Instrumentation Mesure Métrologie

Vol. 19, No. 5, October, 2020, pp. 371-378

Journal homepage: http://iieta.org/journals/i2m

Brief on Solar Concentrators: Differences and Applications

Mokhtar Ghodbane1*, Djamel Benmenine2, Abderrahmane Khechekhouche3, Boussad Boumeddane1
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Technology, Saad Dahlab University of Blida 1, Blida 09000, Algeria
2
Laboratory for the Development of New and Renewable Energies in Arid Zones (LENREZA), Kasdi Merbah University of
Ouargla, Ouargla 30000, Algeria
3
Algeria Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Technology, El-Oued University, El-Oued 39000, Algeria

Corresponding Author Email: m_ghodbane@univ-blida.dz

https://doi.org/10.18280/i2m.190507 ABSTRACT

Received: 17 July 2020 In light of the global crises that the world suffers from, the renewable energy exploitation
Accepted: 22 September 2020 is a viable solution to remedy the various energy crises, knowing that renewable energy is
a source of environmental credibility, as it does not cause any pollution or any emissions
Keywords: harmful to the environment. Among the most important renewable energy sources, solar
renewable energy, solar energy, point solar energy is the most important type as it can be exploited thermally by adopting various
concentrators, linear solar concentrators solar collectors, especially solar concentrators. This paper has been devoted to illustrate
the types of solar concentrators, namely point-focus concentrators (Heliostat Field
Collectors and Parabolic Dish Collectors) and linear concentrators (Linear Fresnel
Reflectors and Parabolic Trough Collectors), in an attempt to clarify its principle and its
multiple uses domestically and industrially, especially in areas that are characterized by
the abundance of its direct solar radiation. The solar concentrator is a solar thermal energy
concentration system, because its use reduces the consumption of fossil fuels harmful to
the environment and directly contributes to climate change. Solar thermal concentrators
are an effective alternative to fossil generators for thermal energy, as they have many
important uses such as the solar electricity production of solar electricity in power plants,
industrial and domestic water heating, and have many other industrial uses.

1. INTRODUCTION applications such as electricity production [14, 15], heating

water [8, 16-19], water desalination and purification [6],
In view of the strong global demand for energy for multiple cooling and air conditioning systems [20, 21], industrial uses
needs in many fields and in an effort to preserve the [22-24] and agricultural applications [25]. For example, solar
environment from pollution and harmful emissions, the electricity is generated when the concentrated solar radiation
necessity of finding clean alternative energy sources has is converted into heat [26], which drives a steam turbine
become a very important priority and a goal in the primary for connected to an electric power generator or a thermochemical
the advancement of sustainable development and global reaction [27-29].
energy transformation. Therefore, in order to achieve global Thermodynamic systems with solar concentrators depend
energy sufficiency with environmentally friendly foundations, on the use of a set of reflective mirrors that direct the beam
renewable energy is the most important alternative sources [1- radiation towards an absorber tube or a point focus through
3], as they are the core of the energy transformation from which the working fluid passes. Then, the heat is transferred
traditional sources to clean and environmentally friendly to the working fluid by convection. To achieve this, reflective
renewable sources that are characterized by their sustainable mirrors must follow the movement of the sun daily from
nature. sunrise to sunset in order to focus direct solar radiation on a
Solar energy is the most important source of renewable point and linear focus, and then a convective heat exchange
energy, where it can be exploited thermally and occurs between the receiver interior wall and the fluid that
photovoltaically by using multiple solar collectors [4], moves inside. As shown in Figure 1, the most promising sites
Knowing that, the performance of solar collectors can be for the establishment of concentrated thermodynamic solar
improved by dispersing nanoparticles within the working fluid power plants are very numerous, they are particularly located
[5-9], because the dispersed nanoparticles inside the working in North Africa, in the Mediterranean countries, in the Near
fluid improve the thermal transfer coefficients of the base fluid and Middle East, in Australia, in the South-West of the United
[10]. There are several techniques for using solar energy States. United, India or Central Asia.
thermally, the most important of which is the use of Thermodynamic systems with solar concentrators cover all
thermodynamic systems with solar concentrators that are technologies aimed at converting direct normal irradiance
considered the most important in the world [9, 11-14], as these “DNI, (W.m-2)” to a high temperature by specific solar
systems generate solar energy using mirrors or lenses to focus concentrators, and then this high heat is exploited in several
a large amount of beam radiation on a small area in order to areas the most important of which is electricity production.
exploit the heat flux intensity later in several industrial Generally, solar concentrators are divided into two categories:

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 • Point solar concentrators; Moreover, Horace Bénédict de Saussure in the 1780s
• Linear solar concentrators. invented the sun-thermometer (HELIOTHERMOMETER) to
study the calorific effects of the sun's rays [31]. It looks like
This study aims to briefly define the families of the various hot boxes with insulated walls and one or more stained glass
solar concentrates, which are known to be widely used windows. In addition, he thus creates the first thermal solar
globally in many areas, both domestic and industrial. collectors at low temperature.

Figure 1. Map of suitable areas for concentrated

thermodynamic solar power plants [30]

Figure 3. Antoine Laurent de Lavoisier's solar furnace [34]

2. SOLAR CONCENTRATORS
In addition, the hot air engine was invented by Robert
The solar concentration origin goes back to a very old time Stirling in 1816, where today it is called the 4-stroke Stirling
when it was used by the Greeks in the 8 th BC, to light the first engine [35].
torch of the ancient Olympic games (776 BC) [31], where it Augustin Mouchot developed many inventions during the
was illuminated by sunlight using the parabolic mirror XIXth century such as solar distillation, solar cooking, solar
(SKAPHIA). Five centuries later, coinciding with the attack of pasteurization, solar pumping and the parabolic concentrator
the Romans and their siege of Syracuse (Sicily), Archimedes feeding thermal machines, where he won the gold medal at the
had reused the fire mirror invention (Figure 2), since he had Universal Exhibition of 1878 with a solar reflector (5 meters
developed giant polished bronze mirrors to reflect the sun rays in diameter) associated with a steam engine which operates a
and then focused on the Roman fleet ships to burn its sails. In printing press [25].
Europe (1515), Leonardo da Vinci proposed the idea of Also, the physicist James Dewar in 1893 discovered the
designing a Compact Linear Fresnel Reflector (CLFR), but thermos effect according to the vacuum flask principle with
according to what has been reported in the literature, his study two walls separated by an air space in order to ensure almost
of this system remained only an idea on paper and was not perfect insulation [36], where this principle subsequently
supported by experimental work [31], as he said that this allowed the development of solar collectors. thermal vacuum
system is valid for many industrial uses [32]. Almost 450 years tubes.
after its invention by Leonardo da Vinci (exactly in 1963), the From 1906 to 1911, Frank Shuman designed some solar
first CLFR (Compact Linear Fresnel Reflector) system was engine, while the physicist Charles Vernon Boys designed and
installed by Giovanni Francia and Marcel Perrot in Marseille. implemented a parabolic trough collector in 1912. As shown
in Figure 4, F. Shuman and Charles Vernon Boys built an
industrial-scale thermo-solar plant in Egypt (in 1913) to
electrify the watering pumps [25].

Figure 2. One of Archimedes' fiery mirrors [33]

Figure 4. Solar Irrigation Installation for Shuman-Boys
In order to melt metals at 1800℃, Antoine Laurent de (Egypt 1913) [37]
Lavoisier invented a solar furnace made up of converging
lenses in 1774 (Figure 3).

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 In 1949, Félix Trombe built in Mont Louis a solar oven • Indirect steam production system with molten salt
(huge parabolic mirror) in Mont-Louis with a power of 50 kW as working fluid;
which allows to reach 3000℃ at its point of concentration [38]. • Direct steam production system with water/steam
Then, F. Trombe designed a large-scale solar furnace in the as working fluid.
world at Font-Romeu-Odeillo-Via between 1962–1968.
In 1983, Electricity of France (EDF) inaugurated the first The major advantages of this technology are:
French tower power plant (THÉMIS solar plant (Figure 5)), • The fairly acceptable conversion efficiency due to
but because of France having chosen to develop only the the high temperatures reached at the HFC focal
nuclear sector, this solar station closed in 1986 [39], to reopen point;
in 2004 as a research and development center dedicated to • A very noticeable reduction in thermal losses to the
solar energy. environment is displayed due to the limited
reflection surface of the heliostats;
• The possibility of coupling the capture of solar
energy to an energy storage device in the form of
sensible heat.

On the other hand, tower plants with molten salts have the
disadvantage mainly due to the high solidification temperature
of the molten salts (about 255℃), where this imposes a
permanent heat supply to the pipes of the low temperature
network in order to avoid the problems caused by solid plugs.
This technology is known to be one of the most promising
technologies for solar power generation in the mid-power
range. These systems have already proven their ability to
generate clean electricity with a size of 20 MWe in Spain,
Figure 5. THÉMIS solar power plant in France (42°30’05” while the SPT plant with 100 MWe is under construction in
N, 1°58’27” E) [40] the United States [43]. Based on the studies reported in the
literature, the heat fluid for this technique varies between 150
At the end of the twentieth century, many solar power plants and 2000℃ [44]. Regarding the progress in HFCs
and solar furnaces were launched in many parts of the world, development, Pfahl et al. discussed it in detail in their valuable
as numerous parabolic trough collector power plants were paper [42].
created in the United States between 1985 to 1991 [3].
Therefore, solar energy concentration allows to obtain very
practical temperatures suitable for use in many domestic and
industrial fields, where the concentrated solar technology is of
great interest as it is an efficient and adequate way to meet the
ever-growing demand for solar electricity on a global scale.
The solar concentrators receive beam radiation using a
perfectly reflective surface and a tracking system, then direct
it to a reduced surface receiver by refractions through prisms
or lenses or through multiple reflections on mirrors.
All the technologies used in concentrated solar power are
based on the two modes of point and linear concentration. So,
there are four mainly developed technologies which are
represented as follows:
• Heliostat field collectors (HFCs);
• Parabolic dish collectors (PDCs); Figure 6. Heliostat field collector schematic [2, 3]
• Linear Fresnel solar reflectors (LFRs);
• Parabolic trough collectors (PTCs). 2.1.2 Parabolic dish collectors (PDCs)
As for the parabolic dish collectors (PDCs), they are small
2.1 Point solar concentrators solar energy conversion units compared to other CSP systems
(HFCs, PTCs and LFRs) [2, 3]. The typical PDC system sizes
2.1.1 Heliostat field collectors (HFCs) are generally between 5 kW and 25 kWe. Figure 7 illustrates a
As shown in Figure 6, the heliostat field collectors (HFCs) PDC solar collector. For information, the largest parabolic
consists of thousands of reflective mirrors equipped with a sun dish collector has been designed and implemented in Australia
tracking system in two axes of rotation to focus the beam with a reflective surface of 489 m²and a focal length of 13.4
radiation on a central receiver placed at the top of the tower [2, meter. The major advantages of PDCs technology are:
3, 41]. • Possibility of installation on all types of ground
This type of thermal power plant displays four types without flatness constraint of the ground;
classified according to the energy production mode as well as • Strong adaptation to stand-alone and isolated
the working fluid used [42], they are: applications;
• Atmospheric air system; • Modularity of the system and possibility of
• Hybrid pressurized air system; integrating thermal storage with high efficiency;

373
 • It has a high conversion efficiency compared to all Regarding Stirling engines, they are classified into three
types of concentrating solar systems (point and categories:
linear). • Alpha engines: they have two separate cylinders,
But the investment and operation costs are somewhat high in each of which there is a hermetic piston. The
compared to other types of solar concentrators. In addition, the variations in hot and cold volumes are created
permanent focusing of the solar spot at the PDC focus requires separately by the movements of separate pistons;
very suitable positioning and regulation, which in the event of • Beta engines in which the displacement piston and
failure causes a rapid drop in PDC efficiency. the working piston are in tandem (in the same
body), as the cycle is accomplished by the
combined action of the two pistons;
• The gamma engine is an assembly of the previous
two engines (Alpha and Beta), where it consists of
two cylinders as in the alpha engine but the
variable volumes (hot and cold) are created in the
same way as in the beta engine.

Concerning the PDCs uses in concentrating solar power,

Coventry and Andraka touched on it in detail in their sober
paper [47].

2.2 Linear solar concentrators

2.2.1 Linear Fresnel solar reflectors (LFRs)

As shown in Figure 8, the LFR operating principle lies in its
flat mirrors, where each of these mirrors can be rotated
following the sun path to constantly redirect and focus the
beam radiation towards a receiver pipe, as the working fluid is
heated while circulating in this horizontal tube [5, 48].
This technology is named after the French scientist
Augustin-Jean Fresnel, who invented Fresnel's objective in the
eighteenth century for lighthouses [19, 49, 50]. His idea was
to grind a conventional convex lens on a multi-section lens to
obtain a cheaper and lighter lens, which can send the light rays
correctly in a given direction [19, 49, 50]. The main idea of the
LFR technology was inspired by the Fresnel lens to divide a
parabolic mirror into a series of reflecting mirrors to focus the
collimated rays on a focal point or line, depending on whether
the reflectors are circular or linear.

Figure 7. Parabolic dish collector schematic [2, 3]

The PDC local concentration ratio (LCR) in the absorber

point is very important and has a significant role in total
thermal performance of the PDC system. For this reason, the
proper design of this focal point and the good choice of its
location are very important and vital factor. Therefore, many
recent scientific studies focus on improving the focus point
design of the PDC [45, 46]. In addition, the PDC technology
can be connected with Stirling engine, where Advanco
Corporation developed Dish/Stirling solar concentrating Figure 8. First LFR prototype of Francia: a) Design of the
technology between 1984 and 1988. While the 25 kW LFR patent, patent N °18634. b) LFR building in Italy, c)
Dish/Stirling system is developed by McDonnell Douglas LFR tests in France [20]
Aerospace Corporation (MDA), the 50kW system and 9 kW
system are developed by Schlaich Bergermann and Partner The history of the first LFR prototype dates back to 1962
(SBP) [46]. Based on the studies reported in the literature, the before Giovanni Francia filed a patent for technology in 1963
heat fluid for this point receivers varies between 100 and in Italy. The first LFR prototype was built in Genoa and tested
1500℃ [44]. Generally, the PDC has been used as a heat a year later at the solar station of Lacedaemon-Marseille,
generator for Stirling engines, where its reflective surface France by Francia and her colleagues. Figure 9 shows the LFR
focuses direct solar rays from the sun into the point focus. One solar power plant integrated into an urban context circa 1965
of the major constraints facing the PDC operation is the that was drawn by Francia [49].
permanent orientation towards the direction of the sun, which However, the story of the first large-scale study of LFR
requires their mobilization along both azimuthal and vertical dates back to the late 1960s when Francia and her colleagues
axes in order to follow the course of the sun. The PDC size is worked on the Solar City Project - Hypothesis for an Urban
determined through the power required by the Stirling engine. Structure. This project aimed to use solar energy for electricity

374
generation and cooling and space heating for an urban area of The entire apparatus has followed the sun for this purpose
about 105 inhabitants [20, 49]. is manually operated. The average engine speed during the
Generally, the reflective flat mirrors of LFR solar reflectors summer tests was 120 rpm and the absolute working pressure
are much cheaper than parabolic mirrors, and the mechanical of the piston was 0.24 MPa [24, 55]. In 1886, John Ericsson
stresses imposed by the wind thrust are reduced by the flat experimented a solar engine with a 1.86 kW. Ericsson refused
arrangement of the mirrors. The only drawback to this to give technical details about the boilers for protection
technology is its low-quality efficiency compared to other reasons. Unfortunately, he died in 1889 before finishing the
types of solar concentrators [5, 8, 22, 51, 52]. Based on the commercial version of his sun engine, and his project was
studies reported in the literature, the heat fluid for this solar never pursued [24, 55]. Based on the studies reported in the
concentrator varies between 60 and 250℃ [40], whereas, literature, the heat fluid for these linear collectors varies
Bellos has touched in his very valuable scientific paper the between 60 and 300℃ [44]. Regarding PTCs applications,
most important differences between LFRs and PTCs collectors, Fernández-Garcíet al. discussed them in great detail in their
and he explained the most important uses of LFR solar serious work [56].
reflectors [22]. So far, the operating renewable energy cost is very high, so
the production costs and the efficiency of the product must be
agreed in order to have an efficient device with an acceptable
price. As for the parabolic trough solar collectors, the design
cost is high compared to LFR technology because it relies on
the glass shaping to obtain the parabolic form of the reflecting
mirror. Therefore, the use of flat reflector mirrors will
significantly reduce the cost of manufacturing linear solar
reflectors. For this reason, much of the scientific research has
been directed towards the development of the linear Fresnel
Solar reflectors (LFRs) systems, and many countries such as
Figure 9. Scheme of LFR solar power plant by Francia [49] Spain and Germany have widely exploited this technology of
acceptable price, knowing that its efficiency is relatively low
2.2.2 Parabolic trough collectors (PTCs) compared to the PTCs solar concentrators systems. Table 1
Parabolic Trough Collectors (PTCs) are long parallel rows illustrates a comparison of different solar concentrators.
of curved glass mirrors concentrating beam radiation onto a
receiver pipe located along its focal line [18, 50, 53]. The first Table 1. Differences between solar concentrators [3]
practical experience with the parabolic trough concentrator
dates back to 1870, when engineer John Ericsson designed and Solar Axis Local concentration Temperature range
built a PTC collector with a surface area of 3.25 m²that was collector tracking ratio (℃)
driving a small 373 W engine [24, 54]. HFCs Tow- From 300 to 1500 From 150 to 2000
From 1872 to 1875, John Ericsson built seven similar PDCs axis From 600 to 2000 From 100 to 1500
LFRs Single- From 10 to 40 From 60 to 250
systems, but with air as working fluid [24, 25]. As shown in
PTCs axis From 10 to 85 From 60 to 400
Figure 10, John Ericsson built a large solar engine in 1883 that
was exhibited in New York [24, 25, 55]. It consisted of a PTC
One of the most important uses of solar concentrators is to
with 3.35 m long and 4.88 m wide, focusing solar radiation on
produce thermal electricity, as shown in Table 2.
a boiler tube with 15.88 cm in diameter. The concentrator
consisted of straight wooden moats, supported by curved Table 2. Comparison of thermal solar power plants [7]
parabolic iron ribs attached to the sides of the bowl. The
reflective plates made of flat-silvered glass on the underside, Solar Capacity Power plant
were attached to these moats. Cost Power cycle
collector (MW) performance (%)
Gas turbine
From 10
HFCs From 10 to 22 High Bryton cycle &
to 100
Steam Rankine.
Brayton cycle,
From Very Sterling
PDCs From 16 to 29
0.01 to 1 high Engine &
Steam Rankine.
Steam Rankine
From 5
LFRs From 8 to 12 Low & Organic
to 250
Rankine.
From 10
PTCs From 10 to 16 Low Steam Rankine
to 100

The electricity production systems from renewable energy

are showing a growing trend in terms of use due to the
reduction of greenhouse gas emissions and the diversification
strategies of countries' energy sources. Therefore, the
concentrating solar power (CSP) technologies offer an
excellent opportunity to stimulate economic development and
create jobs, as Algeria can invest in such solar plants [14]. In
Figure 10. The solar engine of Ericsson [55] addition, Algeria is located between 18 and 36°north, as its

375
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