IMPORTANT KEYWORD, HISTORIOGRAPHY FOR HISTROY OPTIONAL
1. Prehistory & Neolithic
• Neolithic Revolution
o V. Gordon Childe: Environmental change → food-producing economy. “Neolithic = self-
sufficient food production.”
o Binford: Population pressure drove change.
o Miles Burkitt: Agriculture, animal domestication, pottery → defining features.
2. Harappan Civilisation
Origin Debate
• Migration Theory: E.J.H. Mackay → Sumerian migration.
• Idea Diffusion: Mortimer Wheeler → “Migration of ideas, not people.”
• Indigenous Evolution: Ghosh, Mughal, Fairservice → Pre-Harappan (Sothi, Baluchistan) evolved
into Mature Harappa.
• Aryan Hypothesis: K.N. Shastri, S.R. Rao → “Vedic Aryans created Harappa.” (Rejected by
modern genetics – Rakhigarhi DNA shows native origin).
Political Nature
• Centralised State: Stuart Piggott & Wheeler → “Priest-kings ruled an autocratic empire.”
• No Empire: Fairservice & Shaffer → “Ceremonial centres, no palaces or royal tombs.”
• Corporate State: Possehl → “Collective rule, not monarchy.”
• Kenoyer: Unicorn seals → “Totemic clans, possibly mercantile aristocracy.”
Economy & Trade
• Ratnagar (1981): Harappa–Mesopotamia lapis trade crucial; decline hurt Harappa.
• Shaffer & Chakrabarti: “Trade existed but wasn’t decisive for Harappa’s survival.”
Decline Debate
• Aryan Invasion: Wheeler, Piggot.
• Flood Theory: Sahni, Raikes, Marshall.
• River Shift: H.T. Lambrick.
• Climate Change: D.P. Agarwal, Fairservice → “Ecological imbalance key.”
• Disease: Kennedy (Malaria epidemic).
• Modern View: “Gradual decline, multi-causal.”
3. Vedic & Post-Vedic Society
• Agriculture: R.N. Nandi → “Rigveda shows settled farming.”
• Gift Economy: Marcel Mauss → “Voluntary gifts were obligatory.”
• Kingship & Varna: Kumkum Roy → monarchy linked to household/varna hierarchy.
• Symbolism: Brian K. Smith → varna extended to gods & nature.
• Shudras: R.S. Sharma → “Originally non-Aryan tribes absorbed into varna.”
4. Land Ownership
• Communal: S.N. Maity → pasture & village land common.
• Royal: U.N. Ghosal → king ultimate owner; Arthashastra backs taxation.
• Private: K.P. Jaiswal → inscriptions (Uttaramerur) show local assembly control.
• Conclusion: Pre-state communal → Mauryan royal → Gupta private land.
5. Second Urbanisation & Iron
• Iron Deterministic: RS Sharma, Childe → iron plough transformed landscape.
• Political Priority: A. Ghosh & Chakrabarti → “State formation precedes economic shift.”
• Archaeological Evidence: Rakesh Tiwari → iron use (1300 BCE) predated cities; iron important
but not sole factor.
6. Gana-Sangha (Republics)
• Democratic: Jayaswal → compared to Greece.
• Aristocratic: U.N. Ghosal, J.P. Sharma → ruled by elite families.
• Panini: Two types: military & aristocratic republics.
• Vaishali Example: Assembly of 7707 rajas (elite heads).
7. Mauryan Empire
Origin
• Shudra: Mudrarakshasa → “Vrishala origin.”
• Vaishya: Romila Thapar → Junagarh inscription (Pusyagupta).
• Kshatriya: Buddhist/Jain texts → linked to Shakya lineage.
Nature of State
• Centralised: R.K. Mukherjee, RS Sharma → “Planned bureaucracy.”
• Decentralised: Fussman, Heesterman → “Tribal headship, primus inter pares.”
• Thapar (Revised): “Core centralised, periphery diverse.”
Dhamma
• Buddhist Code: V.A. Smith, Bhandarkar → “Ashoka = Buddhist monk-king.”
• Ethical Code: B.N. Mukherjee, Thapar → “Secular, moral, socially integrative.”
Decline
• Brahmanical Revolt: H.P. Sastri.
• Ashoka’s Pacifism: Hemchandra Chaudhary.
• Financial Crisis: Kosambi.
• Structural Weakness: Thapar → “Lack of loyalty to state, vastness of empire.”
8. Post-Mauryan & Gupta
• Women in Economy: Vijaya Ramaswamy → sangam women in agriculture & crafts.
• Megalithic Links: Champakalakshmi → sangam = last megalithic phase.
• Slavery & Labour: Narada Smriti (15 types), vishti (forced labour).
• Trade: Gadwas inscription → guilds as investors.
• Untouchability: Fa-Hien → “Chandalas segregated.”
Medieval India
Rajput Defeat
• Habibullah: Long process, not one event.
• Alberuni: “Insularity & arrogance of Indians.”
• Satish Chandra: “Caste rigidity explanation exaggerated.”
Delhi Sultanate
• Balban: Divine kingship, awe-based rule (Barani).
• Alauddin: Price control → Habib (fiscal motive), Khusro (philanthropy).
• Tughlaq Experiments: Currency (Firishta – resource need; Brown – silver shortage).
• Vijayanagar: Burton Stein → “Segmentary state” (contested by later scholars).
10. Mughal Empire
Administration
• Centralised: Habib, Athar Ali → efficient mansabdari.
• Patrimonial-Bureaucratic: Blake → personal monarchy + bureaucracy.
• Segmentary: Streusand, Chetan Singh → local autonomy in periphery.
State Nature
• Theocratic: Jadunath Sarkar.
• Gunpowder Empire: Hodgson & McNeil.
• Bureaucratic: Spear & Srivastava.
Religious Policy
• Akbar: Tripathi → “Synthetic Vedanta-Sufi thought.” Din-i-Ilahi = social order (Mehta).
• Aurangzeb: Sharma → “Fanatic turn”; Manucci → fiscal + religious motives for Jaziya.
Decline
• Aurangzeb’s Responsibility: Sarkar.
• Jagirdari Crisis: Satish Chandra.
• Agrarian & Monetary Crisis: Irfan Habib, Shireen Moosvi.
• Tech Lag: Athar Ali.
11. Modern India
European Expansion
• Carnatic Wars: Smith → “Sea power & Bengal key.”
• Plassey: Panikkar → “A betrayal, not a battle.”
Economy
• Drain of Wealth: Naoroji → “Evil of all evils.”
• Modern Growth: Morris D. Morris → “Not entirely exploitative, some growth.”
1857 Revolt
• Mutiny View: Lawrence.
• National War: Marx, Disraeli.
• Elitist: Stokes.
• Multi-causal: Bayly → “Many rebellions, one explosion.”
Nationalism
• Coupland: “Child of British Raj.”
• Bipin Chandra: “Anti-colonial core.”
• Moderates vs Extremists: Daniel Argov → middle-class roots, different methods.
12. World History
Enlightenment & Absolutism
• Lord Acton → “Repentance of monarchy.”
• Reddaway → “Quarter-century of enlightened despotism.”
Industrial Revolution
• Ashton → social-intellectual change.
• Toynbee → evolutionary, not sudden.
• Hobson → “Cotton key to IR.”
Revolutions
• American: Bailyn (ideological), Paine (“Common sense”), Hofstadter (conservative).
• French: Lefebvre (“aristocratic”), Rude (“people’s revolution”), Napoleon (“I am the Revolution”).
• German/Italian Unification: Bismarck (“Blood & Iron”), Mazzini (idealism).
• Eastern Question: Taylor → “Mutual fear caused Crimean War.”
• WW I: Thomson → “Unintended, unsought.”
• WW II: Taylor (no long-term plan) vs Bullock (clear vision).
• Russian Revolution: Hayes → NEP = mix of socialism & capitalism.
MEDIEVAL INDIA
1. Rajput Defeat & Turkish Success
• A.B.M. Habibullah: Long-term process, 12th century decline → “Turkish conquest was
culmination, not accident.”
• Satish Chandra: Rejects caste rigidity explanation → medieval polity did not depend on peasant
loyalty.
• K.S. Lambden: “Patriotism was unknown; loyalty = tax & prayer, not nationalism.”
• Alberuni: Insularity → “The Hindus believe no country but theirs, no science but theirs.”
2. Delhi Sultanate Consolidation
Razia Sultan
• Minhaj Siraj: Praises Razia’s ability but adds, “Of what advantage were all these attributes when
she was born a woman?”
Iltutmish & Balban
• Barani (on Balban): “Awe and splendour uphold government.”
• K.A. Nizami: Balban used divine kingship to legitimise regicide.
3. Mongol Threat
• Nizami: 3 responses → Iltutmish (aloofness), Raziya (appeasement), Balban/Alauddin
(resistance).
• Ata Malik Juwaini: Iltutmish feared Mongol ascendancy.
4. Khalji Revolution & Agrarian Reforms
• R.P. Tripathi: Khalji change weakened loyalty to Delhi throne.
• K.S. Lal: Revolt of Indian Muslims vs Turkish dominance.
• Agrarian Reforms (Alauddin):
o Barani: Harsh revenue policy crushed intermediaries.
o Modern View (Habib): Rational → ensure surplus & maintain large army cheaply.
• Market Reforms:
o Amir Khusrau: Sultan fixed prices himself.
o Habib: Fiscal-military purpose.
o Khusro & Hamid-ud-din: Philanthropic angle.
5. Muhammad Tughlaq’s Experiments
Capital Shift
• K.A. Nizami: “Solve Deccan problem by planting a Muslim colony.”
• Firishta: Location advantage → centripetal vision.
Token Currency
• Barani: Financial stringency reason.
• Ishwar Prasad & Brown: Global silver shortage was key.
• Ibn Battuta: Did not see major unrest during early stage.
Doab Taxation
• Barani: 10–20× rise; “backs of the rayats broken.”
• Modern View: Harsh but rational, revenue-maximisation attempt.
6. Firoz Shah Tughlaq
• Afif: 2 crore mall revenue written off.
• Barani: Agrarian reforms boosted production.
7. Vijayanagar Empire
• Burton Stein: “Segmentary state” (disputed) → Nayakas = agents of king but semi-autonomous.
• Modern Historians: When centre was strong, Nayakas had no scope for independence.
MUGHAL EMPIRE
1. Nature of Administration
• Centralised: Habib, Athar Ali → efficient mansabdari & uniform currency.
• Patrimonial-Bureaucratic: Stephen Blake → personal monarchy + bureaucrats as royal
household’s ‘slaves’.
• Segmentary: Streusand, Chetan Singh → “Centre strong, periphery flexible.”
2. Nature of State
• Theocratic State: Jadunath Sarkar.
• Gunpowder Empire: Hodgson & McNeil → technological edge.
• Bureaucratic State: Spear & Srivastava → elaborate administrative system but loyalty to person
not office.
3. Religious Policy
• Akbar:
o Tripathi: Ibadat Khana debate harmed reputation.
o Tara Chand: Religion = Vedanta + Sufism synthesis.
o Din-i-Ilahi: J.L. Mehta → “Not a religion, but ethical-social association.”
• Aurangzeb:
o Lane-Poole: “Rigid Muslim first time on throne.”
o Sharma: “Acts of intolerance = blind fanaticism.”
o Manucci: Jaziya → fiscal + religious motives.
4. Decline of Mughal Empire
• Aurangzeb’s Role: Jadunath Sarkar → religious intolerance caused alienation.
• Jagirdari Crisis: Satish Chandra → structural weakness of mansabdari.
• Agrarian Crisis: Irfan Habib → excessive revenue extraction.
• Monetary Crisis: Shireen Moosvi → silver glut, inflation.
• Tech Lag: Athar Ali → failure to keep pace with Europe.
MODERN INDIA
1. European Penetration
• Carnatic Wars:
o V.A. Smith: Sea power decisive; Bengal key.
o Marriott: Dupleix blundered focusing on Madras, Clive succeeded with Bengal.
• Plassey (1757):
o Panikkar: “A great betrayal, not a great battle.”
o Malleson: “Consequences vast and permanent.”
o Jadunath Sarkar: “Modern Indian age begins at Plassey.”
2. Anglo-Maratha & Treaty of Bassein
• Dean Hutton: “Tripled British responsibility instantly.”
• Ramsay Muir: “Wise and just measure.”
• Decline: S.N. Sen → revival of feudalism & loss of guerrilla warfare edge.
3. Tipu Sultan
• Mohibbul Hasan: “Not nationalist, but defender of personal power.”
4. British Land & Economy
• John Sullivan: “Our system works like sponges… squeeze at Thames.”
• Dadabhai Naoroji: Drain theory → “evil of all evils.”
• Morris D. Morris: Challenge to exploitation theory → “English stimulated some economic
growth.”
• Deindustrialisation:
o Morris: Decline inevitable, global phenomenon.
o B.D. Basu: Political strangulation → artisans ruined.
5. Revolt of 1857
• Mutiny View: S.N. Sen, R.C. Majumdar.
• National War: Savarkar, Marx → “first war of independence.”
• Elite Revolt: Stokes → “elitist character.”
• Multi-causal: Bayly → “many local revolts merged into one explosion.”
6. Rise of Nationalism
• Richard Coupland: “Child of British Raj.”
• Bipin Chandra: “Unwanted child, anti-colonial at core.”
• Moderates vs Extremists: Daniel Argov → same class base, different tactics.
WORLD HISTORY
1. Enlightenment & Absolutism
• Lord Acton: “Repentance of monarchy.”
• Reddaway: “1763–1789 = era of benevolent despotism.”
• Frederick II: “First servant of state.”
2. Industrial Revolution
• Ashton: Social-intellectual change, not just machines.
• Toynbee: Evolutionary, not revolutionary.
• Hobson: “Cotton key to IR.”
3. American Revolution
• Bailyn: Ideological-constitutional struggle.
• Hofstadter: Conservative, not radical.
• Thomas Paine: “Common Sense” – sever ties with monarchy.
4. French Revolution
• Lefebvre: “Aristocratic revolution.”
• Rude: “People’s revolution.”
• Napoleon: “I am the Revolution… I destroyed the Revolution.”
• David Thomson: Philosophers’ impact indirect.
5. Unification of Italy & Germany
• Mazzini: “Youth = power of resurrection.”
• Cavour: Realist, economic reforms → political success.
• Bismarck: “Blood and iron, not speeches.”
6. Eastern Question
• A.J.P. Taylor: “Mutual fear, not aggression, caused Crimean War.”
• Thomson: Congress of Berlin left all powers dissatisfied.
7. World War I
• David Thomson: “Unintended, unsought, sequence of events.”
• Curie: Balkan chain reaction collapsed Europe.
8. Treaty of Versailles
• Keynes: “Carthaginian peace – economic disaster.”
• Modern View: Workable compromise under conditions.
9. Russian Revolution
• Lenin: “Peace, land, bread.”
• Lipson: NEP = “Temporary mix of socialism and capitalism.”
10. Interwar & World War II
• Hitler’s Intentions:
o Taylor: No master plan, opportunist.
o Bullock & Gregor: Clear racial war vision.
• Pearl Harbour: Parkes → “United Americans like never before.”
PYQ Examples Linked to Historians’ Views
MEDIEVAL INDIA
1. Rajput Defeat & Turkish Success
• Historians: Habibullah, Alberuni, Satish Chandra.
• PYQs:
o “Analyse the causes of defeat of the Rajputs by the Turks.” (2011)
o “Account for the early success of the Turks in India.” (2015)
Link: Use Alberuni’s remark on Indian isolation and Habibullah’s long-term process thesis.
2. Khalji & Tughlaq Reforms
• Historians: Barani, Amir Khusrau, Irfan Habib, Nizami.
• PYQs:
o “Examine the agrarian and economic reforms of Alauddin Khalji.” (2018)
o “Discuss the experiments of Muhammad Tughlaq and their impact.” (2021)
Link: Debate Alauddin’s market reforms (fiscal vs philanthropic) and Tughlaq’s capital shift (Nizami’s
Deccan rationale).
3. Vijayanagar Empire
• Historians: Burton Stein (segmentary state), Nilakanta Sastri (centralised).
• PYQs:
o “The Nayakas were agents of central authority, not independent.” Comment. (2017)
o “Discuss the nature of the Vijayanagar state.” (2020)
Link: Present Stein vs traditional view on state structure.
4. Mughal State & Decline
• Historians: Blake (patrimonial-bureaucratic), Streusand (segmentary), Sarkar, Habib, Satish
Chandra.
• PYQs:
o “Examine the nature of the Mughal state.” (2016)
o “Was Aurangzeb responsible for the downfall of the Mughal empire?” (2019)
o “Analyse the agrarian crisis in the Mughal empire in the 17th century.” (2022)
Link: Debate structural weaknesses (Jagirdari crisis – Satish Chandra) vs personal failings (Sarkar).
MODERN INDIA
1. British Conquest & Expansion
• Historians: Panikkar (betrayal), Smith (sea power).
• PYQs:
o “Assess the causes of the British success against Indian powers in the 18th century.”
(2018)
o “Critically examine the nature and impact of the Battle of Plassey.” (2014)
Link: Panikkar’s “betrayal not battle” + Smith’s sea power thesis.
2. Economic Impact
• Historians: Naoroji (Drain theory), Morris D. Morris (growth debate).
• PYQs:
o “Examine the economic impact of British rule with special reference to
deindustrialisation.” (2020)
o “Drain of wealth theory was the main economic critique of colonialism.” Comment.
(2017)
Link: Present Naoroji’s “evil of all evils” vs Morris’ challenge to pure exploitation thesis.
3. Revolt of 1857
• Historians: Savarkar (national war), Marx (national revolt), Stokes (elite).
• PYQs:
o “Was the Revolt of 1857 a Sepoy Mutiny or the First War of Independence?” (2019)
o “Discuss the diverse character and regional variations of the Revolt of 1857.” (2023)
Link: Use Marx’s “national revolt” and Stokes’ elite character argument.
4. Indian National Movement
• Historians: Coupland (child of Raj), Bipin Chandra (anti-colonial core).
• PYQs:
o “Moderates and Extremists represented two faces of Indian nationalism.” (2022)
o “Assess the nature and limitations of early Indian nationalism.” (2015)
Link: Use Coupland vs Bipin Chandra on early nationalism.
WORLD HISTORY
1. Enlightenment & Revolutions
• Historians: Lord Acton (monarchy repentance), Bailyn (ideological revolution), Lefebvre
(aristocratic).
• PYQs:
o “Was the American Revolution essentially an economic conflict?” (2019)
o “Discuss the social and intellectual origins of the French Revolution.” (2022)
Link: Present Bailyn (ideological) vs Hacker (economic) for America, Lefebvre (aristocratic) vs Rude
(people’s) for France.
2. Industrial Revolution
• Historians: Ashton (social change), Toynbee (evolutionary).
• PYQs:
o “Explain why the Industrial Revolution occurred first in England.” (2020)
o “Discuss the social consequences of Industrialisation in Europe.” (2021)
Link: Use Ashton on social transformation and Toynbee’s evolutionary view.
3. Unification Movements
• Historians: Mazzini (idealist), Cavour (realist), Bismarck (blood and iron).
• PYQs:
o “Examine the factors leading to the unification of Italy.” (2018)
o “The unification of Germany was primarily the achievement of Bismarck.” Comment.
(2023)
Link: Idealism vs Realpolitik debate.
4. World Wars
• Historians: Thomson (unsought WWI), Taylor (Hitler opportunist) vs Bullock (clear plan).
• PYQs:
o “Was World War I accidental or inevitable?” (2019)
o “Examine Hitler’s foreign policy and its impact on WWII.” (2021)
Link: Taylor’s opportunism vs Bullock’s racial-war thesis.
5. Russian Revolution
• Historians: Lenin (Peace, Land, Bread), Lipson (NEP hybrid economy).
• PYQs:
o “Was the Russian Revolution of 1917 primarily a result of social and economic causes?”
(2022)
o “Assess the impact of Lenin’s New Economic Policy.” (2020)
Link: Blend socio-economic causes with Lenin’s political strategy.
1. French Revolution (1789)
• Liberal Interpretation:
o Alphonse Aulard – Revolution as a triumph of liberty and democracy.
• Marxist Interpretation:
o Albert Soboul – A class struggle between feudal aristocracy and bourgeoisie; Revolution
as a bourgeois revolution.
• Revisionist View:
o François Furet – Focus on political culture and ideas rather than class struggle.
• Counter-revisionist:
o George Lefebvre – Combined socio-economic and political factors, emphasizing peasant
uprisings.
2. Industrial Revolution
• Traditional View:
o Arnold Toynbee – Sudden and transformative economic and social change (1750–1850).
• Revisionist View:
o N.F.R. Crafts & Knick Harley – Slower and more gradual impact, emphasizing incremental
growth.
• Social Impact Debate:
o E.P. Thompson – Focused on the impact on the working class (loss of culture,
mechanization’s hardships).
o Ashton & Hobsbawm – Saw Industrial Revolution as progress with rising living standards.
3. Imperialism and Colonialism
• Economic (Marxist) Interpretation:
o V.I. Lenin – Imperialism as the highest stage of capitalism.
o Hobson – Imperialism driven by surplus capital and economic needs.
• Nationalist Perspective:
o Seeley – “The British conquered India in a fit of absent-mindedness.” (Focus on
accidents, not grand design).
• Modern Perspectives:
o Cain & Hopkins – “Gentlemanly capitalism” driven by finance and commerce.
• Postcolonial Critique:
o Edward Said – Cultural imperialism and Orientalism as tools of empire.
4. Russian Revolution (1917)
• Soviet/Marxist Interpretation:
o E.H. Carr – Revolution as a result of class struggle, inevitable due to socio-economic
contradictions.
• Liberal Interpretation:
o Richard Pipes – Revolution as a coup by a small, disciplined Bolshevik elite rather than
popular uprising.
• Revisionist:
o Sheila Fitzpatrick – Focus on social history and role of peasants/workers, not just
ideology.
5. World War I Causes
• Traditional View:
o Sidney Fay – No single nation responsible; system of alliances led to war.
• German War Guilt (Versailles Treaty view):
o Luigi Albertini – Germany and Austria-Hungary primarily responsible.
• Revisionist:
o A.J.P. Taylor – War as an accident of miscalculation, not long-term planning.
• Marxist View:
o Lenin – Imperialist rivalry of capitalist powers.
6. Cold War
• Orthodox View:
o Arthur Schlesinger Jr. – Soviet aggression and expansionism caused the Cold War.
• Revisionist View:
o William Appleman Williams – U.S. economic imperialism and containment policies
responsible.
• Post-revisionist View:
o John Lewis Gaddis – Both sides responsible; emphasis on misperceptions and security
dilemma.
7. Nationalism & Nation-State Formation
• Modernist Theory:
o Ernest Gellner & Benedict Anderson – Nationalism as a modern construct tied to
industrialization and print capitalism.
• Ethno-symbolism:
o Anthony D. Smith – Nationalism has pre-modern roots.
• Marxist Interpretation:
o Eric Hobsbawm – Nationalism as a bourgeois tool to control working class.
8. Fascism & Nazism
• Intentionalist View (Hitler’s role):
o Alan Bullock – Hitler as a strong ideological leader with clear plans (Mein Kampf).
• Structuralist View:
o Martin Broszat – Nazi policies shaped by structural chaos, not clear plans.
• Marxist View:
o Tim Mason – Fascism as a product of capitalist crisis.
9. Decolonization
• Nationalist Interpretation:
o Focus on internal freedom struggles and nationalist leaders.
• International Context:
o John Darwin – Changing global economic and political environment (WWII & U.S.
pressure) as key.
• Postcolonial Theory:
o Frantz Fanon – Violent struggle as necessary for decolonization.
Topic map to be used
1. Prehistoric Cultures
• Topics:
o Palaeolithic sites (e.g., Bhimbetka, Hunsgi, Belan Valley)
o Mesolithic sites (e.g., Bagor, Adamgarh)
o Neolithic sites (e.g., Burzahom, Chirand)
o Chalcolithic sites (e.g., Ahar, Jorwe, Malwa)
• Suggested Map:
o Outline map of India marking important stone age sites.
o Legends: Palaeolithic (●), Mesolithic (▲), Neolithic (■), Chalcolithic (★).
2. Indus Valley Civilization
• Topics:
o Major Harappan sites (Harappa, Mohenjodaro, Dholavira, Lothal, Kalibangan)
o Trade routes and raw material sources
• Suggested Map:
o Map of Harappan culture area.
o Mark port towns (Lothal, Suktagendor) and raw material sources (Rajasthan copper,
Baluchistan ores).
3. Vedic and Later Vedic Culture
• Topics:
o Vedic settlements and tribal regions
o Painted Grey Ware culture sites
• Suggested Map:
o Map showing Sapta Sindhu region and later spread into Ganga valley.
o Mark PGW sites like Hastinapur, Atranjikhera.
4. Mahajanapadas and Urban Centres
• Topics:
o Sixteen Mahajanapadas
o Early urbanization sites
• Suggested Map:
o Outline of India showing Mahajanapadas with capitals.
o Use shading for urban centres like Rajgir, Kausambi, Ujjain, Taxila.
5. Mauryan Empire
• Topics:
o Extent of Ashoka’s empire
o Major rock and pillar edicts
• Suggested Map:
o Map showing Ashokan inscriptions (Girnar, Dhauli, Sanchi, Sopara).
o Mark capital Pataliputra and boundary of empire.
6. Post-Mauryan Age
• Topics:
o Shunga, Satavahana, Kushana, Indo-Greek territories
o Trade routes and cultural interactions
• Suggested Map:
o Map of India showing foreign invasions (Indo-Greek, Kushan).
o Trade routes connecting ports (Bharukachchha, Muziris) to hinterland.
7. Gupta and Post-Gupta Period
• Topics:
o Gupta empire extent and centres of art (Ajanta, Sarnath, Nalanda)
• Suggested Map:
o Map showing Gupta empire boundary, coin hoards, and Nalanda University.
o Mark major temple sites like Deogarh, Bhitargaon.
8. Megalithic Cultures
• Topics:
o Important Megalithic sites (Adichanallur, Brahmagiri, Maski)
• Suggested Map:
o South India map highlighting megalithic burial sites.
9. Art and Architecture
• Topics:
o Stupas, rock-cut caves, temples (e.g., Sanchi, Barabar, Ajanta, Ellora)
• Suggested Map:
o Mark Buddhist stupas, rock-cut caves, and temple sites separately.
o Use symbols: Stupas (●), Caves (▲), Temples (■).
10. Ancient Ports and Trade
• Topics:
o Ports and maritime trade (Muziris, Kaveripattinam, Tamralipti)
• Suggested Map:
o Peninsular India showing ports and overseas trade routes (Roman, Southeast Asian).
