrote to him, "Keep all well
accept her husband as her master. A disobedient about you till 1 come home, and treat not [do not enter into husirtess
arrangements] without me, and then all things shaU he well."
wife was usually beaten. It is unlikely that love
played much of a part in most marriages.

The first duty of every wife was to give her husband

children, preferably sons. Because so many children
died as babies, and because there was little that
villagers, the harvest and the animals. She also had
could be done if a birth went wrong, producing
to defend the manor if it was attacked. She had to
children was dangerous and exhausting. Yet this
run the household, welcome visitors, and store
was the fiiture for every wife from twenty or
enough food, including salted meat, for winter. She
younger until she was forty.
was expected to have enough knowledge of herbs
Yhe wife of a noble had other responsibilities. and plants to make suitable medicines for those in
W h e n her lord was away, she was in charge of the the village who were sick. She probably visited the
manor and the village lands, all the servants and poor and the sick in the village, showing that the

62
 9 Government and society

Bay Leaf Farm, a fifteenth-ceratiry Kent farmhouse, a tirrixr-frame building

witk walis made of "wattle and daub", basically sticks and mud. This was a
very effective type of building, but recpdred skilled carpenters to make a
strong frame. One man who did not tike this rtew method called these houses
litde more than "paper work". But examples are still lived in as ordinary
homes in many parts of England.

mlers "cared" for them. She had Uttle time for her A woman's position improved if her husband died.
own children, who in any case were often sent away She could get control of the money her family had
at the age of eight to another manor, the boys to given the husband at the time of marriage, usually
"be made into men". about one-third of his total land and wealth. But
she might have to marry again: men wanted her
Most women, of course, were peasants, busy
land, and it was difficult to look after it without the
making food, making cloth and making clothes
help of a man.
from the cloth. They worked in the fields, looked
after the children, the geese, the pigs and the
sheep, made the cheese and grew the vegetables.
The animals probably shared the family shelter at
night. The family home was dark and smelly.

63
A n Illustrated History of Britain

Language and culture aloud. The stories themselves are not Chaucer's
own. He used old stories, but rewrote them i n an
W i t h the spread of literacy, cultural life i n Britain
interesting and amusing way. The first chapter, in
naturally developed also. I n the cities, plays were
w h i c h he describes his characters, is the result of
performed at important religious festivals. They
Chaucer's o w n deep understanding of human
were called "mystery plays" hecause of the
nature. It remains astonishingly fresh even after six
mysterious nature of events i n the Bible, and they
hundred years. I t is a unique description of a
were a popular form of culture. I n the larger cities
nation: young and old, knight and peasant, priest
some guilds made themselves responsible for
and merchant, good and bad, townsman and
particular plays, w h i c h became traditional yearly
countryman. Here is part of Chaucer's description
events.
( i n a modernised version) of the knight, and his
The language itself was changing. French had been son, the squire:
used less and less by the N o r m a n rulers during the
thirteenth century. I n the fourteenth century
Edward I I I had actually forbidden the speaking of
French i n his army. It was a way of making the
whole army aware of its Englishness.

After the N o r m a n Conquest English (the old

Anglo-Saxon language) continued to be spoken by
ordinary people but was no longer written. By the
end of the fourteenth century, however, English
was once again a written language, because i t was
being used instead of French by the ruling, literate
class. But " M i d d l e English", the language of the
fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, was very
different from Anglo-Saxon. This was partly
because it had not been written for three hundred
years, and partly because i t had borrowed so much
There was a knight, a most distinguished man.
from N o r m a n French.
W h o from the day o n w h i c h he first began
T w o writers, above all others, helped i n the rebirth T o ride abroad had followed chivalry.
of English literature. One was W i l l i a m Langland, a T r u t h , honour, generousness and courtesy . . .
mid-fourteenth century priest, whose poem Piers He had his son w i t h h i m , a fine young squire,
Plowman gives a powerful description of the times A lover and cadet, a lad of fire
in w h i c h he lived. The other, Geoffrey Chaucer, W i t h locks as curly as if they had been pressed.
has become much more famous. He lived at about He was some twenty years of age, I guessed . . .
the same time as Langland. His most famous work He was embroidered like a meadow bright
was The Cantert»ur;y Tales, written at the end of the A n d full of freshest flowers, red and white.
fourteenth century. Singing he was, or fluting all the day;
He was as fresh as is the m o n t h of May.
The Canterbury Tales describe a group of pilgrims
Short was his gown, the sleeves were long and
travelling from London to the tomb of Thomas
wide;
Becket at Canterbury, a common religious act i n
He knew the way to sit a horse and ride.
England in the Middle Ages. During the journey
He could make songs and poems and recite.
each character tells a story. Collections of stories
Knew how to joust and dance, to draw and write
were popular at this time because almost all
He loved so hotly that t i l l dawn grew pale
literature, unlike today, was written to be read out
He slept as little as a nightingale.

64
 9 Government and society

By the end of the Middle Ages, English as well as newly educated people of the fifteenth century, and
Latin was being used i n legal writing, and also i n encouraged literacy. C a x t o n avoided printing any
elementary schools. Education developed dangerous literature. But the children and
enormously during the fifteenth century, and many grandchildren of these literate people were to use
schools were founded by powerful men. One of printing as a powerful weapon to change the world
these was W i l l i a m of Wykeham, Bishop of i n w h i c h they lived.
Winchester and Lord Chancellor of England, who
founded both Winchester School, i n 1382, and
New College, Oxford. Like Henry VI's later t
foundations at Eton and Cambridge they have
remained famous for their high quality. Many other
schools were also opened at this time, because there
was a growing need for educated people who could
administer the government, the C h u r c h , the law
and trade. Clerks started grammar schools where
students could learn the skills of reading and
writing. These schools offered their pupils a future
in the Church or the c i v i l service, or at the
universities of Oxford and Cambridge. T h e
universities themselves continued to grow as
colleges and halls where the students could both
live and be taught were built. The college system
remains the basis of organisation i n these two
universities.

The Middle Ages ended w i t h a major technical

development: W i l l i a m Caxton's first English
printing press, set up i n 1476. Caxton had learnt
the skill of printing i n Germany. A t first he printed
popular books, such as Chaucer's Canterbury Tales
and Malory's Morte d'Arthur. This prose work
described the adventures of the legendary K i n g
Arthur, including Arthur's last battle, his death,
and the death of other knights of the Round Table.
Almost certainly Malory had i n m i n d the
The chapel of King's Coilege, Cambridge, uiidr its farx-vaidted roof and large
destruction of the English nobility i n the Wars of areas of giass arrd delicate stone work, marks the highest point of Gothic
the Roses, which were taking place as he wrote. architecture in England. The vault was completed at the beginning of the
sixteenth century, and the wooden organ screen across the centre of the chapel
is of Ttidor design.
Caxton's printing press was as dramatic for his age
as radio, television and the technological
revolution are for our own. Books suddenly became
cheaper and more plentiful, as the quicker printing
process replaced slow and expensive copywriting by
hand. Printing began to standardise spelling and
grammar, though this process was a long one. More
important, just as radio brought information and
ideas to the illiterate people of the twentieth
century, Caxton's press provided books for the

65
99
The Tudors
The birth of the nation state
The new monarchy * The Reformation * The Protestant-Catholic
struggle

The century of Tudor rule (1485-1603) is often them. He had the same ideas and opinions as the
thought of as a most glorious period i n English growing classes of merchants and gentleman
history. Henry V l l built the foundations of a farmers, and he based royal power o n good business
wealthy nation state and a powerful monarchy. His sense.
son, Henry V I l l , kept a magnificent court, and
Henry V I I firmly believed that war and glory were
made the Church i n England truly English by
bad for business, and that business was good for the
breaking away from the Roman Catholic C h u r c h .
Finally, his daughter Elizabeth brought glory to the state. He therefore avoided quarrels either w i t h
new state by defeating the powerful navy of Spain, Scotland i n the n o r t h , or France i n the south.
the greatest European power of the time. During
the Tudor age England experienced one of the
greatest artistic periods i n its history.

There is, however, a less glorious view of the Tudor

century. Henry V I I I wasted the wealth saved by his
father. Elizabeth weakened the quality of
government by selling official posts. She did this to
avoid asking Parliament for money. A n d although
her government tried to deal w i t h the problem of
poor and homeless people at a time when prices
rose much faster than wages, its laws and actions
were often cruel i n effect.

The new monarchy

Henry V I I is less well k n o w n than either Henry
VIII or Elizabeth I . But he was far more important
in establishing the new monarchy than either of

Left: The defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588 uias the most gloriotis event
of Elizabeth I's reign. It marked the arrival of England as a great
European sea power, leading the way to the developntent of the empire over
the next two centuries. It also marked the limit of Spain's ability to recapture
Protestant countries for the Catholic Church.

Right: Henry V / / was clever widi people and careful with money. He holds
a red Lancastrian rose in his hand, but he brought unity to the Houses of
York and Lancaster. His successors symixjiised this unity by use of a red rose
mth white outer petals, the "Tudor" rose.

67
A n Illustrated History of Britain

During the fifteenth century, but particularly during lands had gone to the king. This meant that Henry
the Wars of the Roses, England's trading position had more power and more money than earlier
had been badly damaged. The strong German kings. I n order to establish his authority beyond
Hanseatic League, a closed trading society, had question, he forbade anyone, except himself, to
destroyed English trade w i t h the Baltic and keep armed men.
northern Europe. Trade w i t h Italy and France had
T h e authority of the law had been almost
also been reduced after England's defeat i n France
completely destroyed by the lawless behaviour of
in the mid-fifteenth century. T h e Low Countries
nobles and their armed men. Henry used the
(the Netherlands and Belgium) alone offered a way
" C o u r t of Star Chamber", traditionally the king's
in for trade i n Europe. O n l y a year after his victory
council chamber, to deal w i t h lawless nobles. Local
at Bosworth i n 1485, Henry V l l made an important
justice that had broken down during the wars slowly
trade agreement w i t h the Netherlands w h i c h
began to operate again. Henry encouraged the use
allowed English trade to grow again.
of heavy fines as punishment because this gave the
Henry was fortunate. Many of the old nobility had C r o w n money.
died or been defeated i n the recent wars, and their
Henry's aim was to make the C r o w n financially
independent, and the lands and the fines he took
from the old nobility helped h i m do this. Henry
also raised taxes for wars which he then did not
fight. He never spent money unless he had to. One
might expect Henry to have been unpopular, but
he was careful to keep the friendship of the
merchant and lesser gentry classes. Like h i m they
wanted peace and prosperity. He created a new
nobility from among them, and men unknown
before now became Henry's statesmen. But they all
knew that their rise to importance was completely
dependent on the C r o w n .

W h e n Henry died i n 1509 he left behind the huge

total of £ 2 m i l l i o n , about fifteen years' worth of
income. The only thing on which he was happy to
spend money freely was the building of ships for a
merchant fleet. Henry understood earlier than most
people that England's future wealth would depend
on international trade. A n d i n order to trade,
Henry realised that England must have its own fleet
of merchant ships.

Henry V l l l was quite unlike his father. He was

cruel, wasteful w i t h money, and interested i n
pleasing himself. He wanted to become an
important influence i n European politics. But much
had happened i n Europe since England had given
Henry VllI, by the great court painter Hans Holbein. Henry was hard,
cruel, artdiitious ar\d calculating, few survived his anger. He executed two of
up its efforts to defeat France i n the Hundred Years
his wives, Anne Boleyn and Catherine Howard, and several of his ministers War. France was now more powerful than England,
and leading churchmen. Best known among these were his Lord Chancellor,
and Spain was even more powerful, because it was
Thomas More, and his assistant in carrying out the Reformation, Thomas
Cromwell. united w i t h the H o l y Roman Empire (which

68
 10 T h e birth of the nation state

included much of central Europe). Henry V l l l reduced his o w n income. Henry was not the only
wanted England to h o l d the halance of power European king w i t h a wish to "centralise" state
between these two giants. He first unsuccessfully authority. Many others were doing the same thing.
allied himself w i t h Spain, and when he was not But Henry had another reason for standing up to
rewarded he changed sides. W h e n friendship w i t h the authority of the C h u r c h .
France did not bring h i m anything, Henry started
I n 1510 Henry had married Catherine of Aragon,
talking again to Charles V of Spain.
the widow of his elder brother A r t h u r . But by 1526
Henry's failure to gain an important position i n she had still n o t had a son who survived infancy
European politics was a bitter disappointment. He and was now unlikely to do so. Henry tried to
spent so much o n maintaining a magnificent court, persuade the pope to allow h i m to divorce
and on wars from w h i c h England had little to gain, Catherine. N o r m a l l y , Henry need not have
that his father's carefully saved money was soon expected any difficulty. His chief minister. Cardinal
gone. Gold and silver from newly discovered Wolsey, had already been skilful i n advising orv
America added to economic inflation. I n this Henry's foreign and home policy. Wolsey hoped
serious financial crisis, Henry needed money. One that his skills, and his important position i n the
way of doing this was by reducing the amount of C h u r c h , would be successful i n persuading the
silver used i n coins. But although this gave Henry pope. But the pope was controlled by Charles V ,
immediate profits, it rapidly led to a rise i n prices. who was Holy Roman Emperor and king of Spain,
It was therefore a damaging policy, and the English and also Catherine's nephew. Foi^both political and
coinage was reduced to a seventh of its value w i t h i n family reasons he warfted Henry to stay married to
twenty-five years. Catherine. The pope did not wish to anger either
Charles or Henry, but eventually he was forced to
do as Charles V wanted. He forbade Henry's
divorce.

The Reformation Henry was extremely angry and the first person to
Henry V l l l was always looking for new sources of feel his anger was his o w n minister. Cardinal
money. His father had become powerful by taking Wolsey. Wolsey only escaped execution by dying of
over the nobles' land, but the lands owned by the natural causes on his way to the king's court, and
Church and the monasteries had not been touched. after Wolsey no priest ever again became an
The Church was a huge landowner, and the important minister of the king. I n 1531 Henry
monasteries were no longer important to economic persuaded the bishops to make h i m head of the
and social growth i n the way they had been two C h u r c h i n England, and this became law after
hundred years earlier. I n fact they were unpopular Parliament passed the A c t of Supremacy i n 1534. I t
because many monks no longer led a good religious was a popular decision. Henry was now free to
life but lived i n wealth and comfort. ^ divorce Catherine and marry his new love, A n n e
Boleyn. He hoped A n n e would give h i m a son to
Henry disliked the power of the Church i n England
follow h i m o n the throne.
because, since it was an international organisation,
he could not completely control i t . I f Henry had Henry's break w i t h Rome was purely political. He
been powerful enough i n Europe to influence the had simply wanted to control the C h u r c h and to
pope it might have been different. But there were keep its wealth i n his o w n kingdom. He did not
two far more powerful states, France, and Spain, approve of the new ideas of Reformation
with the Holy Roman Empire, lying between h i m Protestantism introduced by M a r t i n Luther in
and Rome. The power of the Catholic Church i n Germany and John Calvitt i n Geneva. He still
England could therefore work against his o w n believed i n the Catholic faith. Indeed, Henry had
authority, and the taxes paid to the C h u r c h earlier written a book criticising Luther's teaching

69
A n Illustrated History of Britain

and the pope had rewarded h i m w i t h the title Fidei used the stone to create magnificent new houses for
Defensor, Defender of the Faith. The pope must themselves. Other buildings were just left to fall
have regretted his action. The letters " F . D . " are down.
still to be found on every British coin.
Meanwhile the monks and nuns were thrown out.
Like his father, Henry V l l l governed England -• Some were given small sums of money, but many
through his close advisers, men who were were unable to find work and became wandering
completely dependent o n h i m for their position. beggars. The dissolution of the monasteries was
But when he broke w i t h Rome, he used Parliament probably the greatest act of official destruction in
to make the break legal. T h r o u g h several Acts of the history of Britain.
Parliament between 1532 and 1536, England
Henry proved that his break w i t h Rome was neither
became politically a Protestant country, even
a religious nor a diplomatic disaster. He remained
though the popular religion was still Catholic.
loyal to Catholic religious teaching, and executed
Once England had accepted the separation from Protestants who refused to accept i t . He even made
Rome Henry took the English Reformation a step an alliance w i t h Charles V of Spain against France.
further. Wolsey's place as the king's chief minister For political reasons both of them were willing to
was taken by one of his assistants, Thomas forget the quarrel over Catherine of Aragon, and
Cromwell. Henry and Cromwell made a careful also England's break w i t h Rome.
survey of C h u r c h property, the first properly
Henry died i n 1547, leaving behind his sixth wife,
organised tax survey since the Domesday Book 450
Catherine Parr, and his three children. Mary, the
years earlier. Between 1536 and 1539 they closed
eldest, was the daughter of Catherine of Aragon.
560 monasteries and other religious houses. Henry
Elizabeth was the daughter of his second wife,
did this i n order to make money, but he also
A n n e Boleyn, whom he had executed because she
wanted to be popular w i t h the rising classes of
was unfaithful. Nine-year-old Edward was the son
landowners and merchants. He therefore gave or
of Jane Seymour, the only wife whom Henry had
sold much of the monasteries' lands to them. Many
really loved, but w ho had died giving birth to his
smaller landowners made their fortunes. Most
only son.
knocked down the old monastery buildings and

The ruins of Fountains Abbey in

Yorkshire, orte of the greatest and
wealdxiest English monasteries.
It finally surrertdered to Henry's
reformation in 1539. The stained
gloss and lead uAndovo frames
and roofing were removed
immediately. But it was not until
1611 that some of the stone was
taken to build Fountains Hall,
nearby. Even so, the abbey was
so huge that most of the storte
' u>as never tttken and the abbey
survived as a ruin.

70
 10 T h e birth of the nation state

The Protestant-Catholic struggle Jane Grey, a Protestant, o n the throne. But Mary
succeeded i n entering London and took control of
Edward V I , Henry VIII's son, was only a child
the kingdom. She was supported by the ordinary
when he became king, so the country was ruled by
people, who were angered by the greed of the
a council. A l l the members of this council were
Protestant nobles.
from the new nobility created by the Tudors. They
were keen Protestant reformers because they had However, Mary was unwise and unbending i n her
benefited from the sale of monastery lands. Indeed, policy and her beliefs. She was the first queen of
all the new landowners knew that they could only England since Matilda, 400 years earlier. A t that
be sure of keeping their new lands if they made time women were considered to be inferior to men.
England truly Protestant. The marriage of a queen was therefore a difficult
matter. I f Mary married an Englishman she would
Most English people still believed i n the old
be under the control of a man of lesser importance.
Catholic religion. Less than half the English were
If she married a foreigner i t might place England
Protestant by belief, but these peopl^ were allowed
under foreign control.
to take a lead i n religious matters. I n 1552 a new
prayer book was introduced to make sure that all Mary, for political, religious and family reasons,
churches followed the new Protestant religion. chose to marry K i n g Philip of Spain. I t was an
Most people were not very happy w i t h the new unfortunate choice. The ordinary people disliked
religion. They had been glad to see the end of some the marriage, as Philip's Spanish friends i n England
of the Church's bad practices like the selling of were quick to notice. Popular feeling was so strong
"pardons" for the forgiveness of sins. But they did that a rebellion i n Kent actually reached London
not like the changes i n belief, and i n some places before ending i n failure. Mary dealt cruelly w i t h the
there was trouble. rebel leader, W y a t t , but she took the unusual step
of asking Parliament for its opinion about her
Mary, the Catholic daughter of Catherine of
marriage plan. Parliament unwillingly agreed to
Aragon, became queen when Edward, aged sixteen,
Mary's marriage, and it only accepted Philip as king
died i n 1553. A group of nobles tried to put Lady
of England for Mary's lifetime.

A Protestant propaganda picture of Edward VI

being toid by his dying father, Henry V I I I , to
uphold die true Protestant reUgion. At
Edward's feet the pope coViapses defeated.
Under Edward England became far more
Protestant than before, and more Protestant,
probably, than his father intended. The young
king was assisted by men who had profited from
Church lands and property after the break with
Rome.

71
A n Illustrated History of Britain

Mary's marriage to Philip was the first mistake of not easy, because both the French and Spanish
her unfortunate reign. She then began burning kings wanted to marry Elizabeth and so j o i n
Protestants. Three hundred people died i n this way England to their o w n country. Elizabeth and her
during her five-year reign, and the burnings began advisers knew how much damage Mary had done
to sicken people. A t the same time, the thought of and that it was important that she should avoid
becoming a junior ally of Spain was very unpopular. such a marriage. A t the same time, however, there
Only the knowledge that Mary herself was dying was a danger that the pope would persuade Catholic
prevented a popular rebellion. countries to attack England. Finally, there was a
danger from those Catholic nobles still i n England
Elizabeth, Mary's half sister, was lucky to become
who wished to remove Elizabeth and replace her
queen when Mary died i n 1558. Mary had
w i t h the queen of Scotland, who was a Catholic.
considered k i l l i n g her, because she was an obvious
leader for Protestant revolt. Elizabeth had been wise Mary, the Scottish queen, usually called "Queen of
enough to say n o t h i n g , do nothing, and to express Scots", was the heir to the English throne because
neither Catholic nor Protestant views while Mary she was Elizabeth's closest living relative, and
lived. A n d Philip persuaded Mary to leave because Elizabeth had not married. Mary's mother
Elizabeth unharmed. had been French, and Mary had spent her
childhood i n France, and was a strong Catholic.
W h e n she became queen i n 1558, Elizabeth 1 W h e n she returned to rule Scotland as queen, Mary
wanted to find a peaceful answer to the problems of soon made enemies of some of her nobles, and to
the English Reformation. She wanted to bring avoid them she finally escaped to the safety of
together again those parts of English society w h i c h England. Elizabeth, however, kept Mary as a
were i n religious disagreement. A n d she wanted to prisoner for almost twenty years. During that time
make England prosperous. I n some ways the k i n d of Elizabeth discovered several secret Catholic plots,
Protestantism finally agreed i n 1559 remained closer some of which clearly aimed at making Mary queen
to the Catholic religion than to'other Protestant of England.
groups. But Elizabeth made sure that the C h u r c h
was still under her authority, unlike poll'tically It was difficult for Elizabeth to decide what to do
dangerous forms of Protestantism i n Europe. I n a w i t h Mary. She knew that France was unlikely to
way, she made the C h u r c h part of the state attack England i n support of Mary. But she was
machine. afraid that Spain might do so. Mary's close
connection w i t h P t a n c e , however, was a
The "parish", the area served by one church, discouragement to Philip. He would not wish to
usually the same size as a village, became the unit defeat Elizabeth only to put Mary on the throne. It
of state administration. People had to go to church would be giving England to the French. So for a
on Sundays by law and they were fined if they long time Elizabeth just kept Mary as a prisoner.
stayed away. This meant that the parish priest, the
"parson" or "vicar", became almost as powerful as W h e n Elizabeth finally agreed to Mary's execution
the village squire. Elizabeth also arranged for a book i n 1587, it was partly because Mary had named
of sermons to be used i n church. A l t h o u g h most of Philip as her heir to the throne of England, and
the sermons consisted of Bible teaching, this book because w i t h this claim Philip of Spain had decided
also taught the people that rebellion against the to invade England. Elizabeth no longer had a
C r o w n was a sin against G o d . reason to keep Mary alive. I n England Mary's
execution was popular. The Catholic plots and the
The struggle between Catholics and Protestants dangers of a foreign Catholic invasion had changed
continued to endanger Elizabeth's position for the people's feelings. By 1585 most English people
next thirty years. B o t h France and Spain were believed that to be a Catholic was to be an enemy
Catholic. Elizabeth and her advisers wanted to of England. This hatred of everything Catholic
avoid open quarrels w i t h both of them. This was became an important political force.

72
11 England and her neighbours
The new foreign policy * The new trading empire * Wales * Ireland *
Scotland and England • Mary Queen of Scots and the Scottish
Reformation • A Scottish king for England

meant sailing up the English Channel. Elizabeth

The new foreign policy helped the D u t c h Protestants by allowing their
During the Tudor period, from 1485 u n t i l 1603, ships to use English harbours from w h i c h they could
English foreign policy changed several times. But attack Spanish ships, often w i t h the help of the
by the end of the period England had established English. W h e n it looked as if the D u t c h rebels
some basic principles. Henry V l l had been careful might ke defeated, after they lost the city of
to remain friendly w i t h neighbouring countries. His A n t w e r p i n 1585, Elizabeth agreed to help them
son, Henry V l l l , had been more ambitious, hoping w i t h money and soldiers. I t was almost an open
to play an important part i n European politics. He declaration of war o n Spain.
was unsuccessful. Mary allied England to Spain by
English ships had already been attacking Spanish
her marriage. This was not only unpopular but was
ships as they returned from America loaded w i t h
politically unwise: England had nothing to gain
silver and gold. This had been going on since about
from being allied to a more powerful country.
1570, and was the result of Spain's refusal to allow
Elizabeth and her advisers considered trade the
England to trade freely w i t h Spanish American
most important foreign policy matter, as Henry V l l
colonies. A l t h o u g h these English ships were
had done. For them whichever country was
privately owned "privateers", the treasure was
England's greatest trade rival was also its greatest
shared w i t h the queen. Elizabeth apologised to
enemy. This idea remained the basis of England's
Spain but kept her share of what had been taken
foreign policy u n t i l the nineteenth century.
from Spanish ships. Philip knew quite well that
Elizabeth's grandfather, Henry V l l , had recognised Elizabeth was encouraging the "sea dogs", as they
the importance of trade and had built a large fleet were k n o w n . These seamen were traders as well as
of merchant ships. His son, Henry V l l l , had spent pirates and adventurers. T h e most famous of them
money on warships and guns, making English guns were John Hawkins, Francis Drake and M a r t i n
the best i n Europe. Frobisher, but there were many others who were
also trying to build English sea trade and to
Elizabeth's foreign policy carried Henry V l l ' s work interrupt Spain's.
much further, encouraging merchant expansion.
She correctly recognised Spain as her main trade Philip decided to conquer England i n 1587 because
rival and enemy. Spain at that time ruled the he believed this had to be done before he would be
Netherlands, although many of the people were able to defeat the D u t c h rebels i n the Netherlands.
Protestant and were fighting for their independence He hoped that enough Catholics i n England would
from Catholic Spanish rule. Because Spain and be w i l l i n g to help h i m . Philip's large army was
France were rivals, Spanish soldiers could only already i n the Netherlands. He built a great fleet of
reach the Netherlands from Spain by sea. This ships, an " A r m a d a " , to move his army across the

73
A n Illustrated History of Britain

Elizabeth triumphant The

famous "Armada portrait"
shows the Spanish Armada in fuU
sail (left) and wrecked upon
Ireland's shores (right). Under
Elizabeth's right hand lies the
world, a reference to Francis
Ehake's successful voyage around
the world, the expeditions of
other explorers, and Englarui's
growing seapower. EUzabeth
enjoyed glory, and her great
vanity shows in this portrait.

English Channel from the Netherlands. But i n having to spend more than ever on England's
1587 Francis Drake attacked and destroyed part of defence. Peace was only made w i t h Spain once
this fleet i n Cadiz harbour. Elizabeth was dead.

Philip started again, and built the largest fleet that

had ever gone to sea. But most of the ships were
The new trading empire
designed to carry soldiers, and the few fighting ships Both before and after the Armada, Elizabeth
were not as good as the English ones. English ships followed two policies. She encouraged English
were longer and narrower, so that they were faster, sailors like John Hawkins and Francis Drake to
and their guns could also shoot further than the continue to attack and destroy Spanish ships
Spanish ones. bringing gold, silver and other treasures back from
the newly discovere'd continent of America. She
W h e n news of this Armada reached England i n
also encouraged English traders to settle abroad and
summer 1588, Elizabeth called her soldiers
to create colonies. This second policy led directly
together. She won their hearts w i t h well-chosen
to Britain's colonial empire of the seventeenth and
words: "1 am come . . . to live or die amongst you
eighteenth centuries.
all, to lay down for my G o d , and for my kingdom,
and for my people, my honour and my blood even T h e first English colonists sailed to America
in the dust. 1 know 1 have the body of a weak and towards the end of the century. One of the best
feeble woman, but 1 have the heart and stomach of k n o w n was Sir Walter Raleigh, who brought
a king, and of a king of England t o o . " tobacco back to England. The settlers tried without
success to start profitable colonies i n Virginia,
The Spanish Armada was defeated more by bad
w h i c h was named after Elizabeth, the " v i r g i n " or
weather than by English guns. Some Spanish ships
unmarried queen. But these were only beginnings.
were sunk, but most were blown northwards by the
w i n d , many being wrecked on the rocky coasts of England also began selling West African slaves to
Scotland and Ireland. For England i t was a work for the Spanish i n America. John Hawkins
glorious moment, but it did not lead to an end of carried his first slave cargo i n 1562. By 1650 slavery
the war w i t h Spain, and England found itself had become an important trade, bringing wealth

74
 11 England and her neighbours

A map of the world drawn in the

early years of the sixteenth
century shows geographical
knowledge decreasing with
distance from Europe. Australia,
for example, is still completely
unknown. Even so, this map was
a great improvement on
geographical knowledge a century
earlier. By the end of the century
far more accurate maps were
appearing.

particularly to Bristol i n soutKwest England. I t took Wales

until the end of the eighteenth century for this
Closer to home, the Tudors did their best to bring
trade to be ended.
Wales, Ireland and Scotland under English control.
This growth of trade abroad was not entirely new.
Herlry V I I was half Welsh. A t the battle of
The Merchant Adventurers Company had already
Bosworth i n L485 Henry's flag was the red dragon
been established w i t h royal support before the end
of Wales. I t had been the badge of the legendary
of the fifteenth century. During Elizabeth's reign
last British (Welsh) king to fight against the
more "chartered" companies, as they were k n o w n ,
Saxons. A t the time, Caxton was printing Malory's
were established. A "charter" gave a company the
poem Morte d'Arthur. Henry cleverly made the
right to all the business i n its particular trade or
most of popular " A r t h u r i a n " interest to suggest that
region. I n return for this important advantage the
he was somehow connected w i t h the ancient
chartered company gave some of its profits to the
British k i n g , and named his eldest son A r t h u r . He
Crown. A number of these companies were
also brought many Welshmen to his court.
established during Elizabeth's reign: the Eastland
Company to trade w i t h Scandinavia and the Baltic A r t h u r , Prince of Wales, died early and Henry's
in 1579; the Levant Company to trade w i t h the second son became Henry V I I I . But he did not
Ottoman Empire i n 1581; the Africa Company to share his father's love of Wales. His interest was i n
trade i n slaves, i n 1588; and the East India power and authority, through direct control. He
Company to trade w i t h India i n 1600. wanted the Welsh to become English.

The East India Company was established mainly One example of the changes Henry V I I I made was
because the Dutch controlled the entire spice trade i n the matter of names. A t that time the Welsh did
with the East Indies (Indonesia). Spices were not have family names. They used their o w n first
extremely important for making the winter salted name w i t h those of their father and grandfather,
meat tastier. The English were determined to have using ap, w h i c h meant "son o f " . Names were long,
a share i n this rich trade, but were unsuccessful. and the English, who had been using family names
However, the East India Company did begin to for about three hundred years, found them difficult.
operate i n India, Persia and even i n Japan, where it From 1535 the English put pressure o n the Welsh
had a trading station from 1613-23. T h e quarrel to use an English system of names by preventing
over spices was England's first difficulty w i t h the Welsh names being used i n law courts and o n
Dutch. Before the end of the seventeenth century official papers. By 1750 the use of Welsh names had
trading competition w i t h the D u t c h had led to almost disappeared, although not before one
three wars. Welshman had made a final and humorous protest.

75
A n Illustrated History of Britain

He signed his name "Sion ap W i U i a m ap Sion ap However, Henry also tried to make the Irish accept
WiUiam ap Sion ap Dafydd ap Ithel Fychan as his English C h u r c h Reformation. But i n Ireland,
Cynrig ap Robert ap lowerth ap Rhyrid ap lowerth unlike England, the monasteries and the Church
ap Madoc ap Ednawain Bendew, called after the were still an important part of economic and social
English fashion John Jones." Many Welsh people life. A n d the Irish nobility and gentry, unlike the
accepted wrong English ways of pronouncing their English, felt i t was too dangerous to take monastic
names. Others took their fathers' first names and ap land. They refused to touch i t . W h e n an Anglo-
Richard, ap Robert, ap Hywel, ap Hugh soon Irish noble rebelled against Henry V I I I , he did so in
became Pritchard, Probert, Powell and Pugh. the name of Catholicism. Henry V I I I failed to get
Others who had not used "ap" were k n o w n as what he wanted i n Ireland. I n fact he made things
Williams, Thomas, Davies, Hughes and so o n . worse by bringing Irish nationalism and
Catholicism together against English tule.
Between 1536 and 1543 Wales became joined to
England under one administration. English law was I t is possible that, without the danger of foreign
now the only law for Wales. Local Welshmen were invasion, the Tudors might have given up trying tg
appointed as JPs, so that the Welsh gentry became control the Irish. But Ireland tempted Catholic
part of the ruling English establishment. Those Europe as a place from w h i c h to attack the English.
parts of Wales w h i c h had not been "shired" were I n 1580, during Elizabeth I's reign, many Irish
now organised like English counties. Welshmen rebelled, encouraged by the arrival of a few Spanish
entered the English parliament. English became the and French soldiers.
only official language, and Welsh was soon only
Queen Elizabeth's soldiers saw the rebellious Irish
spoken i n the hills. A l t h o u g h Welsh was not
population as wild and primitive people and treated
allowed as an official language, Henry V l l l gave
them w i t h great cruelty. Edmund Spenser, a famous
permission for a Welsh Bible to be printed, which
Elizabethan poet, was secretary to the English
became the basis o n which the W e l ^ h language
commander. A f t e r the rebellion was defeated he
survived. ^
wrote, " O u t of every corner of the woods . . . they
A l t h o u g h most people gave up speaking Welsh, [the Irish rebels] came creeping forth upon their
poets and singers continued to use i t . T h e spoken hands, for their legs would not bear them. They
word had remained the most important part of looked like . . . death. They spoke like ghosts
Welsh culture since the Saxon invasion. The crying out of their graves. They did eat the dead
introduction of schools, using English, almost . . . happy where they could find t h e m . "
destroyed this last fortress of Welsh culture. T h e
The Tudors fought four wars during the period to
gatherings of poets and singers, k n o w n as
make the Irish accept their authority and their
eisteddfods, w h i c h had been going o n since 1170
religion. I n the end they destroyed the old Gaelic
suddenly stopped. But at the end of the eighteenth
way of life and introduced English government.
century, there were still a few who could speak
Welsh. Eisteddfods began again, bringing back a Ireland became England's first important colony.
tradition which still continues today. The effect of English rule was greatest i n the north,
i n Ulster, where the Irish tribes had fought longest.
Here, after the Tudor conquest, lands were taken
Ireland and sold to English and Scottish merchants. The
native Irish were forced to leave or to work for
Henry V l l l wanted to bring Ireland under his
these settlers.
authority, as he had done w i t h Wales. Earlier kings
had allowed the powerful Anglo-Irish noble families The Protestant settlers took most of the good land
to rule, but Henry destroyed their power. He i n Ulster. Even today most good land i n Ulster is
persuaded the Irish parliament to recognise h i m as owned by Protestants, and most poor land by
king of Ireland. Catholics. The county of Derry i n Ulster was taken

76
 11 England and her neighbours

over by a group of London merchants and divided Catholic invasion of England by France and Spain.
among the twelve main London guilds. The t o w n Many Scots wanted to stay on the side of Catholic
of Derry was renamed Londonderry, after its new Europe i n the hope of sharing the fruits of a
merchant owners. This colonisation did not make Catholic invasion of England.
England richer, but i t destroyed much of Ireland's
But Henry V I I I reminded the Scots that it was
society and economy. It also laid the foundations
dangerous to work against h i m . He sent another
for war between Protestants and Catholics i n Ulster
army into Scotland to make the Scottish James V
in the second half of the twentieth century.
accept his authority. James's army was badly de-
feated and James himself died shortly after. Henry
Scotland and England hoped to marry his son Edward to the baby Queen
of Scots, Mary, and i n this way j o i n the two
The Scottish monarchs tried to introduce the same countries together under an English king. A n
kind of centralised monarchy that the Tudors had agreement was reached i n 1543.
so successfully developed i n England. But it was
much harder, because the Scottish economy was Ordinary Scots were most unhappy at the idea of
weaker, and Scottish society more lawless. being ruled by England. I n spite of their fear of the
However, James I V , James V , Mary who was powerful English armies, a new Scottish parliament,
executed by her cousin Elizabeth of England, and aware of popular feeling, turned down the marriage
her son James V I made important steps forward. agreement. For the next two years English soldiers
They tried to control the lawless border country punished them by burning and destroying the
with England, and the disobedient Highland clans houses of southern Scotland. Rather than give little
in the north. For the Scottish kings there was Mary to the English, the Scots sent her to France,
always a problem. The most disobedient were often where she married the French king's son i n 1558.
the best fighters, and no king wanted to make
enemies of those who might help h i m i n battle Mary Queen of Scots and the
against the English.
Scottish Reformation
Knowing how weak they were, the Scottish kings
Mary was troubled by bad luck and wrong decisions.
usually avoided war w i t h England. They made a
She returned to Scotland as both queen and widow
peace treaty w i t h Henry V l l , the first w i t h an
i n 1561. She was Catholic, but during her time i n
English king since 1328, and James I V married
France Scotland had become officially and
Henry's daughter Margaret. But Henry V l l l still
popularly Protestant.
wanted Scotland to accept his authority. I n 1513
his army destroyed the Scottish army at Flodden. I t The Scottish nobles who supported friendship w i t h
was the worst defeat the Scots ever experienced. England had welcomed Protestantism for both
James himself was killed, and w i t h h i m over twenty political and economic reasons. The new religion
Scottish nobles. brought Scotland closer to England than France.
Financially, the Scottish monarch could take over
The battle of Flodden increased the disagreement
the great wealth of the C h u r c h i n Scotland and this
between those Scottish nobles who felt that
would almost certainly mean awards of land to the
Scotland should move towards a closer friendship
nobles. The yearly income of the Church i n
with England and those who wanted to remain
Scotland had been twice that of the monarch.
loyal to the A u l d Alliance w i t h France. The
Scottish monarch had to find a balance between U n l i k e the English, however, the Scots were
these two, to keep both his nobles and his careful n o t to give the monarch authority over the
neighbours happy. The Protestant Reformation i n new Protestant Scottish " K i r k " , as the Church i n
Europe, and particularly i n England, also increased Scotland was called. This was possible because the
the uncertainty and danger. There was talk of a Reformation took place while the queen, Mary, was

77
A n Illustrated History of Britain

not i n Scotland, and unable to interfere. The new

Kirk was a far more democratic organisation t h a n
the English C h u r c h , because it had no bishops and
was governed by a General Assembly. The K i r k
taught the importance of personal belief and the
study of the Bible, and this led quickly to the idea
that education was important for everyone i n
Scotland. As a result most Scots remained better
educated than other Europeans, including the
English, u n t i l the end of the nineteenth century.

Protestantism had spread quickly through the

Scottish universities, which were closely connected
to those i n Germany and Scandinavia. T h e new
K i r k i n Scotland disliked Mary and her French
Catholicism. Mary was careful not to give the Kirk
any reason for actually opposing her. She made it
clear she would not try to bring back Catholicism.

Mary was soon married again, to Lord Darnley, a

'Scottish Catholic'. But when she tired of h i m , she Mary Queen of Scots had poor judgement, but she was a beauty. Neither of
allowed herself to agree to his murder and married these qualities helped her in her relations with her cousin Elizabeth 1, and an
act of fooUshness finally hst her her head.
the murderer, Bothwell. Scottish society, i n spite of
its lawlessness, was shocked. T h e English
Jamei V I is remembered as a weak man and a bad
government d i d n o t look forward to the possibility
decision-maker. But this was not true while he was
of Mary succeeding Elizabeth as queen. I n addition
king only i n Scotland. Early i n his reign, i n the last
to her Catholicism and her strong French culture,
years of the sixteenth century, he rebuilt the
she had shown very poor judgement. By her
authority of the Scottish C r o w n after the disasters
behaviour Mary probably destroyed her chance of
w h i c h had happened to his mother, grandfather
inheriting the English throne. She found herself at
and great-grandfather. He brought the Catholic
war w i t h her Scottish opponents, and was soon
and Protestant nobles and also the Kirk more or less
captured and imprisoned. Fiowever, i n 1568 she under royal control. These were the successes of an
escaped to England, where she was held by extremely clever diplomat. Like the Tudors, he was
Elizabeth for nineteen years before she was finally a firm believer i n the authority of the Crown, and
executed. like t h e m he worked w i t h small councils of
ministers, rather than Parliament. But he did not
A Scottish king for England have the money or military power of the Tudors.

Mary's son, James V I , started to rule at the age of James VPs greatest success was i n gaining the
twelve i n 1578. He showed great skill from an early English throne when Elizabeth died i n 1603 at the
age. He knew that if he behaved correctly he could unusually old age of 70. I f Elizabeth's advisers had
expect to inherit the English throne after had serious doubts about James as a suitable
Elizabeth's death, as he was her closest relative. H e Protestant ruler, they would probably have tried to
also knew that a Catholic alliance between Spain find another successor to Elizabeth. Few i n England
and France might lead to an invasion of England so could have liked the idea of a new king coming
he knew he had to remain friendly w i t h them too. from Scotland, their wild northern neighbour. The
He managed to "face both ways", while remaining fact that England accepted h i m suggests that its
publicly the Protestant ally of England. leading statesmen had confidence i n James's skills.

78
12 Government and society
Tudor parliaments * Rich and poor in town and country * Domestic
life * Language and culture

During the Tudor period the changes i n Parliament strengthened its position again during
government, society and the economy of England Edward VPs reign by ordering the new prayer book
were more far-reaching than they had been for to be used i n all churches, and forbidding the
centuries. But most far-reaching of all were the Catholic mass. W h e n the Catholic Queen Mary
changes i n ideas, partly as a result of the rebirth of came to the throne she succeeded i n making
intellectual attitudes known as the Renaissance, Parliament cancel all the new Reformation laws,
which had spread slowly northwards from its and agree to her marriage to Philip of Spain. But
beginnings i n Italy. I n England the nature of the she could not persuade Parliament to accept h i m as
Renaissance was also affected by the Protestant king of England after her death.
Reformation and the economic changes that
O n l y two things persuaded Tudor monarchs not to
followed from i t .
get rid of Parliament altogether: they needed money
and they needed the support of the merchants and
landowners. I n 1566 Queen Elizabeth told the
Tudor parliaments French ambassador that the three parliaments she
had already held were enough for any reign and she
The Tudor monarchs did not like governing
would have no more. Today Parliament must meet
through Parliament. Henry V l l had used
every year and remain " i n session" for three-
Parliament only for law making. He seldom called
quarters of i t . This was not at all the case i n the
it together, and then only when he had a particular
sixteenth century.
job for i t . Henry V l l l had used i t first to raise
money for his military adventures, and then for his In the early sixteenth century Parliament only met
struggle w i t h Rome. His aim was to make sure that when the monarch ordered i t . Sometimes it met
the powerful members from the shires and towns twice i n one year, but then it might not meet again
supported h i m , because they had a great deal of for six years. I n the first forty-four years of Tudor
control over popular feeling. He also wanted to rule Parliament met only twenty times. Henry V I I I
frighten the priests and bishops into obeying h i m , assembled Parliament a little more often to make
and to frighten the pope into giving i n to his the laws for C h u r c h reformation. But Elizabeth,
demands. like her grandfather Henry V I I , tried not to use
Parliament after her Reformation Settlement of
Perhaps Henry himself did not realise that by
1559, and i n forty-four years she only let
inviting Parliament to make new laws for the
Parliament meet thirteen times.
Reformation he was giving it a level of authority i t
never had before. Tudor monarchs were certainly During the century power moved from the House of
not more democratic than earlier kings, but by Lords to the House of Commons. T h e reason for
using Parliament to strengthen their policy, they this was simple. The Members of Parliament (MPs)
actually increased Parliament's authority. in the Commons represented richer and more

79
A n Illustrated History of Britain

influential classes than the Lords. I n fact, the idea Elizabeth and her advisers used other methods. She
of getting rid of the House of Lords, still a real and her chief adviser, Lord Burghley, sold official
question i n British politics today, was first suggested positions i n government. Burghley was paid about
in the sixteenth century. £ 8 6 0 a year, but he actually made at least £ 4 , 0 0 0 by
selling official positions. He kept this secret from
The old system of representation i n the Commons,
Parliament. Elizabeth's methods of raising money
w i t h two men from each county and two from each
would today be considered dishonest as well as
"borough", or t o w n , remained the rule. However,
foolish.
during the sixteenth century the size of the
Commons nearly doubled, as a result of the I n their old age Elizabeth and Burghley noticed less,
inclusion of Welsh boroughs and counties and the and became more careless and slower at making
inclusion of more English boroughs. decisions. They allowed the tax system to become
less effective, and failed to keep information on
But Parliament did not really represent the people. how much money people should be paying. England
Few MPs followed the rule of living i n the area they needed tax reform, which could only be carried out
represented, and the monarchy used its influence to w i t h the agreement of Parliament. Parliament
make sure that many MPs would support royal wanted to avoid the matter of tax, and so did local
policy, rather than the wishes of their electors. government because the JPs who were responsible
I n order to control discussion i n Parliament, the for collecting taxes were also landlords who would
C r o w n appointed a "Speaker". Even today the have to pay them. As JPs were not paid, they saw
Speaker is responsible for good behaviour during no reason for collecting unpopular taxes. Elizabeth
debates i n the House of Commons. His job i n left her successors to deal w i t h the problem.
Tudor times was to make sure that Parliament
Elizabeth avoided open discussion on money
discussed what the monarch wanted Parliament to
matters w i t h Parliament. There was clearly an
discuss, and that it made the decision w h i c h he or
unanswered question about the limits of
she wanted.
Parliament's power. W h o should decide what
U n t i l the end of the Tudor period Parliament was Parliament could discuss: the Crown or Parliament
supposed to do three things; agree to the taxes itself? Both the Tudor monarchs and their MPs
needed; make the laws which the C r o w n suggested; would have agreed that i t was the Crown that
and advise the Crown, but only when asked to do decided. However, during the sixteenth century the
so. I n order for Parliament to he able to do these Tudors asked Parliament to discuss, law-make and
things, MPs were given important rights: freedom advise on almost every subject.
trf speech (that is freedom to speak their thoughts
Parliament naturally began to t h i n k it had a right to
freely without fear), freedom from fear of arrest,
discuss these questions. By the end of the sixteenth
and freedom to meet and speak to the monarch.
century it was beginning to show new confidence,
The Tudor monarchs realised that by asking and i n the seventeenth century, when the gentry
Parliament for money they were giving i t power i n and merchant classes were far more aware of their
the running of the kingdom. A l l the Tudor own strength, it was obvious that Parliament would
monarchs tried to get money i n other ways. By challenge the C r o w n . Eventually this resulted i n
1600 Elizabeth had found ways to raise money that war.
were extremely unwise. She sold "monopolies",
which gave a particular person or company total Rich and poor in town and
control over a trade. I n 1601, the last parliament of
Elizabeth's reign complained to her about the bad
country
effect on free trade that these monopolies had. Even i n 1485 mych of the countryside was still
untouched. There were still great forests of oak
trees, and unused land i n between. There were still
80
 12 Government and society

Hmdwick Hdl in Derbyshire,

M t i n t h e i580s, astonished
hcd people hy the daring use of
so much glass. Never had
domestic buildings been so light
inside. The owner, Elizabeth of
Shrewsbury, was newly wedthy
and anxious to be remembered.
So she htid the initials " E . S . "
placed in the sttmeworlc. In
Tudor times furniture became
better. Chairs replaced benches
and stools, feather mattresses
replaced straw mattresses. By
1600 the chests used to store
cbthes were larger, with a
drawer in die botwm. It was the
beginning of the chest of drawers.

wild animals, w i l d pigs, w i l d cattle, and even a few America. But a greater problem was the sudden
wolves. Scattered across this countryside were increase i n population. I n England and Wales the
"islands" of human settlement, villages and towns. population almost doubled from 2.2 m i l l i o n i n 1525
Few towns had more than 3,000 people, the size of to four m i l l i o n i n 1603. Twice the number of
a large village today. Most towns, anyway, were no people needed twice the amount of food. I t was not
more than large villages, w i t h their o w n fields and produced. Living conditions got worse as the
farms. Even London, a large city of over 60,000 by population rose. I t is not surprising that fewer
1500, had fields farmed by its citizens. people married than ever before.

In the sixteenth century, however, this picture I n the countryside the people who did best i n this
began to change rapidly. T h e population increased, situation were the yeoman farmers who had at least
the unused land was cleared for sheep, and large 100 acres of land. They produced food to sell, and
areas of forest were cut down to provide wood for employed men to work o n their land. They worked
the growing shipbuilding industry. England was as farmers during the week, but were "gentlemen"
beginning to experience greater social and on Sundays. They were able to go o n increasing
economic problems than ever before. their prices because there was not enough food i n
the markets.
The price of food and other goods rose steeply
during the sixteenth and early seventeenth Most people, however, had only twenty acres of
centuries. This inflation was without equal u n t i l the land or less. They had to pay rent for the land, and
twentieth century. The price of wheat and barley, often found i t difficult to pay when the rent
necessary for bread and beer, increased over five increased. Because of the growing population i t was
times between 1510 and 1650. W h i l e most other harder for a man to find work, or to produce
prices increased by five times between 1500 and enough food for his family.
1600, real wages fell by half. The government tried
Many landowners found they could make more
to deal w i t h the problem of rising costs by making
money from sheep farming than from growing
coins which contained up to 50 per cent less
crops. They could sell the wool for a good price to
precious metal. This only reduced the value of
the rapidly growing cloth industry. I n order to keep
money, helping to push prices up.
sheep they fenced off land that had always belonged
People thought that inflation was caused by silver to the whole village. Enclosing land i n this way was
and gold pouring into Europe from Spanish
81
A n Illustrated History of Britain

A wedding feast in the village oj

Bermondsey, now a London
suburb. Merry-maJcing is just
beginning, and the view gives us
a good idea of village life. The
Tower of Lontlon can be seen
across the river in the
backgrour¥i.

often against the law, but because JPs were put down, and its leaders were executed. W i t h o u t
themselves landlords, few peasants could prevent i t . work to do, many people stole food i n order to eat.
As a result many poor people lost the land they I t is thought that about 7,000 thieves were hanged
farmed as well as the common land where they kept during Henry V I l l ' s reign.
animals, and the total amount of land used for
Efforts were made by government to keep order i n a
growing food was reduced.
situation of rising unemployment. I n 1547
There was a clear connection between the damage Parliament gave magistrates the power to take any
caused by enclosures and the growth of the c l o t h person who was without work and give h i m for two
trade As one man watching the problem wrote i n years to any local farmer who wanted to use h i m .
1583, "these enclosures be the causes why rich men A n y person found homeless and unemployed a
eat up poor men as beasts do eat grass." A l l through second time could be executed. I t did not solve the
the century the government tried to control crime problem. As one foreign visitor reported,
enclosures but without much success. Many people "There are incredible numbers of robbers here, they
became unemployed. go about i n bands of twenty . . . "

There were warning signs that the problem was In 1563 Parliament made JPs responsible for
growing. I n 1536 large numbers of people from the deciding on fair wages and working hours. A worker
north marched to London to show their anger at was expected to start at five o'clock i n the morning
the dissolution of the monasteries. Their reasons and work u n t i l seven or eight at night w i t h two and
were only partly religious. As life had become a half hours allowed for meals. I n order to control
harder, the monasteries had given employment to the growing problem of wandering homeless people,
many and provided food for the very poor. This workers were not allowed to move from the parish
"Pilgrimage of Grace", as i t was k n o w n , was cruelly where they had been born without permission. But

82
 12 Government and society

A u/edthy family in the 1560s.

The girls in the centre are twins,
hut die family Ukeness of the others
is evident. Children wore the same
style of clothing as their parents.
The dinner tables of die great and
wealthy had become a good deal
more orderly since the days of Sir
Geoffrey Luttrell (see page 57).
Parents often placed their children
at the age of eight or nine in
households of higher social
standing. This offered the chartce of
an advantageous marriage later,
and a rise in status and wealth.

already there were probably over 10,000 homeless The pattern of employment was changing. T h e
people on the roads. production of finished c l o t h , the most important of
England's products, reached its greatest importance
Good harvests through most of the century
during the sixteenth century. Clothmakers and
probably saved England from disaster, but there
merchants bought raw wool, gave it to spinners,
were bad ones between 1594 and 1597, making the
who were mostly women and children i n cottages,
problem of the poor worse again. I n 1601
collected i t and passed it o n to weavers and other
Parliament passed the first Poor Law. This made
clothworkers. T h e n they sold i t .
local people responsible for the poor i n their o w n
area. I t gave power to JPs to raise money i n the The successful men of this new capitalist class
parish to provide food, housing and work for the showed off their success by building magnificent
poor and homeless of the same parish. houses and churches i n the villages where they
worked. England destroyed the Flemish cloth-
Many of the poor moved to towns, where there was
making industry, but took advantage of the special
a danger they would j o i n together to fight against
skills of Flemish craftsmen who came to England.
and destroy their rulers. The government had good
reason to be afraid. I n 1596, during the period of The lives of rich and poor were very different. T h e
bad harvests, peasants i n Oxfordshire rioted against rich ate good quality bread made from wheat, while
the enclosures of common land. Apprentices i n the poor ate rough bread made from rye and barley.
London rioted against the city authorities. T h e W h e n there was not enough food the poor made
Elizabethan Poor Law was as much a symbol of their bread from beans, peas, or oats. The rich
authority as an act of kindness. I t remained i n showed off their wealth i n silk, woollen or linen
operation until 1834. clothing, while the poor wore simple clothes of
leather or wool.

83
A n Illustrated History of Britain

By using coal instead of wood fires, Tudor England young age. N o one dared hope for a long married
learnt how to make greatly improved steel, life because the dangers to life were too great. For
necessary for modem weapons. Henry V l l l replaced this reason, and because marriage was often an
the longbow w i t h the musket, an early k i n d of economic arrangement, deep emotional ties often
hand-held gun. Muskets were not as effective as seem to have been absent. W h e n a wife died, a
longbows, but gunpowder and bullets were cheaper husband looked for another.
than arrows, and the men cheaper to train.
Both rich and poor lived i n small family groups.
Improved steel was used for making knives and
Brothers and sisters usually did not live w i t h each
forks, clocks, watches, nails and pins. Birmingham,
other or w i t h their parents once they had grown up.
by using coal fires to make steel, grew i n the
They tried to find a place of their own. Over half
sixteenth century from a village into an important
the population was under twenty-five, while few
industrial city. I n both Birmingham and
were over sixty. Queen Elizabeth reached the age of
Manchester ambitious members of the working and
seventy, but this was unusual. People expected to
trading classes could now develop new industries,
work hard and to die young. Poor children started
free from the controls placed o n workers by the
work at the age of six or seven.
trade guilds i n London and i n many other older
towns. A n Italian visitor to England gives an interesting
view of English society i n Tudor times: "The
Coal was unpopular, but it burnt better than wood
English are great lovers of themselves, and of
and became the piost commonly used fuel,
everything belonging to them; they t h i n k that there
especially i n London, the rapidly growing capital.
are no other men than themselves, and no other
I n Henry V l l l ' s reign London had roughly ,60,000
world but England: and whenever they see a
inhabitants. By the end of the century this number
handsome foreigner, they say that 'he looks like an
had grown to almost 200,000. I n 1560 London used
Englishman'." The English did not love their
33,000 tons of coal from Newcastle, but by 1600 it
children, he thought, for "having kept them at
used five times as much, and the smoke darkened
home t i l l they arrive at the age of seven or nine
the sky over London. A foreign ambassador wrote
years at the most, they put them out, boys and
that the city stank, and was "the filthiest i n the
girls, to hard service i n the houses of other people,
world".
holding them to seven or eight years' hard service.
They say they do i t i n order that their children
might learn better manners. But I believe that they
Domestic life do it because they are better served by strangers
than they would be by their o w n c h i l d r e n . "
Foreign visitors were surprised that women i n
England had greater freedom than anywhere else i n I n spite of the hard conditions of life, most people
Europe. A l t h o u g h they had to obey their husbands, had a larger and better home to live in than ever
they had self-confidence and were n o t kept hidden before. Chimneys, w h i c h before had only been
i n their homes as women were i n Spain and other found i n the homes of the rich, were now built i n
countries. They were allowed free and easy ways every house. This technical development made
w i t h strangers. As one foreigner delightedly cooking and heating easier and more comfortable.
noticed, "You are received w i t h a kiss by all, when For the first time more than one room could be used
you leave you are sent w i t h a kiss. You return and i n winter.
kisses are repeated."
Between 1530 and 1600 almost everyone doubled
However, there was a dark side to married life. their living space. A f t e r 1570 the wealthy yeoman's
Most women bore between eight and fifteen family had eight or more rooms and workers'
children, and many women died i n childbirth. families had three rooms instead of one, and more
Those who did not saw half their children die at a furniture was used than ever before.

84
 12 Government and society

One group of people suffered particularly badly the work of the D u t c h philosopher Erasmus. One of
during the Tudor period. These were the unmarried them, Thomas More, wrote a study of the ideal
women. Before the Reformation many of these nation, called Utopia, w h i c h became extremely
women could become nuns, and be assured that i n popular throughout Europe.
the religious life they would be safe and respected.
The Renaissance also influenced religion,
After the dissolution of the monasteries, thousands
encouraging the Protestant Reformation, as well as
became beggars on the roads of England. I n future
a freer approach to ways of t h i n k i n g w i t h i n the
an unmarried woman could only hope to be a
Catholic C h u r c h . I n music England enjoyed its
servant i n someone else's house, or to be kept by
most fruitful period ever. There was also
her own family. She had Uttle choice i n life.
considerable interest i n the new painters i n Europe,
and England developed its o w n special k i n d of
Language and culture painting, the miniature portrait.

At the beginning of the Tudor period English was Literature, however, was England's greatest art
still spoken i n a number of different ways. There form. Playwrights like Christopher Marlowe, Ben
were still reminders of the Saxon, A n g l e , Jute and Jonson, and W i l l i a m Shakespeare filled the theatres
Viking invasions i n the different forms of language w i t h their exciting new plays.
spoken i n different parts of the country. Since the
Shakespeare was b o m i n Stratford-upon-Avon, and
time of Chaucer, i n the mid-fourteenth century,
went to the local grammar school. His education
London English, itself a mixture of south M i d l a n d
was typical of the Tudor age, because at this time
and southeastern English, had become accepted as
the "grammar" schools, w h i c h tried to teach
standard English. Printing made this standard
"correct" English, became the commonest form of
English more widely accepted amongst the literate
education. His plays were popular w i t h both
population. For the first time, people started to
educated and uneducated people. Many of his plays
think of London pronunciation as "correct"
were about English history, but he changed fact to
pronunciation. One educator i n Henry V I l l ' s time
suit public o p i n i o n .
spoke of the need to teach children to speak
English " w h i c h is clean, polite, [and] perfectly . . . N o t h i n g shows the adventurous spirit of the age
pronounced." U n t i l Tudor times the local forms of better than the "soldier poets". These were true
speech had been spoken by lord and peasant alike. Renaissance men who were both brave and cruel i n
From Tudor times onwards the way people spoke war, but also highly educated. Sir Edmund Spenser,
began to show the difference between them. who fought w i t h the army i n Ireland, was one. Sir
Educated people began to speak "correct" English, Philip Sidney, killed fighting the Spanish i n the
and uneducated people continued to speak the local Netherlands, was another. A third was Sir Walter
dialect. Raleigh, adventurer and poet. W h i l e imprisoned i n
the Tower of London waiting to be executed,
Literacy increased greatly during the mid-sixteenth he wrote a poem w h i c h describes how time takes
century, even though the religious houses, w h i c h away youth and gives back only o l d age and dust. I t
had always provided traditional education, had was found i n his Bible after his execution:
closed. I n fact, by the seventeenth century about
half the population could read and write. Even such is time, that takes i n trust
Our youth, our joys, our all we have.
Nothing, however, showed England's new
A n d pays us but w i t h earth and dust.
confidence more than its artistic flowering during
W h o , i n the dark and silent grave.
the Renaissance. England felt the effects of the
W h e n we have wandered all our ways.
Renaissance later than much of Europe because it
Shuts up the story of our days.
was an island. I n the early years of the sixteenth
But from this earth, this grave, this dust.
century English thinkers had become interested i n
M y G o d shall raise me up, I trust.
85
The Stuarts
13 Crown and Parliament
Parliament against the Crown • Religious disagreement • Civil war

The Stuart monarchs, from James I onwards, were I t would be interesting to know how the Tudors
less successful than the Tudors. They quarrelled would have dealt w i t h the growing power of the
with Parliament and this resulted i n civil war. T h e House of Commons. They had been lucky not to
only king of England ever to be tried and executed have this problem. But they had also been more
was a Stuart. The republic that followed was even
more unsuccessful, and by popular demand the dead
king's son was called back to the throne. A n o t h e r
Stuart king was driven from his throne by his o w n
]ames 1 was a disappointment to the English. A s James V / in Scotland he
daughter and her Dutch husband, W i l l i a m of had acted skilfully to survive the plots of his nobles. In Englartd he was better
Orange. W i l l i a m became king by Parliament's known for his lack of skiU. in dealing widi Parliament and with his ministers.

election, not by right of b i r t h . W h e n the last

Stuart, Queen A n n e , died i n 1714, the monarchy
was no longer absolutely powerful as it had been
when James V I rode south from Scotland i n 1603.
It had become a "parliamentary monarchy"
controlled by a constitution.

These important changes did not take place simply

hecause the Stuarts were bad rulers. They resulted
from a basic change i n society. During the
seventeenth century economic power moved even
faster into the hands of the merchant and
landowning farmer classes. T h e C r o w n could no
longer raise money or govern without their co-
operation. These groups were represented by the
House of Commons. I n return for money the
Commons demanded political power. T h e victory
of the Commons and the classes i t represented was
unavoidable.

Cliarles I on horseback, painted in 1633 by the great court painter Anthony

Van Dyck. This picture announces the triumph of kingship. At the time
Charles was at .the height of his power. He had no need of Parliament and it
seemed that the king could rule akme, as the king of Prance was doing.
Charles was fatally wrong. It was Parliament that triumphed during the
seventeenth century. By the end of the century the powers of the sovereign
were limited by the will of Parliament. In the bottom left comer are the
Stuart arms, combining for the first time the English "quarters"
with the Scottish Lion Rampant and the Irish Harp.

87
A n Illustrated History of Britain

willing to give up their beliefs i n order that their to pay the debt. Parliament agreed, but i n return
policies would succeed. T h e Stuarts, o n the other insisted o n the right to discuss James's home and
hand, held onto their beliefs however much i t cost foreign policy. James, however, insisted that he
them, even when i t was foolish to do so. alone had the "divine right" to make these
decisions. Parliament disagreed, and i t was
The political developments of the period also
supported by the law.
resulted from basic changes i n t h i n k i n g i n the
seventeenth century. By 1700 a ruler like Henry James had made the mistake of appointing
V I I I or Elizabeth I would have been quite Elizabeth's minister. Sir Edward Coke, as Chief
unthinkable. By the time Queen A n n e died, a new Justice. Coke made decisions based o n the law
age of reason and science had arrived. w h i c h limited the king's power. He judged that the
king was n o t above the law, and even more
important, that the king and his council could not
Parliament against the Crown make new laws. Laws could only be made by A c t of
Parliament. James removed Coke from the position
The first signs of trouble between C r o w n and
of Chief Justice, but as an M P Coke continued to
Parliament came i n 1601, when the Commons were
make trouble. He reminded Parliament of Magna
angry over Elizabeth's policy of selling monopolies.
Carta, interpreting i t as the great charter of English
But Parliament did n o t demand any changes. I t d i d
freedom. A l t h o u g h this was n o t really true, his
not wish to upset the ageing queen w h o m i t feared claim was politically useful to Parliament. This was
and respected. the first quarrel between James and Parliament, and
Like Elizabeth, James I tried to rule without i t started the bad feeling w h i c h lasted during his
Parliament as much as possible. He was afraid i t entire reign, and that of his son Charles.
would interfere, and he preferred to rule w i t h a
James was successful i n ruling without Parliament
small council.
between 1611 and 1621, but i t was only possible
James was clever and well educated. A s a child i n because Britain remained at peace. James could not
Scotland he had been kidnapped by groups of afford the cost of an army. I n 1618, at the
nobles, and had been forced to give i n to the K i r k . beginning of the T h i r t y Years War i n Europe,
Because of these experiences he had developed Parliament wished to go to war against the
strong beliefs and opinions. T h e most important of Catholics. James would not agree. U n t i l his death
these was his belief i n the divine right of kings. He i n 1625 James was always quarrelling w i t h
believed that the king was chosen by G o d and Parliament over money and over its desire to play a
therefore only G o d could judge h i m . James's ideas part i n his foreign policy.
were n o t different from those of earlier monarchs,
or other monarchs i n Europe. Charles I found himself quarrelling even more
bitterly w i t h the Commons than his father had
He expressed these opinions openly, however, and done, mainly over money. Finally he said,
this led to trouble w i t h Parliament. James had an "Parliaments are altogether i n my power . . . A s I
unfortunate habit of saying something true or clever find the fruits of them good or evil, they are to
at the wrong moment. T h e French king described continue or n o t to be." Charles dissolved
James as "the wisest fool i n Christendom". I t was Parliament.
unkind, but true. James, for all his cleverness,
Charles's need for money, however, forced h i m to
seemed to have lost the commonsense w h i c h had
recall Parliament, but each time he did so, he
helped h i m i n Scotland.
quarrelled w i t h i t . W h e n he tried raising money
W h e n Elizabeth died she left James w i t h a huge without Parliament, by borrowing from merchants,
debt, larger t h a n the total yearly income of the bankers and landowning gentry. Parliament decided
Crown. James had to ask Parliament to raise a tax to make Charles agree to certain "parliamentary

88
 13 C r o w n and Parliament

rights". It hoped Charles could not raise enough 1604, Puritans met James to ask h i m to remove the
money without its help, and i n 1628 this happened. Anglican bishops to make the English C h u r c h
In return for the money he hadly needed, Charles more like the K i r k , but he saw only danger for the
promised that he would only raise money by A c t of C r o w n . " A Scottish Presbytery agrees as well w i t h
Parliament, and that he would not imprison anyone monarchy as G o d w i t h the D e v i l , " he remarked,
without lawful reason. and sent them away w i t h the words, " N o bishop,
no k i n g . "
These rights, known as the Petition of Right,
established an important rule of government by Charles shared his father's dislike of Puritans. He
Parliament, because the king had now agreed that had married a French Catholic, and the marriage
Parliament controlled both state money, the was unpopular i n Protestant Britain. Many MPs
"national budget", and the law. Charles realised were either Puritans or sympathised w i t h them, and
that the Petition made nonsense of a king's " d i v i n e many of the wealth-creating classes were Puritan.
right". He decided to prevent it being used by But Charles took no notice of popular feeling, and
dissolving Parliament the following year. he appointed an enemy of the Puritans, W i l l i a m
Laud, as Archbishop of Canterbury.
Charles surprised everyone by being able to rule
successfully without Parliament. He got r i d of much Archbishop Laud brought back into the A n g l i c a n
dishonesty that had begun i n the Tudor period and C h u r c h many Catholic practices. They were
continued during his father's reign. He was able to extremely unpopular. A n t i - C a t h o l i c feeling had
balance his budgets and make administration been increased by an event over thirty years earlier,
efficient. Charles saw no reason to explain his in 1605. A small group of Catholics had been
policy or method of government to anyone. By caught trying to blow up the Houses of Parliament
1637 he was at the height of his power. His w i t h K i n g James inside. One of these men, Guy
authority seemed to be more completely accepted Fawkes, was captured i n the cellar under the
than the authority of an English king had been for House. The escape of king and Parliament caught
centuries. I t also seemed that Parliament might people's imagination, and 5 November, the
never meet again. anniversary, became an occasion for celebration
w i t h fireworks and bonfires.
Religious disagreement Archbishop Laud tried to make the Scottish K i r k
In 1637, however, Charles began to make serious accept the same organisation as the C h u r c h i n
mistakes. These resulted from the religious situation England. James 1 would have realised how
in Britain. His father, James, had been pleased that dangerous this was, but his son, Charles, did n o t
the Anglican Church had bishops. They willingly because he had only lived i n Scotland as an infant.
supported h i m as head of the English C h u r c h . A n d W h e n Laud tried to introduce the new prayer book
he disliked the Presbyterian Kirk i n Scotland i n Scotland i n 1637 the result was national
because i t had no bishops. I t was a more democratic resistance to the introduction of bishops and what
institution and this gave political as well as religious Scots thought of as Catholicism.
power to the literate classes i n Scotland. They had
I n spring 1638 Charles faced a rebel Scottish army.
given h i m a difficult time before he became king of
W i t h o u t the help of Parliament he was only able to
England i n 1603.
put together an inexperienced army. I t marched
There were also people i n England, k n o w n as n o r t h and found that the Scots had crossed the
Puritans, who, like the Scottish Presbyterians, border. Charles knew his army was unlikely to w i n
wanted a democratic Church. Queen Elizabeth had against the Scots. So he agreed to respect all
been careful to prevent them from gaining power i n Scottish political and religious freedoms, and also
the Anglican Church. She even executed a few of to pay a large sum of money to persuade the Scots
them for printing books against the bishops. I n to return home.

89
A n Illustrated History of Britain

It was impossible for Charles to find this money mainly w i t h farmers from the Scottish Lowlands.
except through Parliament. This gave it the chance T h e Catholic Irish were sent off the land, and even
to end eleven years of absolute rule by Charles, and those who had worked for Protestant settlers were
to force h i m to rule under parliamentary control. In now replaced by Protestant workers from Scotland
return for its help. Parliament made Charles accept and England.
a new law w h i c h stated that Parliament had to
I n 1641, at a moment when Charles badly needed a
meet at least once every three years. However, as
period of quiet, Ireland exploded i n rebellion
the months went by, it became increasingly clear
against the Protestant English and Scottish settlers.
that Charles was not willing to keep his agreements
As many as 3,000 people, men, women and child-
w i t h Parliament. Ruling by "divine r i g h t " , Charles
ren, were killed, most of them i n Ulster. I n
felt no need to accept its decisions.
London, Charles and Parliament quarrelled over
who should control an army to defeat the rebels.
Many believed that Charles only wanted to raise an
Civil war army i n order to dissolve Parliament by force and to
Events i n Scotland made Charles depend o n rule alone again. Charles's friendship towards the
Parliament, but events i n Ireland resulted i n c i v i l Catholic C h u r c h increased Protestant fears.
war. James I had continued Elizabeth's policy and Already some of the Irish rebels claimed to be
had colonised Ulster, the northern part of Ireland, rebelling against the English Protestant Parliament,

The areas controlled by Parliament and the king halfway through the Civil Parliament met at Westminster in 1640, determined to limit Charles I's
War, 1642-1645. freedom and to ensure that Parliament would meet regularly in future.
Because of rebellions in Scotland and in Ireland, Charles had to give in to
Parliarrient's wish to oversee government.

90
 13 C r o w n and Parliament

a-
tufiuitrv fc-C«va(r\' wer* drawn op,
Prf^rswry fit tttr
BATTLK or X A S E B Y
fotie:ht the i4*tjr J i i n p iC4j<

T/ie battle 0/ Naseby in 1645 marked the firud defeat of Charles I by Parliament Charles can be seen in /ront of his army. General
Fairfax commanded the ParUamentariarts, and his second-in-command, Oliver Cromwell, comrrutrtded the right wing of the army.

but not against the king. I n 1642 Charles tried to Unless the Royalists could w i n quickly i t was
anest five MPs i n Parliament. A l t h o u g h he was certain that Parliament would w i n i n the end.
unsuccessful, it convinced Parliament and its Parliament was supported by the navy, by most of
supporters all over England that they had good the merchants and by the population of London. I t
reason to fear. therefore controlled the most important national
and international sources of wealth. T h e Royalists,
London locked its gates against the king, and
on the other hand, had no way of raising money.
Charles moved to N o t t i n g h a m , where he gathered
By 1645 the Royalist army was unpaid, and as a
an army to defeat those MPs who opposed h i m .
result soldiers either ran away, or stole from local
The C i v i l War had started. Most people, b o t h i n
villages and farms. I n the end they lost their
the country and i n the towns, did not wish to be o n
courage for the fight against the Parliamentarians,
one side or the other. I n fact, no more than 10 per
and at Naseby i n 1645 the Royalist army was finally
cent of the population became involved. But most
defeated.
of the House of Lords and a few from the Commons
supported Charles. The Royalists, k n o w n as Most people were happy that the war had ended.
"Cavaliers", controlled most of the n o r t h and west. Trade had been interrupted, and Parliament had
But Parliament controlled East Anglia and the introduced new taxes to pay for the war. I n many
southeast, including London. Its army at first places people had told b o t h armies to stay away
consisted of armed groups of London apprentices. from their areas. They had had enough of
Their short hair gave the Parliamentarian soldiers uncontrolled soldiers and of paying the cost of the
their popular name of "Roundheads". war.

91
14 Republican and Restoration Britain
Republican Britain • Catholicism, the Crown and the new
constitutional monarchy - Scotland and Ireland • Foreign relations

Republican Britain
Several MPs had commanded the Parliamentarian
army. O f these, the strongest was an East A n g l i a n
gentleman farmer named Oliver Cromwell. He had
created a new " m o d e l " army, the first regular force
from w h i c h the British army of today developed.
Instead of country people or gentry, Cromwell
invited into his arlny educated men who wanted to
fight for their heliefs.

Cromwell and his advisers had captured the king i n

1645, but they did not know what to do w i t h h i m .
This was an entirely new situation i n English
history. Charles himself continued to encourage
rebellion against Parliament even after he had
surrendered and had been imprisoned. He was able
to encourage the Scots to rebel against the
Parliamentarian army. A f t e r the Scots were
defeated some Puritan officers of the
Parliamentarian army demanded the king's death
for treason.

T h e Parliamentarian leaders now had a problem.

They could either bring Charles back to the throne
It is said dmt Oliver Cromwell, wid\ humility, told his painter,
and allow h i m to rule, or remove h i m and create a Samuel Cooper, to include the warts on his face. But as well as humility
new political system. By this time most people i n Cromwell also had a soldier's belief in authority. As a restdt he was
unpopular as Lord Protector. He failed to persuade the English that
b o t h Houses of Parliament and probably i n the republican government was better than mcmarchy, mainly because people had
country wanted the king back. They feared the less freedom under his audwritarian rule than they had under Charles 1.

Parliamentarians and they feared the dangerous

the army, and the remaining fifty-three judged h i m
behaviour of the army. But some army commanders
and found h i m guilty of making "war against his
were determined to get r i d of the king. These men
kingdom and the Parliament". O n 31 January 1649
were Puritans who believed they could build God's
K i n g Charles was executed. I t was a cold day and
kingdom i n England.
he wore two shirts so that the crowd who came to
Two-thirds of the MPs did not want to put the king watch would not see h i m shiver and t h i n k h i m
o n trial. They were removed from Parliament by frightened.

92
 14 Republican and Restoration Britain

King Charles died bravely. As his head was cut T w o hundred years later, such demands were
from his body the large crowd groaned. Perhaps the thought of as basic citizens' rights. But i n the
execution was Charles's own greatest victory, middle of the seventeenth century they had little
because most people now realised that they did not popular support. Levellers i n the army rebelled, but
want Parliamentary rule, and were sorry that their rebellion was defeated.
Charles was not still king.
From 1653 Britain was governed by Cromwell
From 1649-1660 Britain was a republic, but the alone. H e became " L o r d Protector", w i t h far
republic was not a success. Cromwell and his greater powers t h a n King Charles had had. His
friends created a government far more severe than efforts to govern the country through the army were
Charles's had been. They had got rid of the extremely unpopular, and the idea of using the
monarchy, and they now got rid of the House of army to maintain law and order i n the kingdom has
Lords and the A n g l i c a n Church. remained unpopular ever since. Cromwell's
government was unpopular for other reasons. For
The Scots were shocked by Charles's execution.
example, people were forbidden to celebrate
They invited his son, w h o m they recognised as
Christmas and Easter, or to play games o n a
King Charles I I , to j o i n them and fight against
Sunday.
the English Parliamentary army. But they were
defeated, and young Charles himself was lucky to W h e n C r o m w e l l died i n 1658, the Protectorate, as
escape to France. Scotland was brought under his republican administration was called, collapsed.
English republican rule. Cromwell had hoped that his son, rather than
Parliament, would take over when he died. But
Cromwell took an army to Ireland to punish the
Richard Cromwell was n o t a good leader and the
Irish for the killing of Protestants i n 1641, and for
army commanders soon started to quarrel among
the continued Royalist rebellion there. He captured
themselves. One of these decided to act. I n 1660
two towns, Drogheda and Wexford. His soldiers
he marched to London, arranged for free elections
killed the inhabitants of b o t h , about 6,000 people
and invited Charles I I to return to his kingdom.
in all. These killings were probably no worse than
The republic was over.
the killings of Protestants i n 1641, but they
remained powerful symbols of English cruelty to the W h e n Charles I I returned to England as the
Irish. publicly accepted king, the laws and Acts of
Cromwell's government were automatically
The army remained the most powerful force i n the
cancelled.
land. Disagreements between the army and
Parliament resulted i n Parliament's dissolution i n Charles managed his return w i t h skill. A l t h o u g h
1653. I t was the behaviour of the army and the Parliament was once more as weak as it had been i n
dissolution of Parliament that destroyed Cromwell's the time of James I and Charles I , the new king was
hopes. Many i n the army held what were thought careful to make peace w i t h his father's enemies.
to be strange beliefs. A group called "Levellers" O n l y those who had been responsible for his
wanted a new equality among all men. They father's execution were punished. Many
wanted Parliament to meet every two years, and for Parliamentarians were given positions of authority
most men over the age of twenty-one to have the or responsibility i n the new monarchy. But
right to elect MPs to i t . They also wanted complete Parliament itself remained generally weak. Charles
religious freedom, which would have allowed the shared his father's belief i n divine right. A n d he
many new Puritan groups to follow their religion i n greatly admired the magnificent, all-powerful,
the way they wished. absolute ruler of France, Louis X I V .

93
A n Illustrated History of Britain

meet freely. But Parliament was strongly Anglican,

and would not allow this. Before the C i v i l War,
Puritans looked to Parliament for protection against
• the king. N o w they hoped that the king would
protect them against Parliament.

Charles himself was attracted to the Catholic

Church. Parliament knew this and was always
afraid that Charles would become a Catholic. For
this reason Parliament passed the Test A c t i n 1673,
w h i c h prevented any Catholic from holding public
office. Fear of Charles's interest i n the Catholic
C h u r c h and of the monarchy becoming too
powerful also resulted i n the first political parties in
Britain.

One of these parties was a group of MPs who

became k n o w n as " W h i g s " , a rude name for cattle
drivers. The Whigs were afraid of an absolute
monarchy, and of the Catholic faith w i t h which
they connected i t . They also wanted to have no
regular or "standing" army. I n spite of their fear of a
Catholic king, the Whigs believed strongly i n
allowing religious freedom. Because Charles and his
wife had no children, the Whigs feared that the
C r o w n would go to Charles's Catholic brother,
James. They wanted to prevent this, but they were
undecided over who they did want as king.

The Whigs were opposed by another group,

nicknamed "Tories", an Irish name for thieves. It is
difficult to give a simple definition of each party,
because they were loosely formed groups. Generally
Charles U, who "never said a foolish t/ung, nor ever did a wise one," was a
welcome change from CromwelUan rule. Charles II believed as strongly as speaking, however, the Tories upheld the authority
his father and grandfather in the divine right of kings, but had d^ good sense
of the C r o w n and the C h u r c h , and were natural
to avoid an open break with Parliament His reign was carefree and relaxed,
as this portrait suggests, quite different from the mood suggested in Van inheritors of the "Royalist" position. The Whigs
Dyck's portrait of his father (page 86). were n o t against the C r o w n , but they believed that
its authority depended upon the consent of
Parliament. As natural inheritors of the
"Parliamentarian" values of twenty years earlier,
they felt tolerant towards the new Protestant sects
w h i c h the A n g l i c a n C h u r c h so disliked. These two
parties, the Whigs and the Tories, became the basis
Catholicism, the Crown and the of Britain's two-party parliamentary system of
government.
new constitutional monarchy
Charles hoped to make peace between the different The struggle over Catholicism and the C r o w n
religious groups. H e wanted to allow Puritans and became a crisis when news was heard of a Catholic
Catholics who disliked the A n g l i c a n C h u r c h to plot to murder Charles and put his brother James

94
 14 Republican and Restoration Britain

on the throne. I n fact the plan did not exist. The They invited W i l l i a m of Orange to invade Britain.
story had been spread as a clever trick to frighten It was a dangerous thing for W i l l i a m to do, but he
people and to make sure that James and the was already at war w i t h France and he needed the
Catholics did not come to power. The trick help of Britain's wealth and armed forces. A t this
worked. Parliament passed an A c t forbidding any important moment James's determination failed
Catholic to be a member of either the Commons or h i m . It seems he actually had some k i n d of mental
the Lords. I t was not successful, however, i n breakdown.
preventing James from inheriting the crown.
W i l l i a m entered London, but the crown was offered
Charles would not allow any interference w i t h his
only to Mary. W i l l i a m said he would leave Britain
brother's divine right to be king. Stuarts might give
unless he also became king. Parliament had no
in on matters of policy, but never on matters of
choice but to offer the crown to both W i l l i a m and
principle.
Mary.
James I I became king after his brother's death i n
However, while W i l l i a m had obtained the crown.
1685. The Tories and Anglicans were delighted,
Parliament had also w o n an important point. After
but not for long. James had already shown his
he had fled from England, Parliament had decided
dislike of Protestants while he had been Charles's
that James I I had lost his right to the crown. I t
governor i n Scotland. His soldiers had killed many
gave as its reason that he had tried to undermine
Presbyterian men, women and children. This
"the constitution of the kingdom by breaking the
period is still remembered i n some parts of Scotland
original contract between King and People." This
as the " k i l l i n g times".
idea of a contract between ruler and ruled was not
James then tried to remove the laws w h i c h stopped entirely new. Since the restoration of Charles I I i n
Catholics from taking positions i n government and 1660 there had been a number of theories about the
Parliament. He also tried to bring back the nature of government. I n the 1680s two of the
Catholic Church, and allow i t to exist beside the more important theorists, A l g e r n o n Sidney and
Anglican Church. James almost certainly believed John Locke, had argued that government was based
sincerely that this would result i n many returning to upon the consent of the people, and that the
the Catholic Church. But Parliament was very powers of the king must be strictly limited. The
angry, particularly the Tories and Anglicans who logical conclusion of such ideas was that the
had supported h i m against the Whigs. "consent of the people" was represented by
Parliament, and as a result Parliament, not the
James tried to get rid of the Tory gentry who most king, should be the overall power i n the state. I n
strongly opposed h i m . He removed three-quarters of 1688 these theories were fulfilled.
all JPs and replaced them w i t h men of lower social
class. He tried to bring together the Catholics and Like the C i v i l War of 1642, the Glorious
the Puritans, now usually called "Nonconformists" Revolution, as the political results of the events of
because they would n o t agree w i t h or " c o n f o r m " to 1688 were called, was completely unplanned and
the Anglican Church. unprepared for. I t was hardly a revolution, more a
coup d'etat by the ruling class. But the fact that
In spite of their anger, Tories, Whigs and Parliament made W i l l i a m king, not by inheritance
Anglicans did nothing because they could look but by their choice, was revolutionary. Parliament
forward to the succession of James's daughter, was now beyond question more powerful than the
Mary. Mary was Protestant and married to the king, and would remain so. Its power over the
Protestant ruler of Holland, W i l l i a m of Orange. monarch was w r i t t e n into the B i l l of Rights i n
But this hope was destroyed w i t h the news i n June 1689. The king was now unable to raise taxes or
1688 that James's son had been born. The Tories keep an army without the agreement of Parliament,
and Anglicans now joined the Whigs i n looking for or to act against any M P for what he said or did i n
a Protestant rescue. Parliament.
95
A n Illustrated History of Britain

I n 1701 Parliament finally passed the A c t of Scotland was still a separate kingdom, although it
Settlement, to make sure only a Protestant could shared a king w i t h England (James I I had been
inherit the crown. I t stated that if Mary had no James V I I of Scotland). The English wanted
children the crown would pass to her sister A n n e . I f Scotland and England to be united. But the English
she also died without children, it would go to a A c t of Settlement was not law i n Scotland. While
granddaughter of James I , who had married the Scotland remained legally free to choose its own
German elector of Hanover, and her children. The king there was a danger that this might be used to
A c t of Settlement was important, and has remained put a Stuart back o n the throne. Scotland might
i n force ever since, although the Stuarts tried three renew its A u l d Alliance w i t h France, which was
times to regain the crown. Even today, if a son or now England's most dangerous European enemy.
daughter of the monarch hecomes a Catholic, he or
O n t h e other hand, Scotland needed to remove the
she cannot inherit the throne.
limits o n trade w i t h England from which i t suffered
economically. The English Parliament offered to
remove these limits if the Scots agreed to union
w i t h England. The Scots knew that if they did not
agree there was a real danger that an English army
Scotland and Ireland would once again march into Scotland. I n 1707 the
Neither Scotland,nor Ireland accepted the English union of Scotland and England was completed by
removal of James peacefully. I n Scotland supporters A c t of Parliament. From that moment both
of the Stuarts rebelled, but although they countries no longer had separate parliaments, and a
successfully defeated a government army, their new parliament of Great Britain, the new name of
rebellion ended after the death of their leader. Most the state, met for the first time. Scotland, however,
of the rebels were Highlanders, many of them still kept its o w n separate legal and judicial system, and
Catholic. its own separate Church.

" N o surrenier", the motto of the

Londonderry Protestants under
siege in 1690 by the Catholic
Irish, has remained the motto of
the Vlster Protestants to this day.
This Protestant home displays the
crossed flags of the Union of
Great Britain and Northern
Ireland and of Ulster.
 14 Republican and Restoration Britain

In Ireland the Catholicism of James I I had raised By the treaty of Utrecht i n 1713 France accepted
the hopes of those who had lost their lands to the limits on its expansion, as well as a political
Protestant settlers. W h e n he lost his throne i n settlement for Europe. I t accepted Queen A n n e
England, James naturally thought that Ireland instead of James IPs son as the true monarch of
would make a strong base from which to take back Britain. I n the war Britain had also w o n the rock of
his throne. I n 1689 he landed i n Ireland, w i t h Gibraltar, and could now control the entrance to
French support. the Mediterranean.

In Dublin a Catholic parliament immediately The capture of foreign land was important for
passed an A c t taking away all the property of Europe's economic development. A t this stage
Protestants i n Ireland. But it was not so easy to Britain had a smaller empire abroad t h a n either
carry this out. T h i r t y thousand Protestants locked Spain or H o l l a n d . But i t had greater variety. O n
themselves i n the city of Londonderry (or "Derry" the east coast of America, Britain controlled about
as the Catholics continued to call i t ) . James twelve colonies. O f far greater interest were the
encircled the city but the defenders refused to new possessions i n the West Indies, where sugar
surrender. After fifteen weeks, English ships arrived was grown. Sugar became a craze from w h i c h
bringing fresh supplies and the struggle for Britain has not yet recovered.
Londonderry was over. The battlecry of the
The growing sugar economy of the West Indies
Protestants of Londonderry " N o Surrender!" has
increased the demand for slaves. By 1645, for
remained to this day the cry of Ulster
example, there were 40,000 white settlers and
Protestantism.
6,000 negro slaves i n Barbados. By 1685 the
King W i l l i a m landed i n Ireland i n 1690, and balance had changed, w i t h only 20,000 white
defeated James's army at the River Boyne. James settlers but 46,000 slaves. T h e sugar importers used
left Ireland for France a few days later, and never their great influence to make sure that the
returned to any of his kingdoms. W i t h the battle of government did not stop slavery.
the Boyne the Protestant victory was complete.
During this time Britain also established its first
trading settlements i n India, on b o t h the west and
east coasts. The East India Company did not
interfere i n Indian politics. Its interest was only i n
Foreign relations trade. A hundred years later, however, competition
During the seventeenth century Britain's main w i t h France resulted i n direct efforts to control
enemies were Spain, Holland and France. W a r w i t h Indian politics, either by alliance or by the
Holland resulted from competition i n trade. A f t e r conquest of Indian princely states.
three wars i n the middle of the century, when
Britain had achieved the trade position i t wanted,
peace was agreed, and Holland and Britain co-
operated against France.

At the end of the century Britain went to war

against France. This was partly because W i l l i a m of
Orange brought Britain into the D u t c h struggle
with the French. But Britain also wanted to l i m i t
French power, which had been growing under Louis
XIV. Under the duke of Marlborough, the British
army won several important victories over the
French at Blenheim (on the Danube), Ramillies,
Oudenarde and Malplaquet ( i n the Netherlands).

97
15 Life and thought
The revolution in thought * Life and work in the Stumt age * Family
Ufe

The pohtical revolution during the Stuart age could

not have happened i f there had not been a
revolution i n thought. This influenced not only
politics, but also religion and science. By 1714
people's ideas and beliefs had changed enormously.
The real Protestant revolution did not, i n fact,
'J
happen u n t i l the seventeenth century, when several
new religious groups appeared. But there were also
exciting new scientific ideas, quite separate from
these new beliefs. For the first time it was
reasonable to argue that everything i n the universe -V

had a natural explanation, and this led to a new

self-confidence.

A n o t h e r reason for this self-confidence was the

change i n Britain's international position during
the century. I n 1603, i n spite of the Armada
victory of 1588 and i n spite of the u n i o n of England
and Scotland under one sovereign, Britain was still
considered less important than France, Spain and
the Holy Roman Empire. But by 1714 the success
of its armies against France had made Britain a
leading European power. A t the same time Britain
A Qua/cer meeting addressed b> a vooman. Quakers had a number of striking
had so many new colonies that i t was now i n ideas, for example, that cdl men and women were equal. The Quaker
competition w i t h earlier colonial nations, Spain, movement began during tKe Civil War, and in i 6 6 i it adopted the "peace
prirKiple", the idea that aU war was tvrong. Since then Quakers have been
Portugal and the Netherlands.
pacifist.

was a great work of English literature, and it

encouraged Bible reading among all those who
could read. A l t h o u g h the Bible was read most by
The revolution in thought merchants and lesser gentry, many literate labourers
The influence of Puritanism increased greatly began to read it too. Some of them understood the
during the seventeenth century, particularly among Bible i n a new and revolutionary way. As a result,
the merchant class and lesser gentry. I t was the by the middle years of the seventeenth century
Puritans who persuaded James I to permit a new Puritanism had led to the formation of a large
official ("authorised") translation of the Bible. I t number of small new religious groups, or "sects",
was published i n 1611. This beautiful translation including the "Levellers".

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 15 Life and thought

Most of these Nonconformist sects lasted only a few heavens. This, of course, was not correct, but no
years, but two are important, the Baptists and the one doubted h i m for centuries. I n the twelfth
Quakers. I n spite of opposition i n the seventeenth century, during the reign of Henry I , another
century, both sects have survived and have had an English scientist had gained European fame. He was
important effect on the life of the nation. The Adelard of Bath, and he played a large part i n the
Quakers became particularly famous for their revolution i n scientific t h i n k i n g at the time. He
reforming social work i n the eighteenth century. knew that the C h u r c h considered his ideas
These sects brought hope to many of the poor and dangerous. " I do not want to c l a i m , " he wrote,
the powerless. Social reform and the later growth of "that G o d is less than all-powerful. But nature has
trade unionism both owed much to its o w n patterns and order, and we should listen to
Nonconformism. I n spite of their good work, those who have learnt something of i t . "
however, the Nonconformists continued to be
disliked by the ruling class until the end of the I n the thirteenth and early fourteenth centuries
nineteenth century. English scientists, most of them at the University of
Oxford, had led Europe. Friar Roger Bacon, one of
The Anglican C h u r c h , unlike the Nonconformist the more famous of them, had experimented w i t h
churches, was strong politically, but i t became light, heat and magnetism. A n o t h e r , W i l l i a m of
weaker intellectually. The great religious writers of Ockham, had studied falling objects. Another,
the period, John Bunyan, who wrote The Pilgrim's W i l l i a m Marlee, had been one of the first to keep a
Progress, and John M i l t o n , who wrote Paradise Lost, careful record of the weather. Chaucer himself
were both Puritan. wrote a book to teach his son how to use an
astrolabe. A t the same time, the practical effects of
For some Nonconformists, the opposition to their
such curiosity were seen i n new machinery, water
beliefs was too great to bear. They left Britain to
mills, geared wheels and lathes.
live a free life i n the new found land of America. I n
1620, the "Pilgrim Fathers" sailed i n a ship called But the seventeenth century saw the development
the Mayflower to Massachusetts. Catholic families of scientific t h i n k i n g o n an entirely new scale. The
settled in Maryland for the same reasons. But most new mood had been established at the very
of the 400,000 or so who left England were young beginning of the century by a remarkable man,
men without families, who did so for economic and Francis Bacon. He became James I's Lord
not religious reasons; They wanted the chance to Chancellor, but he was better k n o w n for his work
start a new life. A t the same time there were other on scientific method. Every scientific idea, he
people coming i n from abroad to live i n Britain. argued, must be tested by experiment. W i t h idea
Cromwell allowed Jews to settle again, the first Jews and experiment following one after the other,
since the earlier community had been expelled 350 eventually the whole natural world would be
years earlier. A n d after 1685 many French understood. I n the rest of the century British
Protestants, known as Huguenots, escaped from scientists put these ideas into practice. The British
Louis XIV's persecution and settled i n Britain. have remained at the front of experiment and
research ever since.
The revolution i n religious t h i n k i n g was happening
at the same time as a revolution i n scientific I n 1628 W i l l i a m Harvey discovered the circulation
thinking. Careful study of the natural world led to of blood and this led to great advances i n
important new discoveries. medicine and i n the study of the human body. The
scientists Robert Boyle and Robert Hooke used
It was not the first time that the people of Britain
Harvey's methods when they made discoveries i n
had taken a lead i n scientific matters. A l m o s t a
the chemistry and mechanics of breathing.
thousand years earlier, the English monk and
historian, Bede, had argued that the earth stood These scientific studies were encouraged by the
still, fixed i n space, and was surrounded by seven Stuarts. The Royal Society, founded by the Stuart

99
A n Illustrated History of Britain

nsonarchy, became an important centre where Nature, and Nature's laws lay h i d i n night:
thinkers could meet, argue, enquire and share G o d said. Let Newton be! and all was light.
information. Charles I I , a strong supporter of its
N e w t o n had been encouraged and financed by his
work, gave the Royal Society firm direction " t o
friend, Edmund Halley, who is mostly remembered
examine all systems, theories, principles . . .
for tracking a comet (Halley's Comet) i n 1682.
elements, histories and experiments of things
There was at that time a great deal of interest i n
natural, mathematical and mechanical".
astronomy. The discovery of the geometric
I n 1666 the Cambridge Professor of Mathematics, movement of stars and planets destroyed old beliefs
Sir Isaac N e w t o n , began to study gravity, i n astrology and magic. Everything, it seemed, had
publishing his important discovery i n 1684. I n 1687 a natural explanation.
he published Principia, on "the mathematical
It was no accident that the greatest British architect
principles of natural philosophy", perhaps the
of the time, Christopher W r e n , was also Professor
greatest book i n the history of science. Newton's
of Astronomy at Oxford. I n 1666, following a year
work remained the basis of physics u n t i l Einstein's
of terrible plague, a fire destroyed most of the city
discoveries i n the twentieth century. Newton's
of London. Eighty-seven churches, including the
importance as a "founding father" of modern
great medieval cathedral of St Paul, were destroyed.
science was recognised i n his o w n time, and
W r e n was ordered to rebuild them i n the modern
Alexander Pope, a leading poet of the day, summed
style, w h i c h he did w i t h skill.
it up neatly:

The Royal Observatory at Greenwich was fownded by Charles 11, who had a
great interest in scientific matters. On the left a quadrant is being used, larger
but similar to those used for navigation on ocean-going shtps. On the right an
extremely long telescope is being used to observe the heavenly bodies.

100
 15 Life and thought

When London was rebudt, a new law made sure that all buiidings were made
of brick or stone. The jewel of the new city was the new cathedral, designed
hy Sir Christopher Wren. Almost every church in the new city was also
designed by Wren, or by his able assistant, Nichohis Hawksmoor. Although
some buildings were pulled down and others built during the next 250 years,
the cit> only changed significantly in the rebuilding that followed the Second
WorU War.

As a result of the rapid spread of literacy and the yeoman farmers or traders became minor gentry or
improvement in printing techniques, the first merchants. Part of their success resulted from a
newspapers appeared i n the seventeenth century. strong interest i n farming improvements, which
They were a new way of spreading all kinds of could now be studied i n the many new books on
ideas, scientific, religious and literary. Many of the subject.
them included advertisements. I n 1660 Charles I I
By the middle of the century the government had
advertised for his lost dog.
already begun to control the trade i n cereals to
make sure that merchants did not export these
Life and work in the Stuart age while Britain still needed them. However, by 1670
The situation for the poor improved in the second Britain was able to export cereals to Europe, where
half of the seventeenth century. Prices fell living conditions, particularly for the poor, were
compared w i t h wages, and fewer people asked for much worse than i n Britain. This was partly the
help from the parish. But it was the middle groups result of the T h i r t y Years War, 1618-48, which
who continued to do well. Many who started life as had badly damaged European agriculture.

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A n Illustrated History of Britain

102
 15 Life and thought

Trade w i t h i n Britain itself changed enormously i n

the seventeenth century. T h e different regions
became less economically separate from each other.
N o place i n Britain was more than seventy-five
miles from the sea, and by 1690 few places were
more than twenty miles from a river or canal.
These waterways became important means of
transport, allowing each region to develop its own
special produce. Kent, for example, grew more fruit
and vegetables to export to other regions, and
became k n o w n as "the garden of England".

Improved transport resulted i n a change i n buying

and selling. Most towns did not have shops before
the seventeenth century. They had market days
when farmers and manufacturers sold their produce
in the town square or marketplace. By 1690,
however, most towns also had proper shops.
Shopkeepers travelled around the country to buy
goods for their shops, w h i c h were new and exciting
and drew people from the country to see them.
Towns w h i c h had shops grew larger, while smaller
towns without shops remained no more than
villages.

London remained far larger than any other t o w n ,

w i t h more than 500,000 people by 1650. I t
controlled almost all the sea trade w i t h other
countries. The next largest cities, N o r w i c h ,
Newcastle and Bristol, had only 25,000 each.
(London's great plague of 1665 killed 68,000 people
in only six months, almost equal to the total
population of these three cities.) A f t e r the fire of
1666, the richer citizens for the first time had water
supplied to their houses, through specially made
"The Tichbome Dole", a late seventeenth-century picture, shows a
wooden pipes. T h e city streets had traffic jams just
Hampshire landowner, his family, servants and farm termnts. h shows the as bad as today's, and the noise was probably far
way in which dress differed according to class and occupation. One of the
worse, w i t h the sound of iron-tyred wheels and the
servants on the left is black, whde there is a Quaker woman (holding a baby)
among the farming people on the right. hammering of craftsmen.

I n London there was a new class of rich

"aristocrats", most of w h o m belonged to the
nobility, but not all. Money could buy a high
position i n British society more easily than i n
Europe. A f t e r 1650 the rich began to meet i n the
new coffeehouses, w h i c h quickly became the
meeting places for conversation and politics.

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A n Illustrated History of Britain

Coffeehouses became very popular at the end of the seventeenth century,

and remamed so for much of the eighteenth century. While coffeehouses
were visited only by men, their wives increasingly held tea parties at home.
Tea drinking, and the special utensils necessary for this, became very popular
among the wealthy. At first tea was matle in silver teapots and was drunk
from bowls without handles. In the second half of the century chirui pots
replaced silver ones, and teacups replaced bowls. These teacups sat in
saucers, the little dishes that were normally used for holding sauces.

Some of the old nobility, however, did not accept pay taxes. As one gentleman said i n 1625, "we
the new rich as equals. W h i l e new Stuart yeomen must not give an example of disobedience to those
wanted to be gentry, descendants of the older beneath us".
Tudor gentry started to call themselves "squires",
W h i l e the rich of London visited the coffeehouses,
the ruling class of the countryside. They did not
the ordinary people went to the drinking houses,
wish to be confused w i t h the new gentry.
called "alehouses", i n town and country. These
The squires and JPs governed locally during soon became the centre of popular culture, where
Cromwell's Protectorate, and continued to do so news and ideas could be passed on. By the end of
afterwards. They had the power to tax for local the century the government had secret informers
purposes, to call out soldiers and to try most watching the alehouses and listening for rebellious
criminals. They had the same interests as the talk.
government, and were therefore usually w i l l i n g to

104
 15 Life and thought

Family life m i n d , body and soul. Absolute obedience was

expected. Disobedience was considered an act
After the rapid increase i n population i n the Tudor
against G o d as well as the head of the house.
century, the number of births began to fall i n the
Stuart age. I n 1600 Britain and Ireland had a total One result of this increase i n the father's authority
population of 6 m i l l i o n . A l t h o u g h it increased to was that from the early seventeenth century
7.7 million by 1650, the rate then started to fall. children were frequently beaten to break their
No one is quite sure why the population either rose "sinful" w i l l . The child who was not beaten was
so rapidly i n the Tudor age, or steadied during the unusual. W i l l i a m Penn, the Quaker who founded
seventeenth century. the colony of Pennsylvania i n n o r t h America,
advised parents to "love them [their children] w i t h
One reason for the smaller number of births was
wisdom, correct them w i t h affection, never strike
that people married later than anywhere else i n
in passion, and suit the corrections to their ages as
Europe. Most people married i n their m i d twenties,
well as their f a u l t . " I t is unlikely his advice was
and by the end of the century the average age of
accepted except among the Quaker sect, w h i c h
first marriages was even older, at twenty-seven.
rejected all violence. A n o t h e r result was the loss of
This, of course, meant that women had fewer
legal rights by women over whatever property they
babies. Some women tried to control the size of
had brought into a marriage.
their families by breast-feeding babies for as long as
possible. I t also seems that more men remained However, the Protestant religion also gave new
unmarried than before. But the pattern of importance to the individual, especially i n
population growth and human behaviour remains Presbyterian Scotland. Many Scottish women were
puzzling. A study of south Wales, for example, not afraid to stand up to both their husbands and
shows that one i n three of all heads of gentry the government on matters of personal belief I n
families remained unmarried at the end of the fact many of those who chose to die for their beliefs
seventeenth century. A century earlier, hardly any during Scotland's " k i l l i n g times" were women. This
heads of gentry families i n the area had remained self-confidence was almost certainly a result of
unmarried. There is uncertainty as to why this greater education and religious democracy i n
should have been. Scotland at this time.

By the end of the sixteenth century there were

already signs that the authority of the husband was
increasing. This resulted from the weakening of
wider family ties. Furthermore, just as the power of
the monarch became more absolute during the
sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries, so also
did that of the husband and father. But while the
power of the monarchy was brought under control,
the authority of the head of the family continued to
grow.

This power partly resulted from the increasing

authority of the Church following the Reformation.
The Protestants believed that personal faith was
important, and put extra responsibility on the head
of the family for its spiritual welfare. The father
always led daily family prayers and Bible reading. I n
some ways he had taken the place of the priest. As
a result, his wife and children belonged to h i m .

105
901
The eighteenth century
16 The political world
Politics and finance * Wilkes and liberty * Radicalism and the loss of
the American colonies * Ireland * Scotland

Well before the end of the eighteenth century "proletariat" of the cities that made Britain's trade
Britain was as powerful as France. This resulted and industrial empire of the nineteenth century
from the growth of its industries and from the possible. The invention of machinery destroyed the
wealth of its large new trading empire, part of old "cottage industries" and created factories. The
which had been captured from the French. Britain development of industry led to the sudden growth
now had the strongest navy i n the world; the navy of cities like Birmingham, Glasgow, Manchester
controlled Britain's o w n trade routes and and Liverpool and other centres i n the n o r t h
endangered those of its enemies. I t was the Midlands.
deliberate policy of the government to create this
None of this could have happened without great
trading empire, and to protect i t w i t h a strong
danger to the established order. I n France the
navy. This was made possible by the way i n w h i c h
misery of the poor and the power of the trading
government had developed during the eighteenth
classes led to revolution i n 1789. The British
century.
government was afraid of dangerous revolutionary
For the first time, it was the king's ministers who ideas spreading from France to the discontented i n
were the real policy and decision-makers. Power Britain. I n fact, Britain ended the century fighting
now belonged to the groups from w h i c h the against the great French leader. Napoleon
ministers came, and their supporters i n Parliament. Bonaparte, and eventually defeating h i m . I n this
These ministers ruled over a country w h i c h had way, perhaps, many who might have been
become wealthy through trade. This wealth, or discontented were more concerned w i t h the defeat
"capital", made possible both an agricultural and an of Napoleon. Revolution was still a possibility, but
industrial revolution which made Britain the most Britain was saved partly by the high level of local
advanced economy i n the world. control of the ruling class i n the countryside and
partly by Methodism, a new religious movement
However, there was an enormous price to pay, w h i c h offered hope and self-respect to the new
because while a few people became richer, many proletariat. Methodism was careful to deal only
others lost their land, their homes and their way of w i t h heavenly matters. I t did n o t question political
life. Families were driven off the land i n another or social injustices o n earth.
period of enclosures. They became the working

The port of Bristol in the eighteenth century. International trade became the
Politics and finance
basis of Britain's rise to world greatness during the century. Britain had the
best ships and also the guns to force its will where trade akme did not W h e n Queen A n n e , the last of the Stuarts, died i n
succeed. Bristol became the second largest city after London early in the 1714, i t was n o t entirely certain that the Protestant
century, based on the triangular trade: Britisli-made goods to West Africa,
West African slaves to the New World, and New World sugar, cotton and
ruler of Hanover, George, would become king.
tobacco to Britain. There were some Tories who wanted the deposed

107
A n Illustrated History of Britain

James II's son to return to Britain as James I I I . I f he Indies, the East Indies or i n other newly developing
had given up Catholicism and accepted the areas. The possibility of high profits, and the
A n g l i c a n religion he probably would have been excitement this possibility caused, made the cost of
crowned James I I I . But like other members of his a share i n these trading adventures expensive. I n
family, James was unwilling to change his m i n d , 1720 the South Sea Company offered to pay off the
and he would not give up his religion. N o r would government's national debt if i t was given
he give up his claim to the throne, so he tried to monopoly rights to trading i n the South Seas. I t
w i n i t by force. raised money by selling shares which quickly rose in
value w i t h the increasing excitement. W h e n
I n 1715 he started a rebellion against George I ,
people's confidence i n the South Sea Company
who had by this time arrived from Hanover. But
suddenly fell, so did the price of shares, and
the rebellion was a disaster, and George's army had
thousands of people who had invested their money
little difficulty i n defeating the English and Scottish
lost'everything. Robert Walpole was able to bring
"Jacobites", as Stuart supporters were k n o w n .
back public confidence. He made sure that
Because of the Tory connection w i t h the Jacobites,
something like the "South Sea Bubble" could not
King George allowed the Whigs to form his
happen again. This was the first step in making
government.
companies responsible to the public for the money
Government power was increased because the new w h i c h they borrowed by the sale of shares.
king spoke only German, and did not seem very
I n the other countries of Europe kings and queens
interested i n his new kingdom. A m o n g the king's
had absolute power. Britain was unusual, and
ministers was Robert Walpole, who remained the
Walpole was determined to keep the Crown under
greatest political leader for over twenty years. H e is the firm control of Parliament. He knew that with
considered Britain's first Prime Minister. the new German monarchy this was more possible
Walpole came to power as a result of his financial than it had been before.
ability. A t the end of the seventeenth century the
Walpole skilfully developed the idea that
government had been forced to borrow money i n
government ministers should work together i n a
order to pay for the war w i t h France. There was
small group, w h i c h was called the "Cabinet". He
nothing new about this, except that because of the
introduced the idea that any minister who disagreed
war the government's borrowing increased
deeply w i t h other Cabinet ministers was expected
enormously. I n 1694, a group of financiers who lent
to resign. From this basic idea grew another
to the government decided to establish a bank, and
important rule i n British politics: that all members
the government agreed to borrow from i t alone.
of the Cabinet were together responsible for policy
The new bank, called the Bank of England, had
decisions. Walpole built on the political results of
authority to raise money by printing "bank notes".
the Glorious Revolution of 1688. I t was he who
This was not an entirely new idea. For hundreds of
made sure that the power of the king would always
years bankers and money dealers had been able to
be limited by the constitution.
give people "promisory notes" signed by
themselves. These could be handed on as payment The limits to monarchy were these: the king could
to a third or fourth person. This way of making not be a Catholic; the king could not remove or
trade easier had been made lawful during the reign change laws; the king was dependent o n Parliament
of Henry I , six hundred years earlier. The cheques for his financial income and for his army. The king
we use today developed from these promisory notes. was supposed to "choose" his ministers. Even today
the government of Britain is "Her Majesty's
A t a time when many people had money to invest, Government". But i n fact the ministers belonged as
there was popular interest i n financial matters. much to Parliament as they did to the king.
People wanted to invest money i n some of the
trading companies doing business i n the West

108
 16 T h e political world

Walpole wanted to avoid war and to increase taxes British control of the important fish, fur and wood
so that the government could pay back everything trades. Meanwhile the French navy was destroyed
it had borrowed, and get r i d of the national debt. in a battle near the coast of Spain. I n India, the
He put taxes on luxury goods, such as tea, coffee army of the British East India Company defeated
and chocolate, all of which were drunk by the rich, French armies b o t h i n Bengal, and i n the south
and were brought to Britain from its new colonies near Madras, destroying French trade interests.
by wealthy traders. Tea had become a national Many Indian princes allied themselves w i t h one
drink by 1700, when 50,000 kg were already being side or the other. I n defeating France, Britain
imported each year. Walpole raised the eventually went on to control most of India by
government's income, but this had little effect o n conquest or treaty w i t h the princes. Many Britons
the national debt, and he became very unpopular. started to go to India to make their fortune. U n l i k e
previous British traders, they had little respect for
The most important of Walpole's political enemies Indian people or for their culture. So, while India
was W i l l i a m Pitt "the Elder", later Lord Chatham. became the "jewel i n the C r o w n " of Britain's
Chatham wanted Britain to be economically strong foreign possessions, B r i t i s h - I n d i a n relations slowly
in the world, and he agreed w i t h Daniel Defoe, the went sour.
author of Robinson Crusoe, who had written i n
1728, "Trade is the wealth of the world. Trade Meanwhile, i n 1759, Britain was drunk w i t h
makes the difference between rich and poor, victory. "One is forced to ask every morning what
between one nation and another." But trade also victory there is for fear of missing o n e , " an
involved competition. Chatham had studied French Englishman said at the time. British pride had
trade and industry, and he was certain that Britain already been noticed by a Swiss visitor i n 1727.
must beat France i n the race for an overseas trade The British have a very high o p i n i o n of
empire. themselves, he wrote, and they " t h i n k nothing is as
well done elsewhere as i n their o w n country".
In 1733 France made an alliance w i t h Spain.
British pride was expressed i n a national song
Chatham feated that this alliance would give
written i n 1742: "Rule Britannia, Britannia rule the
France a trade advantage over Britain through freer
waves, Britons never never never shall be slaves."
trade possibilities w i t h the Spanish Empire i n South
America and the Far East. England had been trying But a new king, George I I I , came to the throne i n
unsuccessfully to develop trade w i t h the Spanish 1760. He did not wish Chatham to continue an
Empire since the days of Drake. Once Chatham was expensive war. I n 1763 George I I I made peace w i t h
in the government, he decided to make the British France. Britain did this without informing Prussia,
navy stronger than that of France or any other w h i c h was left to fight France alone.
nation. He also decided to take over as many as
For the rest of the century, Britain's international
possible of France's trading posts abroad.
trade increased rapidly. By the end of the century
War w i t h France broke out i n 1756. Britain had the West Indies were the most profitable part of
already been involved i n a war against France, from Britain's new empire. They formed one comer of a
1743 to 1748, concerning control of the Austrian profitable trade triangle. British-made knives,
Empire. However, this time Chatham left Britain's swords and c l o t h were taken to West A f r i c a and
ally, Prussia, to do most of the fighting i n Europe. exchanged for slaves. These were taken to the West
He directed British effort at destroying French Indies, and the ships returned to Britain carrying
trade. The navy stopped French ships reaching or sugar w h i c h had been grown by slaves. Britain's
leaving French ports. colonies were an important marketplace i n w h i c h
the British sold the goods they produced, from the
The war against France's trade went o n all over the eighteenth century u n t i l the end of the empire i n
world. In Canada, the British took Quebec i n 1759 the twentieth century.
and Montreal the following year. This gave the

109
A n Illustrated History of Britain

A n East India Company official

with his escort of hxally recruited
soUiers. In India the officials of
the East India Company made
public fortunes for Britain, and
private fortunes for themselves.
Many, however, did not survive
the effects of heat and disease.
On the whole Irtdian society
accepted "John Company", as
the East India Company was
locally Icnoum, in both trade and
warfare as just another element
in a complicated cultural scene.
India was used to invaders. It
was only in the nineteenth
century that Indians began to
hate the way the British extended
their contrd over all India and
the way that the British treated
them.

Wilkes and liberty This meant that bargains could be made between
the two most powerful groups of people i n each
George I I I was the first Hanoverian to be b o m i n
"constituency", allowing the chosen representative
Britain. U n l i k e his father and grandfather he had
of each group to be returned to Parliament.
no iiiterest i n Hanover. He wanted to take a more
active part i n governing Britain, and i n particular It was not difficult for rich and powerful people
he wished to be free to choose his o w n ministers. either i n the boroughs or i n the counties to make
As long as he worked w i t h the small number of sure that the man they wanted was elected to
aristocrats from w h i c h the king's ministers were Parliament. I n the countryside, most ordinary
chosen, and who controlled Parliament, i t did not landowners also held land as tenants from the
seem as if he would have much difficulty. greater landowners. A t that time voting was not
done i n secret, and no tenant would vote against
Parliament still represented only a very small
the wishes of his landlord i n case he lost his land.
number of people. I n the eighteenth century only
Other voters were frightened into voting for the
house owners w i t h a certain income had the right
"right m a n " , or persuaded by a gift of money. I n
to vote. This was based on ownership of land worth
this way the great landowning aristocrats were able
forty shillings a year i n the counties, but the
to control those who sat i n Parliament, and make
amount varied from town to t o w n . As a result,
sure that MPs did what they wanted. Politics was a
while the mid-century population of Britain was
matter only for a small number of the gentry who
almost eight m i l l i o n , there were fewer than
had close connections w i t h this political
250,000 voters, 160,000 of them i n the counties
aristocracy. N o one could describe Parliament i n
and 85,000 i n the towns or "boroughs". O n l y 55 of
those days as democratic.
the 200 boroughs had more t h a n 500 voters. T h e
others were controlled by a small number of very However, there was one M P , John Wilkes, who
rich property owners, sometimes acting together as saw things differently. Wilkes was a W h i g , and did
a "borough corporation". Each county and each not like the new govemment of George I I I . Unlike
borough sent two representatives to Parliament. almost every other M P , Wilkes also believed that

110
 16 T h e political world

politics should be open to free discussion by 1770 the number of newspapers had increased.
everyone. Free speech, he believed, was the basic These were read by the enormous number of literate
right of every individual. W h e n George 111 made people who could never hope to vote, but who
peace with France i n 1763 without telling his ally were interested i n the important matters of the
Frederick of Prussia, Wilkes printed a strong attack times. They were mainly clerks, skilled workers and
on the government i n his o w n newspaper. The tradesmen. Improved roads meant that a newspaper
North Briton. The king and his ministers were printed i n London could be reprinted i n Liverpool
extremely angry. They were unwilling to accept free two days later.
speech of this k i n d . Wilkes was arrested and
Newspapers i n their turn increased the amount of
imprisoned i n the Tower of London and all his
political discussion. Even working people read the
private papers were taken from his home.
papers and discussed politics and the royal family,
Wilkes fought back when he was tried i n court. as foreign visitors noticed. "Conversation" clubs
The government claimed it had arrested Wilkes " o f met i n different towns to discuss questions like
state necessity". The judge turned down this "Under what conditions is a man most free?", or
argument w i t h the famous judgement that "public whether secret voting was necessary for political
policy is not an argument i n a court of law". Wilkes freedom. T h e fact that ordinary people who had no
won his case and was released. His victory part to play i n politics asked and discussed such
established principles of the greatest importance: questions explains why John Wilkes was so popular.
that the freedom of the individual is more His struggle showed that public o p i n i o n was now a
important than the interests of the state, and that new and powerful influence on politics.
no one could be arrested without a proper reason.
Wilkes's victory was important because he had
Govemment was not free to arrest w h o m it chose.
shown that Parliament did not represent the
Govemment, too, was under the law. Wilkes's
ordinary people, and that their individual freedom
victory angered the king, but made Wilkes the most
was not assured. As a result of his victory people
popular man i n London.
began to organise political activity outside
The ruling class was not used to considering the Parliament i n order to w i n their basic rights.
opinions of ordinary people. Between 1750 and Politics were no longer a monopoly of the

The battle of Culloden in early

1746 (see page 113) marked the
end not only of Bonnie Prince
Charlie's attempt to regain the
throne for the Stuarts. It also
marked the beginning of the
destruction of the Highlartd clan
system. David Morier, the
painter, was able to use Highland
prisorters taken at Culloden for
this picture. It therefore shows
the reed dress of the Highlanders.
Although all these men are from
Clan Cameron, the variety in
their dress and tartan shows it
was not exactly a uniform. These
prisoners were sent to work on
plantations in the New World.
The artist died as a debtor in
Fleet prison.

Ill
A n Illustrated History of Britain

The Boston Teapany, 1773,

was one of the famous events
leading to open rebellion by ihe
American colonists. It was a
protest agairtst British taxation
and British monopolies on
imports. American colonists,
dressed as native Amen'cans,
threw a shipload of tea into the
harbour rather than pay tax on
it

landowning gentry. Newspapers were allowed to I n 1773 a group of colonists at the port of Boston
send their o w n reporters to listen to Parliament and threw a shipload of tea into the sea rather than pay
write about its discussions i n the newspapers. T h e tax o n i t . T h e event became known as "the Boston
age of public opinion had arrived. Teaparty". The British govemment answered by
closing the port. But the colonists then decided to
Radicalism and the loss of the prevent British goods from entering America until
the port was opened again. This was rebellion, and
American colonies the govemment decided to defeat i t by force. The
I n 1764 there was a serious quarrel over taxation American W a r of Independence had begun.
between the British govemment and its colonies i n
The war i n America lasted from 1775 u n t i l 1783.
America. I t was a perfect example of the k i n d of
The govemment had no respect for the politics of
freedom for which Wilkes had been fighting. T h e
the colonists, and the British army had no respect
British government continued to t h i n k of the
for their fighting ability. The result was a disastrous
colonists as British subjects. I n 1700 there had been
defeat for the British government. I t lost everything
only 200,000 colonists, but by 1770 there were 2.5
except for Canada.
m i l l i o n . Such large numbers needed to be dealt
w i t h carefully. Many British politicians openly supported the
colonists. They were called "radicals". For the first
Some American colonists decided that i t was n o t
time British politicians supported the rights of the
lawful for the British to tax them w i t h o u t their
king's subjects abroad to govem themselves and to
agreement. Political opinion i n Britain was divided.
fight for their rights against the king. The war i n
Some felt that the tax was fair because the money
America gave strength to the new ideas of
would be used to pay for the defence of the
democracy and of independence.
American colonies against French attack. But
several important politicians, including Wilkes and T w o of the more important radicals were Edmund
Chatham, agreed w i t h the colonists that there Burke and T o m Paine. Paine was the first to suggest
should be "no taxation without representation". that the American colonists should become

112
 16 T h e political world

independent of Britain. Burke, who himself held a equal voting opportunities. But George I I I ,
mixture of both radical and conservative views, supported by most Tories and by many Protestant
argued that the king and his advisers were once Irish landlords, refused to let this happen.
again too powerful, and that Parliament needed to
get back proper control of policy.
Scotland
Scotland also suffered from the efforts of the Stuarts
Ireland to w i n back the throne. The first "Jacobite" revolt
to w i n the crown for James II's son, i n 1715, had
James IPs defeat by W i l l i a m of Orange i n 1690 had
been unsuccessful. The Stuarts tried again i n 1745,
severe and long-term effects o n the Irish people.
when James II's grandson. Prince Charles Edward
Over the next half century the Protestant
Stuart, better k n o w n as "Bonny Prince Charlie",
parliament i n Dublin passed laws to prevent the
landed on the west coast of Scotland. He persuaded
Catholics from taking any part i n national life.
some clan chiefs to j o i n h i m . Many of these chiefs
Catholics could not become members of the D u b l i n
had great difficulty persuading the men i n their
parliament, and could not vote i n parliamentary
clans to j o i n the revolt. Some were told their
elections. N o Catholic could become a lawyer, go
homes would be burnt i f they did not fight. Most
to university, j o i n the navy or accept any public
clans did not j o i n the rebellion, and nor did the
post. Catholics were not even allowed to o w n a
men of the Scottish Lowlands.
horse worth more than £ 5 . I t was impossible for
Catholics to have their children educated according Bonny Prince Charlie was more successful at first
to their religion, because Catholic schools were than anyone could have imagined. His army of
forbidden. A l t h o u g h there were still far more Highlanders entered Edinburgh and defeated an
Catholics than Protestants, they had now become English army i n a surprise attack. T h e n he marched
second-class citizens i n their o w n land. south. Panic spread through England, because
much of the British army was i n Europe fighting the
New laws were passed which divided Catholic
French. But success for Bonny Prince Charlie
families. The son of Catholic parents who became
depended o n Englishmen also joining his army.
Protestant could take over his parents' property and
W h e n the Highland army was over halfway to
use it as he wanted. These actions put the Irish
London, however, it was clear that few of the
Catholic population i n the same position as other
English would j o i n h i m , and the Highlanders
colonised peoples later on. Hatred between the
themselves were unhappy at being so far from
ruling Protestant settlers and the ruled Catholic
home. The rebels moved back to Scotland. Early i n
Irish was unavoidable.
1746 they were defeated by the British army
By the 1770s, however, life had become easier and at Culloden, near Inverness. The rebellion was
some of the worst laws against Catholics were finished.
removed. But not everyone wanted to give the
The English army behaved w i t h cruelty. Many
Catholics more freedom. I n Ulster, the northern
Highlanders were killed, even those who had not
part of Ireland, Protestants formed the first "Orange
joined the rebellion. Others were sent to work i n
Lodges", societies which were against any freedom
America. Their homes were destroyed, and their
for the Catholics.
farm animals killed. T h e fear of the Highland
In order to increase British control Ireland was danger was so great that a law was passed forbidding
united w i t h Britain i n 1801, and the Dublin Highlanders to wear their traditional skirt, the k i l t .
parliament closed. The U n i t e d Kingdom of Great The o l d patterns of the k i l t , called tartans, and the
Britain and Ireland lasted for 120 years. Politicians Scottish musical instrument, the bagpipe, were also
had promised Irish leaders that when Ireland forbidden. Some did not obey this law, and were
became part of Britain the Catholics would get shot.

113
17 Life in town and country
Town life * The rich * The countryside * Family life

Town life During the eighteenth century, efforts were made to

make towns healthier. Streets were built wider, so
I n 1700 England and Wales had a population of that carriages drawn by horses could pass each
about 5.5 m i l l i o n . This had increased very little by other. From 1734, London had a street lighting
1750, but then grew quickly to about 8.8 m i l l i o n by system. A f t e r 1760 many towns asked Parliament to
the end of the century. Including Ireland and allow them to tax their citizens i n order to provide
Scotland, the total population was about 13 social services, such as street cleaning and lighting.
million. Each house owner had to pay a local tax, the
I n 1700 England was still a land of small villages. I n amount or "rate" of w h i c h was decided by the local
the northern areas of England, i n Lancashire and council or corporation.
West Yorkshire, and i n the West Midlands, the Catholics and jews were still not allowed into
large cities of the future were only just beginning to Parliament, and for Nonconformists it continued to
grow. By the middle of the century Liverpool, be difficult, but they were all able to belong to the
Manchester, Birmingham, Sheffield and Leeds were town councils that were now being set up. As these
already large. But such new towns were still treated "local authorities" grew, they brought together the
as villages and so had no representation i n merchants and industrial leaders. These started to
Parliament. create a new administrative class to carry out the
council's w i l l . Soon London and the other towns
A l l the towns smelled bad. There were no drains.
were so clean and tidy that they became the
Streets were used as lavatories and the dirt was
wonder of Europe. Indeed London had so much to
seldom removed. I n fact people added to i t , leaving
offer that the great literary figure of the day, Samuel
i n the streets the rubbish from the marketplace and
Johnson, made the now famous remark, " W h e n a
from houses. The streets were muddy and narrow,
man is tired of London, he is tired of life. For there
some only two metres wide. A r o u n d L o n d o n and
is i n London all that life can afford."
other larger towns a few vegetable growers took the
dirt from the streets to put on their fields. There were four main classes of people i n
T h e towns were centres of disease. As a result only eighteenth-century towns: the wealthy merchants;
one child i n four i n London lived to become an the ordinary merchants and traders; the skilled
adult. I t was the poor who died youngest. They craftsmen; and the large number of workers who
were buried together i n large holes dug i n the had no skill and who could not be sure of finding
ground. These were not covered w i t h earth u n t i l work from one day to another.
they were full. I t was hardly surprising that poor
people found comfort i n drinking alcohol and i n The rich
trying to w i n money from card games. Quakers,
Social conditions were probably better than i n any
shocked by the terrible effects of gin drinking,
other country i n Europe. British aristocrats had less
developed the beer industry i n order to replace gin
power over the poor than European aristocrats had.
w i t h a less damaging drink.
I n 1760 an English lord was actually hanged for

114
 17 Life in town and country

Hogarth's famous " G i n Lane" was one of a series of powerful pictures of the A t the other end of the social scale, Thomas Gainsborough, perhaps
less pleasant aspects of English social life. This picture iUustrates the evils of England's finest portrait painter, painted for the rich and famous. ' 'The
drink. In fact gin drirddng led to so much death and criminality that a Morning Walk" has a clam domesticity about it. There is also
number of Quakers began brewing beer commercially as an altenuxtive, less infomuxhty and deep affection in dtis picture, quite different from the
damaging, drink. The cellar entrarvce, bottom left, has the irtscription formality of "The Tichbome Dole" (pages 102-103) or the Tudor
"Drink for a Penny, dead drunk for Twopence, clean straw for Nothing. family (page 83).
This is a later copy of Hogarth's original black and white print

killing his servant. There were few places i n Europe The workers o n his lands were lucky if they were
where that would have happened. T o foreigners, paid more than £15 a year.
used to the absolute power of the king and his
The comfortable life of the gentry must have been
nobles, English law seemed an example of perfect
dull most of the time. The men went hunting and
justice, even if it was not really so.
riding, and carried out "improvements" to their
Foreigners noticed how easy i t was for the British to estates. During the eighteenth century these
move up and down the social "ladder". I n London a improvements included rebuilding many great
man who dressed as a gentleman would be treated houses i n the classical style. I t was also fashionable
as one. It was difficult to see a clear difference to arrange natural-looking gardens and parks to
between the aristocracy, the gentry and the middle create a carefully made "view of nature" from the
class of merchants. Most classes mixed freely windows of the house. Some of the gentry became
together. interested i n collecting trees or plants from abroad.

However, the difference between rich and poor Women's lives were more boring, although during
could be very great. The duke of Newcastle, for the winter there were frequent visits to London,
example, had an income of £ 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 each year. where dances and parties were held. But even the

115
A n Illustrated History of Britain

Somersetshire Buildings in Milsom

Street, Bath, 1788, u;ere among
tlie finest town houses built it the
"Georgian" period. Bath has
survived as Englarui's best
preserved Georgian city because it
was very fashcmable during the
eighteent/i century, but suddenly
ceased to be so at the beginm'ng of
the nineteenth century. As a resuh
the economy of Bath, based upon
tourism, collapsed and very few oj
the splerulid Georgian buildings
were replaced during the nineteenti
or twentiedt centuries.

richest women's Uves were Umited by the idea that Highland dress and tartans became fancy dress, to
they could n o t talce a share i n more serious matters. be worn by Scottish soldiers and by lovers of the
They were only allowed to amuse themselves. A s past, but not by the real Highlanders. Very few of
one lord wrote: " W o m e n are only children of larger the tartans that were w o r n after 1782 would have
growth . . . A man of sense only plays w i t h them been recognised as " c l a n " tartans by the men who
. . . he neither tells them about, nor trusts them, had fought at Culloden.
w i t h serious matters."
T h e real disaster i n the Highlands, however, was
During the eighteenth century, people believed economic. Towards the end of the eighteenth
that the natural spring waters i n "spa" towns such century, the clan chiefs began to realise that money
as Bath were good for their health. These towns could be made from sheep for the wool trade. They
became fashionable places where most people went began to push the people off the clan lands, and to
to meet other members of h i g h society. Bath, replace them w i t h sheep, a process k n o w n as the
which is still the best example of an eighteenth- clearances. The chiefs treated the clan lands as
century English city, was filled w i t h people who their personal property, and the law supported
wished to be "seen". I n Scotland a " N e w T o w n " o n them, just as i t supported the enclosure of common
the edge of the o l d city of Edinburgh was built by land i n England. Between 1790 and 1850 hundreds
Scotland's great architect, Robert A d a m . Like of thousands of Highlanders lost their old way of
Bath, it represented the height of eighteenth- life so that their chiefs could make a profit from the
century British civilised life. land. Many Highlanders, men, women and
children, lived poor on the streets of Glasgow.
The countryside Others went to begin a new life, mainly i n Canada,
where many settled w i t h other members of their
T h e cultural life of Edinburgh was i n total contrast
clan. A smaller number went to Australia i n the
w i t h life i n the Scottish Highlands. Because the k i l t
nineteenth century. Clan society i n the Highlands
and tartan were forbidden, everyone b o m since
had gone for ever.
1746 had grown up wearing Lowland (English)
clothes. The old way of colouring and making I n England the countryside changed even more
tartan patterns from local plants had long been than the towns i n the eighteenth century. Most
forgotten. By the time the law forbidding the k i l t farming at the beginning of the century was still
and tartan was abolished i n 1782, i t was too late. done as i t had been for centuries. Each village stood

116
 17 Life in town and country

in the middle of three or four large fields, and the

villagers together decided what to grow, although
individuals continued to work o n their own small
strips of land.

During the eighteenth century most of this land was

enclosed. The enclosed land was not used for sheep
farming, as it had been i n Tudor times, but for
mixed animal and cereal farms. People w i t h money
and influence, such as the village squire, persuaded
their M P to pass a law through Parliament allowing
them to take over common land and to enclose i t .
The M P was willing to do this because the
landowner was often able to help h i m at the next
election w i t h the votes of those who worked for
him.

One main cause of these enclosures was that a

number of the greater landlords, including the
aristocracy, had a great deal of money to invest. The eighteenth-century enclosures of village farmland changed much of
England's landscape. In this aerial view of Padbury, Buckinghamshire, the
This had come partly from profits made from old strip farming pattern can still be seen, as well as the new hedgerows
increased trade, especially w i t h the West Indies and marking the enclosures of the gentry farmers.

with India. I t also came from investment i n coal

mines and ironworks, both of w h i c h had a growing
part of the economy. Finally, some aristocrats had year, animal food the next, and wheat the t h i r d ,
purchased development sites on the edge of farmers could now produce more. Growing animal
London, most notably the dukes of Bedford and food also made it possible to keep animals through
Westminster. the winter. This was an important new
development. Before the mid-eighteenth century
Most of them wanted to invest their money on the most animals were killed before winter because
land, and having improved their o w n land, and there was never enough food to keep them u n t i l the
built fine country houses, they looked to other following spring. For the first time people could
land. Their reason was that farming had become now eat fresh meat all the year round.
much more profitable. From the mid-seventeenth
These improvements, however, were a good deal
century there had been a number of improvements
more difficult to introduce when most farmland was
in farming, and a growth of interest i n farming
still organised by the whole village community as it
methods. Britain and Holland were better at
had been for centuries. N o strip farmer could afford
farming than any other country i n Europe. A t the
the necessary machinery, and i t was not worth
beginning of the eighteenth century a "seed d r i l l " ,
buying machinery for such small amounts of land i n
a machine for sowing corn seed i n straight lines and
three different areas around the village. Richer
at fixed intervals, was invented by Jethro T u l l . This
farmers wanted to change the system of farming,
made fields easier to weed, and made it possible to
including the system of landholding. W i t h one
ptoduce a greater crop. Other farmers had started to
large area for each farm the new machinery and
understand how to improve soil. A t the same time,
methods would work very well. They had the
root crops grown i n Holland were introduced i n
money to do this, and could expect the help of the
Britain.
village squire and their M P , who were also rich
Traditionally the land had been allowed to rest farmers w i t h the same interests. They had a strong
every three years. But by growing root crops one economic argument for introducing change because

117
A n Illustrated History of Britain

it was clear that the new methods would produce population i n the second half of the century. Some
more food for each acre of land than the traditional were able to work w i t h the new farming class.
methods. There was also another strong reason, Others were not able to find work. Many of these
though at the time people may not have realised i t . had to depend o n the help of the Poor Laws, first
The population had started to grow at a greatly introduced by Queen Elizabeth 1.
increased rate.
A n o t h e r problem was that there were several years
The enclosures, and the farming improvements of bad harvests which resulted i n a sharp increase i n
from which they resulted, made possible far greater wheat prices. Local magistrates could have fixed
and more efficient food production than could be wages to make sure the poor could afford to eat. But
found i n almost any other country i n Europe. T h e i n many places, they chose instead to help those
records of Britain's largest meat market, Smithfield whose wages were particularly low out of the local
in London, show the extraordinary improvement i n rates. T h e most famous example was i n a village
animal farming. I n 1710 the average weight of an called Speenhamland, and the "Speenhamland
ox was 168 kg, by 1795 i t was 364 kg. During the A c t " was copied i n many parts of the country. I t
same period the average weight of a sheep i n was a disastrous system, because employers were
Smithfield rose from 17 kg to 36 kg. now able to employ people cheaply knowing that
the parish would have to add to the low wages they
Improved use of land made it possible to grow
paid. Some employers even lowered their wages
wheat almost everywhere. For the first time
after the Speenhamland A c t . I t is not surprising
everyone, including the poor, could eat white
that as a result the national cost of helping the poor
wheat bread. W h i t e bread was less healthy than
rose from £2 m i l l i o n i n 1790 to £4 m i l l i o n i n 1800.
brown, but the poor enjoyed the idea that they
could afford the same bread as the r i c h . I n spite of A n o t h e r effect of the Speenhamland A c t was to
the greatly increased production of food, however, increase the growth of the population. Help was
Britain could no longer feed itself by the end of the given to a family according to the number of
century. Imported food from abroad became children. Before the enclosures farmers had smaller
necessary to feed the rapidly growing population. families because the land had to be divided among
the children, and because young men would not
But i n social terms the enclosures were damaging.
marry u n t i l they had a farm of their own. The
Villagers sometimes knew nothing about an
enclosures removed the need for these limits, and
enclosure until they were sent off the land. Some
the Speenhamland A c t encouraged larger families
had built their homes on common land and these
since this meant an increase i n financial help.
were destroyed. Over one thousand parliamentary
Acts resulted i n the enclosure of about four m i l l i o n Neighbouring parishes joined together to build a
acres i n the second half of the century. Many of the "parish workhouse" where most of the poor were
poor thought this was no better than stealing: fed and housed. Some parishes hired the workhouse
and its population to a local businessman who
They hang the man and flog the woman.
wanted cheap workers. H e provided food i n return
T h a t steals the goose from off the common.
for work. This quickly led to a system little better
But leave the greater criminal loose
than slavery, w i t h children as well as adults being
That steals the common from the goose.
made to work long hours. These effects brought
The enclosures changed the look of much of the about the collapse of the old Poor Law and led to a
countryside. Instead of a few large fields there were new law i n 1834.
now many smaller fields, each encircled w i t h a
Other people left their village and went to the
hedge, many w i t h trees growing i n them.
towns to find work. They provided the energy that
The problem of the growing landless class was made made possible an even greater revolution which was
very much worse by the rapid increase i n to change the face of Britain.

118
 17 Life in town and country

Family life unfashionably healthy appearance. Undoubtedly

this behaviour explains the idea and reality of frail
In the eighteenth century families began to express feminine health which continued into the
affection more openly than before. I n addition i t nineteenth century.
seems that for the first time children were no longer
thought of as small adults, but as a distinct group of Parents still often decided on a suitable marriage for
people w i t h special needs. A century after the their children, but they increasingly sought their
Quaker, Penn, there was a growing voice advising children's opinion. However," sons and daughters
gentleness w i t h children. One popular eighteenth often had to marry against their wishes. One man,
century handbook on the upbringing of children, forced to give up the only woman he ever loved,
itself a significant development, warned: "Severe wrote, "1 sighed as a lover, but 1 obeyed as a son."
and frequent whipping is, 1 t h i n k , a very bad But love and companionship were slowly becoming
practice." I n 1798 another handbook told mothers accepted reasons for marriage. As one husband
that "The first object i n the education of a child wrote to his wife after fifteen years of marriage, "1
should be to acquire its affection, and the second to have only time to say that 1 love you dearly, - best
obtain its confidence. The most likely thing to of women, best of wives, and best of friends." I f
expand a youthful m i n d is . . . praise." such feelings described a sixteenth- or seventeenth-
century marriage they were less openly stated, and
Girls, however, continued to be victims of the perhaps less openly expected.
parents' desire to make them match the popular
idea of feminine beauty of slim bodies, tight waists The increase i n affection was partly because people
and a pale appearance. T o achieve this aim, and so could now expect a reasonably long life. This
improve the chances of a good marriage, parents resulted mainly from improved diet and the greater
forced their daughters into tightly waisted clothes, cleanliness of cotton rather than woollen
and gave them only little food to avoid an underclothing. However, i t was also the result of a

Hogarth is best known for his

realistic pictures of society's ills,
but to make money he also
painted wealthy people. ' T h e
Graham Children'' gives a
delightful view of a warm relaxed
and jolly atmosphere. Play began
to be recognised as good for
children, but only for young
ones. It was feared that if older
children played they would
become laxy adulxs. One lord
wrote to his son on his ninth
birthday, "Childish toys arul
playthings must be thrown aside,
arxd your mind directed to serious
objects.''

119
A n Illustrated History of Britain

growing idea of kindness. For perhaps the first time no choice but to go to the parish workhouse. Some
people started to believe that cruelty either to babies were even killed or left to die by desperate
humans or animals was wrong. I t did not prevent mothers. A poor woman expecting a baby was often
bad factory conditions, but it did help those trying sent out of the parish, so that feeding the mother
to end slavery. A t the root of this dislike of cruelty and child became the responsibility of another
was the idea that every human was an individual. parish workhouse.

This growing individualism showed itself i n a desire The use of child labour i n the workhouse and i n the
for privacy. I n the seventeenth century middle-class new factories increased towards the end of the
and wealthier families were served by servants, who century. This was hardly surprising. A rapidly
listened to their conversation as they ate. They growing population made a world of children.
lived in rooms that led one to another, usually Children of the poor had always worked as soon as
through wide double doors. N o t even the bedrooms they could walk. Workhouse children were
were private. But i n the eighteenth century families expected to learn a simple task from the age of
began to eat alone, preferring to serve themselves three, and almost all would be working by the age
than to have servants listening to everything they of six or seven. They were particularly useful to
had to say. They also rebuilt the insides of their factory owners because they were easy to discipline,
homes, putting i n corridors, so that every person i n unlike adults, and they were cheap.
the family had their o w n private bedroom.
T h e n , quite suddenly at the end of the century,
Britain was ahead of the rest of Europe i n this child labour began to be seen as shameful. This
individualism. Almost certainly this was the result resulted partly from the growing dislike of cruelty,
of the political as well as economic strength of the and also from the fact that hard child labour
middle class, and the way i n w h i c h the middle class became more visible and more systematic now that
mixed so easily w i t h the gentry and aristocracy. so many people worked i n factories rather than i n
Individualism was important to trade and industrial fields and cottages. A first blow had been struck
success. some years earlier. Horrified by the suffering of
children forced to sweep chimneys, two men
The most successful i n trade and industry were campaigned for almost thirty years to persuade
often Nonconformists, who were especially Parliament to pass a Regulating A c t in 1788 to
hardworking. They could be hard on their families, reduce the cruelty involved. I n the nineteenth
as Puritan fathers had been a century earlier. But century the condition of poor children was to
they were also ambitious for their sons, sending become a main area of social reform. This was a
them away to boarding school at a young age. response not only to the fact that children were
Removed from family affection, this k i n d of suffering more, but also that their sufferings were
education increased individualism. Starved of more public.
emotional life, many of these boys grew up to put
all their energy into power, either helping to build
the empire, or helping to build trade and industry.

Such individualism could not exist for the poorer

classes. Where women and children could find work
making c l o t h , a worker family might double its
income, and do quite well. But a poor family i n
which only the father could find work lived on the
edge of starvation.

The Speenhamland A c t was n o t practised

everywhere. A n increasing number of families had

120
18 The years of revolution
Industrial revolution * Society and religion * Revolution in France and
the Napoleonic Wars

Industrial revolution industrial growth was fuel. There was less wood,
and i n any case wood could not produce the heat
Several influences came together at the same time
necessary to make iron and steel either i n large
to revolutionise Britain's industry: money, labour, a
quantities or of high quality. But at this time the
greater demand for goods, new power, and better
use of coal for changing iron ore into good quality
transport. iron or steel was perfected, and this made Britain
By the end of the eighteenth century, some families the leading iron producer i n Europe. This happened
had made huge private fortunes. Growing merchant only just i n time for the many wars i n w h i c h Britain
banks helped put this money to use. was to fight, mainly against France, for the rest of
the century. T h e demand for coal grew very
Increased food production made i t possible to feed quickly. I n 1800 Britain was producing four times as
large populations i n the new towns. These much coal as it had done i n 1700, and eight times
populations were made up of the people who had as much iron.
lost their land through enclosures and were looking
for work. They now needed to buy things they had Increased iron production made i t possible to
never needed before. I n the old days people i n the manufacture new machinery for other industries.
villages had grown their o w n food, made many of N o one saw this more clearly t h a n John W i l k i n s o n ,
their own clothes and generally managed without a man w i t h a total belief i n iron. He built the
having to buy very much. As landless workers these largest ironworks i n the country. He built the
people had to buy food, clothing and everything world's first iron bridge, over the River Severn, i n
else they needed. This created an opportunity to 1779. He saw the first iron boats made. He built an
make and sell more goods than ever before. The iron chapel for the new Methodist religious sect,
same landless people who needed these things also and was himself buried i n an iron coffin. W i l k i n s o n
became the workers who made them. was also quick to see the value of new inventions.
W h e n James W a t t made a greatly improved steam
By the early eighteenth century simple machines engine i n 1769, W i l k i n s o n improved i t further by
had already been invented for basic jobs. They making parts of the engine more accurately w i t h his
could make large quantities of simple goods quickly special skills i n ironworking. I n this way the skills
and cheaply so that "mass production" became of one craft helped the skills of another. U n t i l then
possible for the first time. Each machine carried out steam engines had only been used for pumping,
one simple process, which introduced the idea of usually i n coal mines. But i n 1781 W a t t produced
"division of labour" among workers. This was to an engine w i t h a turning m o t i o n , made of iron and
become an important part of the industrial steel. I t was a vital development because people
revolution. were now no longer dependent o n natural power.
By the 1740s the main problem holding back

121
A n Illustrated History of Britain

Spinners at work. Peopk looked

back at the age of cottage indtistry
as a happy time compared with the
bkak discipUrte of factory
employment. The view was,
perhaps, over-idealised. Conditions
were dark and less pkasant than
this picture suggests. Frequently it
was only ifomen's spinning that
kept a family from starvation. But
at kast famiUes worked together as
an ecorwmic unit All this was
broken up by the new machinery.
Button making u^as one of the few
cottage industries to survive beyond
1850.

An early coal mine in the Midlands. The use of coal for almost all energy led to a huge amount of
smoke wUch blackened buildings and created dark "smogs", mixtures of smoke and fog, in winter.
 18 T h e years of revolution

One invention led to another, and increased the coaches stopped for fresh horses i n order to
production i n one area led to increased production keep up their speed. They became k n o w n as "stage"
in others. Other basic materials of the industrial coaches, a name that became famous i n the " W i l d
revolution were cotton and woollen c l o t h , w h i c h West" of America. I t was rapid road travel and
were popular abroad. I n the middle of the century cheap transport by canal that made possible the
other countries were buying British uniforms, economic success of the industrial revolution.
equipment and weapons for their armies. T o meet
Soon Britain was n o t only exporting c l o t h to
this increased demand, better methods of
Europe. I t was also importing raw cotton from its
production had to be found, and new machinery
colonies and exporting finished cotton c l o t h to sell
was invented which replaced handwork. T h e
to those same colonies.
production of cotton goods had been limited by the
spinning process, w h i c h could n o t provide enough T h e social effects of the industrial revolution were
cotton thread for the weavers. I n 1764 a spinning enormous. Workers tried to j o i n together to protect
machine was invented w h i c h could do the work of themselves against powerful employers. They
several hand spinners, and other improved wanted fair wages and reasonable conditions i n
machines were made shortly after. W i t h the far w h i c h to work. But the government quickly banned
greater production of cotton thread, the slowest these "combinations", as the workers' societies were
part of the cotton clothmaking industry became k n o w n . Riots occurred, led by the unemployed who
weaving. I n 1785 a power machine for weaving had been replaced i n factories by machines. I n 1799
revolutionised clothmaking. I t allowed Britain to some of these rioters, k n o w n as Luddites, started to
make cloth more cheaply than elsewhere, and break up the machinery w h i c h had put them out of
Lancashire cotton cloths were sold i n every work. The govemment supported the factory
continent. But this machinery put many people out owners, and made the breaking of machinery
of work. I t also changed what had been a "cottage punishable by death. T h e govemment was afraid of
industry" done at home into a factory industry, a revolution like the one i n France.
where workers had to keep work hours and rules set
down by factory owners.

In the Midlands, factories using locally found clay

began to develop very quickly, and produced fine
quality plates, cups and other china goods. These Society and religion
soon replaced the old metal plates and drinking Britain avoided revolution partly because of a new
cups that had been used. Soon large quantities of religious movement. This did not come from the
china were being exported. T h e most famous C h u r c h of England, which was slow to recognise
factory was one started by Josiah Wedgwood. His change. Many new industrial towns i n fact had no
high quality bone china became very popular, as i t church or priests or any k i n d of organised religion.
still is. T h e C h u r c h of England did n o t recognise the
problems of these towns, and many priests belonged
The cost of such goods was made cheaper than ever
to the gentry and shared the opinions of the
by improved transport during the eighteenth
govemment and ruling class.
century. New waterways were dug between towns,
and transport by these canals was cheaper than T h e new movement w h i c h met the needs of the
transport by land. Roads, still used mainly by growing industrial working class was led by a
people rather than by goods, were also improved remarkable man called John Wesley. H e was an
during the century. York, Manchester and Exeter A n g l i c a n priest who travelled around the country
were three days' travel from London i n the 1720s, preaching and teaching. I n 1738 Wesley had had a
but by the 1780s they could be reached i n little mystical experience. " I felt my heart strangely
over twenty-four hours. A l o n g these main roads. warmed," he wrote afterwards, " I felt that I did

123
A n Illustrated History of Britain

A Methodist meeting in i 777. The habit of preaching in the open air drew poorer
people who usually did not go to church. The Methodist preachers went everywhere,
riding from village to village uiith their good news that Christ had died for everyor\e.
They even visited prisons, often to comfort those corviemned to hang.

trust i n Christ, Christ alone for my salvation; and spiritual needs of the growing population,
an assurance was given that he had taken my sins, Methodism was able to give ordinary people a sense
even mine, and saved me from sin and death." For of purpose and dignity. The Church was nervous of
fifty-three years John Wesley travelled 224,000 this powerful new movement w h i c h i t could not
miles on horseback, preaching at every village he control, and i n the end Wesley was forced to leave
came to. Sometimes he preached i n three different the Church of England and start a new Methodist
villages i n one day. Very soon others joined i n his Church.
work. John Wesley visited the new villages and
By the end of the century there were over 360
industrial towns w h i c h had no parish church.
Methodist chapels, most of them i n industrial areas.
John Wesley's " M e t h o d i s m " was above all a These chapels were more democratic than the
personal and emotional form of religion. It was C h u r c h of England, partly because the members of
organised i n small groups, or "chapels", all over the each chapel had to find the money to pay for them.
country. A t a time when the C h u r c h of England The A n g l i c a n Church, o n the other hand, had a
itself showed little interest i n the social and good income from the land it owned.

124
 18 T h e years of revolution

John Wesley was no friend of the ruling classes but slavery and the slave trade, i t also took the lead
he was deeply conservative, and had no time for intemationally i n ending them. T h e slave trade was
radicalism. He disapproved of Wilkes and thought abolished by law i n 1807. But i t took u n t i l 1833 for
the French Revolution was the work of the devil. slavery itself to be abolished i n all British colonies.
"The greater the share the people have i n
Others, also mainly Christians, tried to l i m i t the
govemment," he wrote, "the less liberty, c i v i l or
cruelty of employers who forced children to work
religious, does a nation enjoy." He carefully
long hours. I n 1802, as a result of their efforts.
avoided politics, and taught people to be
Parliament passed the first Factory A c t , limiting
hardworking and honest. As a result of his
child labour to twelve hours each day. I n 1819 a
teaching, people accepted many of the injustices of
new law forbade the employment of children under
the times without complaint. Some became wealthy
the age of nine. Neither of these two Acts were
through working hard and saving their money. As
obeyed everywhere, but they were the early
an old man, Wesley sadly noted how hard work led
examples of govemment action to protect the weak
to wealth, and wealth to pride and that this
against the powerful.
threatened to destroy his work. " A l t h o u g h the form
of religion remains," he wrote, "the spirit is swiftly T h e influence of these eighteenth-century religious
vanishing away." However, Wesley probably saved movements continued. A century later, when
Britain from revolution. He certainly brought many workers started to organise themselves more
people back to Christianity. effectively, many of those involved had been
brought up i n Methodist or other Nonconformist
The Methodists were not alone. Other Christians
sects. This had a great influence o n trade unionism
also joined what became k n o w n as "the evangelical
and the labour movement i n Britain.
revival", which was a r e t u m to a simple faith based
on the Bible. I t was almost a reawakening of
Puritanism, but this time w i t h a social rather t h a n a
political involvement. Some, especially the Revolution in France and the
Quakers, became well k n o w n for social concem. Napoleonic Wars
One of the best known was Elizabeth Fry, who
France's neighbours only slowly realised that its
made public the terrible conditions i n the prisons,
revolution i n 1789 could be dangerous for them.
and started to work for reform.
Military power and the authority of kingship were
It was also a small group of Christians who were the almost useless against revolutionary ideas.
first to act against the evils of the slave trade, from
I n France the revolution had been made by the
which Britain was making huge sums of money.
"bourgeoisie", or middle class, leading the peasants
Slaves did not expect to live long. Almost 20 per
and urban working classes. I n England the
cent died on the voyage. Most of the others died
bourgeoisie and the gentry had acted together for
young from cruel treatment i n the West Indies. For
centuries i n the House of Commons, and had
example, between 1712 and 1768 200,000 slaves
become the most powerful class i n Britain i n the
were sent to work i n Barbados, but during this
seventeenth century. They had no sympathy w i t h
period the population of Barbados only increased by
the French revolutionaries, and were frightened by
26,000.
the danger of "awakening" the working classes.
The first success against slavery came when a judge They saw the danger of revolution i n the British
ruled that "no man could be a slave i n Britain", countryside, where the enclosures were happening,
and freed a slave who had landed i n Bristol. This and i n the towns, to w h i c h many of the landless
victory gave a new and unexpected meaning to the were going i n search of work. They also saw the
words of the national song, "Britons never shall be political dangers w h i c h could develop from the
slaves." I n fact, just as Britain had taken a lead i n great increase i n population.

125
A n Illustrated History of Britain

"Breaking the'Une" at the battle of Trafalgar, 1805. The traditional tactic

was to exc/iange "broadsides" of gunfire between opposing ships. Nekon
took his ships in two tines across (from right to left), rather than alongside,
the enemy formation ( F r e n c h fleet sailing from back left to front right of
picture). His ships' guns were able to fire down the length of each French
ship as it passed. This had two advantages. The bows and stem of a warship
were the least defer\ded parts, so the English ships suffered much less in the
exchange of gunfire. Secondly, the gunshot travelled the whole length of the
enemy decks, causir^ great damage to the ship and loss of life.

126
18 T h e years of revolution
A n Illustrated History of Britain

Several radicals sympathised w i t h the cause of the The French Revolution had created fear all over
French revolutionaries, and called for reforms i n Europe. The British govemment was so afraid that
Britain. I n other countries i n Europe such sympathy revolution would spread to Britain that it
was seen as an attack o n the aristocracy. But i n imprisoned radical leaders. I t was particularly
England b o t h the gentry and the bourgeoisie felt frightened that the army would be influenced by
they were being attacked, and the radicals were these dangerous ideas. U n t i l then, soldiers had
accused of putting Britain i n danger. Tory crowds always lived i n inns and private homes. N o w the
attacked the homes of radicals i n Birmingham and government built army camps, where soldiers could
several other cities. T h e W h i g Party was split. Most live separated from the ordinary people. The
feared "Jacobinism", as sympathy w i t h the govemment also brought together yeomen and
revolutionaries was called, and joined W i l l i a m Pitt, gentry w h o supported the ruling establishment and
"the Younger" (the son of Lord Chatham), while trained them as soldiers. The govemment claimed
those who wanted reform stayed w i t h the radical that these "yeomanry" forces were created i n case of
W h i g leader, Charles James Fox. I n spite of its a French attack. This may have been true, but they
small size. Fox's party formed the link between the were probably useless against an enemy army, and
Whigs of the eighteenth century and the Liberals of they were used to prevent revolution by the poor
the nineteenth century. and discontented.

N o t all the radicals sympathised w i t h the As an island, Britain was i n less danger, and as a
revolutionaries ir> France. I n many ways Edmund result was slower t h a n other European states to
Burke was a conservative, i n spite of his support for make war on the French Republic. But i n 1793
the American colonists i n 1776. H e now quarrelled Britain went to war after France had invaded the
w i t h other radicals, and wrote Reflections on the Low Countries (today, Belgium and Holland). One
Revolution in France, w h i c h became a popular book. by one the European countries were defeated by
He feared that the established order of kings i n Napoleon, and forced to ally themselves w i t h h i m .
Europe would fall. T o m Paine, who had also Most of Europe fell under Napoleon's control.
supported the American colonists, wrote i n answer Britain decided to fight France at sea because it
The Rights of Man, i n w h i c h he defended the rights had a stronger navy, and because its own survival
of the ordinary people against the power of the depended on control of its trade routes. British
monarchy and the aristocrats. The ideas i n this policy was to damage French trade by preventing
book were thought to be so dangerous that Paine French ships, including their navy, from moving
had to escape to France. He never returned to freely i n and out of French seaports. The
Britain. But the book itself has remained an commander of the British fleet. A d m i r a l Horatio
important work o n the question of political Nelson, w o n brilliant victories over the French
freedom. navy, near the coast of Egypt, at Copenhagen, and
These matters were discussed almost entirely by the finally near Spain, at Trafalgar i n 1805, where he
middle class and the gentry. Hardly any working- destroyed the French-Spanish fleet. Nelson was
class voices were heard, but i t should be noted himself killed at Trafalgar, but became one of
that the first definitely working-class political Britain's greatest national heroes. His words to the
organisation, the Corresponding Society, was fleet before the battle of Trafalgar, "England
established at this time. I t did not last long, expects that every man w i l l do his duty," have
because the government closed i t down i n 1798, remained a reminder of patriotic duty i n time of
and i t only had branches i n London, N o r w i c h , national danger.
Sheffield, N o t t i n g h a m and one or two other I n the same year as Trafalgar, i n 1805, a British
centres. army landed i n Portugal to fight the French. This
army, w i t h its Portuguese and Spanish allies, was
eventually commanded by W e l l i n g t o n , a man who

128
had fought i n India. But fighting the French on
land was an entirely different naatter. Almost
everyone i n Europe believed the French army, and
its generals, to be the best i n the world. W e l l i n g t o n
was one of the very few generals who did not. " I am
not afraid of t h e m , " he wrote on his appointment
as commander. " I suspect that all the Continental
armies were more than half beaten before the battle
was begun. I , at least, w i l l not be frightened
beforehand." Like Nelson he quickly proved to be a
great commander. After several victories against
the French i n Spain he invaded France. Napoleon,
weakened by his disastrous invasion of Russia,
surrendered i n 1814. But the following year he
escaped and quickly assembled an army i n France.
Wellington, w i t h the timely help of the Prussian
army, finally defeated Napoleon at Waterloo i n
Belgium i n June 1815.
19 The years of power and danger
The danger at home, 1815-32 * Reform * Workers revolt * Family life

Britain i n the nineteenth century was at its most However, the working class, the large number of
powerful and self-confident. A f t e r the industrial people who had left their villages to become factory
revolution, nineteenth-century Britain was the workers, had n o t yet found a proper voice.
"workshop" of the world. U n t i l the last quarter of
Britain enjoyed a strong place i n European councils
the century British factories were producing more
after the defeat of Napoleon. Its strength was not i n
than any other country i n the world.
a larger population, as this was half that of France
By the end of the century, Britain's empire was and Austria, and only a little greater than that of
political rather than commercial. Britain used this Prussia. I t lay instead i n industry and trade, and the
empire to control large areas of the world. T h e navy w h i c h protected this trade.
empire gave the British a feeling of their o w n
Britain wanted two main things i n Europe: a
importance which was difficult to forget when
"balance of power" w h i c h would prevent any single
Britain lost its power i n the twentieth century. This
nation from becoming too strong, and a free market
belief of the British i n their own importance was at
i n w h i c h its o w n industrial and trade superiority
its height i n the middle of the nineteenth century,
would give Britain a clear advantage. I t succeeded
among the new middle class, which had grown w i t h
in the first aim by encouraging the recovery of
industrialisation. The novelist Charles Dickens
France, to balance the power of Austria. Further
nicely described this national pride. One of his
characters, M r Podsnap, believed that Britain had east, i t was glad that Russia's influence i n Europe
been specially chosen by G o d and "considered was limited by Prussia and the empires of Austria
other countries a mistake". and Turkey. These all shared a border w i t h Russia.

Outside Europe, Britain wished its trading position

The rapid growth of the middle class was part of the
to be stronger than anyone else's. I t defended its
enormous rise i n the population. I n 1815 the
interests by keeping ships of its navy i n almost
population was 13 m i l l i o n , but this had doubled by
every ocean of the world. This was possible because
1871, and was over 40 m i l l i o n by 1914. This
it had taken over and occupied a number of places
growth and the movement of people to towns from
during the war against Napoleon. These included
the countryside forced a change i n the political
Mauritius ( i n the Indian Ocean), the Ionian Islands
balance, and by the end of the century most men
( i n the eastern Mediterranean), Sierra Leone (west
had the right to vote. Politics and government A f r i c a ) , Cape Colony (south A f r i c a ) , Ceylon, and
during the nineteenth century became increasingly Singapore.
the property of the middle class. The aristocracy
and the Crown had little power left by 1914. After 1815 the British government did not only try
to develop its trading stations. Its policy now was to
William Bell Scott's "Iron and Coal", painted 1864 - 6 7 , lias a quite new control world traffic and world markets to Britain's
atmosphere of pride in labour and inditstry. Such pride was the mark of
Britain in the nineteenth century. One can feel the enormous energy of
advantage. Britain d i d not, however, wish to
irviustrial revolution in this painting. colonise everywhere. There were many areas i n

131
A n Illustrated History of Britain

which i t had no interest. But there were other because of cheaper imported corn. These farmers
areas, usually close to its o w n possessions or o n persuaded the govemment to introduce laws to
important trade routes, w h i c h i t wished everyone protect locally grown c o m and the price at which it
else to leave alone. I t was as a result of defending was sold. The cost of bread rose quickly, and this
these interests that Britain took over more and led to increases i n the price of almost everything.
more land. Britain's main anxiety i n its foreign W h i l e prices doubled, wages remained the same.
policy was that Russia would try to expand New methods of farming also reduced the number
southwards, by taking over the Slavic parts of of workers o n the land.
Turkey's Balkan possessions, and might reach the
T h e general misery began to cause trouble. I n 1830,
Mediterranean. For most of the century, therefore,
for example, starving farmworkers i n the south of
Britain d i d its best to support Turkey against
England rioted for increased wages. People tried to
Russian expansion. I n spite of its power, Britain
add to their food supply by catching wild birds and
also felt increasingly anxious about growing
animals. But almost all the woods had been
competition from France and Germany i n the last
enclosed by the local landlord and new laws were
part of the century. Most of the colonies established
made to stop people hunting animals for food.
i n the nineteenth century were more to do w i t h
Many had to choose between watching their family
political control than w i t h trading for profit.
go hungry and risking the severe punishment of
The concerns i n Europe and the protection of trade those who were caught. A man found w i t h nets i n
routes i n the rest of the world guided Britain's his home could be transported to the new "penal"
foreign policy for a hundred years. I t was to keep colony i n Australia for seven years. A man caught
the balance i n Europe i n 1838 that Britain hunting w i t h a gun or a knife might be hanged, and
promised to protect Belgium against stronger u n t i l 1823 thieves caught entering houses and
neighbours. I n spite of political and economic stealing were also hanged. These laws showed how
troubles i n Europe, this policy kept Britain from much the rich feared the poor, and although they
war i n Europe for a century from 1815. I n fact i t were slowly softened, the fear remained.
was i n defence of Belgium i n 1914 that Britain There were good reasons for this fear. A new poor
finally went to war against Germany. law i n 1834 was intended to improve the help given
to the needy. But central govemment did not
provide the necessary money and many people
The danger at home, 1 8 1 5 - 3 2 received even less help than before. N o w , only
U n t i l about 1850, Britain was i n greater danger at those who actually lived i n the workhouse were
home than abroad. T h e Napoleonic Wars had given any help at all. T h e workhouses were feared
turned the nation from thoughts of revolution to and hated. They were crowded and dirty, w i t h
the need to defeat the French. They had also barely enough food to keep people alive. The
hidden the social effects of the industrial inhabitants had to work from early m o m i n g t i l l late
revolution. Britain had sold clothes, guns, and at night. The sexes were separated, so families were
other necessary war supplies to its allies' armies as divided. Charles Dickens wrote about the
well as its o w n . A t the same time, corn had been workhouse i n his novels. His descriptions of the life
imported to keep the nation and its army fed. of crime and misery into w h i c h poor people were
forced shocked the richer classes, and conditions
A l l this changed when peace came i n 1815.
slowly improved.
Suddenly there was no longer such a need for
factory-made goods, and many lost their jobs. I n order to avoid the workhouse, many looked for a
Unemployment was made worse by 300,000 men better life i n the towns. Between 1815 and 1835
from Britain's army and navy w h o were now Britain changed from being a nation of country
looking for work. A t the same time, the people to a nation mainly of townspeople. I n the
landowning farmers' o w n income had suffered first thirty years of the nineteenth century, cities

132
 19 T h e years of power and danger

lar.'afie.^

MtHNHOMO:**

Above: Sheffield was little more than a large village in the early eighteenth Below: Englarui's population distribution. Even by 1801, die drift to the
century. By 1858 it was one of the fastest growing towns of the industrial towns in the Midlaruls arul nortAwest of England was considerable, and this
revolution, with hundreds of factory chimrteys creating a new skylirw. movement increased during the first half of die nineteenth century.

over 40 per square

mile
30-40 per square
mile
I I less than 30 per
square mile
Bruon_
^rMflir .Norwich
•v f ' ^Yarmouth
£ n '/ \^P5wich
OxW ^
fB,.f^i O 'i-^rtnterbury

over 150 per over 200 per

square mile .•^''Norwich square mile
g 100-150 per 150-200 per
square mile square mile
rn less than 100 per " • r I I less than 150 per
— square mile Li -ton J * ' — square mile

^ ^Southampton
/Exeter " '

133
A n Illustrated History of Britain

like Birmingham and Sheffield doubled i n size, Tory Party. The radicals believed that Parliament
while Manchester, Glasgow and Leeds more than should represent the people. The Whigs, or Liberals
doubled. Several towns close together grew into as they later became known, were i n the middle,
huge cities w i t h no countryside left i n between. wanting enough change to avoid revolution but
The main city areas were northwest England, where little more.
the new cotton industry was based, the n o r t h
The Tories hoped that the House of Lords would
Midlands, the area around Glasgow, and south
protect the interests of the property owners. W h e n
Wales. But although these cities grew fast, London
the Commons agreed on reform i n 1830 it was
remained the largest. I n 1820 London was home for
turned down by the House of Lords. But the Tories
1.25 m i l l i o n , out of a total British population of
fell from power the same year, and Lord Grey
about 15 m i l l i o n .
formed a W h i g government. Grey himself had
If the rich feared the poor i n the countryside, they supported the call for reform as a radical i n 1792. In
feared even more those i n the fast-growing towns. 1832 the Lords accepted the Reform Bill, but more
These were harder to control. I f they had been because they were frightened by the riots i n the
organised, a revolution like that i n France might streets outside than because they now accepted the
have happened. But they were n o t organised, and idea of reform. They feared that the collapse of
had no leaders. O n l y a few radical politicians spoke political and civil order might lead to revolution.
for the poor, but they failed to work i n close co-
A t first sight the Reform B i l l itself seemed almost a
operation w i t h the workers who could have
political revolution. Scotland's voters increased
supported them.
from 5,000 to 65,000. Forty-one English towns,
Several riots did, however, take place, and the including the large cities of Manchester,
government reacted nervously. I n 1819, for Birmingham and Bradford, were represented i n
example, a large crowd of working people and their Parliament for the very first time. But there were
families gathered i n Manchester to protest against limits to the progress made. T h e total number of
their conditions and to listen to a radical speech i n voters increased by only 50 per cent. The 349
favour of change. Suddenly they were attacked by electors of the small town of Buckingham still had
soldiers on horses. Eleven people were killed and as many MPs to represent them as the 4,192
more than one hundred wounded. The struggle electors of the city of Leeds. A n d England, w i t h
between the government, frightened of revolution, only 54 per cent of the British population,
and those who wanted change became greater. continued to have over 70 per cent of MPs as it had
done before. However, i n spite of its shortcomings,
the 1832 Reform Bill was a political recognition
that Britain had become an urban society.
Reform
T h e Whigs understood better than the Tories the
need to reform the law i n order to improve social Workers revolt
conditions. Like the Tories they feared revolution,
Since 1824 workers had been allowed to j o i n
but unlike the Tories they believed it could only be
together i n unions. Most of these unions were small
avoided by reform. Indeed, the idea of reform to
and weak. A l t h o u g h one of their aims was to make
make the parliamentary system fairer had begun i n
sure employers paid reasonable wages, they also
the eighteenth century. It had been started by early
tried to prevent other people from working i n their
radicals, and encouraged by the American War of
particular trade. As a result the working classes still
Independence, and by the French Revolution.
found i t difficult to act together. Determined
The Tories believed that Parliament should employers could still quite easily defeat strikers who
represent "property" and the projperty owners, an refused to work u n t i l their pay was improved, and
idea that is still associated by some w i t h today's often did so w i t h cruelty and violence. Soldiers

134
 19 T h e years of power and danger

The Penny Black scamp introduced

cheap postage in 1840, ensuring
cheap communications for The Chartist rally on Kennington Common, south London, marked the end
everyone. The Royal Mad prided of the movement. It failed to change much by constitutional means, and its
itself on efficient service. Over the leaders feared the results of trying to change society by unconstitutiontd
years it has remained one of the methods. This rally, like previous ones, was attended mostly by men. Very
best postal services in the world. few women can be seen.

were sometimes used to force people back to work W o r k i n g together for the first time, unions, workers
or break up meetings. and radicals put forward a People's Charter i n 1838.
The Charter demanded rights that are now
In 1834, there was an event of great importance i n
accepted by everyone: the vote for all adults; the
trade union history. Six farmworkers i n the Dorset
right for a man w i t h o u t property of his o w n to be
village of Tolpuddle joined together, promising to
an M P ; voting i n secret (so that people could not
be loyal to their " u n i o n " . Their employer managed
be forced to vote for their landlord or his party);
to find a law by which they could be punished. A
payment for MPs, and an election every year
judge had been specially appointed by the
(which everyone today recognises as impractical).
government to find the six men guilty, and this he
A l l of these demands were refused by the House of
did. I n London 30,000 workers and radicals
Commons.
gathered to ask the government to pardon the
"Tolpuddle Martyrs". The govemment, afraid of The "Chartists" were not united for long. They
seeming weak, did not do so u n t i l the "martyrs" were divided between those ready to use violence
had completed part of their punishment. I t was a and those who believed i n change by lawful means
bad mistake. Tolpuddle became a symbol of only. Many did not like the idea of women also
employers' cruelty, and of the working classes' need getting the vote, partly because they believed it
to defend themselves through trade union strength. would make i t harder to obtain voting rights for all
men, and this demand, w h i c h had been included i n
The radicals and workers were greatly helped i n
the wording to the very first Charter, was quietly
their efforts by the introduction of a cheap postage
forgotten. But riots and political meetings
system i n 1840. This enabled them to organise
continued. I n 1839 fourteen men were killed by
themselves across the country far better than
soldiers i n a riot i n Newport, Wales, and many
before. For one penny a letter could be sent to
others sent to one of Britain's colonies as prisoners.
anyone, anywhere i n Britain.

135
A n Illustrated History of Britain

way. Peel's decision to repeal the C o m Law was a

sign of the way power was passing out of the hands
of the eighteenth-century gentry class. These had
kept their power i n the early years of the
nineteenth century. But now power decisively
passed into the hands of the growing number of
industrialists and traders.

Besides hunger, crime was the mark of poverty.

Peel had turned his attention to this problem
already, by establishing a regular police force for
Loridon i n 1829. A t first people had laughed at his
blue-uniformed men i n their top hats. But during
the next thirty years almost every other town and
county started its o w n police force. The new police
forces soon proved themselves successful, as much
crime was pushed out of the larger cities, then out
of towns and then out of the countryside. Peel was
able to show that certainty of punishment was far
more effective than cruelty of punishment.

Britain's success i n avoiding the storm of revolution

in Europe i n 1848 was admired almost everywhere.
European monarchs wished they were as safe on
their thrones as the British queen seemed to be.
A n d liberals and revolutionaries wished they could
act as freely as radicals i n Britain were able to do.
Many parts of London and other large cities were very dangerous,
particitlarly after dark. It was for this reason that the first regular police forcf
Britain had been a political model i n the eigh-
was established by Sir Robert " B o b " Peel, after whom the new police were teenth century, but w i t h the W a r of Independence
nicknamed "bobbies".
in America and revolution i n France interest i n
The government's severe actions showed how much liberalism and democracy turned to these two
it feared that the poor might take power, and countries. N o w it moved back to Britain, as a
estabhsh a repubhc. model both of industrial success and of free
constitutional govemment. For much of the nine-
The government was saved partly by the skill of teenth century Britain was the envy of the world.
Robert Peel, the Prime Minister of the time. Peel
believed that changes should be made slowly but
steadily. He was able to use the improved economic Family life
conditions i n the 1840s to weaken the Chartist
I n spite of the greater emphasis on the individual
movement, w h i c h slowly died. I n 1846 he
and the growth of openly shown affection, the end
abolished the unpopular C o m Law of 1815, w h i c h
of the eighteenth century also saw a swing back to
had kept the price of c o m higher than necessary.
stricter ideas of family life. I n part, the close family
N o t only had this made life hard for those w i t h
resulted from the growth of new attitudes to
little money, but it had brought their employers,
privacy, perhaps a necessary part of individualism.
the growing class of industrialists, into conflict w i t h
It was also the result of the removal, over a period
the landlord class.
beginning i n the sixteenth century, of the social
These industrialists neither wished to pay higher and economic support of the wider family and
wages, nor employ an underfed workforce. I n this village community, w h i c h had made family life so-

136
 19 T h e years of power and danger

"Dinner Hour at Wigan" by

Eyre Crowe (1844-1910) gives
a fine but ronmntic view of Ufe in
or\£ of Britain's industrial towns.
Factory women cannot often
have looked so clean or healthy.
Some wear woodem soled clogs on
their feet, others are barefoot. It
is a picture fuR of interest, and
perhaps the most important point
of the picture is the companion-
ship of women. WZomen's closest
friendships were probably more
often mode with other women
than with their husbands. In the
middleground stands a
poUcerrutn, a reminder of
authority and that authority was
nude.

much more pubhc. Except for the very rich, people One must wonder how much these things reduced
no longer married for economic reasons, but did so the chance of happy family life. Individualism,
for personal happiness. However, while wives might strict parental behaviour, the regular beating of
be companions, they were certainly not equals. As children (which was still widespread), and the cruel
someone wrote i n 1800, "the husband and wife are conditions for those boys at boarding school, all
one, and the husband is that one". As the idea of worked against i t . One should n o t be surprised that
the close family under the "master" of the family life often ended when children grew up. As
household became stronger, so the possibility for a one foreigner noted i n 1828, "grown up children
wife to find emotional support or practical advice and their parents soon become almost strangers". I t
outside the immediate family became more limited. is impossible to be sure what effect this k i n d of
In addition, as the idea of the close family slowly family life had o n children. But no doubt i t made
spread down the social order, an increasing number young men unfeeling towards their o w n wives who,
of women found their sole economic and social w i t h unmarried sisters, were the responsibility of
usefulness ended when their children grew up, a the man of the house. A wife was legally a man's
problem that continued into the twentieth century. property, u n t i l nearly the end of the century.
They were discouraged from going out to work if
not economically necessary, and also encouraged to I n spite of a stricter moral atmosphere i n Scotland
make use of the growing number of people available w h i c h resulted from the strong influence of the
for domestic service. K i r k , Scottish women seem to have continued a
stronger tradition of independent attitudes and
This return to authority exercised by the head of plain speaking. I n 1830 a Scotswoman called for
the family was largely the result of three things. "the perfect equality of her sex to that of m a n " .
These were fear of political revolution spreading A n o t h e r i n 1838 wrote, " I t is the right of every
from France, of social change caused by industrial woman to have a vote . . . i n her county, and more
revolution i n Britain, and the influence of the new so now that we have got a woman [Queen Victoria]
religious movements of Methodism and at the head of govemment." She had a long time to
Evangelicalism. wait.

137
20 The years of self-confidence
The railway * The rise of the middle classes * The growth of towns and
cities * Population and politics * Queen and monarchy * Queen and
empire * Wales, Scotland and Ireland

I n 1851 Queen Victoria opened the Great before. As one newspaper wrote, " H o w few among
Exhibition of the Industries of A l l Nations inside the last generation ever stirred beyond their own
the Crystal Palace, i n London. T h e e x h i b i t i o n villages. H o w few of the present w i l l die without
aimed to show the world the greatness of Britain's visiting L o n d o n . " I t was impossible for political
industry. N o other nation could produce as much at reform n o t to continue once everyone could escape
that time. A t the end of the eighteenth century, localism and travel all over the country w i t h such
France had produced more iron than Britain. By ease.
1850 Britain was producing more iron than the rest
In fact industrialists had built the railways to
of the world together.
transport goods, not people, i n order to bring down
Britain had become powerful because i t had enough the cost of transport. By 1840 2,400 miles of track
coal, iron and steel for its o w n enormous industry, had been laid, connecting not only the industrial
and could even export them i n large quantities to towns of the n o r t h , but also London, Birmingham
Europe. W i t h these materials it could produce new and even an economically unimportant town like
heavy industrial goods like iron ships and steam Brighton. By 1870 the railway system of Britain was
engines. I t could also make machinery w h i c h almost complete. T h e canals were soon empty as
produced traditional goods like woollen and cotton everything went by rail. The speed of the railway
cloth i n the factories of Lancashire. Britain's c l o t h even made possible the delivery of fresh fish and
was cheap and was exported to India, to other raspberries from Scotland to London i n one night.
colonies and throughout the Middle East, where i t
quickly destroyed the local cloth industry, causing In 1851 the government made the railway
great misery. Britain made and owned more than companies provide passenger trains which stopped
half the world's total shipping. This great industrial at all stations for a fare of one penny per mile. Now
empire was supported by a strong banking system people could move about much more quickly and
developed during the eighteenth century. easily.

The middle classes soon took advantage of the new

opportunity to live i n suburbs, from which they
The railway travelled into the city every day by train. The
The greatest example of Britain's industrial power suburb was a copy of the country village w i t h all the
in the mid-nineteenth century was its railway advantages of the town. Most of the London area
system. Indeed, it was mainly because of this new was built very rapidly between 1850 and 1880 i n
form of transport that six m i l l i o n people were able response to the enormous demand for a home i n the
to visit the Great E x h i b i t i o n , 109,000 of them o n suburbs.
one day. Many of them had never visited London

138
 2 0 T h e years of s e l f - c o n f i d e n c e

"Home Sweet Home" by Walter

Sadler shows a prosperous home
in about 1850. The branches of
holly decorating the mirror,
mantelpiece and picture tell us
that it is Christmas, but it is
before the age of greetings cards-
Sitting either side of the fireplace
are the grandparents, enjoying
die family scene. Mother plays
die piano, while the father and
children sing. The eldest daughter
has been reading, possibly aloud
to give her grandparents pleasure.
Beside the grandmother stands a
round frame on which someone
has been doing embroidery work.
On the floor is a "Turkey
carpet'', probably a British
machine-made copy of the more
expensive handwoven carpets from
Turkey.

Poor people's lives also benefited by the railway.

Many moved w i t h the middle classes to the
suburbs, into smaller houses. The men travelled by
train to work i n the town. Many of the women
became servants i n the houses of the middle classes.
By 1850 16 per cent of the population were " i n
service" i n private homes, more than were i n
farming or i n the cloth industry.

The rise of the middle classes

There had been a "middle class" i n Britain for
hundreds of years. I t was a small class of merchants,
traders and small farmers. I n the second half of the
eighteenth century i t had increased w i t h the rise of
industrialists and factory owners.

In the nineteenth century, however, the middle

class grew more quickly than ever before and
included greater differences of wealth, social
position and kinds of work. I t included those who
Isambard Kingdom Brunei ( I 8 0 6 - I 8 5 9 ) was a middle-class man who
worked i n the professions, such as the C h u r c h , the represented the height of British engineering success and the leadership of the
law, medicine, the c i v i l service, the diplomatic middle classes in national life. In 1833 he oversaw the construction of the
Great Western Railway. In 1838 he designed the first steamship to cross the
service, merchant banking and the army and the Atlantic regularly. In 1845 he built the G r e a t Britain, the first large ship to
navy. be nuide of iron widx a screw propeller.

139
A n Illustrated History of Britain

"Capital and Labour", a cartoon

from Punch magasjnc. A
gentleman relaxes comforted in
the knowledge that the sufferings
of the poor have at least given his
family and himself such luxury.
Below, in the background, child
labourers can be seen toiling
along the galleries of a coal mine.

I t also included the commercial classes, however,

who were the real creators of wealth i n the country.
The growth of towns and cities
Industrialists were often "self-made" men who came The escape of the middle classes to the suburbs was
from poor beginnings. They believed i n hard work, understandable. The cities and towns were
a regular style of life and being careful w i t h money. overcrowded and unhealthy. One baby i n four died
This class included b o t h the very successful and w i t h i n a year of its b i r t h . I n 1832 an outbreak of
rich industrialists and the small shopkeepers and cholera, a disease spread by dirty water, killed
office workers of the growing towns and suburbs. 31,000 people. Proper drains and water supplies
were still limited to those who could afford them.
I n spite of the idea of "class", the V i c t o r i a n age was
a time of great social movement. T h e children of I n the middle of the century towns began to
the first generation of factory owners often preferred appoint health officers and to provide proper drains
commerce and banking to industry. W h i l e their and clean water, w h i c h quickly reduced the level of
fathers remained Nonconformist and Liberal, some disease, particularly cholera. These health officers
children became A n g l i c a n and Tory. Some went also tried to make sure that new housing was less
into the professions. The very successful received crowded. Even so, there were many "slum" areas for
knighthoods or became lords and joined the ranks factory workers, where tiny homes were built very
of the upper classes. close together. The better t o w n councils provided
parks i n newly built areas, as well as libraries,
Those of the middle class who could afford i t sent
public baths where people could wash, and even
their sons to feepaying " p u b l i c " schools. These
concert halls.
schools aimed not only to give boys a good
education, but to train them i n leadership by taking Some towns grew very fast. I n the n o r t h , for
them away from home and making their living example, Middlesbrough grew from nothing to an
conditions hard. These public schools provided iron and steel town of 150,000 people i n only fifty
many of the officers for the armed forces, the years. Most people did not o w n their homes, but
colonial administration and the c i v i l service. rented them. The homes of the workers usually had

140
 20 T h e years of self-confidence

Mr Gladstone speaking in die

House of Commons, 1882. Each
party sat on either side of the
Speaker (seated back right) and
the central table. The Speaker's
responsibility was to ensure die
orderly conduct of parliamentary
business. To help him, a line
along the floor (running under
the feet of one of Gladstone's
colleagues) marks the boundary
each M P had to stay behind on
each side of the House This was
to avoid angry arguments
becoming fights. The two lines
are two swordlengths' distance
apart The silver mace on the
table is a symbol of royal
authority.

only four small rooms, two upstairs and two I n 1846, when Sir Robert Peel had fallen from
downstairs, w i t h a small back yard. Most of the power, the shape of British politics was still
middle classes lived i n houses w i t h a small garden unclear. Peel was a Tory, and many Tories felt that
in front, and a larger one at the back. his repeal of the C o m Laws that year was a betrayal
of Tory beliefs. Peel had already made himself very
unpopular by supporting the right of Catholics to
Population and politics enter Parliament i n 1829. But Peel was a true
representative of the style of politics at the time.
In 1851, an official population survey was carried
Like other politicians he acted independently, i n
out for the first time. I t showed that the nation was
spite of his party membership. One reason for this
not as religious as its people had believed. O n l y 60
was the number of crises i n British politics for a
per cent of the population went to church. The
whole generation after 1815. Those i n power found
survey also showed that of these only 5.2 m i l l i o n
they often had to avoid dangerous political,
called themselves Anglicans, compared w i t h 4.5
economic or social situations by taking steps they
million Nonconformists and almost half a m i l l i o n
themselves would have preferred not to take. This
Catholics. Changes i n the law, i n 1828 and 1829,
was the case w i t h Peel. He did not wish to see
made it possible, for the first time since the
Catholics i n Parliament, but he was forced to let
seventeenth century, for Catholics and
them i n . He did not wish to repeal the C o r n Laws
Nonconformists to enter government service and to
because these served the farming interests of the
enter Parliament. I n practice, however, it remained
Tory landowning class, but he had to accept that
difficult for them to do so. The T o r y - A n g l i c a n
the power of the manufacturing middle class was
alliance could hardly keep them out any longer. But
growing greater than that of the landed Tory
the Nonconformists naturally supported the
gentry.
Liberals, the more reformist party. I n fact the
Tories held office for less than five years between Peel's actions were also evidence of a growing
1846 and 1874. acceptance by both Tories and Whigs of the

HI
A n Illustrated History of Britain

Much of London stdl looks as it

did in the closing years of the
nineteenth century. ' 'St FarKras
Hotel and Station from
Fentcmville Road: Sunset" by
John O'Connor (1884) shows St
ParKras as it was meant to be
seen, a temple to Victorian
values towering above the
surrounding houses. St Pancras,
built by George Gilbert Scott, is
one of London's firtest "Gothic
revival" buildings.

economic need for free trade, as well as the need for use the excuse of Turkish misrule to take control of
social and political reform to allow the middle class Greece itself. Canning judged correctly that an
to grow richer and to expand. T h i s meant allowing independent Greece would be a more effective
a freer and more open society, w i t h all the dangers check to Russian expansion.
that might mean. I t also meant encouraging a freer
and more open society i n the countries w i t h w h i c h From 1846 u n t i l 1865 the most important political
Britain hoped to trade. This was "Liheralism", and figure was Lord Palmerston, described by one
the Whigs, who were generally more willing to historian as "the most characteristically m i d -
advance these ideas, became k n o w n as Liberals. Victorian statesman of a l l . " He was a Liberal, but
like Peel he often went against his o w n party's ideas
Some Tories also pursued essentially " L i b e r a l "
and values. Palmerston was known for liberalism i n
policy. I n 1823, for example, the Tory Foreign
his foreign policy. H e strongly believed that
Secretary, Lord Canning, used the navy to prevent
despotic states discouraged free trade, and he
Spain sending troops to her rebellious colonies i n
openly supported European liberal and
South America. The British were glad to see the
independence movements. I n 1859-60, for
liberation movement led by Simon Bolivar succeed.
example, Palmerston successfully supported the
However, this was partly for an economic reason.
Italian independence movement against both
Spain had prevented Britain's free trade w i t h
Austrian and French interests. W i t h i n Britain,
Spanish colonies since the days of Drake.
however, Palmerston was a good deal less liberal,
Canning had also been responsible for helping the and d i d n o t want to allow further political reform to
Greeks achieve their freedom from the Turkish take place. This was not totally surprising, since he
empire. He did this partly i n order to satisfy had been a Tory as a young man under Canning
romantic liberalism i n Britain, w h i c h supported and had joined the Whigs at the time of the 1832
Greek freedom mainly as a result of the influence of Reform B i l l . I t was also typical of the confusing
the great poet of the time. Lord Byron, who had individualism of politics that the Liberal Lord
visited Greece. But Canning also knew that Russia, Palmerston was invited to j o i n a Tory govemment
like Greece an orthodox Christian country, might in 1852.

142
 20 T h e years of self-confidence

After Palmerston's death i n 1865 a much stricter position i t had held i n the eighteenth and early
"two party" system developed, demanding greater nineteenth centuries. N o w it no longer formed
loyalty from its membership. The two parties, Tory policy but tried to prevent reform taking place
(or Conservative as it became officially known) and through the House of Commons.
Liberal, developed greater party organisation and
order. There was also a change i n the k i n d of men Democracy also grew rapidly outside Parliament. I n
who became political leaders. This was a result of 1844 a "Co-operative M o v e m e n t " was started by a
the Reform of 1832, after which a much larger few Chartists and trade unionists. Its purpose was
number of people could vote. These new voters self-help, through a network of shops which sold
chose a different kind of M P , men from the goods at a fair and low price, and w h i c h shared all
commercial rather than the landowning class. its profits among its members. I t was very
successful, w i t h 150 Co-operative stores by 1851 i n
Gladstone, the new Liberal leader, had been a the n o r t h of England and Scotland. By 1889 it had
factory owner. He had also started his political life over 800,000 members. Co-operative self-help was
as a Tory. Even more surprisingly Benjamin a powerful way i n w h i c h the working class gained
Disraeli, the new Conservative leader, was of self-confidence i n spite of its weak position.
Jewish origin. I n 1860 Jews were for the first time
given equal rights w i t h other citizens. Disraeli had A f t e r 1850 a number of trade unions grew up, based
led the Tory attack on Peel i n 1846, and brought on particular kinds of skilled labour. However,
down his government. A t that time Disraeli had unlike many European worker struggles, the English
strongly supported the interests of the landed trade unions sought to achieve their goals through
gentry. Twenty years later Disraeli himself changed parliamentary democracy. I n 1868 the first congress
the outlook of the Conservative Party, deliberately of trade unions met i n Manchester, representing
increasing the party's support among the middle 118,000 members. T h e following year the new
class. Since 1881 the Conservative Party has Trades U n i o n Congress established a parliamentary
generally remained the strongest. committee w i t h the purpose of achieving worker
representation i n Parliament. This wish to work
Much of what we know today as the modern state w i t h i n Parliament rather than outside i t had already
was built i n the 1860s and 1870s. Between 1867 brought trade unionists into close co-operation w i t h
and 1884 the number of voters increased from 20 radicals and reformist Liberals. Even the
per cent to 60 per cent of men i n towns and to 70 Conservative Party tried to attract worker support.
per cent i n the country, including some of the However, there were limits to Conservative and
working class. One immediate effect was the rapid Liberal co-operation. I t was one thing to encourage
growth i n party organisation, w i t h branches i n "friendly" societies for the peaceful benefit of
every town, able to organise things locally. I n 1872 workers. I t was quite another to encourage union
voting was carried out i n secret for the first time, campaigns using strike action. During the 1870s
allowing ordinary people to vote freely and w i t h o u t wages were lowered i n many factories and this led
fear. This, and the growth of the newspaper to more strikes than had been seen i n Britain
industry, i n particular "popular" newspapers for the before. T h e trade unions' mixture of worker struggle
new half-educated population, strengthened the and desire to work democratically w i t h i n
importance of popular opinion. Democracy grew Parliament led eventually to the foundation of the
quickly. A national political pattern appeared. Labour Party.
England, particularly the south, was more
conservative, while Scotland, Ireland, Wales and During the same period the machinery of modem
the north of England appeared more radical. This government was set up. During the 1850s a regular
pattern has generally continued since then. The c i v i l service was established to carry out the work of
House of Commons grew i n size to over 650 govemment, and " c i v i l servants" were carefully
members, and the House of Lords lost the powerful chosen after taking an examination. The system

143
A n Illustrated History of Britain

Stillexists today. T h e army, too, was reorganised,

and from 1870 officers were no longer able to buy
their commissions. The administration of the law
was reorganised. Local govemment i n towns and
counties was reorganised to make sure of good
government and proper services for the people. I n
1867 the first move was made to introduce free and
compulsory education for children. I n fact social
improvement and political reform acted o n each
other throughout the century to change the face of
the nation almost beyond recognition.

Queen and monarchy

Queen Victoria came to the throne as a young
woman i n 1837 and reigned u n t i l her death i n
1901. She did not like the way i n w h i c h power
seemed to be slipping so quickly away from the
monarchy and aristocracy, but like her advisers she
was unable to prevent i t . V i c t o r i a married a
German, Prince A l b e r t of Saxe-Coburg, but he
died at the age of forty-two i n 1861. She could n o t
get over her sorrow at his death, and for a long time
refused to be seen i n public.

This was a dangerous thing to do. Newspapers

began to criticise her, and some even questioned
the value of the monarchy. Many radicals actually
believed the end of monarchy was bound to happen
as a result of democracy. Most had no wish to hurry Queen Victoria in her sixty-eighth year, 1887- Because of the growth of
this process, and were happy to let the monarchy parliamentary govemment she was less pouierfui than previous sovereigtu.
However, as queen and empress, she ruled over more lands and peoples than
die naturally. However, the queen's advisers
any previous sovereigns. Furthermore, she enioyed the respect and affection
persuaded her to take a more public interest i n the of her British stAijects.
business of the kingdom. She did so, and she soon
became extraordinarily popular. By the time
Victoria died the monarchy was better loved among
the British than it had ever been before. Prince of Wales as "Bertie", and to the Princess
Royal as " V i c k y " . The queen also wrote about her
One important step back to popularity was the
servants as if they were members of her family.
publication i n 1868 of the queen's book O u r life in
the Highlands., The book was the queen's o w n diary, T h e increasingly democratic British respected the
w i t h drawings, of her life w i t h Prince A l b e r t at example of family life which the queen had given
Balmoral, her castle i n the Scottish Highlands. I t them, and shared its moral and religious values. But
delighted the public, i n particular the growing she also touched people's hearts. She succeeded i n
middle class. They had never before k n o w n showing a newly industrialised nation that the
anything of the private life of the monarch, and monarchy was a connection w i t h a glorious history.
they enjoyed being able to share i t . She referred to I n spite of the efforts of earlier monarchs to stop the
the Prince Consort simply as " A l b e r t " , to the spread of democracy, the monarchy was now, quite

144
 20 T h e years of self-confidence

suddenly, out of danger. I t was never safer than control. They told some unwelcome truths; for
when it had lost most of its political power. example, they wrote about the courage of the
ordinary soldiers, and the poor quality of their
"We have come to believe that i t is natural to have
officers. They also reported the shocking conditions
a virtuous sovereign," wrote one V i c t o r i a n . Pure
i n army hospitals, and the remarkable work of the
family morality was an idea of royalty that would
nurse Florence Nightingale.
have been of little interest to the subjects of earlier
monarchs. I n India, the unwise treatment of Indian soldiers i n
British pay resulted i n revolt i n 1857. K n o w n i n
Britain as the " I n d i a n M u t i n y " , this revolt quickly
Queen and empire became a national movement against foreign mle,
Britain's empire had first been built o n trade and led by a number of H i n d u and Muslim princes.
the need to defend this against rival European Many of these had recently lost power and land to
countries. After the loss of the American colonies the British rulers. I f they had been better organised,
in 1783, the idea of creating new colonies remained they would have been able to throw the British out
unpopular until the 1830s. Instead, Britain watched of India. Both British and Indians behaved w i t h
the oceans carefully to make sure its trade routes great violence, and the British cruelly punished the
were safe, and fought wars i n order to protect its defeated rebels. T h e friendship between the British
"areas of interest". I n 1839 i t attacked China and and the Indians never fully recovered. A feeling of
forced it to allow the profitable British trade i n distrust and distance between mler and ruled grew
opium from India to China. The " O p i u m Wars" into the Indian independence movement of the
were one of the more shameful events i n British twentieth century.
colonial history.
I n Africa, Britain's first interest had been the slave
After about 1850 Britain was driven more by fear of trade o n the west coast. I t then took over the Cape
growing European competition than by commercial of Good Hope at the southem point, because i t
need. This led to the taking of land, the creation of needed a port there to service the sea route to
colonies, and to colonial wars that were extremely India.
expensive. Fear that Russia would advance
Britain's interest i n A f r i c a was increased by reports
southwards towards India resulted i n a disastrous
sent back by European travellers and explorers. The
war i n Afghanistan ( 1 8 3 9 - 4 2 ) , i n which one army
most famous of these was David Livingstone, who
was completely destroyed by Afghan forces i n the
was a Scottish doctor, a Christian missionary and
mountains. Soon after, Britain was fighting a war i n
an explorer. I n many ways, Livingstone was a "man
Sindh, a part of modem Pakistan, then another
of his age". N o one could doubt his courage, or his
against Sikhs i n the Punjab, i n northwest India.
honesty. His journeys from the east coast into
The Russian danger also affected south Europe and "darkest" Africa excited the British. They greatly
the Middle East. Britain feared that Russia would admired h i m . Livingstone discovered areas of Africa
destroy the weak O t t o m a n Empire, w h i c h u n k n o w n to Europeans, and "opened" these areas
controlled Turkey and the Arab countries. This to Christianity, to European ideas and to European
would change the balance of power i n Europe, and trade.
be a danger to Britain's sea and land routes to
Christianity too easily became a tool for building a
India. W h e n Russia and O t t o m a n Turkey went to
commercial and political empire i n Africa. The
war Britain joined the Turks against Russia i n
governments of Europe rushed i n to take what they
Crimea i n 1854, i n order to stop Russian expansion
could, using the excuse of bringing "civilisation" to
into Asiatic Turkey i n the Black Sea area.
the people. T h e rush for land became so great that
It was the first, and last, time that newspapers were European countries agreed by treaty i n 1890 to
able to report freely on a British war without army divide Africa into "areas of interest". By the end of

145
A n Illustrated History of Britain

O u r Empire A t l a s , 1897, clearly shows Britain's strategic control of much

of the world. AlthougK not marked as such, Egypt and the Sudan were also
colonies in practice. The extent of Britain's colonial possessions doubled
during the nirteteenth century. Britain's appetite for r\ew possessions towards the century, several European countries had taken
the end of the century was a sign of its nervousness ccmceming the growth of
other European world powers, particularly France and Gerrrumy, Although
over large areas of Africa. Britain succeeded i n
Britain became rich partly through her cobnitil possessions, defending them taking most.
eventually proved too great a strain on Britain's economy.
I n South Africa Britain found that dealing w i t h
other European settlers presented new problems.
T h e D u t c h settlers, the Boers, fought two wars
against the British at the end of the century,
proving again, as the Crimean W a r had done, the
weaknesses of the British army. The Boers were
defeated only w i t h great difficulty.

T h e real problems of British imperial ambition,

however, were most obvious i n Egypt. Britain,
anxious about the safety of the route to India

146
 20 T h e years o f self-confidence

Britain had to use an increasing number of soldiers to defertd its growing

empire. The battle of Isandhlwana in south Africa in 1879 was a humiliating
defeat. Britain did not expect its soUiers to be defeated by blaek African
through the newly dug Suez Canal, bought a large Zulus.

number of shares in the Suez Canal company.

W h e n Egyptian nationalists brought down the ruler

in 1882, Britain invaded " t o protect international
shipping". I n fact, i t acted to protect its imperial
interest, its route to India. Britain told the world its
occupation of Egypt was only for a short time, but it
did not leave u n t i l forced to do so i n 1954.
Involvement i n Egypt led to invasion and takeover
of the Sudan i n 1884, a country two-thirds the size
of India. Like other powers, Britain found that
every area conquered created new dangers w h i c h i n
turn had to be controlled. I n all these countries, i n

147
A n Illustrated History of Britain

population of Britain. A number of people called

for the development of colonies for British settlers
as an obvious solution to the problem. As a result,
there was marked increase i n settlement i n Canada,
Australia and New Zealand from the 1840s
onwards. T h e settlers arrived to take over the land
and to farm i t . I n all three countries there had been
earlier populations. I n Canada most of these were
pushed westwards, and those not killed became part
of the " w h i t e " culture. I n Australia British settlers
killed most of the aboriginal inhabitants, leaving
only a few i n the central desert areas. I n New
Zealand the Maori inhabitants suffered less than in
either Canada or Australia, although they still lost
most of the land.

T h e w h i t e colonies, unlike the others, were soon

allowed to govem themselves, and no longer
depended on Britain. They still, however, accepted
the British monarch as their head of state. The
move towards self-government was the result of
trouble i n Canada i n 1837. A new governor. Lord
Durham, quickly understood the danger that
Canada might follow the other American colonies
into independence. His report established the
principle of self-government, first for the white
colonies, but eventually for all British possessions.
I t prepared the way from empire to a British
"Commonwealth of Nations" i n the twentieth
century.
Sixty years a qiteen, Victoria celebrates her Diamortti Jubilee. Immediately
By the end of the nineteenth century Britain
behirui her stands her son and successor, Edward V I I , and his own son and
successor, George V, stands on his left. Vicuyria is acclaimed queen arvi controlled the oceans and much of the land areas of
empress by the many different cobniai peoples under her rude. the world. Most British strongly believed i n their
right to an empire, and were willing to defend it
against the least threat. This state of m i n d became
India, Africa and elsewhere, Britain found itself
k n o w n as Jingoism, after a famous Music Hall song
involved i n a contradiction between its imperial
of 1878:
ambition and the liberal ideas i t wished to advance
elsewhere. Gladstone's view that "the foreign policy W e don't want to fight, but, by jingo if we do.
of England should always be inspired by a love of We've got the ships, we've got the men, we've
freedom" seemed to have little place i n the got the money too.
colonies. I n the twentieth century this
But even at this moment of greatest power, Britain
contradiction was a major reason for the collapse of
had begun to spend more on its empire than it took
the empire.
from i t . The empire had started to be a heavy load.
There was another reason for the interest i n It would become impossibly heavy i n the twentieth
creating colonies. From the 1830s there had been century, when the colonies finally began to demand
growing concern at the rapidly increasing their freedom.

148
 20 T h e years of self-confidence

Wales, Scotland and Ireland hunted for sport. Many old clan lands were sold to
new landowners who had no previous connection
As industrialisation continued, the areas at the
w i t h the Highlands, and who only occasionally
edge of British econonaic power became weaker.
visited their estates. T h e Highlands have never
Areas i n Wales, Scotland and Ireland were
recovered from the collapse of the clan system,
particularly affected.
either socially or economically. I t is probable that
Wales had fewer problems than either Scotland or the Highland areas would have become depopulated
Ireland. Its population grew from half a m i l l i o n i n anyway, as people moved away to find work i n the
1800 to over two m i l l i o n by 1900, partly because cities. But the way i n w h i c h i t happened was not
the average expectation of life doubled from thirty gentle, and left a bitter memory.
to sixty. I n south Wales there were rich coal mines
The Irish experience was worse t h a n that of
which quickly became the centre of a rapidly
Scotland. I n the nineteenth century, an increasing
growing coal and steel industry. I n their search for
number of Protestant Irish turned to England as a
work, a huge number of people, between two-thirds
protection against the Catholic inhabitants. T o the
and three-quarters of the total Welsh population,
Catholics, however, most Irish Protestants were a
moved into the southeast comer of the country. By
reminder that England, a foreign country, was still
1870 Wales was mainly an industrial society.
as powerful i n Ireland as it had been i n 1690. The
This new working-class community, b o m i n struggle for Irish freedom from English rule became
southeast Wales, became increasingly interested i n a struggle between Catholic and Protestant. The
Nonconformist Christianity and radicalism. I t first great victory for Irish freedom was when
created its own cultural life. I n many mining Catholics were allowed to become MPs i n 1829. I n
villages brass bands were created, and these quickly fact i n Ireland this decision was accompanied by a
became symbols of working-class unity. Other repression of c i v i l and political liberties. Even so,
people joined the local Nonconformist chapel the fact that a Catholic could enter Parliament
choir, and helped to create the Welsh tradition of increased Irish national feeling.
fine choral singing. Wales was soon a nation
But while this feeling was growing, Ireland suffered
divided between the industrialised areas and the
the worst disaster i n its entire history. For three
unchanged areas of old Wales, i n the centre and
years, 1845, 1846 and 1847, the potato crop, w h i c h
north.
was the main food of the poor, failed. Since the
The parliamentary reforms of the nineteenth beginning of the century, the population had risen
century gave Wales a new voice. As soon as they quickly from five to eight m i l l i o n . I n these three
were allowed to vote, the Welsh workers got r i d of years 1.5 m i l l i o n (about 20 per cent) died from
the Tories and the landowning families who had hunger. A t the same time Ireland had enough
represented them for 300 years. wheat to feed the entire population, but it was
grown for export to England by the mainly
Scotland was also divided between a new
Protestant landowners. The govemment i n London
industrialised area, around Glasgow and Edinburgh,
failed to realise the seriousness of the problem.
and the Highland and Lowland areas. A r o u n d the
two great cities there were coal mines and factories Many Irish people had little choice but to leave. A t
producing steel and iron, as well as the centre of least a m i l l i o n left during these years, but many
the British shipbuilding industry o n the River more followed during the rest of the century
Clyde. Like Wales, Scotland became strongly because of the great poverty i n Ireland. Most settled
Liberal once its workforce gained voting rights. in the U n i t e d States. Between 1841 and 1920
almost five m i l l i o n settled there. Some went
The clearances i n the Highlands continued. I n the
eastwards to the towns and cities of Britain. Many
second half of the century i t became more profitable
helped to build Britain's railways.
to replace the sheep w i t h w i l d deer, which were

149
A n Illustrated History of Britain

Many Scottish Highlanders and Irish were driven off their land in the
nineteenth century. The Irish suffered worst of all After the terrible potato
famine of 1845, there were other years of poor harvest, notably in the years
1877-79, but many landlords refused to lower rents during this time. Many
famiUes, like the one shown in this photograph, were locked out of their
homes as they could no longer pay rent. Most of them made their way to the
United States of America, where Irish Americans still remefnber how their
ancestors were treated.

The hish population has still not yet grown to the

Meanwhile, Charles Parnell, a Protestant Irish MP,
same level. Today it is less than five m i l l i o n (three
demanded fuller rights for the Irish people, in
m i l l i o n i n the Republic of Ireland, 1.5 m i l l i o n i n
particular the right to self-government. W h e n most
Northern Ireland), only a little more than half
Irish were able to vote for the first time i n 1885,
what i t was i n 1840. Emigration from Ireland
eighty-six members of Pamell's Irish party were
continues.
elected to Parliament. Most Liberals supported
The Irish who went to the U n i t e d States did not Parnell, but the Tories did not and Ireland did not
forget the old country. N o r did they forgive Britain. gain the right to self-government, or "home rule",
By 1880 many Irish Americans were rich and u n t i l thirty years later. But then Britain's war w i t h
powerful and were able to support the Irish freedom Germany delayed i t taking place, and by the time
movement. They have had an influence o n British the war ended Irish nationalists had decided they
policy i n Ireland ever since. could only w i n their freedom by fighting for i t .

150
21 The end of an age
Social and economic improvements * The importance of sport *
Changes in thinking * The end of "England's summer" * The storm
clouds of vuar

Social and economic up to the age of thirteen, where they were taught
reading, writing and arithmetic. I n Scotland there
improvements had been a state education system since the time
Between 1875 and 1914 the condition of the poor of the Reformation. There were four Scottish
in most of Britain greatly improved as prices fell by universities, three dating from the Middle Ages. I n
40 per cent and real wages doubled. Life at home Wales schools had begun to grow rapidly i n the
was made more comfortable. Most homes now had middle of the century, partly for nationalist reasons.
gas both for heating and lighting. As a result of By the middle of the century Wales had a university
falling prices and increased wages, poor families and a smaller university college. England now
could eat better food, including meat, fresh m i l k started to build "redbrick" universities i n the new
(brought from the countryside by train) and industrial cities. The term "redbrick" distinguished
vegetables. This greatly improved the old diet of the new universities, often brick-built, from the
white bread and beer. older, mainly stone-built universities of Oxford and
Cambridge. These new universities were unlike
I n 1870 and 1891 two Education Acts were passed. Oxford and Cambridge, and taught more science
As a result of these, all children had to go to school and technology to feed Britain's industries.

Nature study in an eletrujntary school,

1908. In 1870 it became the duty of
local authorities to establish schools at the
expense of local ratepayers. They were
authorised to compel attendance. During
the next twenty years schools were built
and the attendance of most, if not all,
children achieved at elementary level.

151
A n Illustrated History of Britain

The face of the towns had greatly changed i n the small cases. N e w county councils took their place,
middle years of the century. The organised which were made up of elected men and women,
improvement of workers' homes, of factory w i t h a staff of administrators to carry out their
conditions, public health and education had all decisions, a system which still operates today.
come fast, once the Victorians had developed the
The authority of the Church was also weakened. In
administrative and scientific means. Sidney Webb,
the country, the village priest no longer had the
an early socialist, amusingly described the pride of
power he had had a century earlier. Churches were
the new town authorities, or municipalities, w h i c h
now hajf empty, because so many people had gone
carried out these changes:
to live i n the towns, where they stopped going to
The t o w n councillor w i l l walk along the munici- church. By 1900 only 19 per cent of Londoners
pal pavement, l i t by municipal gas and cleansed went regularly to church. Those who did usually
by municipal brooms w i t h municipal water and, lived i n richer areas. This remains true today, when
seeing by the municipal clock i n the municipal under 10 per cent are regular churchgoers.
market, that he is too early to meet his children
coming from the municipal school . . . w i l l use W h y did the poor no longer go to church? One
the national telegraph system to tell them not to reason was that the C h u r c h of England offered
walk through the municipal park, but . . . to them no help w i t h the problems of their daily lives.
meet h i m i n the municipal reading room. Staying away from church was also a kind of
rebellion against the ruling establishment w i t h
It was easy to see the physical changes such as the which the Church was still closely connected. I n
growth of towns and cities and villages. It was less the village, many people had gone to church
easy to see the social changes. But i n fact, power because they were forced to do so by the squire,
had moved from the shires to the towns. A t the who probably employed them. I n the great cities of
beginning of the nineteenth century the country industrial Britain they were free, and they chose to
squire could use his power to rule the village, send stay away.
children to work in the workhouse, and enclose
They were also attracted by other ways of spending
common land for his o w n use. By 1900 he was a
their Sundays. By the 1880s, for the first time,
harmless reminder of an earlier age. JPs lost all their
working people could t h i n k about enjoying some
local govemment and administrative powers i n
free time. A p a r t from museums, parks, swimming
1888, and could now only make judgements i n very

The seaside became die place

where everyone wished to goon
hobday. Different seaside towns
around the country attracted
different classes. Scarborough in
Yorkshire, illustrated here,
attracted the middle classes. On
the west coast Blackpool,
Lancashire, attracted lower
income famiUes.

152
 21 T h e end of an age

Cricket was a gentleman's game

in which others couM also join in
as "players". The division
between "gentlemen" (tlie ruling
establishment) and "players" (of
lower social status) was a clear
statement of the divide between
classes in Britain at the end of the
century. However, cricket was
an important bridge between
classes, where respect was given
to those who played well,
regardless of class. It was partly
for this reason, and also because
it was a game which mixed team
work with individual excellence,
dwt the game became a symbol of
fair play in national life.
ShariKful behaviour in politics or
in public life was frequently
described in the press as "not
cricket".

pools and libraries recently opened i n towns, the the British public. Cricket, w h i c h had started as a
real popular social centre remained the alehouse or "gentleman's" sport, had become an extremely
pub. Thousands of these were built i n the new popular village game. A l t h o u g h it had first
suburbs. developed i n the eighteenth century, it was not
u n t i l a century later that its rules were organised.
From the middle of the century many people had
From 1873 a county championship took place each
started to use the railway to get to work. N o w they
year. Cricket was a game which encouraged both
began to travel for pleasure. The working class went
individual and team excellence and taught respect
to the new seaside holiday towns. The middle class
for fair play. As one Englishman said at the time,
enjoyed the countryside, or smaller seaside resorts
" W e have a much greater love of cricket than of
of a more expensive k i n d . But for both, the seaside
politics." Cricket was successfully exported to the
was a place where families could take holidays
empire: to the West Indies, India, Pakistan,
together.
Ceylon, Australia and N e w Zealand. But while it
The invention of the bicycle was also important. was popular i n Wales, i t never had the same
For the first time people could cycle into the popularity i n Scotland.
countryside, up to fifty miles from home. I t gave a
Britain's other main game, football, was also
new freedom to working-class and middle-class
organised w i t h proper rules i n the nineteenth
people, who met each other for the first time away
century. As an organised game it was at first a
from work. More importantly, i t gave young women
middle-class or gentleman's sport, but it quickly
their first taste of freedom. U p t i l l then they had
became popular among all classes. Football soon
always had an older woman as a companion to
drew huge crowds who came to watch the full-time
make sure that nothing "happened" when they met
professional footballers play the game. By the end
men. N o w these young women had a means of
of the nineteenth century almost every town
escape, and escape they d i d .
between Portsmouth on the south coast of England
and Aberdeen i n northeast Scotland had its o w n
football, or "soccer" team. These often encouraged
The importance of sport local loyalties. Sometimes they symbolised
By the end of the nineteenth century, two sports, something more. I n Glasgow Celtic was supported
cricket and football, had become of great interest to by the thousands of Irish immigrants and other

153
A n Illustrated History of Britain

Catholics, while Rangers was supported by As so often happens, govemment policy was
Protestants. But at this time there was no violence. influenced by individual people. A t the beginning
Crowds were well behaved. Britain also exported of the century Robert Owen, a factory owner i n
football abroad, as young commercial travellers Scotland, gave his workers shorter working hours.
took the game w i t h them, particularly to Europe He built his factory i n the countryside, away from
and to South America. the fog and dirt of the cities, and provided good
housing nearby, and e d u c a t ^ n for the workers'
children. Owen was able to prove that his workers
Changes in thinking produced more in less time than those forced to
work long hours. Owen also encouraged trade
The most important idea of the nineteenth century
unions, and supported the Tolpuddle Martyrs.
was that everyone had the right to personal
Owen's ideas and example began to spread. Other
freedom, which was the basis of capitalism. This
reformers, like the Quaker, Arthur Cadbury,
idea had spread widely through the book Enquiry
famous for his Birmingham chocolate factory, built
into the Wealth of Nations, written by the Scotsman
first-class housing for their workers.
A d a m Smith i n the eighteenth century. A f t e r
A d a m Smith, several capitalist economists argued I n spite of men like O w e n , improvements were
that government should not interfere i n trade and slow. By the end of the century, 30 per cent of the
industry at all. Fewer laws, they claimed, meant
more freedom, and freedom for individuals would
lead to happiness for the greatest number of people.
These ideas were eagerly accepted by the growing
middle class.

However, i t soon became very clear that the

freedom of factory owners to do as they pleased had
led to slavery and misery for the poor, not to
happiness or freedom. By 1820 more and more
people had begun to accept the idea that
government must interfere to protect the poor and
the weak. The result was a number of laws to
improve working conditions. One of these, i n
1833, limited the number of hours that women and
children were allowed to work. A n o t h e r law the
same year abolished slavery throughout the British
Empire. W h i l e this set a new example
intemationally, factory owners were quick to point
out that while slave owners were compensated for
the loss of slave labour, they were not compensated
for the new limits o n labour i n Britain.

Such laws did hot make British factories perfect

places i n w h i c h to work, and many factory owners
did their best to avoid obeying them. But by the
end of the century, few people thought it was
wrong for the government to interfere i n factory
conditions, health i n towns, and education for Most of the poorer classes lived in unhealthy conditions in small, damp
"back-to-back" houses, with few open spaces. A s the middle classes moved
children. People now saw these as government out to better suburbs, parts of the city centres became areas of poverty, like
duties. this street in Newcastle in 1880.

154
 21 T h e e n d o f a n age

nation was still extremely poor. It was an population believed every word of the Bible. They
uncomfortable fact for the most powerful nation o n found it difficult to accept Darwin's theory that the
earth. Again, it was individual people who led the world had developed over millions of years, and had
fight against this problem. W i l l i a m Booth started a not been created i n six days i n the year 4004 B C .
new religious movement, the Salvation A r m y , to Even less acceptable was the idea that over a period
"make war" o n poverty. His book I n Darkest of thousands of years man had developed from the
England and the Way Out was a reminder that while ape. T h e battle between " f a i t h " and "reason" lasted
the British called Africa "the dark continent", for the rest of the century.
areas of possibly greater "darkness" were just down
There was one dangerous result of Darwin's book.
the road i n their o w n towns.
Some of those who accepted his ideas began to talk
Literature was influenced by the new mood of of "advanced" and "inferior" races. These ideas
change. I n the middle of the century Charles soon influenced Britain's imperial policy. Several
Dickens attacked the rich and powerful for their European countries already shared the view that for
cruelty towards the weak and unfortunate i n reasons of religion and "higher" civilisation, they
society. Painting too was affected. A century earlier could justify their colonial policy. But the idea of
it had been the great landowning aristocracy who racial or genetic superiority was a new one, from
had bought paintings and paid artists. I n the w h i c h the colonised peoples could not hope to
nineteenth century it was the mainly urban middle escape. They could accept Christianity and could
class, and to please them, artists painted different become "more civilised", but they could not change
subjects, such as sentimental scenes of the their race.
countryside, and paintings which told a moral
Today i t is difficult to understand how these ideas
story. But some painted industrial scenes w h i c h
could have been accepted. But at the time there
raised questions about the new society Britain had
was little doubt among most of the British that
created. "Pre-Raphaelite" painters looked back to
Britain was the most advanced of the "advanced"
the pre-industrial medieval and classical worlds
races, w i t h a duty to govem the " i n f e r i o r " races.
w i t h fresh and romantic eyes. Later o n i n the
century, many of the first socialists i n Britain were
writers or artists. Some of these belonged to the The end of **England*s summer"
"Arts and Crafts Movement", whose members A t the beginning of the twentieth century people
turned away from the new middle-class values, and did not, of course, realise that they were living at
looked to pre-industrial handcraft and to nature for the end of an age. There was still a general belief i n
inspiration. the "liberal idea", that the nation could achieve
steady economic and social improvement as well as
Above all, V i c t o r i a n society was self-confident.
democracy without revolution. Things for Britain
This had been shown i n the Great E x h i b i t i o n i n
could only get better and better.
1851. British self-confidence was built not only
upon power but dso upon the rapid scientific A growing demand for reform led " N e w Liberal"
advances being'made at the time. I n 1857 Charles governments to try to improve social conditions. I n
Darwin published The Origin of Species. His theory 1907 they provided free school meals, to improve
of evolution, based upon scientific observation, was the health of Britain's children. T h e following year
welcomed by many as proof of mankind's ability to they started an o l d age pensions scheme. I t was an
find a scientific explanation for everything. But for astonishing new idea that govemment should
churchgoing people, who were mostly to be found prevent the old from starving or becoming home-
among the middle classes, the idea that all animals, less. I n 1909 Labour Exchanges were opened, where
including human beings, had developed from more those without work could look for jobs. T w o years
simple creatures shook this self-confidence and led later all working people were made to pay for
to a crisis i n the Church. Most of the churchgoing "national insurance". I t was another new idea that

155
A n Illustrated History of Britain

those unable to earn money through sickness or I n the same year, for the first time, the Commons
unemployment would be helped by the state. agreed that MPs should be paid. This was a far
more important step than it might seem, for it
The New Liberals had begun to establish what
meant that men of low income could now become
became the "welfare state". By doing so, they made
MPs. I n 1906 a new "Labour" party had managed
important changes to the free capitalism of the
to get twenty-nine representatives elected to Parlia-
nineteenth century. Government, said the Liberals,
ment. I t was clear to even the most conservative-
had a duty to protect the weak against the strong.
minded that socialists should work inside the
As i n the gentlemanly sport of cricket, the Liberals
parliamentary system rather than outside i t . The
believed that even w i t h i n capitalism there had to
dangers of political evolution were far less than
be "fair play".
those of revolution.
I n 1911 another important political event occurred.
The Liberal drive for reform, b o t h i n Irish politics
and i n social affairs at home, was extremely The storm clouds of war
unpopular w i t h most Conservatives, who had a
By the end of the century it had become clear that
majority i n the House of Lords. They used this
Britain was no longer as powerful as it had been. I n
majority to stop many of the bills introduced by the
1885 a book entitled England noted "we have come
Liberal govemment i n the Commons i n the years
to occupy a position i n which we are no longer
1906-10. The battle of wills between the two
progressing, but even falling back . . . W e find
Houses produced a crisis when the Liberals tried to
other nations able to compete w i t h us to an extent
introduce a new budget i n 1909 w h i c h was i n -
such as we have never before experienced." I n
tended to increase the taxes paid by the r i c h ,
Europe Germany was now united and had become
particularly the large landowners. T h e Lords t u m e d
very strong. Its economic prospects were clearly
down the new budget. T h e new king, George V ,
greater than Britain's. Like the U S A it was
put an end to the crisis by warning that he would
producing more steel than Britain, and i t used this
create enough new Liberal lords to give the Liberals
to build strong industries and a strong navy.
a majority. T h e Lords gave i n . One result of the
dispute was that taxation was increasingly seen as a W h y did Britain lose the advantages it had over
social matter as well as an economic one. other countries at the time of the Great Exhibition
of 1851? There seem to be a number of reasons.
The crisis, however, was not only about money,
Other countries, Germany particularly, had greater
or about reform. There was a constitutional
natural wealth, including coal and iron, and wheat-
disagreement. The Conservatives still favoured a
producing lands. Most British people invested their
two-house parliamentary system, but they now
money abroad rather than i n building up home
recognised that the Lords would have to be
industry. British workers produced less than those
changed. The Liberals wanted one strong house,
i n other countries, and Britain was behind other
w i t h the powers of the Lords so weakened that it
countries i n science and technology, as well as i n
could not prevent the w i l l of the Commons from
management skills, and did little to change this.
being carried out. T h e result of this constitutional
Public schools, the private system of education for
debate was the Parliament A c t of 1911. Like much
the richer middle class, did not encourage business
of British political development it resulted from a
or scientific studies. Britain had nothing to compare
compromise, but one i n w h i c h the Liberals w o n
w i t h the scientific and technical education of
most of what they wanted. The House of Lords lost
Germany. Finally, the working class, used to low
its right to question financial legislation passed i n
pay for long hours, did not feel they were partners
the Commons. Its powers i n all other matters were
i n manufacture.
limited. I t could no longer prevent legislation but
only delay i t , and for not more than two years. T h e The balance of power i n Europe that had worked so
system still operates. well since Waterloo was beginning to collapse. The

156
 21 T h e end of an age

British beUeved that the long period of peace had essential goods reaching it by sea. From 1908
been the result of Britain's authority i n world onwards Britain spent large sums of money to make
affairs. This authority came from Britain's imperial sure that i t possessed a stronger fleet t h a n Germany.
and economic power. By 1880 the British merchant Britain's army was small, but its size seemed less
fleet was four times larger than i t had been i n 1847, important than its quality. I n any case, no one
when i t was already the world leader. More t h a n believed that war i n Europe, i f i t happened, would
two out of every three tons of shipping passing last more than six months.
through the Suez Canal was British. By 1880, too,
By 1914 an extremely dangerous situation had
Britain led the world i n telegraphic
developed. Germany and Austria-Hungary had
communications, w i t h lines to almost every part of
made a military alliance. Russia and France,
the world. London was beyond doubt the centre of
frightened of German ambitions, had made one
the growing international financial system. But i n
also. A l t h o u g h Britain had no treaty w i t h France,
spite of such things, Britain found that Germany,
France and the U S A were increasingly competing i n practice i t had no choice but to stand by France
w i t h her. Britain was not used to being so strongly if it was attacked by Germany.
challenged. A dreadful chain of events took place. I n July 1914
Austria-Hungary declared war o n its neighbour
Suddenly Britain realised that i t no longer ruled the
Serbia following the murder of a senior Austrian
seas quite so assuredly, and that others had more
Archduke i n Sarajevo. Because Russia had
powerful armies and more powerful industries. A s a
promised to defend Serbia, i t declared war o n
result of the growth of international trade Britain
Austria-Hungary. Because of Germany's promise to
was less self-sufficient, and as a result of growing US
stand by Austria-Hungary, Russia also found itself
and German competition started to trade more w i t h
at war w i t h Germany. France, Russia's ally,
the less developed and less competitive world. This
immediately made its troops ready, recognising that
experience increased its sense of political
the events i n Serbia would lead inevitably to war
uncertainty. Britain had been surprised and shocked
w i t h Germany. Britain still hoped that i t would not
by the way i n which almost the whole of Europe
be dragged into war, but realised only a miracle
had taken the part of the Boers against Britain
could prevent i t . N o miracle occurred.
during the South African war, 1899-1902. I t was a
sharp reminder that friendship i n Europe did I n August 1914 Germany's attack on France took
matter, and that Britain was no longer able to its army through Belgium. Britain immediately
persuade other countries how to behave i n quite the declared war because i t had promised to guarantee
same way that i t had fifty years earlier. I t had to Belgium's neutrality by the treaty of 1838. But
reach agreement w i t h them. Between 1902 and Britain went to war also because i t feared that
1907 Britain made treaties or understandings of Germany's ambitions, like Napoleon's over a
friendship w i t h France, Japan and Russia. I t failed century earlier, would completely change the map
to r€;ach agreement w i t h the O t t o m a n Empire, and of Europe. I n particular Britain could not allow a
w i t h the country i t feared most, Germany. major enemy power to control the Low Countries.
Gazing sadly across St James's Park from his room
The danger of war w i t h Germany had been clear i n the Foreign Office, Sir Edward Grey, the Foreign
from the beginning of the century, and i t was this Secretary, remarked, "The lamps are going out all
which had brought France and Britain together. over Europe. W e shall not see them l i t again i n our
Britain was particularly frightened of Germany's lifetime." I n a sense the "lamps" went out for ever.
modem navy, which seemed a good deal stronger For what neither Britain, nor Germany, nor anyone
than its own. The govemment started a programme else realised was that after the war no one, not even
of building battleships to make sure of its strength the winners, would be able to return to life as it had
at sea. The reason was simple. Britain could n o t been before.
possibly survive for long without food and other

157
 rhe twentieth century
22 Britain at war
The First World War * The rise of the Labour Party * The rights of
women * Ireland * Disappointment and depression * The Second World
War

A t the start of the twentieth century Britain was too powerful, or that there are not enough good
still the greatest world power. By the middle of the managers. Others blame the immigrants who have
century, although still one of the "Big Three", settled i n Britain from the old colonies since the
Britain was clearly weaker than either the U n i t e d Second W o r l d War. N o one doubts that Britain is
States or the Soviet U n i o n . By the end of the living i n an age of uncertainty.
seventies Britain was no longer a world power at
Britain still has some valuable advantages. The
all, and was not even among the richest European
discovery of o i l i n the N o r t h Sea has rescued the
powers. Its power had ended as quickly as Spain's
nation from a situation that might have been far
had done i n the seventeenth century.
worse. A n d i n electronics and technology Britain is
One reason for this sudden decline was the cost and still a world competitor.
effort of two world wars. A n o t h e r reason was the
A nation's story is not, or should not be, solely
cost of keeping up the empire, followed by the
about wealth or power, but about the quality of the
economic problems involved i n losing it. But the
community's existence. Britain's loss of power need
most important reason was the basic weaknesses i n
not damage that quality, unless this is measured
Britain's industrial power, and particularly its failure
only i n material terms.
to spend as much as other industrial nations i n
developing its industry.
The First World War
N o w , near the end of the century, Britain has lost
mudh of its earlier self-confidence, but no one is Germany nearly defeated the Allies, Britain and
sure what the reasons for this are. Some argue that France, i n the first few weeks of war i n 1914. It had
the workforce is lazy, or that the trade unions are better trained soldiers, better equipment and a clear
plan of attack. The French army and the small
British force were fortunate to hold back the
A n advenisemem jar the London Underground in J908 offers the twentieth- German army at the River Marne, deep inside
century dream for many British people. A s the "tube" reached out into the
countryside, new suburbs were built. Here, so the advertisement suggested, a
France. Four years of bitter fighting followed, both
family could hve in a suburban house in the "moch" Tudor style, suggestive armies living and fighting i n the trenches, w h i c h
of a past age of natiorud glory, with their own garden. The husband waters
they had dug to protect their men.
the flowers, while his wife and child prepare wool for knitting. It is a scene
that suggests both domestic happiness and also a middle-chiss property-owning
democracy. It is an extremely clever advertisement, for it has lost none of its Apart from the Crimean War, this was Britain's
appeal eighty years later. first European war for a century, and the country

159
A n Illustrated History of Britain

would have led to fewer casualties if its military

value had been properly understood at the time.

I n the Middle East the British fought against

Turkish troops i n Iraq and i n Palestine, and at
G a l l i p o l i , o n the Dardanelles. There, too, there
were many casualties, but many of them were
caused by sickness and heat. I t was not u n t i l 1917
that the British were really able to drive back the
Turks.

Sonaehow the govemment had to persuade the

people that i n spite of such disastrous results the
war was still worth fighting. The nation was told
that it was defending the weak (Belgium) against
the strong (Germany), and that it was fighting for
democracy and freedom.

A t the same time popular newspapers, using large

print, memorable short sentences and emotional
language, encouraged the nation to hate Germany,
and to want Germany's destruction. National
feelings were even stronger i n France, which had
The awfidness of war: one of Britain's 750,000 dead in the First World already been badly defeated by Germany i n 1871.
War.
As a result, when Germany offered to make peace
at the end of 1916, neither the British nor the
French govemment welcomed the idea. Both were
was quite unprepared for the terrible destructive
prisoners of the public feelings they had helped to
power of modern weapons. A t first all those who
create.
joined the army were volunteers. But i n 1916 the
government forced men to j o i n the army whether T h e war at sea was more important than the war on
they wanted to or not. A few men, mainly land, because defeat at sea would have inevitably
Quakers, refused to fight. For the first time, a resulted i n British surrender. From 1915 German
government accepted the idea that men had the submarines started to sink merchant ships bringing
right to refuse to fight if they believed fighting to be supplies to Britain. A t the battle of Jutland, i n
wrong. But the war went o n , and the number of 1916, A d m i r a l Jellicoe successfully drove the
deaths increased. O n 1 July 1916 Britain attacked German fleet back into harbour. A t the time i t was
German positions o n the River Somme. By the said, w i t h some t r u t h , that A d m i r a l Jellicoe was the
evening i t had lost 20,000 dead and ^0,000 only man on either side who could have lost the
wounded. I n fact, five months of fighting from 1 war i n a single afternoon. If Germany's navy had
July 1916 cost Britain 400,000, France 200,000 and destroyed the British fleet at Jutland, Germany
Germany 500,000 dead and wounded. A t would have gained control of the seas around
Passchendaele, the following year, the British army Britain, forcing Britain to surrender. I n spite of this
advanced five miles at the cost of another 400,000 partial victory German submarines managed to sink
dead and wounded. Modern artillery and machine 40 per cent of Britain's merchant fleet and at one
guns had completely changed the nature of war. point brought Britain to w i t h i n six weeks of
The invention of the tank and its use on the starvation. W h e n Russia, following the Bolshevik
battlefield to break through the enemy trenches i n revolution of 1917, made peace w i t h Germany, the
1917 could have changed the course of the war. I t German generals hoped for victory against the

160
 22 Britain at war

Allies. But German submarine attacks o n neutral opinion, persuading many that the war had been an
shipping drew America into the war against act against G o d and man. "Never again" was the
Germany. The arrival of A m e r i c a n troops i n France feeling of the nation when i t was all over.
ended Germany's hopes, and it surrendered i n
W h e n peace came there were great hopes for a
November 1918.
better future. These hopes had been created by the
By this time Britain had an army of over five government itself, w h i c h had made too many
m i l l i o n men, but by this time over 750,000 had promises about improved conditions of life for
died, and another two m i l l i o n had been seriously soldiers returning from the war. As soon as the war
wounded. A b o u t fifty times more people had died had ended, the government started a big
than i n the twenty-year war against Napoleon. programme of building homes and improving health
Public opinion demanded no mercy for Germany. and education. But there was far less progress than
people had been led to hope for.
In this atmosphere, France and Britain met to
discuss peace at Versailles i n 1919. Germany was
not invited to the conference, but was forced to
accept its punishment, w h i c h was extremely severe.
The rise of the Labour Party
The most famous British economist of the time, A n important political development during the war
John Maynard Keynes, argued that it was foolish to was the rapid growth of the Labour Party. A l t h o u g h
punish the Germans, for Europe's economic and it was formally established i n 1900, its beginnings
political recovery could not take place without dated from 1874, as part of the trade union
them. But his advice was not accepted. movement. The trade unions themselves had grown
enormously, from two m i l l i o n members to five
Apart from hatred of Germany, there was great
m i l l i o n by 1914, and eight m i l l i o n by 1918. I n that
sorrow for the dead. The destruction had been
year, for the first time, all men aged twenty-one
terrible. As one young soldier wrote shortly before
and some women over thirty were allowed to vote.
he himself died, "Everywhere the work of G o d is
The number of voters doubled from eight to sixteen
spoiled by the hand of m a n . " Wives had lost their
m i l l i o n people, most of w h o m belonged to the
husbands, children had lost their fathers, parents
working class.
had lost their sons. I t was natural for a nation i n
these circumstances to persuade itself that the war As a result of these changes, the Labour Party,
had somehow been worth i t . Those who died i n w h i c h had w o n twenty-nine seats i n the 1906
battle have been remembered ever since i n these election, w o n fifty-seven seats i n 1918, 142 seats i n
words: 1922, and 191 seats i n 1923. The following year
the first Labour govemment was created. T h e
They shall grow not old, as we that are left grow
Labour Party, however, was not "socialist". Its
old:
leaders were, or had become, members of the
Age shall not weary them, nor the years
middle classes. Instead of a social revolution, they
condemn.
wanted to develop a k i n d of socialism that would fit
A t the going down of the sun and i n the m o m i n g
the situation i n Britain. This was partly because
W e w i l l remember them.
Labour's leaders did n o t wish to frighten the voters.
"For the Fallen", Laurence Binyon 1 8 6 9 - 1 9 4 3
It was also because middle-class thinkers before the
There was also anger about the stupidity of war, war had almost completely failed to interest the
best expressed by Britain's "war poets". As the most working class i n socialist ideas. I n fact Karl Marx,
famous of them, Wilfred O w e n , wrote, shortly who spent most of his life i n Britain studying and
before he himself died on the battlefield, " M y writing, was almost u n k n o w n except to a few
subject is War, and the pity of W a r . " T h e poems friends. Both he and his close friend Friedrich
written by young poet-soldiers influenced public Engels, who owned a factory i n Manchester, had

161
A n Illustrated History of Britain

little hope of the British working classes becoming owning Englishman's attitude of "chivalry" to
truly socialist. I n 1885 Engels had written of the women had not prevented them from forcing
trade unionists: "The fools want to reform society women to work like slaves i n their factories and
to suit themselves, but n o t reform themselves to workhouses.
suit the development of society." Most working-
class people wished to improve their financial A man thought of his wife and daughters as his
situation and to enjoy the advantages of the middle property, and so did the law. I t was almost _
class without becoming involved i n socialist beliefs. impossible for women to get a divorce, even foi:
The trade unions and the Labour movement had those rich enough to pay the legal costs. U n t i l
been shaped by the experiences of the nineteenth 1882, a woman had to give up all her property to
century. They did n o t believe they could bring her husband when she married h i m . A n d until
down the existing form of govemment, and i n any 1891, husbands were still allowed by law to beat
case they wanted to change things by accepted their wives w i t h a stick " n o thicker than a man's
constitutional means, i n Parliament. This was t h u m b " , and to lock them up i n a room if they
partly because they were supported n o t only by the wished. By 1850, wife beating had become a serious
working class but also by radicals already i n social problem i n Britain. M e n of all classes were
able to take sexual advantage of working women.
Parliament. W o m e n were probably treated worse i n Britain than
By 1914 the socialist Beatrice Webb could write: i n any other industrialising European country at
"The landslide i n England towards social democracy this time.
proceeds steadily, but it is the whole nation that is
After 1870 the situation, particularly for middle-
sliding, not one class of manual workers." T h a t
class women, began to improve. W o m e n were
slide has continued for most of this century. As a
allowed to vote and to be elected to borough or
result, the effect on Britain of the 1917 Bolshevik
county councils. A very small number started to
revolution i n Russia was not as great as many feared
study at O x f o r d and Cambridge i n separate women's
it would be. Enough people were interested i n
colleges. But while they were allowed to follow the
Marxism to establish a Communist Party, but the
same course of study as men, they could not receive
Labour Party firmly refused to be connected w i t h i t .
a degree at the end. Middle-class women became
However, Marxism stined a deep-seated fear i n the
increasingly determined to have equal rights.
Conservative Party, w h i c h has continued to see
evidence of Marxist Socialism behind the Labour Working-class women were more interested i n their
Party, the trade unions and strike action. legal rights concerning working conditions, and
they found support i n the trade union movement.
As a result of Labour's success i n 1924, the Liberal
I n 1888 the policy of the unions was that "where
Party almost completely disappeared. Liberals w i t h
women do the same work as men, they should
traditional capitalist ideas o n the economy joined
receive equal pay". I t was nearly another century
the Conservative Party, while most Liberal
before this principle became law. Female
"reformers" joined the Labour Party.
membership of the unions increased, but it was not
always easy to persuade working men to respect the
The rights of women equal rights of their wives, particularly i n times of
unemployment.
In 1918, some women over the age of thirty gained
the right to vote after a long, hard struggle. John I n 1897 women started to demand the right to vote
Stuart M i l l , a radical thinker, had tried in national elections. W i t h i n ten years these
unsuccessfully to include votes for women i n the women, the "suffragettes", had become famous for
1867 Reform B i l l . T h e industrial revolution had the extreme methods they were willing to use.
increased the power of men, and their feelings Many politicians who agreed w i t h their aims were
about property. Karl Marx noticed that the factory- shocked by their violent methods and stopped

162
 22 B r i t a i n at w a r

Ireland
Before the beginning of the First W o r l d W a r the
British government had agreed to home rule for
Ireland. I t was afraid, however, that the Protestants
i n the n o r t h would start a civil war i n Ulster if
home rule was introduced. For this reason, when
war began i n 1914, the govemment delayed the
introduction of home rule, and called o n Irishmen
to j o i n the army. Many thousands did, encouraged
by their MPs, w h o hoped that this show of loyalty
would help Ireland w i n self-government when the
Suffragettes arrested after "attacking" Buckingham Palace, May 1914- war ended.
Suffragettes caused great feelings of hostility by their lawless acts, hut they
believed that it was only by acting in sttch a way that they couid gain the There was another group of Irishmen, however,
attention of the rmtion. The First World War interrupted their campaign.
who d i d not see why they should die for the British,
who had treated Ireland so badly. They did not
supporting them. However, if they had not been
only want home rule, but full independence. A t
wiUing to shock the pubhc, the suffragettes might
Easter 1916, these republicans rebelled i n Dublin.
not have succeeded.
They knew they could not w i n , but they hoped
The war i n 1914 changed everything. Britain would their rising would persuade other Irishmen to j o i n
have been unable to continue the war without the the republican movement. The "Easter Rising" was
women who took men's places i n the factories. By quickly put down, and most Irish disapproved of i t .
1918 29 per cent of the total workforce of Britain But the British executed all the leaders, w h i c h was
was female. W o m e n had to be given the vote. But a serious mistake. T h e public was shocked, not only
it was not until ten years later that the voting age i n Ireland, but also i n London. Irish Americans
of women came down to twenty-one, equal w i t h were also angry, just at the moment when America
men. had joined Britain i n the war against Germany.

The liberation of women took other forms. They I n the 1918 elections the republicans w o n i n almost
started to wear lighter clothing, shorter hair and every area except Ulster. Instead of joining the
skirts, began to smoke and drink openly, and to British parliament, however, they met i n their o w n
wear cosmetics. Married women wanted smaller new parliament, the Dail i n D u b l i n , and
families, and divorce became easier, rising from a announced that Ireland was now a republic.
yearly average of 800 i n 1910 to 8,000 i n 1939. Irishmen joined the republic's army, and guerrilla
Undoubtedly many men also moved away from fighting against the British began. As a result the
Victorian values. Leading writers like D . H . British govemment decided to make peace. I n 1921
Lawrence, Aldous Huxley, James Joyce and it agreed to the independence of southem Ireland.
V i r g i n i a W o o l f freely discussed sexual and other But it also insisted that Ulster, or N o r t h e m Ireland
sensitive matters, w h i c h would have been as it became k n o w n , should remain united w i t h
impossible for earlier generations. Britain.

Once women could vote, many people felt that The Anglo-Irish Treaty of 1921 led to c i v i l war
they had gained full and equal rights. But there was between the Irish themselves. By this treaty the
still a long battle ahead for equal treatment and new "Irish Free State" accepted continued British
respect both at work and at home. The struggle for use of certain ports, the sovereignty of the British
full women's rights is one of the most important C r o w n , and most important of all, the loss of
events i n recent British social history, and its N o r t h e m Ireland, w h i c h remained under British
effects continue to be felt. control. T h e pro-Treaty forces w o n , and the

163
A n Illustrated History of Britain

republicans, who insisted that all Ireland, including another miners' strike seemed inevitable. Fearing
N o r t h e m Ireland, should be an independent that this would seriously damage the economy, the
republic, were defeated. But a group of republicans govemment made plans to make sure of continued
formed a new party, Fianna Fail, w h i c h w o n the coal supplies. Both sides, the govemment and the
election of 1932 and the new Prime Minister, Trades U n i o n Congress (representing the miners i n
Eamon de Valera, began to undo the Treaty and i n this case), found themselves unwillingly driven into
1937 declared southem Ireland a republic. T h e opposing positions, which made a general strike
British C r o w n was now no longer sovereign i n inevitable. I t was not what the T U C had wanted,
Ireland. and i t proved deeply damaging to everyone
involved.
Ireland and Britain today find themselves i n the
strange position of being entirely separate states, T h e general strike ended after nine days, partly
but by agreement their citizens are not considered because members of the middle classes worked to
foreigners i n one another's country. W i t h i n the keep services like transport, gas and electricity
Republic of Ireland the majority have continued to going. But i t also ended because of uncertainty
believe that all Ireland should one day be united, among the trade union leaders. Most feared the
but without the use of force. A minority, however, dangers b o t h to their workers and the country of
has remained since 1921 ready and w i l l i n g to use "going too far". The miners struggled on alone and
violent means to achieve a united Ireland. then gave up the strike. Many workers, especially
the miners, believed that the police, whose job was
to keep the law, were actually fighting against
Disappointment and depression them. Whether or not this was true, many people
The men who had fought i n such terrible remembered the general strike w i t h great bitterness.
conditions during the war had been promised a land These memories influenced their opinion of
" f i t for heroes". But this promise could n o t easily be employers, govemment and the police for half a
kept, even by the popular new Labour Party. century.

Alongside the social effects of the war were far- It is possible to argue that Britain missed an
reaching economic ones. The cost of the war had opportunity to reform the economic structure of the
led to an enormous increase i n taxation, from 6 per country after the war. But instead of careful
cent of income i n 1914 to 25 per cent i n 1918. T h e planning, businessmen were allowed to make quick
demands of the war had also led to a doubling i n profits, particularly i n the cotton mills, the
the size of the c i v i l service, and greater government shipyards and engineering industries. But perhaps
control of national life. I t was inevitable that there there was little the govemment could do to control
should be increasing disagreement between workers the situation, as i t was not i n control of economic
and the govemment. Just before the war i n 1914 forces. A l l over Europe and America a serious
there had been an outbreak of strikes. Immediately economic crisis, k n o w n as "the depression", was
after the war there were further serious strikes, and taking place. I t affected Britain most severely from
i n 1919 and 1921 soldiers were used to break these 1930 to 1933, when over three m i l l i o n workers
strikes, and force men back to work. were unemployed.

I n 1926 discontent led to a general strike by all I n Germany the depression was even more severe,
workers. T h e reasons for the strike were and i t destroyed Britain's second most important
complicated, but the immediate cause was a market from before the war. John Maynard Keynes's
coalminers' strike. A n earlier miners' strike i n 1921 warning — that if Germany did not recover then
had been defeated and the men had retumed to neither would its European trading partners -
work bitterly disappointed w i t h the mine owners' became horribly true. Far worse, the economic
terms. I n 1925 mine owners cut miners' wages and collapse of Germany led to the rise of A d o l f Hitler.

164
 22 B r i t a i n at w a r

Because the worst effects of the depression i n

Britain were Umited to certain areas, the
govemment did not take the situation seriously
enough. The areas most affected by the depression
were those which had created Britain's industrial
revolution, including Clydeside, Belfast, the
industrial n o r t h of England and southeast Wales.
The working class i n these areas still lived i n poor
conditions. M e n and women could not expect to
live as long as people i n richer areas, and more
babies died i n the first year of life. There was little
hope for these people because almost no one was
willing to invest the large amounts of money
needed to get industry working again. The Labour
Party was no better at dealing w i t h the situation
than the Conservatives.

It is surprising that Britain avoided a serious

political crisis i n the 1920s. The unfairness of the
situation was so obvious to working-class people,
who had neither political nor economic power.
Two-thirds of the wealth of the nation was i n the
hands of only 400,000 people, less than 1 per cent
of the population. I n other European countries
economic crisis and social unrest had led to great
changes. I n Russia there had been the Bolshevik
The despair of unemployment. This firxe photograph is simply entitled "Street
revolution. Powerful new Nazi and Fascist scene in Wigan". In Laru:ashire dogs were still die usual footwear for the
governments were taking over i n Germany, Italy, working class until after the Seccmd World War.

Austria and Spain, while France also faced political

suburbs, each of w h i c h was likely to have its o w n
crisis. Britain's reasonably calm political life was
shops and a cinema. Unplanned suburbs grew
proof of an astonishing level of popular agreement
especially quickly around London, where the
about the basis of government which did not seem
underground railway system, the "tube", had spread
to exist i n many parts of Europe.
out into the country. It seemed as if everyone's
I n the 1930s the British economy started to dream was to live i n suburbia.
recover, especially i n the Midlands and the south.
Economic recovery resulted partly from the danger
This could be seen i n the enormous number of
of another war. By 1935 it was clear that Germany,
small houses which were being built along main
under its new leader A d o l f H i t l e r , was preparing to
roads far into the countryside.
regain its position i n Europe, by force if necessary.
This new kind of development depended on Britain had done n o t h i n g to increase its fighting
Britain's growing motor industry, which was based strength since 1918 because public opinion i n
in the Midlands. I n the nineteenth century, towns Britain had been against war. The govemment
had been changed by the building of new homes suddenly had to rebuild its armed forces, and this
near the railway. N o w the country around the meant investing a large amount of money i n heavy
towns changed as many new houses were built industry. By 1937 British industry was producing
along main roads suitable for motoring. Middle- weapons, aircraft and equipment for war, w i t h the
class people moved out even further to quieter new help of money from the U n i t e d States.

165
An Illustrated History of Britain

The Second World War generously said i n 1941, " I f anyone asks me who
was responsible for the British policy leading up to
The people of Britain watched anxiously as German
the war, 1 w i l l , as a Labour man myself, make the
control spread over Europe i n the 1930s. But some
confession and say, ' A H of us.' We refused
had foreseen this dangerous situation. They
absolutely to face the facts."
believed that the reasons for German expansion
could be found i n the harsh peace terms forced o n I n September 1939 Germany invaded Poland, and
Germany by the Allies i n 1919, and the failure to Britain entered the war. The British felt again that
involve i t i n the post-war political settlement. I n they were fighting for the weaker nations of Europe,
1920 the Allies had created the League of Nations and for democracy. They had also heard about the
which, i t was hoped, would enable nations to co- cruelty of the Nazis from Jews who had escaped to
operate w i t h each other. A l t h o u g h the League did Britain.
not forbid war, its members agreed to respect and
Few people realised how strong the German army
preserve the borders and territory of all other
was. I n May 1940 i t attacked, defeating the French
members. But i n 1935 Italy invaded Abyssinia
i n a few days, and driving the British army into the
(Ethiopia), a fellow member of the League. Britain
sea. A t Dunkirk, a small French port, the British
and France were anxious to w i n Italy's co-operation
army was saved by thousands of private boats which
against Hitler, who was illegally rearming
crossed the English channel. Dunkirk was a
Germany, and therefore decided against taking
miraculous rescue from military disaster, and
action against Italy as the rules of the League
Britain's new Prime Minister, W i n s t o n Churchill,
required them to do. This failure to use the
persuaded the nation that it was a victory of
League's authority had serious results. Italy's Fascist
courage and determination at Britain's darkest
leader, Benito Mussolini, and Hitler realised that
hour. A l t h o u g h the army had lost almost all its
Britain and France lacked the w i l l to make sure the
weapons i n France, C h u r c h i l l told the nation there
standards the League demanded of its members were
could be no thought of surrender or peace
followed.
negotiation: "we shall defend our island, whatever
For the next four years Germany, Italy and their the cost may be, we shall fight on the beaches, we
ally i n the Far East, Japan, took advantage of this shall fight o n the landing grounds, we shall fight i n
weakness to seize territory of interest to them. the fields and i n the streets, we shall fight on the
There was good evidence that the demands of hills; we shall never surrender. . . . until i n God's
Germany could not be satisfied. But i n order to good time the New W o r l d , w i t h all its power and
avoid war i n 1938, the British Prime Minister, might, sets forth to the liberation and rescue of the
Neville Chamberlain, accepted and co-operated i n O l d . " A n d he offered his countrymen nothing but
the takeover of German-speaking parts of "blood, t o i l , tears and sweat."
Czechoslovakia by Germany. Chamberlain returned
from meeting Hitler i n M u n i c h . He reassured Everyone i n Britain expected Germany to invade,
Britain that he had Hitler's written promise that but the British air force w o n an important battle
Germany had no more territorial ambitions, i n the against German planes i n the air over Britain. This,
memorable words, "peace for our t i m e " . Six months however, did not prevent the German air force
later Germany occupied the rest of Czechoslovakia. from bombing the towns of Britain. Almost one
Britain, realising that war was inevitable, gave a and a half m i l l i o n people i n London were made
guarantee of support to Poland if Germany invaded. homeless by German bombing during the next few
months. Once again Churchill brilliantly managed
Chamberlain was widely blamed for his to persuade a nation " o n its knees" that i t would
"appeasement" of Germany. But he expressed the still w i n .
feelings of many people i n Britain, to avoid war at
all costs. As one of his opponents, Ernest Bevin, T h e war had begun as a traditional European
struggle, w i t h Britain fighting to save the "balance

166
 22 B r i t a i n at w a r

- i>

W m t o n Churchii! at his desk,

March 1944.

of power" i n Europe, and to control the A t l a n t i c Britain and the U n i t e d States invaded German-
Ocean and the sea surrounding Britain. But the war occupied France. They had already started to bomb
quickly became worldwide. Both sides wanted to German towns, causing greater destruction than
control the o i l i n the Middle East, and the Suez any war had ever caused before. Such bombing had
Canal, Britain's route to India. I n 1941 Japan, very doubtful military results. Dresden, a
Germany's ally, attacked British colonial particularly beautiful eighteenth-century city, and
possessions, including Malaya (Malaysia), Burma most of its 130,000 inhabitants, were destroyed i n
and India. As a result, Britain used soldiers from all one night early i n 1945. I n May 1945, Germany
parts of its empire to help fight against Germany, finally surrendered. I n order to save further
Italy and Japan. But the weakness of Britain was casualties among their o w n troops, Britain and the
obvious to the whole world when its army U n i t e d States then used their bombing power to
surrendered Singapore to Japan, described by defeat Japan. This time they used the new atomic
Churchill as the worst surrender i n British history. bombs to destroy most of Nagasaki and Hiroshima,
two large Japanese cities. Over 110,000 people died
I n 1941 Germany and Japan had made two mistakes immediately and many thousands more died later
which undoubtedly cost them the war. Germany from the after-effects.
attacked the Soviet U n i o n , and Japan attacked the
United States, both quite unexpectedly. Whatever It was a terrible end to the war, and an equally
thfe advantages of surprise attack, the A x i s of terrible beginning to the post-war world. But at the
Germany, Italy and Japan had now forced onto the time there was great relief i n Britain that the war
battlefield two of the most powerful nations i n the had finally ended. I t had lasted longer t h a n the
world. First W o r l d W a r , and although less t h a n half as
many British troops had died this t i m e , the figures
Britain could not possibly have defeated Germany
of over 303,000 soldiers and 60,000 civilians i n air
without the help of its stronger allies, the Soviet
raids was a very heavy price to pay for the mistakes
U n i o n and the U n i t e d States. By 1943 the Soviet
of the inter-war years. T h e Soviet U n i o n , Germany
army was pushing the Germans out of the USSR,
and Japan paid a fair more terrible price, as did
and Britain had driven German and Italian troops
ethnic groups like the Jewish and gypsy peoples,
out of N o r t h Africa. Italy surrendered quickly
several m i l l i o n of w h o m were deliberately killed.
following A l l i e d landings i n July 1943. I n 1944

167
23 The age of uncertainty
The new international order * The welfare state * Youthful Britain * A
popular monarchy * The loss of empire * Britain, Europe and the United
States * Northern Ireland * Scotland and Wales * The years of
discontent * The new politics * Britain: past, present and future

The new international order Treaty Organization of the Western nations, and
the Warsaw Pact of the Eastern bloc.
During the war the Alhes had started to t h i n k of
ways i n w h i c h a new world order could replace the I n 1950 the U n i t e d Nations faced new difficulties
failed League of Nations. Even before i t joined the i n the Far East. Troops of N o r t h Korea, which was
war against the Axis powers, the U n i t e d States had under Soviet control invaded South Korea, which
agreed an " A t l a n t i c Charter" w i t h Britain. T h e was under U S control. British troops formed part of
basis of this new charter was U S President the U n i t e d Nations force which defended South
Roosevelt's "Four Freedoms": freedom of speech Korea. O n l y fear o n b o t h sides limited the level and
and expression; freedom of worship; freedom from extent of the war. But while Britain became more
fear; and freedom from want. fearful of Soviet intentions, i t also became more
unhappy w i t h the forceful attitude of its ally, the
A t the end of the war the victorious Allies created U n i t e d States.
the U n i t e d Nations, w h i c h expressed the ideas of
the A t l a n t i c Charter. The Allies formed themselves British foreign policy was not only concerned w i t h
into a "Security C o u n c i l " , into w h i c h they invited the danger from the Soviet U n i o n . I t was also
some less powerful nations. They hoped that the concerned w i t h finding a new part to play i n a
success of wartime alliance could be carried into fast-changing world, and getting used to changing
peacetime. But this depended o n a continuing relations w i t h its friends, particularly w i t h the
feeling of common purpose, which no longer U n i t e d States, w i t h the European countries, and
existed. T h e idea of the four allies (Soviet U n i o n , w i t h members of the Commonwealth, a new
United States, France and Britain) working association of former British possessions.
together for the recovery of central Europe
Britain still considered itself to be a world power,
collapsed. Europe became divided into two, the
and this confidence was strengthened by three
eastern part under communist Soviet control, the
important technical developments i n the 1950s
western part under a capitalist system protected by
w h i c h increased its military strength. These
US power.
developments were i n research into space, i n the
I n 1 9 4 8 - 9 the Soviet U n i o n tried to capture West design of nuclear weapons, and i n the design of
Berlin by stopping all road and rail traffic to i t , and intercontinental ballistic missiles. Britain's
it was only saved by a huge airlift of essential leadership i n nuclear power resulted i n the
supplies from the West, w h i c h lasted almost one development of nuclear weapons. But i t also led to
year. As a result of the struggle for West Berlin, the building of the first nuclear energy power
opposing alliances were formed: the N o r t h A t l a n t i c station i n the world i n 1956. A l l these military and

168
 23 T h e age of uncertainty

scientific developments drew Britain more closely to nation, Conservative and Labour, had moved
the U n i t e d States, both for political and financial politically to the left. This move was one of the
reasons. greatest achievements of the British labour
movement, and its effect was felt for the next thirty
However, by the early 1960s Britain was
years.
increasingly interested i n joining the new European
Community (EC). Britain wanted to j o i n the I n 1944, for the first time, the govemment
Community because of the realisation that i t had promised free secondary education for all, and
lost political power intemationally, and because of promised to provide more further and higher
a growing desire to play a greater part i n European education. I n 1946 a Labour govemment brought
politics. i n a new N a t i o n a l H e a l t h Service, w h i c h gave
everyone the right to free medical treatment. T w o
It was i n Egypt that Britain's weakening
years later, i n 1948, the N a t i o n a l Assistance A c t
intemational position was most obvious. U n t i l
provided financial help for the old, the unemployed
1956 Britain had controlled the Suez Canal, but i n
and those unable to work through sickness.
that year Egypt decided to take i t over. B r i t a i n ,
Mothers and children also received help.
together w i t h France and Israel, attacked Egypt.
But the rest of the world, i n particular the U n i t e d Progress i n these areas was the result of new ideas
States loudly disapproved of Britain's action, and about basic human rights. Important citizens'
forced Britain to remove its troops from Egypt. rights, particularly freedom of speech, had been
U n t i l Suez, Britain had been able to deal w i t h the firmly established i n the seventeenth and
United States and the Soviet U n i o n as an equal, eighteenth centuries. Political rights, particularly
but after Suez this was no longer possible. From the right to vote, and to vote secretly, developed
now o n , Britain was viewed i n a new light, n o t during the nineteenth century. I n the twentieth
only by the two Great Powers, but also by many century people began to demand basic social rights,
weaker countries i n Asia and A f r i c a , particularly by such as the right to work, the right to proper health
the Arab countries. They began to challenge care, and the right to care i n o l d age. The Times
Britain's authority more openly. Even more newspaper wrote i n 1940: " I f we speak of
importantly, Suez opened a painful debate inside democracy we do not mean democracy w h i c h
Britain, i n which politicians tried to define Britain's maintains the right to vote but forgets the right to
new international role after such a humiliating work and the right to l i v e . "
political defeat.
The Labour govemment went further, taking over
control of credit (the Bank of England), power
The welfare state (coal, iron and steel), and transport (railways and
airlines). These acts were meant to give direction
I n 1918 there had been a wish to r e t u m to the to the economy. But only 20 per cent of British
"good old days". There was no such feeling during industry was actually nationalised, and these
the Second W o r l d War, when W i n s t o n C h u r c h i l l nationalised industries served private industry
had told the nation, " W e are not fighting to restore rather than directed i t . Nationalisation was a
the past. W e must plan and create a noble f u t u r e . " disappointment. Even the workers i n the
A t the end of the war many reforms were nationalised industries did not feel involved i n
introduced, both by Conservative and Labour Party making them succeed, as the planners had hoped.
ministers. Most of them agreed that there were Strikes i n the nationalised industries were as big a
social wrongs i n British life w h i c h had to be put problem as they were i n privately owned industries.
right. The reforms introduced were based on the
"New Liberal" reforms w h i c h had been carried out As a result of the changes w h i c h gave importance
just before the First W o r l d W a r . But they went to people's happiness and wellbeing, the
much further, and it could be said that the whole govemment became k n o w n as "the welfare state".

169
A n Illustrated History of Britain

The Royal Festival Hall was

among the best of 1950s
architecture. It was built as part
of the Festival of Briloiri
celebration in 1951, one hundred
years after the Great Exhibition.
But its real importance was to
mark the end of the hardships
caused by the war. It was a
popular celebration of ruitiond
recovery, widi a new concert hall
on London's South Bank and a
funfair further upstream at
Battersea.

For the next quarter century both the Conservative W o r k i n g people now had a better standard of living
and Labour parties were agreed o n the need to keep than ever before. There was enough work for
up the "welfare state", in particular to avoid everyone. Wages were about 30 per cent higher
unemployment. Britain became i n fact a social than i n 1939 and prices had hardly risen at all.
democracy, i n w h i c h both main parties agreed o n
People had free time to enjoy themselves. A t
most of the basic values, and disagreed mainly
weekends many watched football matches in large
about method. The main area of disagreement was
new stadiums. I n the evenings they could go to the
the level of nationalisation desirable for the British
cinema. They began to go away for holidays to
economy to operate at its best.
low-cost "holiday camps". I n 1950, car production
However, although the welfate state improved was twice what it had been i n 1939, and by 1960
many people's lives, it also introduced new cars were owned not only by richer people but by
problems. Govemment administration grew very many on a lower income. I t seemed as if the sun
fast i n order to provide the new welfare services. shone o n Britain. A s one Prime Minister said,
Some people objected to the cost, and claimed that "You've never had it so good," a remark that
state welfare made people lazy and irresponsible became famous.
about their o w n lives.
I t was also the age of youth. Young people had
more money i n their pockets than ever before, now
that wages for those just starting work had
Youthful Britain improved. The result was that the young began to
Like much of post-war Europe, Britain had become influence fashion, particularly i n clothing and
economically dependent o n the U n i t e d States. music. N o t h i n g expressed the youthful "pop"
Thanks to the U S Marshall A i d Programme, culture of the sixties better than the Beatles, whose
Britain was able to recover quickly from the war. music quickly became internationally known. It was

170
 23 T h e age of uncertainty

no accident that the Beatles were working-class A popular monarchy

boys from Liverpool. They were real representatives
During the twentieth century the monarchy became
of a popular culture.
more popular than ever before. George V , the
Young people began to express themselves i n other grandson of Victoria, had attended the first football
ways. They questioned authority, and the culture i n Cup Final match at Wembley Stadium, and royal
which they had been brought up. I n particular they attendance became an annual event. O n Christmas
rebelled against the sexual rules of Christian Day, 1932, he used the new BBC radio service to
society. Some young people started living together speak to all peoples of the Commonwealth and the
without getting married. I n the early 1960s the empire. His broadcast was enormously popular, and
number was small, perhaps only 6 per cent, but i t began a tradition. I n 1935 George V celebrated his
grew to 20 per cent w i t h i n twenty years. Silver Jubilee, and drove through crowded streets of
Improvements i n b i r t h control made this more open cheering people i n the poorest parts of London. " I ' d
sexual behaviour possible. Divorce became much no idea they felt like that about m e , " he said, " I ' m
easier, and by 1975 one marriage i n three ended i n beginning to t h i n k they must really like me for
divorce, the highest rate i n Europe. Older people myself." T o his o w n great surprise, George V had
were frightened by this development, and called the become a "people's k i n g " .
new youth culture the "permissive society". Perhaps
However, i n 1936 the monarchy experienced a
the clearest symbol of the permissive age was the
serious crisis when George V's son, Edward V I I I ,
m i n i skirt, a far shorter skirt than had ever been
gave up the throne i n order to marry a divorced
worn before.
woman. Divorce was still strongly disapproved of at
But there was a limit to what the permissive society that time, and the event showed how public
was prepared to accept. T w o cabinet ministers, one opinion now limited the way the royal family could
in 1963, the other i n 1983, had to leave the act i n private life. A t the time i t caused much
govemment when their sexual relationships outside discussion, and has remained a matter for heated
marriage became widely k n o w n . Public disapproval argument.
could still be unexpectedly strong.

The Beatles were an example of

the r\ew popular culture. They
came from an ordinary suburb of
Liverpool, and quickly became
world famous for their music
from 1964 onwards.

171
A n Illustrated History of Britain

During the Second W o r l d W a r George V I , was clear that British rule i n India could no longer
Edward's brother, became greatly loved for his visits continue. I t was impossible and extremely
to the bombed areas of Britain. He and his wife expensive to try to rule 300 m i l l i o n people without
were admired for refusing to leave Buckingham their co-operation. I n 1947 the British finally left
Palace even after i t also had been bombed. Since India, w h i c h then divided into a H i n d u state and a
1952, when Elizabeth I I became queen, the smaller M u s l i m state called Pakistan. Britain also
monarchy has steadily increased i n popularity. left Palestine, where i t was unable to keep its
promises to both the Arab inhabitants and the new
Jewish settlers. Ceylon became independent the •
The loss of empire
following year.
A t the end of the First W o r l d War, the German
For most of the 1950s Britain managed to keep its
colonies of Africa, as well as Iraq and Palestine i n
other possessions, but after Suez i t began to give
the Middle East, were added to Britain's area of
them up. O n a visit to Africa i n 1960 Prime
control. Its empire was now bigger than ever
Minister Macmillan warned of a " w i n d of change
before, and covered a quarter of the entire land
blowing through the C o n t i n e n t . " O n his retum to
surface of the world.
London he began to speed up plans to hand over
There were already signs, however, that the empire power. This was partly because of the rapid growth
was coming to an end. A t the 1919 peace of local independence movements, but also because
conference U S President Woodrow Wilson's of a change i n t h i n k i n g i n Britain itself. Most
disapproval of colonialism resulted i n Britain's latest people no longer believed i n Britain's right to rule.
territorial gains being described as "mandated" from Between 1945 and 1965 500 m i l l i o n people i n
the League of Nations. B r i t a i n had to agree to help former colonies became completely self-governing.
these territories towards self-government. The real I n some countries, like Kenya, Cyprus and A d e n ,
questions were how long this would take, and how British soldiers fought against local people. Other
much Britain would try to control the foreign countries became independent more peacefully.
policies of these territories even after self-
O n the whole, however, the ending of Britain's
government had been achieved. I n fact i t took
empire was a highly successful process, carried out
longer than the populations of some of these areas
in spite of some who opposed surrendering power,
had been led to hope, and by 1945 only Iraq was
however costly this might be. I t compared well with
independent, and even here Britain had a strong
the bloody events which occurred when both
influence o n its foreign policy.
France and Belgium pulled out of their colonies.
The U n i t e d Nations Charter i n 1945 also called for This successful retreat resulted partly from the great
progress towards self-government. I t seemed hardly skill of Prime Ministers and those they chose for the
likely i n this new mood that the British Empire difficult job of handing over power i n each colony.
could last very long. This feeling was strengthened But i t was also the result of the quality of its
by the speed w i t h w h i c h Britain had lost control of colonial administrators, particularly those i n junior
colonial possessions to Japan during the war. positions. I n spite of the great wrongs of colonial
rule, many of these administrators had the highest
I n India there had been a growing demand for
ideals of duty and service. I t was largely due to their
freedom during the 1920s and 1930s. This was
work that the newly independent countries felt they
partly because of the continued mistrust and
wanted to remain o n friendly terms w i t h Britain.
misunderstanding between the British rulers and
the Indian people, well described i n E . M . Forster's Britain tried to hold onto its intemational position
novel A Passage to India, published i n 1924. But i t through its Commonwealth, which all the old
was also the result of a growing nationalist colonies were invited to j o i n as free and equal
movement, skilhiUy led by Mahatma G a n d h i , members. This has been successful, because i t is
which successfully disturbed British rule. By 1945 i t based on the k i n d of friendship that allows all

172
 23 T h e age of uncertainty

members to follow their own policies without than it had been, perhaps, since the Hundred Years
interference. A t the same time, it allows discussion war. I n 1815 Britain co-operated w i t h the other
of international problems i n a more relaxed European powers to ensure peace, and i t withdrew
atmosphere than is possible through the U n i t e d this support because i t did not wish to work w i t h
Nations. It was w i t h the help of the the despotic powers then governing most of Europe.
Commonwealth that Zimbabwe finally moved For the rest of the century, European affairs took
peacefully from rebellion by the whites to second place to empire and imperial trade.
independence and black majority rule.
After the First W o r l d War i t was natural that some
Britain also tried to keep its influence by a number Europeans should try to create a European union
of treaties w i t h friendly governments i n the Middle that would prevent a repetition of war. A few
East and i n southeast Asia. But most ex-colonies British people welcomed the idea. But when France
did not wish to be brought into such arrangements, proposed such an arrangement i n 1930, one British
either w i t h Britain or w i t h any other powerful politician spoke for the majority of the nation:
country. " O u r hearts are not i n Europe; we could never share
the truly European point of view nor become real
By 1985 Britain had few of its old colonial
patriots of Europe. Besides, we could never give up
possessions left, and those it still had were being
our o w n patriotism for an Empire w h i c h extends to
claimed by other countries: Hong Kong by China,
all parts of the world . . . T h e character of the
the Falklands/Malvinas by Argentina, and Gibraltar
British people makes i t impossible for us to take
by Spain. I n 1982 Britain went to war to take back
part seriously i n any Pan-European system."
the Falklands after an A r g e n t i n i a n invasion. I n
spite of the great distance involved, British forces Since then Britain has found it difficult to move
were able to carry out a rapid recapture of the away from this point of view. A f t e r the Second
islands. The operation was very popular i n Britain, W o r l d W a r the value of European unity was a good
perhaps because it suggested that Britain was still a deal clearer. I n 1946 C h u r c h i l l called for a " U n i t e d
world power. But Britain's victory made an States of Europe", but i t was already too late to
eventual solution to the problem more difficult, and prevent the division of Europe into two blocs. I n
possession of the islands extremely expensive. T h e 1949 Britain joined w i t h other Western European
war itself had cost £ 9 0 0 m i l l i o n , but the total cost countries to form the C o u n c i l of Europe, " t o
of defending the island since 1982 had risen to £3 achieve greater unity between members", but it is
billion by 1987. doubtful how far this aim has been achieved.
Indeed, eight years later i n 1957, Britain refused to
Britain, Europe and the j o i n the six other European countries i n the
United States creation of a European C o m m o n Market. Britain
was unwilling to surrender any sovereignty or
It was, perhaps, natural that Britain was unable to control over its o w n affairs, and said i t still felt
give proper attention to its relations w i t h Europe responsibility towards its empire.
until it was no longer an imperial power. Ever since
the growth of its trade beyond Europe during the It quickly became clear that Britain's attitude,
seventeenth century, Britain had ceased to be fully particularly i n view of the rapid loss of empire, was
active i n Europe except at moments of crisis. A s mistaken. A s its financial and economic difficulties
long as Europe did not interfere w i t h Britain's increased, Britain could not afford to stay out of
trade, and as long as the balance of power i n Europe. But it was too late: when Britain tried to
Europe was not seriously disturbed, Britain could j o i n the European Community i n 1963 and again i n
happily neglect European affairs. 1967, the French President General de Gaulle
refiised to allow i t . Britain only became a member
A t the end of the eighteenth century Napoleonic i n 1973, after de Gaulle's retirement.
France drew Britain further into European politics

173
A n Illustrated History of Britain

After becoming a member i n 1973, Britain's followed i t . I n particular it resulted from the close
attitude towards the European C o m m u n i t y relationship W i n s t o n Churchill personally enjoyed
continued to be unenthusiastic. A l t h o u g h trade w i t h the American people.
w i t h Europe greatly increased, most British
After the war, Britain found itself unable to keep
continued to feel that they had not had any
up w i t h the military arms race between the U n i t e d
economic benefit from Europe. This feeling was
States and the Soviet U n i o n . It soon gave up the
strengthened by the way i n w h i c h Prime Minister
idea of an independent nuclear deterrent, and in
Margaret Thatcher argued for a better financial deal
1962 took American "Polaris" nuclear missiles fot;
for Britain i n the Community's affairs. T h e way i n
British submarines. T h e possession of these
which she fought w o n her some admiration i n
weapons gave Britain, i n the words of one Prime
Britain, but also anger i n many parts of Europe. She
Minister, the right " t o sit at the top of the table"
welcomed closer co-operation i n the European
w i t h the Superpowers. However, Britain could only
Community but only if this d i d not mean any
use these missiles by agreement w i t h the U n i t e d
lessening of sovereignty. Many Europeans saw this
States and as a result Britain was tied more closely
as a contradiction. Unless member states were
to the U n i t e d States.
willing to surrender some control over their o w n
affairs, they argued, there could be little chance of Other European countries would not have felt so
achieving greater European unity. I t is not uneasy about the close ties between the U n i t e d
surprising therefore that Britain's European partners States and Britain if they themselves had not
wondered whether Britain was still unable " t o take disagreed w i t h the U n i t e d States concerning the
part seriously i n any Pan-European system." Soviet U n i o n and other foreign policy matters.
Ever since 1945 the U n i t e d States and the political
De Gaulle's attitude to Britain was not only the
right i n Britain were more openly hostile to the
result of his dislike of "les Anglo-Saxons". He also
Soviet U n i o n . T h e Europeans and the British
believed that Britain could n o t make up its m i n d
political left were, on the whole, just as suspicious
whether its first loyalty, now that its empire was
of Soviet intentions, but were more anxious to
rapidly disappearing, was to Europe or to the
improve relations. However, even under Labour
U n i t e d States.
governments, Britain remained between the
Britain felt its "special relationship" w i t h the European and American positions. It was natural,
U n i t e d States was particularly important. I t was therefore, that under Thatcher, who was more
vaguely believed that this relationship came from a firmly to the right than any Conservative Prime
common democratic tradition, and from the fact Minister since the war, British foreign policy was
that the U n i t e d States was basically Anglo-Saxon. more closely linked to that of the U n i t e d States,
Neither belief was wholly true, for the U n i t e d particularly w i t h regard to the Soviet U n i o n . This
States since 1783 had been a good deal more was most clearly shown when, after the Russians
democratic than Britain, and most U S citizens were invaded Afghanistan, Britain joined the United
not Anglo-Saxons. Even Britain's alliance w i t h the States i n boycotting the Moscow Olympics i n 1980.
U n i t e d States was very recent. I n 1814 British Britain sided w i t h the U n i t e d States i n other
troops had burnt down the US capital, foreign policy matters too, which alarmed its
Washington. I n the middle of the nineteenth European partners. I n 1986, for example, i t allowed
century most British took the part of the South i n US aircraft to use British airfields from which to
the American C i v i l W a r . By the end of the century attack the Libyan capital, T r i p o l i . One thing was
the U n i t e d States was openly critical of Britain's clear from these events. Britain still had not made
empire. up its m i n d whether its first political loyalty lay
across the A t l a n t i c , or i n Europe.
Britain's special relationship rested almost entirely
on a common language, o n its wartime alliance
w i t h the U n i t e d States and the C o l d W a r w h i c h

174
 23 T h e age of uncertainty

Troops on the front line in

Belfast, Ulster. When the
conflict broke out in 1969 fiolice
faced civil rights protesters. After
the JRA started its campoiin of
shootings and bomfcings, the
Ulster police was wnable to
maintain authority unassisted and
the British army was drawn into
the fight. Civilian protesters and
rioters became younger and
younger, maJdng it harder for the
army and police to keep control.
The use of force against twelve-
year-old demonstrators looked
bod on television. Those who
believed Britain should continue
to govem Northem Irelartd saw
the conflict as a security struggle,
while those who believed Vlster
should become part of the
Republic of Ireland saw it as a
liberation struggle.

Northern Ireland Violence has continued, w i t h bomb attacks and

shootings by republicans, w h i c h the British army
When Ireland was divided i n 1921, the population
tried to prevent. I n 1972 the N o r t h e m Ireland
of the new republic was only 5 per cent Protestant.
govemment was removed and was replaced w i t h
But i n Ulster, the new province of N o r t h e m
direct rule from L o n d o n . Since then, Britain has
Ireland, 67 per cent of the people were Protestant.
been anxious to find a solution w h i c h w i l l please
For many years it seemed that almost everyone
most of the people there, and offer peace to
accepted the arrangement, even if some did n o t like
everyone.
it.
I n 1985 Britain and Ireland made a formal
However, many people i n N o r t h e m Ireland agreement at Hillsborough that they would
considered that their system of government was exchange views o n N o r t h e m Ireland regularly. This
unfair. I t was a self-goveming province, but its agreement was bitterly opposed by Protestant
govemment was controlled by the Protestants, who political leaders i n the province. But their failure to
feared the Catholics and kept them out of put a stop to the Hillsborough Agreement resulted
re§*ponsible positions. Many Catholics were even i n a growing challenge from those Protestants who
unable to vote. wanted to continue the stmggle outside Parliament
Suddenly, i n 1969, Ulster people, both Catholics and possibly i n a military form.
and Protestants, began to gather on the streets and
The future of N o r t h e m Ireland remains uncertain.
demand a fairer system. The police could not keep
The Catholic population is increasing slightly faster
control, and republicans who wanted to unite
than the Protestant one, but there are unlikely to
Ireland tumed this civil rights movement itito a
be more Catholics than Protestants for a very long
nationalist rebellion against British rule.
time. Meanwhile young people i n N o r t h e m Ireland
In order to keep law and order, British soldiers were cannot remember a time when there was peace i n
sent to help the police, but many Catholics saw the province.
them as a foreign army w i t h no right to be there.

175
A n Illustrated History of Britain

Scotland and Wales

I n Scotland and Wales, too, there was a growing
feeling by the 1970s that the govemment i n
London had too much power. I n Wales, a
nationalist party. Plaid C y m r u , the party of "fellow
countrymen", became a strong political force i n the
1970s. But Welsh nationalism lost support i n 1979
when the people of Wales tumed down the
government's offer of limited self-govemment.
Almost certainly this was because many of them did
not welcome wider official use of the Welsh
language. I n spite of the rise of Plaid Cymru, the
Welsh language was actually spoken less and less.
I n 1951 29 per cent of the Welsh population spoke
Welsh. By 1981 this figure had fallen to 19 per
cent, even though Welsh was used for many radio
and television programmes, and i n schools.

I n Scotland, the Scottish Nationalist Party

(SNP) showed its growing popularity by increasing The discovery of oil in commercial quantities in the North Sea provided
its percentage of the national vote from 20 per cent welcome help to Britain when its traditional sources of income were in decline
in the 1970s. The construction of oil rigs provided work for thousaryis of
to 30 per cent during 1974- T h e SNP became the shipbuilders for whom there were no more ships to build. By the early 1980s,
second party i n Scotland, pushing the however, no more oil rigs were required and unemployment followed. In
addition, much of Britain's income from oil was lost on unemployment
Conservatives into third place. W h e n Scotland was benefit for the three million or so people out of work.
offered the same limited form of self-government as
Wales, just over half of those who voted supported Concorde, the resuh of Anglo-French co-operation, was the most advanced

it. But the govemment decided that 54 per cent of civil jet airliner in the world. But it was too expensive, no one wished to buy
it, and it was a commercial failure. It was only used hy the French and
those who voted was not a big enough majority, British national airlines.
and to the anger of the SNP it abandoned the self-
govemment offer. A s a result the SNP itself
collapsed at the next election, losing nine of its * ' .-'-.SVK--,-

eleven seats. But like Plaid Cymru i n Wales, the

SNP remained active i n Scottish politics. I n b o t h
countries most people continued to support the
Labour Party, partly i n protest against mainly
Conservative England. A l t h o u g h i n Wales Welsh
was declining, and although i n Scotland only a
very few people still spoke Gaelic, the different
political and cultural life of Celtic Wales and
Scotland seemed unlikely to disappear.

The years of discontent

During the 1950s and 1960s Britain remained a
European leader economically as well as politically.
But Britain suddenly began to slip rapidly behind its
European neighbours economically. This was partly

176
 23 T h e age of uncertainty

the resuh of a new and unpleasant experience, a Later, Asian immigrants started to arrive from India
combination of rising prices and growing and Pakistan and from East Africa. Most
unemployment. Governments were uncertain about immigrants lived together i n poor areas of large
how to solve the problem, and no longer agreed cities. Leicester's population became 16 per cent
that the state had a responsibility to prevent immigrant, W o l v e r h a m p t o n and Bradford about
unemployment. 8 per cent each. By 1985 there were about five
m i l l i o n recent immigrants and their children out of
How real were Britain's economic problems? Most
a total population of about fifty-six m i l l i o n . By
people's wealth had continued to grow. By the end
1985, too, almost half this black population had
of the 1970s four-fifths of homes had their o w n
been b o m i n Britain. Even so, there were still
telephones and refrigerators, and two-thirds owned
white people w h o , i n the words of one newspaper,
their o w n homes and cars.
"go o n pretending . . . that one day the blacks can
Compared w i t h its European neighbours, however, somehow be sent 'home', as though home for most
Britain was certainly doing less well. I n 1964 only of them was anywhere else but B r i t a i n . "
West Germany of the six European C o m m u n i t y
As unemployment grew, the new immigrants were
countries produced more per head of population
sometimes wrongly blamed. I n fact, i t was often the
than Britain. Thirteen years later, however, i n
immigrants who were w i l l i n g to do dirty or
1977, only Italy produced less. Britain eventually
unpopular work, i n factories, hospitals and other
joined the European Community i n 1973, hoping
workplaces. T h e relationship between black
that it would be able to share the new European
immigrants and the white population of Britain was
wealth. By 1987 this had not yet happened, and
not easy. Black people found it harder to obtain
Britain has continued to slip behind most other
employment, and were often only able to live i n
European countries. The British Ambassador i n
the worst housing. T h e govemment passed laws to
Paris wrote i n 1979, "today we are not only no
prevent unequal treatment of black people, but also
longer a world power, but we are not i n the first
to control the number of immigrants coming to
rank as a European one . . . W e talk of ourselves
Britain.
without shame as being one of the least prosperous
countries i n Europe . . . If present trends continue, The old nineteenth-century city centres i n which
we shall be overtaken . . . by Italy and Spain well black immigrants had settled were areas w i t h serious
before the end of the century." A n d he pointed out physical and economic problems. I n the 1980s bad
that for the first time i n three hundred years the housing and unemployment led to riots i n
average individual income i n Britain was well below Liverpool, Bristol and London, worse than any seen
that i n France. France itself, however, made a great i n Britain since the nineteenth century. Black
economic recovery i n the seventies. Some believed people were blamed for causing these riots, but they
that Britain could do the same. were i n fact mainly the result of serious and
longstanding economic difficulties, w h i c h affected
Btitain also experienced new social problems,
the black population living i n the old city centres
particularly after the arrival of immigrants i n
more than the white.
Britain. A l l through British history there have been
times when large numbers of immigrants have come There were other signs that British society was
to settle i n the country. But u n t i l recently these going through a difficult period. T h e Saturday
people, being Europeans, were not noticeably aftemoon football match, the favourite
different from the British themselves. I n the fifties, entertainment of many British families, gradually
however, the first black immigrants started to arrive became the scene of frightening and often
from the West Indies, looking for work. By 1960 meaningless violence. British football crowds
there were 250,000 "coloured" immigrants i n became feared around the world. I n 1984 an
Britain and also the first signs of trouble w i t h young English crowd was mainly responsible for a disaster
whites.

177
A n Illustrated History of Britain

Immigrants from different

Commonuiealdt countries tended
to live together in particiJar
districts. In Southed!, mest
Lorukm, many Punjabis,
Gujaratis and Sildis from India
settled down, operting shops artd
becoming successful in trade.

at a match i n Brussels i n w h i c h almost forty people Unemployment increased rapidly at the end of the
were killed. People were shocked and ashamed, but 1970s, reaching 3.5 m i l l i o n by 1985. I n many
still did not understand the reason for the violence. towns, 15 per cent or more of the working
T h e permissive society and unemployment were population was out of work. Unemployment was
blamed, but the strange fact was that those who highest i n the industrial north of England, and i n
started the violence were often well-off members of Belfast, Clydeside and southeast Wales, as i t had
society w i t h good jobs. been i n the 1930s depression. Things became worse
as steel mills and coal mines were closed. I n 1984
W o m e n , too, had reasons for discontent. They
the miners refused to accept the closing of mines,
spoke out increasingly against sexism, i n
and went o n strike. After a year of violence during
advertising, i n employment and i n journalism.
which miners fought w i t h the police the strike
They protested about violence against women and
failed.
demanded more severe punishment for sexual
crimes. They also tried to w i n the same pay and The defeat of the miners showed how much power
work opportunities as men. This new movement and confidence the trade unions had lost. This was
resulted from the growth i n the number of working partly because they faced a government determined
women. Between 1965 and 1985 the number of to reduce the power of the unions. But i t was also
wives w i t h jobs increased from 37 per cent to 58 per because they seemed unable to change themselves
cent. I n 1975 it became unlawful to treat women to meet changed circumstances, and they seemed
differently from men i n matters of employment and afraid of losing their power.
pay. But this law was not fully enforced, and it
Inflation had made the situation mote difficult.
continued to be harder for women to take a full part
in national life. Between 1754 and 1954, prices had multiplied by

178
 23 T h e age of uncertainty

six. Then, they multipHed by six again i n the space

of only thirty years, between 1954 and 1984. I n
such circumstances it proved almost impossible to
make sure that all workers felt that they were fairly
paid.

Industrial problems also increased the differences

between the "comfortable" south and the poorer
north. I t is easy to forget that this division already
existed before the industrial revolution, when the
north was poorer and had a smaller population.
The large cities and towns built during the
industrial revolution have had great difficulty i n
creating new industries to replace the o l d .

The new poUtics

Few of the problems of the 1980s were entirely
new. However, many people blamed them o n the
new Conservative govemment, and i n particular,
Britain's first woman Prime Minister, Margaret
Margaret Thatcher, the longest serving Prime Minister of the twentieth
Thatcher. Thatcher had been elected i n 1979 century. Her style and her views appealed to many British people who had
because she promised a new beginning for Britain. lost confidence in the welfare state arxd in the direction the nation had taken.
In some ways she was the first genitine leader the nation had had since
The need for such a break w i t h the past had been Churchill, the pobtician on whom she consciously modelled herself. In spite of
widely recognised for some years. As a result the old the fact that over half the nation disagreed with her policies, they were urxahle
to vote her out of office.
Conservative-Labour agreement o n the guiding
principles of the welfare state had already broken
down. I n the Conservative Party there had been a wished to give up, whether other nuclear armed
strong movement to the right, and i n the Labour nations did so or not. This time, however, the
Party there had been a similarly strong move to the disagreements between the party's left and right
left. Both moved further away from the "centre" of were far more damaging. T h e 1979 election result
British politics than they had done i n living was the worst defeat since 1931. Worse, however,
memory. was to follow, and as the bitter conflict continued,
many people ceased to believe i n the party's ability
This basic change i n British politics caused a major
to govem itself, let alone the country.
crisis for the Labour Party. Labour was no stranger
•to intemal conflict, nor to these conflicts being Labour suffered a further blow when four senior
damagingly conducted i n public. I n the 1930s the right-wing members left the party to form their o w n
party had turned against its own first Prime "Social Democratic Party" i n 1981, i n alliance w i t h
Minister, Ramsay MacDonald, when he formed a the small but surviving Liberal Party. For some
national government w i t h the Conservatives to years the Liberal Party had been calling for a
handle the financial crisis of 1931. Four years later change i n the electoral system. I t had good reason
it had again been split between its traditional anti- to do so. I n 1974 the Liberals had received 20 per
war members and those who recognised the Nazi cent of the national vote but only 2 per cent of the
danger. I n 1959 Labour had again publicly seats i n ParUament. By M a r c h 1982 the new
disagreed about two issues, nationalisation and " A l l i a n c e " was gaining ground both from the
nuclear weapons, which a large section of the party Conservative and Labour parties.

179
A n Illustrated History of Britain

Margaret Thatcher had come to power calUng o n Thatcher had promised to stop Britain's decline,
the nation for hard work, patriotism and self-help. but by 1983 she had not succeeded. Industrial
She was not, however, a typical Conservative. As production since 1979 had fallen by 10 per cent,
one of her ministers said, "1 am a nineteenth- and manufacturing production by 17 per cent. By
century Liberal, and so is Mrs Thatcher. That's 1983, for the first time since the industrial
what this govemment is about." There was much revolution, Britain had become a net importer of
t r u t h i n the remark, for she wanted free trade at manufactured goods. There was a clear economic
home and abroad, individual enterprise and less shift towards service industries. Unemployment had
government economic protection or interference. risen from 1.25 m i l l i o n i n 1979 to over 3 m i l l i o n . "
However, she was more of a Palmerston than a
However, Thatcher could claim she had begun to
Gladstone. She wanted more "law and order" but
retum nationalised industries to the private sector,
was a good deal less w i l l i n g to undertake the social
that she had gone even further than she had
reform for which later nineteenth-century Liberals
promised. By 1987 telecommunications, gas, British
were noted.
Airways, British Aerospace and British Shipbuilders
N o t everyone i n the Conservative Party was happy had all been put into private ownership. She could
about the change i n policy. T h e discontented also claim that she had broken the power of the
members became k n o w n as "wets", one of w h o m trade unions, something else she had promised to
argued that "people . . . must at least feel loyalty to do. I n fact, the trade unions had been damaged
the state. This loyalty w i l l not be deep unless they more by growing unemployment than by
gain from the state protection and other benefits", government legislation. She could be less confident
and he wamed against the state's "failure to about increased law and order. I n spite of increasing
create a sense of community". Thatcher, however, the size of the police force, there was a falling rate
ignored these views, saying that she "could not of crime prevention and detection. I n addition, the
waste time having any i n t e m a l arguments." rough behaviour of the police in dealing w i t h
industrial disputes and city riots had seriously
By the beginning of 1982 the Conservative
damaged their reputation.
govemment had become deeply unpopular i n the
country. However, by her firm leadership during The most serious accusation against the Thatcher
the Falklands War Thatcher captured the government by the middle of the 1980s was that it
imagination of the nation, and was confidently able had created a more unequal society, a society of
to call an election i n 1983. " t w o nations", one wealthy, and the other poor.
According to these critics, the divide cut across the
As expected, Thatcher was returned to power w i t h
nation i n a number of ways. The number of very
a clear majority of 144 seats i n the 650-seat
poor, who received only a very small amount of
Parliament. I t was the greatest Conservative victory
government help, increased from twelve m i l l i o n i n
for forty years. I n part Thatcher's victory was a
1979 to over sixteen m i l l i o n by 1983. I n the
result of the "Falklands factor". Far more, however,
meantime, reductions i n income tax favoured the
it was the result of a split opposition vote, between
higher income eamers.
Labour and the Alliance, and the continued
weakness of the Labour Party, w h i c h suffered its The division was also geographical, between
worst result since the early 1920s. Once again the prosperous suburban areas, and neglected inner city
Alliance had the disappointment of gaining 26 per areas of decay. A l t h o u g h the government sold
cent of the national vote, but only 3.5 per cent of many state-owned houses and flats to the people
the seats i n Parliament. A clear majority had voted who lived i n them, it also halved the number of
against the r e t u m of a Conservative govemment, new houses it built between 1981 and 1985, a
showing dissatisfaction w i t h Thatcher's policies. It period i n which the number of homeless people
was not difficult to see why this was so. increased.

180
 23 T h e age of uncertainty

m
•Hj

London's docklands. From the eighteenth century until the 1950s the
inhabitants of these areas worked in Londen's busy docks. Then the docks
died, and remained empty until the /980s u;hen the whole area was
redeveloped. Young professionals from outside the area moved into the new
hoitsing (foreground) because it was close to the banks and ftrwmdcd
ir\stitutions (background) in which they worked. Although redevelopment
brought new wealth to the area, some of the old low-ir\comed dockland
community who saw no bertefit for themselves moved out.

More importantly, people saw a divide between the unemployment among blacks by 1986 was twice as
north and south of the country. Ninety-four per high as among the white population.
cent of the jobs lost since 1979 had been n o r t h of a
I n spite of these problems, Thatcher's Conservative
line running from the Wash, on the east coast, to
Party was still more popular than any other single
the Bristol channel i n the west. People were aware
party i n 1987. I n the national elections that year,
of growing unemployment i n the "depressed" areas,
the Conservative Party was retumed to power w i t h
and fewer hopes of finding a job. Indeed, by 1986
a majority of 102 seats. This was partly because
41 per cent of those unemployed had been out of
since 1979 personalities had become politically
work for over a year, compared w i t h only 25 per
more important. Thatcher was seen as more
cent i n 1979. As a result, it was not surprising that
determined and more convincing than the Labour
Labour continued to be the stronger party i n the
or A l l i a n c e leaders. I t was also because the
north, and i n other depressed areas. I n the more
opposition to Conservative policy remained split
heavily populated south, the Alliance replaced
between Labour and the A l l i a n c e , and i t appeared
Labour as the main opposition party.
permanently so.
The black community also felt separated from
There were other reasons why the Conservative
richer Britain. Most blacks lived i n the poor inner
Party, w i t h only 43 per cent of the national vote.
city areas, not the richer suburbs, and
181
A n Illustrated History of Britain

won SO convincingly. Its emphasis o n personal However, people were divided concerning the
wealth and property ownership had begun to nation's future possibilities. Some, those who had
change the way many traditional Labour supporters voted for Thatcher, were optimistic. They believed
voted. I t may be that many lower income people that material wealth was vital for national renewal,
living i n the Midlands and south shifted their and that economic success was about to happen.
loyalties to the right. O n the other hand, i n
Scotland the Conservatives lost half their seats, Others were unhappy w i t h the direction the nation
mainly to Labour or the Scottish N a t i o n a l Party, an was taking. They believed that the emphasis on
indication of the increased sense of division material wealth encouraged selfishness, and a
between richer and poorer Britain, and an retreat from an ideal of community to a desire for
indication that Scottish radicalism was as strong as personal gain. They were worried by the w.eakening
ever. of the welfare state, particularly i n the educational
and health services.
Thatcher's victory caused concem for b o t h
opposition parties. Labour had done better than
The govemment said much about maintaining
many had expected. However, i t still had to face
"traditional values", particularly law and order.
the fact that Thatcher's policies were creating a
Respect for the law, i t argued, was rooted i n British
society which seemed decreasingly interested i n
tradition. I t also spoke of a r e t u m to Victorian
Labour philosophy, and i t had to decide how i t
values. O n the other hand, its opponents argued
could make this philosophy more attractive without
that the tradition of broad popular agreement on
giving up its principles. The A l l i a n c e also faced
the management of the nation's affairs was i n grave
serious problems. I t had done worse than expected,
danger. Neither side was wholly right i n its claim.
calling into question its claim to replace the t w o -
For example, the Conservative argument forgot
party system w i t h a three-party one. I t now seemed
that i n the past, the law had been frequently
that it would take two or three national elections
broken not only by criminals but also by those for
before this question, and the connected question of
w h o m it was oppressive, like the Tolpuddle
proportional representation, would be decided.
Martyrs. I t forgot, too, that the Victorians had
The 1987 election brought some comfort, however, valued not only enterprise and hard work but had
to two underrepresented groups. I n 1983 only also cared about social reform to assist the weaker
nineteen (3 per cent) of the 650 members of members of society. I n the same way, when Labour
Parliament had been women, almost the lowest accused the Conservatives of putting broad national
proportion i n westem Europe. I n 1987 this figure agreement i n danger, it forgot that its own party
more than doubled to forty-one women MPs (6.5 origins lay w i t h the radicals who stood against
per cent), a figure w h i c h suggested that the political accepted national political practice. But such
parties realised that without more women awkward facts were easily placed o n one side, and
representatives they might lose votes. Blacks and the political parties appealed to "history", as this
Asians, too, gained four seats, the largest number fitted their view of modem Britain and the glorious
they had ever had i n Parliament, although like future they offered if the people supported them.
women they remained seriously underrepresented.
There was n o t h i n g new i n this. People have always
looked at history i n the way that suited their system
Britain: past, present and future of beliefs. I n 1988 Britain celebrated two major
By the late 1980s most British people felt that the anniversaries, the defeat of the Spanish Armada i n
fiiture was full of uncertainty. These doubts resulted 1588, and the Glorious Revolution i n 1688. One
from disappointment w i t h lost economic and was about Britain's successful military and foreign
political power. Many people looked back to the policy, the other about its successful constitutional
"Swinging Sixties" as the best ten years Britain had development. The popular view is that both were
had this century. truly glorious events. However, the truth is less
182
 23 T h e age of uncertainty

The royal family celebrates the

wedding of Prince Andrew and
Sarah Ferguson. In the 1980s the
royd family became "mrrld
property" in a way it had not
been before. Members of the
royd family became the subject
of journalistic investigation, both
in their public arxd private lives,
arxd began to mirror television
"soap operas" in their
entertainment vdue.

simple. The Spanish Armada was defeated more by reason for discomfort. The Glorious Revolution had
the weather than by the English navy, the Spanish been a disaster for Ireland. I n 1988 there was a
navy became stronger rather than weaker after reminder of this side of Britain's history i n the
1588, and the war w i t h Spain seriously damaged conflict i n N o r t h e r n Ireland, where even the
the economy of England. Nevertheless, the defeat Protestant "Loyalists" were unhappy w i t h rule by
of the Armada has remained a symbol of Britain's the Westminster Parliament. I n Scotland, Wales,
seafaring success. I t was given particular importance and parts of England, too, there were people who
in the late nineteenth century, when British world- disliked the centralised power of Westminster,
wide command of the seas was at its height. By w h i c h had increased i n the Thatcher years.
1988 i t was harder to t h i n k i n the same way,
because British foreign policy had shrunk i n recent Britain has more living symbols of its past than
years, w i t h a decline i n its interests beyond Europe many countries. I t still has a royal family and a
and the United States. small nobility. Its capital, cities and countryside
boast many ancient buildings, castles, cathedrals,
There was also something slightly uncomfortable and the "stately homes" of the nobility. Every year
about celebration of the Glorious Revolution. The there are historical ceremonies, for example the
Glorious Revolution was about the sovereignty of State Opening of Parliament, the Lord Mayor's
ParUament i n the nation's affairs. But not everyone Show, or the meeting of the Knights of the Garter
was happy w i t h parliamentary life by 1988. Was its at Windsor each St George's Day. It is easy to t h i n k
constituency system truly democratic? Was these symbols are a true representation of the past.
Parliament itself too powerful? There was another Britain's real history, however, is about the whole

183
A n Illustrated History of Britain

people of Britain, and what has shaped them as a

society. This means, for example, that the recent
story of black and Asian immigration to Britain is
as much a part of Britain's "heritage" as its stately
homes. Indeed more so, since the immigrant
community's contribution to national life lies
mainly i n the future.

W h e n looking at Britain today, i t is important to

remember the great benefits from the past. N o
other country has so long a history of political
order, going back almost without interruption to
the N o r m a n Conquest. Few other countries have
enjoyed such long periods of economic and social
wellbeing.

I t is also important, however, to remember the less

successful aspects of the past. For example, why d i d
the political views of the seventeenth-century
Levellers or ninetefenth-century Chartists, w h i c h
today seem so reasonable, take so long to be
accepted? W h y did the women's struggle to play a
fuller part i n national life occur so late, and why
was i t then so difficult and painful? W h y is there
still a feeling of division between the n o r t h and
south of Britain? Is Britain, w h i c h i n many ways
has been a leader i n parliamentary democracy,
losing that position of leadership today, and if so,
why?

The questions are almost endless, and the answers

are neither obvious nor easy. Yet i t is the continued
discussion and reinterpretation of the past w h i c h
makes a study of Britain's history of value to its
present and its future.

184
Index

Aberdeen 56, 61, 153 Bannockbum, battle of (1314) Caledonia 9 Conservative Party 143, 1 5 6 - 7 ,
Adam, Robert 116 33,43 C a l v i n , John 69 162, 1 6 9 - 7 0 , 174, 176, 179,
Adelard of Bath 99 Baptists 99 Cambridge 41, 55, 61, 65, 100, 1 8 0 - 1 , 182
Africa (see also west, south, barrows (butial mounds) 4 151, 162 Co-opetative Movement 143
north and east Africa) 4, Bath 99, 116 C a n a d a 109, 112, 116, 148 Copenhagen, battle of
1 4 5 - 8 , 169, 172 Bayeux Tapestry 17 canals 103, 123 (1801) 128
Africa Company 75 Beaker people 5, 6 C a n n i n g , Lord 142 C o m Law 136, 141
Agincourt 43, 53, 54 Beatles 1 7 0 - 1 C a n o n law 35 C o m w a l l 4, 5, 7, 11
Albert, Prince Consort 144 Bede, the Venerable 11, 14, 15, Canterbury 13, 29 Corresponding Society 128
aldermen 13 99 Archbishops of 14, 28, 30, 49, C r e c y , battle of (1346) 44
Alexander, King of Scots 30 Becket, T h o m a s , Archbishop of 89 C r i m e a 145, 146, 159
Alfred, King 15, 16 CanterbuH' 23, 29, 64 C a p e C o l o n y 131 C r o m w e l l , O l i v e r 91, 9 2 - 4 , 99,
Alliance, Liberal and Social Bedford, John duke of 53 C a t h e r i n e of Aragon 69, 70, 71 104
Democratic 1 7 9 - 1 8 2 duke of 117 C a t h o l i c i s m , C a t h o l i c s (see also C r o m w e l l , R i c h a r d 93
Allies ( 1 9 3 9 - 4 5 ) 1 6 6 - 1 6 8 Belfast 165, 175, 178 C h u r c h ) 7 0 - 7 3 , 76, 77, 85, C r o m w e l l , T h o m a s 68, 70
America see also South A m e r i c a , Belgic tribes 7 88, 89, 9 4 - 6 , 97, 108, 113, C u l l o d e n , battle of (1746) 111,
United States and Canada 16, Belgium 44, 68, 128, 129, 132, 114, 141, 149, 154 113, 116
31,69, 7 3 , 7 4 , 8 1 , 9 7 , 9 9 , 157, 160 Cavaliers (Royalists) 91 Cyprus 172
105, 112, 113, 123, 128, 142, B e v i n , Ernest 166 C a x t o n , W i l l i a m 65, 75 Czechoslovakia 166
145, 148, 154, 161, 163, 164 Birmingham 12, 84, 107, 114, Celts, C e l t i c culture 6 - 1 4 , 1 8 -
C i v i l W a t 174 128, 134, 138, 154 21, 31, 32, 45, 56 Dail (Irish parliament) 163
War of Independence 112, Black Death (1348) 46 C e y l o n 131, 153, 172 Danegeld 16
134, 136 Black Prince 45, 48 C h a m b e t l a i n , Neville 166 Danelaw 16, 36
A n n e , Queen 87, 88, 96, 97, Blenheim, battle of (1704) 97 Charles 1 86, 8 8 - 9 3 Danes see also Vikings 1 6 , 1 7 ,
107 Boadicea 8, 9 C h a r l e s 11 9 3 - 9 5 , 100, 101 36
Angles 11, 20, 21, 85 Boers 146, 157 C h a r l e s V (of Spain) 59, 70 Dardanelles 160
Anglican C h u r c h see C h u r c h of Boleyn, A n n e 68, 69, 70 Charles Edward, Prince (Bonny D a m l e y , Lord 78
England Bolsheviks, Bolshevism 160, Prince C h a r l i e ) III, 113 Darwin, Charles 155
Anglo-Irish 32 162, 165 charters of freedom 40 D a v i d , King of Scots 44
Anglo-Saxons 7, 1 2 - 1 5 , 18, Bonaparte see Napoleon Chartists 135, 136, 143, 184 Defoe, D a n i e l 109
23, 35, 37, 39, 40, 45 Booth, W i l l i a m 155 C h a t h a m , W i l l i a m Pitt the Denmark 15
language 64 Boru, Brian 20 Elder, Lord 109, 112 Derry (see also Londonderry) 76
Anglo-Irish Treaty (1921) 163 Boston T e a Party 112 C h a u c e r , Geoffrey 64, 65, 85, Dickens, Charles 131, 132, 155
Anselm, Archbishop of Canter- Bosworth, battle of (1485) 55, 99 Disraeli, Benjamin 143
bury 29 56, 68 C h i n a 145, 173 Domesday Book 25, 34, 3 6 - 3 7 ,
Aquitaine 26, 44 Boyle, Robert 99 Christianity 1 3 - 1 5 , 17, 19, 23, 70
Arab countries 145, 169 Boyne, battle of the (1690) 97 145 Dorset 5, 6, 8, 134
Arbroath, Declaration of (1320) Bradford 134, 177 C h u r c h 13, 16, 23, 28, 2 9 - 3 0 , Drake, Sir Francis 7 3 - 4 , 109,
33 Bretigny, Treaty of (1360) 44 35, 36, 41, 49, 53, 61, 62, 65, 142
Argentina 173 Bretons 53, 55 69, 70, 85, 9 4 - 9 5 , 99, 105, Druids 8, 19
Armada, Spanish 43, 54, 7 3 - Bristol 74, 103, 106, 125, 177 152, 155 D u b l i n 20, 32, 97, 113, 163
74, 98, 1 8 2 - 3 Britain, Great, new state of C e l t i c C h u r c h 14, 15, 21, 32 Dunkirk 166
army, British 9 2 - 3 , 97, 109, (1707) 96 C h u r c h of England 69, 88, D u r h a m , Lord 148
112, 113, 1 2 8 - 9 , 1 4 5 - 6 , 1 5 9 - Brittany 44 9 3 - 5 , 99, 123. 124, 139, 140, D u t c h 73, 75, 87, 97
60, 1 6 6 - 7 , 172, 173, 175 Britons, A n c i e n t 21 141, 152
Arthur, King 6, 45, 65, 75 Bronze A g e 6 - 7 R o m a n C h u r c h see also earl 13
Arthur, Prince of Wales 75 Bruce, Robert 3 2 - 3 C a t h o l i c i s m 14 east Africa 177
A r t s and Crafts Movement 155 Brunei, Isambard Kingdom 139 C h u r c h i l l , W i n s t o n Spencer East A n g l i a 12, 48, 92
Atlantic Charter 168 Buckingham 134 1 6 6 - 6 9 , 174 East India Company 7 5 , 9 7 , I J O
Augustine, S t 13, 14 duke of 55 civil law 35 East Indies 75, 108
Auld A l l i a n c e 43, 44, 56, 77, Buckingham Palace 172 C i v i l W a r ( 1 6 4 2 - 4 5 ) 90, 91, Easter Rising (1916) 163
96 Bunyan, John 99 95 Eastland Company 75
Australia 75, 116, 132, 148, burgh, borough 16 clans 21, 32, 56, 77, 113, 116 Edinburgh 21, 44, 56, 61, 113,
153 Burgundy, duke of 44, 53, 55 C n u t , K i n g 16 116, 149
Austria 27, 109, 131, 142, 165 Burghley, Lord 80 coffeehouses 104 Education A c t s 151
Austria-Hungary 157 Burke, Edmund 1 1 2 - 3 , 128 C o k e , S i r Edward 88 Edward the Confessor 1 6 - 1 7 ,
Avignon, popes of 49 Burma 167 C o l u m b a , S t 20, 21 18, 34
Axis, ( 1 9 3 9 - 4 5 ) 1 6 6 - 1 6 8 Byron, Robert 142 C o m m o n s , House of 31, 61, 79, Edward 1 3 0 - 4 , 39, 43, 52, 57
80, 87, 88, 92, 125, 135, 141, Edward II 3 2 - 3 , 4 3 , 5 1
B B C 171 cabinet govemment 108 143, 156 Edward 111 33, 44, 45, 4 8 - 9 ,
Bacon, Francis 99 Cadbury, A r t h u r 154 C o l d W a r 174 51, 61, 64
Bacon, Roger 99 Cadiz 74 C o m m o n w e a l t h , British 148, Edward I V (Duke of York) 55,
Balkans 132 C a e m a r f o n 32, 52 168, 171, 172, 173 56
Balliol, John de 3 2 - 3 3 Caesar, Julius 7, 8 communism 162 Edward V 55
Bank of England 108, 169 Calais 44, 53, 60 Concorde 176 Edward V I 70, 71, 77, 79

185
Index

Edward V I I 148 G a u n t , J o h n of 51, 55 Highlands, Scottish 20, 22, 32, K e n t 3, I I , 13, 4 8 , 6 3 , 71, 103
Edward V I I I 171 general strike (1926) 164 56, 116 Kenya 172
Egypt 128, 146, 147, 169 Geoffrey of Monmouth 5 hiUforts 6, 7, 8 Keynes, John Maynard 161, 164
ejstedd/ods 76 Geoffrey Plantagenet, duke of Hillsborough Agreement (1985) K i r k , the Scottish 77, 78, 8 8 -
Einstein, Albert 100 A n j o u 26 175 9, 96, 137
Eleanor of Aquitaine 26 George 1 107, 108 Hitler, A d o l f 164, 1 6 5 - 6 Korea, North and South 168
Elizabeth I 67, 70, 7 2 - 4 , 76, George 111 109, 1 1 0 - 1 , 113 Holland see ako Netherlands and
77, 7 9 - 8 0 , 84, 87, 89, 118 George V 148, 156, 171 Low Countries 95, 97, 117 Labour Exchanges 155
Elizabeth II 172 George V I 172 Holy L a n d 25 Labour movement 125, 162,
empire, British 7 4 - 5 , 107, 129, G e r m a n i c groups 9 - 1 1 H o l y R o m a n Empire 68, 69, 98 169
1 4 5 - 8 , 1 7 1 - 2 , 174 G e r m a n y 14, 15, 39, 69, 78, homage 2 4 - 2 5 Labour Party 143, 156, 159, .
electoral politics 110, 134, 143, 132, 143, 150, 1 5 6 - 7 , 1 5 9 - H o n g K o n g 173 1 6 1 - 2 , 164, 1 6 9 - 7 0 , 176, :•.
1 6 1 - 3 , 176, 1 8 0 - 2 61, 164, 1 6 5 - 7 , 172 Hooke, Robert 99 179, 180, 182
enclosures 8 1 - 2 , 107, 1 1 6 - 7 , G e r m a n language 108 Howard, Catherine 6 8 Lancashire 114, 123, 138, 152,
118 Gibraltar 97, 173 Huguenots 99 165
Engels, Friedrich 1 6 1 - 2 Gladstone, W i l l i a m 141, 143, H u n d r e d Years W a r 44, 53, 56, Lancastrians 52, 55
Erasmus 85 148, 180 68, 173 Langland, W i l l i a m 64
Ethelred, K i n g 16 Glasgow 56, 61, 107, 116, 134, L a t i n 8, 1 5 , 4 1 , 49
E t o n College 55, 65 149, 153 Laud, W i l l i a m 89
Ice Age 3, 4
Europe 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 13, Glorious Revolution 95, 108, law and justice 15, 3 5 - 6 , 61,
immigration, immigtants 39,
15, 29, 31, 40, 41, 43, 59, 68, 182-3 68, 110
40, 98, 177, 178, 184
69, 73, 88, 97, 101, 103, 114, G l y n d w r , O w a i n 52 schools 61
India 75, 97, 109, 110, 117,
117, 120, 121, 123, 127, 1 2 8 - govemment, Saxon 12 League of Nations 166, 168,
129, 138, 1 4 5 - 8 , 153, 167,
9, 131, 132, 136, 138, 145, V i k i n g 16 172
172, 1 7 7 - 8
1 5 5 - 7 , 159, 161, 164, 165, early Middle Ages 23, 31, Leicester 9, 177
Indian Mutiny 145
1 6 6 - 8 , 1 7 0 - 1 , 173, 174, 175, 34-5 earl of 30
Industrial Revolution 107, 1 2 1 -
183 late Middle Ages 57 Leinster 19, 20
9, 137, 162, 178, 180
Evangelicalism 137 T u d o r 69, 7 9 - 8 0 Levant Company 75
industry 48, 84, 1 2 1 - 3 , 130,
Stuart 9 4 - 5 Levellers 93, 98, 184
136, 154, 162, 164, 165, 169,
Factory A c t , First (1833) 125 eighteenth century 1 0 8 - 9 Liberals 128, 134, 140, 141,
178, 180
Falklands 173, 180 nineteenth century 136 142, 143, 149, 150, 1 5 5 - 6 ,
Ireland ( a n d the Irish) 5, 7, 8,
family life 6 2 - 3 , 8 4 - 5 , 105, twentieth century 1 5 5 - 6 , 162, 179, 180
9, 14, 15, 18, 1 9 - 2 1 , 32, 43,
119-20, 136-7 169-70, 179-82 Lindisfame Gospel 14
7 4 - 6 , 90, 93, 96, 97, 104,
Far East 109, 166, 168 local govemment 12, 13, 5 7 - Liverpool 107, 111, 114, 171,
113, 143, 1 4 9 - 5 0 , 153, 163,
Fairfax, G e n e r a l 91 8, 61, 72, 8 2 - 3 , 1 5 2 - 3 177
175, 183
fascists, fascism 1 6 5 - 6 G r e a t E x h i b i t i o n (1851) 138, Llewelyn ap Gruffydd 30, 32
Irish Free State 163
Fawkes, G u y 89 1 5 5 - 6 , 170 Locke, John 95
Iron A g e 6
feudalism 2 3 - 5 , 28, 31, 32, 33, G r e e b 142 Lollardy 4 9 - 5 0
Israel 169
39, 43 Gregory the Great, Pope 13 London 9, 10, 15, 16, 17, 21,
Italy 68, 79, 142, 1 6 5 - 7 , 177
F i a n n a Fail 164 G r e y , S i r Edward 157 28,41, 71,81,82,84,91,95,
First W o r l d W a r ( 1 9 1 4 - 1 8 ) G r e y , Lady Jane 71 103, 111, 113, 114, 115, 117,
1 5 9 - 6 1 , 163, 167, 169, 172, G r e y , L o r d 134 Jacobinism 128
118, 128, 134, 138, 1 6 5 - 7 ,
173 Gruffydd ap Llewelyn 18 Jacobites 108, 113
172, 175
Flanders 44, 48, 60, 61 guilds 4 0 - 4 1 , 76 James I (of Scotland) 56
Docklands 181
Flemings 40, 48, 56, 83 James 11 (of Scotland) 56
Tower of 43, 55, 82, 85, 111,
Flodden, battle of (1513) 77 James I I I (of Scotland) 56
Hadrian, Emperor 9 Underground 158
Fox, Charles James 128 James I V (of Scotland) 77
Halley, E d m u n d 100 Londonderry 76, 96, 97
France ( a n d the French) 15, 16, James V (of Scotland) 77
Hanseatic League 68 longbow 44
17, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, James V I (of Scotland) and 1 (of
Harold, K i n g 17 L o r d Mayor of London 41
34, 39, 40, 43, 44, 49, 52, 53, Harvey, W i l l i a m 99 England) 77, 78, 8 7 - 9 0 , 93,
Lord Mayor's Show 183
56, 61, 67, 68, 69, 72, 73, 77, Hastings, batde of (1066) 12, 96, 98
L o r d Protector 92, 93
78, 93, 96, 97, 98, 107, 1 0 8 - 17 James V I I (of Scotland) and II
Lords, House of 31, 40, 7 9 , 8 0 ,
10, 113, 121, 123, 1 2 5 - 9 , (of England) 9 4 - 9 7 , 108, 113
H a w k i n s , S i r J o h n 73, 74 92, 93, 134, 143, 156 ,
131, 132, 134, 136, 137, 138, James I I I , the O l d
Hanover 96, 107, 110 Louis X I V (of France) 93-, 97,
142, 157, 1 5 9 - 6 1 , 165, 1 6 6 - Pretender 108
Hebrides 21 99
8, 173 henges 5, 6 Jellicoe, A d m i r a l 160
Low Countries see ako Holland,
French language 41, 64 Henry 1 25, 26, 29, 31, 34, 35, Jews 39, 99, 114, 143, 1 6 6 - 7
Netherlands 39, 40, 68, 128,
Franks 9, 15 99, 108 Exchequer of 39
157
Frederick of Prussia 111 jingoism 148
H e n r y II 22, 26, 27, 29, 32, 35, Lowlands, Scottish 20, 56, 90,
French Revolution 125, 1 2 8 - J o h n , K i n g 2 7 - 8 , 2 9 - 3 0 , 37
36 113, 116, 149
129, 134 Johnson, Samuel 114
H e n r y I I I 30, 35 Loyalists, Ulster 183
Frobisher, Martin 73 Jonson, B e n 85
H e n r y I V (duke of Lancaster) Luddites 123
Fry, Elizabeth 125 jury system 36
5 0 - 3 , 55
Justice, C h i e f 88
H e n r y V 53, 54 M a c D o n a l d , Ramsay 179
Gallipoli 160 justices of the peace (JPs) 61,
Henry V I 5 3 , 5 5 , 6 5 Macmillan, Harold 172
G a n d h i , Mahatma 172 62, 80, 81, 82, 83, 104, 151
H e n r y V I I (Tudor) 55, 57, 6 7 - Magna C a r t a (1215) 28, 29, 30,
Garter, Order of the 45 Jutes 11, 85
9, 73, 75, 7 7 - 9 31, 88
Knights of the 183 H e n r y V I I I 67, 6 8 - 7 0 , 73, 7 5 - Jutland, battle of (1916) 160
Malaya (Malaysia) 167
Gascony 4 0 , 44, 53 7, 79, 82, 84, 87 Malplaquet, battle of (1709) 97
G a u l 8, 9 Highlanders 21, 77, 96, 111, Katherine of Valois 53 Manchester 84, 107, 114, 123,
Gaulle, G e n e r a l de 173 113, 1 4 9 - 5 0 Kells, The Book of 19 134, 143, 161

186
 Index

manor 13 N o r t h A t l a n t i c Treaty potato famine ( 1 8 4 5 - 7 ) 149 Settlement, A c t of (1701) 96

March, earl of 51, 52 Organisation ( N A T O ) 168 Pre-Raphaelites 155 Seymour, Jane 70
Margaret of Scotland 33 N o r t h e m Iteland see also Presbyterians 89, 95, 105 Shakespeare, W i l l i a m 55, 85
Margaret, daughter of Henry Ulster 150, 163, 164, 175, 183 Protectorate 93, 104 Sheffield 114, 128, 133, 134
V I I 77 Northumbria 12, 14, 20 Protestantism, Protestants 6 9 - shires 12, 31
Marlborough, duke of 97 Nottingham 12, 37, 91, 128 72, 76, 7 7 - 7 9 , 85, 89, 90, 93, shire reeve (sheriff) 12
Marlee, W i l l i a m 99 Norway 15, 21, 39 95, 96, 97, 9 8 - 9 , 105, 107, Sidney, A l g e r n o n 95
Marlowe, Christopher 85 113, 149, 150, 154, 174, 175, Sidney, S i r Philip 85
Marshall A i d Programme 170 O c k h a m , W i l l i a m of 99 183 Singapore 131, 167
Marx, Kari 161, 162 Offa, king of Mercia 12, 14 Prussia 109, 129, 131 slavery 74, 97, 120, 125, 154
Mary, queen of Scots 72, 77, Dyke 12, 18 Puritans 84, 9 2 - 5 , 98, 120, 125 S m i t h , A d a m 154
78 O p i u m W a r s 145 Pyrenees 26 Social Democratic Party 179
Mary Stuart, queen 9 5 - 6 Orange Lodges 113 Somme, battle of the (1916)
Mary Tudor, queen 7 0 - 2 , 73, Orange see W i l l i a m of Quakers 98, 99, 102, 105, 114, 160
79 ordeal, trial by 3 5 - 6 115, 119, 154, 160 South A f r i c a 157, 146
Matilda, Queen 26, 71 Orkney Islands 4, 5, 21 Quebec 109 South A m e r i c a see also
Mayflower 99 Orleans, duke of 43 A m e r i c a 73, 74, 109
Mediterranean 48, 97, 131, 152 O t t o m a n Empire see also radicals 112, 128, 134, 135, South S e a C o m p a n y (and
Merchant Adventuters 60, 75 Turkey 145, 157 143, 149, 162 Bubble) 108
Mercia 12 Oudenarde, battle of (1708) 97 railway 1 3 8 - 9 Soviet U n i o n see also
Methodism, Methodists 107, O w e n , Robert 154 Raleigh, S i r Walter 74, 85 Russia 159, 167, 168, 174
121, 1 2 4 - 5 , 137 Oxford 40, 41, 49, 61, 65, 99, Ramillies, battle of (1706) 97 S p a m 67, 68, 69, 71, 72, 73,
middle classes 61, 125, 139, 100, 151, 162 Reform B i l l (1832) 134, 142, 77, 78, 84, 85, 97, 98, 109,
140, 143, 152, 156, 1 6 1 - 2 , Oxfordshire 83 143 128, 129, 142, 159, 165, 173,
164, 165 (1867) 167 177
Middle East 138, 145, 160, 167, Paine, T o m 112, 128 Reformation 68, 6 9 - 7 2 , 76, Speenhamland A c t (1795) 118
172, 173 Pakistan 1 4 2 - 3 , 177 7 7 - 7 9 , 85, 105 Spenser, Edmund 76, 85
Midlands I I , 85, 107, 114, Pale 32 Renaissance, 12th century 41 Staple, C o m p a n y of the 60
122, 123, 133, 134, 165, 182 Palestine 160, 172 15th/16th century 79, 85 Star C h a m b e t , Court of 68
Mill, John Stuart 162 Palmerston 1 4 2 - 3 , 180 R i c h a r d 1 (Coeur de L i o n ) 2 7 - Stephen of Blois 26
Mdton, John 99 Parliament see also C o m m o n s 8, 40, 53 Stonehenge 2, 5, 6
Montfort, Simon de 30, 31 and Lords 28, 3 0 - 1 , 39, 43, R i c h a r d II 51 Strathclyde 20
More, Sir Thomas 68, 85 47, 61, 67, 69, 70, 71, 76, 79, R i c h a r d 111, duke of Stuarts 8 7 - 1 0 5 , 107, 108, 113
Muslims 25, 27, 145, 172 82, 8 7 , 8 8 - 9 0 , 9 1 , 9 2 - 6 , 107, Gloucester 55, 57 Sudan 146, 147
Mussolini, Benito 166 108, 110, 111, 114, 117, 125, Right, Petition of (1628) 89 Suez C a n a l 147, 157, 167, 169,
134, 141, 143, 156, 1 6 1 - 2 , Rights, B i l l of (1689) 95 172
163, 180, 1 8 2 - 3 Robert of Normandy 25, 26 suffragettes 1 6 2 - 3
Napoleon Bonaparte 107, 127, Parliament A c t of 1911 156 Romans 4, 6, 7 - 1 0 , 13, 15 Supremacy, A c t of (1534) 69
128-9, 131, 157, 161 Members of ( M P s ) 79, 80, R o m e see abo C h u r c h ,
Napoleonic Wars 1 2 5 - 9 , 88, 92, 93, 94, 95, 110, 117, R o m a n 33, 49, 79 T a r a 5, 19
132, 173 135, 143, 149, 156, 161, Roundheads 91 T e s t A c t (1673) 94
Naseby, battle of (1645) 91 179-82 R o y a l Society 99, 100 T h a t c h e r , Margaret 174, 179,
National Assistance A c t Speaker of 80 Royalists 91 183
(1948) 169 State O p e n i n g of 183 rural life 10, 1 2 - 1 3 , 3 7 - 3 8 , T h i r t y Years W a r ( 1 6 1 8 - 4 8 )
navy 7 3 - 7 5 , 107, 109, 127, P a m e l l , Charles 150 47, 57, 60, 8 0 - 8 1 , 1 1 6 - 8 88, 101
128-9, 131, 157, 160 Parr, Catherine 70 Russia see also Soviet U n i o n 3, Tolpuddle Martyrs 134, 154,
Nelson, Horatio Lord 1 2 6 - 7 , Passehendaele, battle of 6, 20, 129, 131, 132, 1 4 2 - 3 , 182
128-9 (1917) 160 157, 160, 162, 165, 174 Tories see also Conservative
Nightingale, Florence 145 Peasants' Revolt 4 8 - 9 , 50 Party 9 4 - 5 , 1 0 7 - 8 , 113, 128,
National Health Service 169 Peel, Sit Robett 136, 141, 142, S t Paul's C a t h e d r a l 100 134, 140, 141, 142, 143, 149,
Neolithic 4, 5 143 Salvation A r m y 155 150
Netherlands see also Ho llan d , P e n n , W i l l i a m 105, 119 Sarajevo 157 town and city life 8, 9, 16, 39,
Low Countries 56, 68, 73, 85, People's C h a t t e r (1838) 135 Saxons 9, 1 1 - 1 7 , 21, 23, 32, 40, 41, 5 7 - 9 , 61, 82, 103,
97v 98 Philip II (of Spain) 71, 72, 73, 35, 37, 75, 85 114, 140
New Liberals 1 5 5 - 6 , 169 74, 79 S c a n d i n a v i a 39, 75, 78 trade unions 125, 1 3 4 - 5 , 143,
New Stone Age see Neo lith ic Picts 20, 21 schools, boarding 120, 137 159, 161, 162, 164
New Zealand 148, 153 Pilgrim Fathers 99 elementary 151 Trades U n i o n Congress 143,
Newcastle 40, 84, 103, 154 Pilgrimage of G r a c e (1539) 82 grammar 41, 85 164
duke of 115 Pitt the Elder, W i l l i a m see public 140, 156 Trafalgar, battle of (1805) 1 2 6 -
newspapets 101, 1 1 1 - 1 2 , 145, Chatham Scotland (and Scots) 4, 5, 7, 8, 7, 128
160, 169 Pitt the Younger, W i l l i a m 127, 9, 11, 14, 18, 2 0 - 2 1 , 23, 32, Troyes 53
Newton, Sir Isaac 100 128 4 3 - 4 , 48, 52, 56, 61, 67, 7 2 - Tudors 65, 6 7 - 8 6 , 87, 104,
Nonconformists 95, 99, 114, Plaid C y m m 176 3, 75, 8 8 - 9 , 90, 92, 93, 95, 105, 117, 159
120, 125, 140, 141, 149 Prime Minister, origins 108 96, 98, 105, 113, 114, 116, T u l l , Jethro 117
Nonnan 13, 16, 17, 20, 23, 25, Poitiers, battle of (1356) 44 134, 138, 143, 149, 151, 153, Turkey see also Ottoman
26, 31, 32, 35, 37, 38, 39, 52, police 136, 164, 180 154, 176, 1 8 2 - 3 Empire 131, 132, 142, 145,
184 Poor Laws 83, 118, 132 Scottish Nationalist Party 176, 160
Normandy 16, 17, 25, 28, 34, Pope, Alexander 100 182 T y l e r , W a t 48, 49, 50
37, 40, 44, 53 population 10, 38, 46, 48, 8 0 - Second W o r l d W a r ( 1 9 3 9 -
Norsemen 21 1, 84, 103, 1 1 4 - 5 , 131, 133, 45) 101, 159, 1 6 6 - 7 , 169, Ulster 5, 18, 19, 76, 90, 97,
North Africa 4, 167 134, 141, 149, 150 173 113, 163, 175

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Index

U n i o n A c t , England and 7, 11, 12, 13, 14, 18, 19, 21, West Indies 97, 1 0 8 - 9 , 117, 105, 1 1 9 - 2 0 , 135, 137, 161,
Scotland (1707) 96 23, 31, 32, 43, 44, 48, 52, 61, 125, 153, 177 1 6 2 - 3 , 178, 182, 184
U n i t e d Nations 168, 172, 173 75, 76, 79, 81, 114, 134, 135, Westminster 15, 16, 17, 23, 25, working classes 149, 153, 156,
Security C o u n c i l 168 143, 149, 151, 153, 165, 175, 34, 35, 51, 90, 117, 183 161, 162, 164, 165, 171
U n i t e d States see also 178, 183 W h i g s 94, 95, 108, 110, 128, W r e n , Sir Christopher 100, 101
A m e r i c a 35, 149, 150, 156, Prince of 30, 32, 52, 75, 144 134, 141, 142 Wyatt, Thomas 71
157, 159, 1 6 5 - 7 , 168, 1 6 9 - W a l l a c e , W i l l i a m 33,'52 W h i t b y , Synod of (663) 14, 21 Wycliffe, John 49, 61
70, 173, 174, 183 Watpole, Robert 1 0 8 - 9 W i l k e s , J o h n 1 1 0 - 2 , 125 W y k e h a m , W i l l i a m of 65
universities 41, 56, 61, 65, 151 Warsaw Pact 168 W i l k i n s o n , John 121
Utrecht, Treaty of (1713) 97 Waterloo, battle of (1815) 129, W i l l i a m 1 (the Conqueror) 17, yeomanry regiments 128
156 23, 25, 28, 29, 34, 36 yeomen 47, 58, 81, 84, 104,
V a l e r a , E a m o n de 164 W a t t , James 121, 123 W i l l i a m 11, Rufus 25, 29 128
Versailles, Treaty of (1919) 161 W e b b , Beatrice 162 W i l l i a m of Orange 87, 95, 97, Yotk 9, 10, 23, 30, 123 '•
Victoria, Q u e e n 137, 138, 144, W e b b , Sidney 152 113 duke of 55
148, 171 Wedgwood, Josiah 123 W i l s o n , Woodrow 172 Yorkists 52, 55
Vikings 1 5 - 1 7 , 20, 21, 32, 39, welfare state 1 5 5 - 6 , 1 6 9 - 7 0 Winchester 9, 25, 34, 64 Yorkshire 4, 37, 48, 70, 114,
85 W e l l i n g t o n , duke of 1 2 8 - 9 Windsor 45, 183 152
Wesley, J o h n 1 2 3 - 5 Witart 12, 16
voting see electoral poUtics Wessex 12, 15, 17, 21 Wolsey. C a r d i n a l 69, 70 Zimbabwe 173
west A f r i c a 107, 109 women 8, 60, 6 2 - 3 , 8 4 - 5 , Zulus 147
Wales (and the W e l s h ) 3,4,5,

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