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Water Resources Development and Management

World Water Council Editor

Global
Water
Security
Lessons Learnt and Long-Term
Implications
Water Resources Development and Management

Series Editors
Asit K. Biswas, Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy, National University of
Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
Cecilia Tortajada, Institute of Water Policy, Lee Kuan Yew School of Public
Policy, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore

Editorial Board
Dogan Altinbilek, Ankara, Turkey
Francisco González-Gómez, Granada, Spain
Chennat Gopalakrishnan, Honolulu, USA
James Horne, Canberra, Australia
David J. Molden, Kathmandu, Nepal
Olli Varis, Helsinki, Finland
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/7009
World Water Council
Editor

Global Water Security

Lessons Learnt and Long-Term Implications

123
Editor
World Water Council
Marseille
France

ISSN 1614-810X ISSN 2198-316X (electronic)

Water Resources Development and Management
ISBN 978-981-10-7912-2 ISBN 978-981-10-7913-9 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-7913-9
Library of Congress Control Number: 2017962990

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Preface I

Join Hands to Meet Water Security Challenges and Promote

Global Sustainable Development

Water is the foundation of life, the origin of civilisation, and the cornerstone of
ecology. Water security and human fate are closely intertwined. To bring the
concern and attention of the international community to the issue of water security,
build global consensus on water governance, and boost exchange and sharing of
water governance experience and technologies, the Ministry of Water Resources
of the People’s Republic of China and the World Water Council have co-sponsored
the compilation of this academic report on world water security. After more than
one year of joint efforts by many experts and staffers, this report is now available for
publication. I would like to extend our gratitude to the World Water Council and
other related parties for their close cooperation in the publication of this report; to
Honorary President Loïc Fauchon for his great attention, long-term research, and
insightful opinions on water security issues; to President Benedito Braga for the
important leadership and advocacy role played by the World Water Council under
his eminent leadership; and to our experts, scholars, and staff members for their
hard work.
At present and for the foreseeable future, due to global population growth,
economic development, and accelerated urbanisation and industrialisation, coupled
with the intensifying impact of climate change, water security problems will
become increasingly prominent, posing a major challenge to global sustainable
development. In terms of water infrastructure, countries across the world are facing
common problems such as lagging infrastructure development, ageing and disrepair
of waterworks, insufficient funds for maintenance and repair, inadequate investment
and financing capacity, and poor response to flood and drought disasters. According
to some estimates, the needed investment in the water sector will exceed 1 trillion
USD by 2025. With the global economy continuing to experience great uncertainty,
the lack of water investment and financing will become increasingly salient. In
terms of water and sanitation, more than 1.1 billion people lack access to safe

v
vi Preface I

drinking water and 2.6 billion people do not have access to sanitation facilities at
the time of the publication of this report, and 650,000 children die of water-borne
diseases every year. In terms of water and food, it is expected that by 2050 global
grain output will need to increase by 60% and agricultural water use by 55% to
meet the food demand of the growing world population. Owing to worsening water
scarcity, global food security is exposed to significant risks. In terms of water and
ecology, over the past 100 years, the total area of wetlands in the world has shrunk
by nearly half, and 40% of the rivers on earth have suffered from various degrees of
pollution. Untreated wastewater currently affects the lives of 1.8 billion people. In
terms of water hazards, climate change is increasing the frequency and severity of
catastrophic events. Natural disasters such as floods, waterlogging, droughts, hur-
ricanes, and storm surges have severe impacts. Globally, floods kill more than 7000
people annually, on average. In future, adverse impacts of water hazards will loom
further on the horizon. In terms of water governance, competence in water
resources development, utilisation, conservation, and management vary enormously
between countries, with capacity-building facing a major shortfall. Promising
approaches such as integrated water resources management and river basin man-
agement have yet to be practised extensively. Global capacity in water governance
is in urgent need of further improvement.
In recent years, the topic of water security has attracted close attention from the
international community, thanks to vigorous and enthusiastic appeals and promo-
tion by international organisations such as the United Nations and the World Water
Council. In September 2015, the United Nations Sustainable Development Summit
adopted the 2030 Sustainable Development Agenda, incorporating water as a
dedicated goal. It emphasised universal access to water and sanitation and set up
explicit targets for drinking water security, wastewater treatment and recycled use,
water use efficiency and integrated management, ecological system restoration, and
water-related disaster management. It fully demonstrates the importance of water
security in the context of global sustainable development and embodies the strategic
consensus of the international community on the need to respond to water chal-
lenges and safeguard water security.
With its large population and limited water resources, plus uneven distribution of
water resources in time and space, China is the developing country facing the most
arduous task of water governance. The Chinese government attaches great impor-
tance to the issue of water security. In response to people’s aspirations for a better
life, China upholds the concept of the harmonious coexistence of humankind and
nature, pursues green development with ecological integrity prioritised, incorpo-
rates safeguarding water security into the overall layout of its modernisation drive,
places it atop the agenda of ecological civilisation development, and has researched
and developed a national strategy for water security. Thoughts, concepts, and policy
measures on water governance and management with Chinese characteristics have
taken shape.
Preface I vii

(1) Insist on prioritising water saving and toughen management of water resour-
ces. China enshrines water conservation as a national strategy, has launched
national water conservation actions, is implementing the most stringent water
resources management system, and follows the principle of determining water
demand, urban development, and production output in line with water resources
availability. Among other measures, China has intensified the strict control of
water resources by means of the Three Red Lines: capping total water use,
improving water use efficiency, and restricting the pollution load in water
functional zones. As a result, China practises dual control of water consumption
in both quantity and intensity, strictly curbs new water use by industries with
redundant capacity, is scaling up high-efficiency irrigation at the regional level,
and promotes industrial and domestic water saving, in a bid to build a
water-saving society on all fronts.
(2) Stick to joint prevention and control to promote the protection of the water
environment. All walks of life will be involved in improving the water envi-
ronment and addressing water environmental issues at their roots. Specific
interventions include implementing the Action Plan on Control of Water
Pollution, improving the mechanisms for water environment monitoring and
early warning, tougher regulation of water function zones by level and cate-
gory, strict quantitative control of pollution discharge into rivers and lakes, and
stronger protection of drinking water source areas. Efforts are being made to
coordinate treatment of pollution on land and in water, to practise basin-wide
joint prevention and control, and to adopt such measures as treating pollution
sources, curtailing pollution discharge, diverting clean water for dilution pur-
poses, cleaning up and dredging polluted river courses, and applying biological
technologies, to reinforce comprehensive and all-round water environment
harnessing.
(3) Uphold systematic governance and accelerate restoration of the water ecology.
China has redoubled its efforts to better manage and protect river headwaters,
ecologically sensitive areas, and water source nurturing areas, pushing forward
water and soil conservation initiatives, toughening control over the usage of
water bodies and shorelines of rivers and lakes, turning once-reclaimed farm-
land back into lakes and wetlands, and expanding the ecological space of rivers
and lakes. In addition, groundwater utilisation is under strict management, and
areas of groundwater over-exploitation are subject to integrated harnessing,
with a view towards gradually restoring the balance between extraction and
replenishment. Low-impact development and urban ‘sponge’ construction are
being promoted, and water ecological civilisation is being advanced in both
urban and rural areas.
(4) Adhere to scientific planning and improve the network of water facilities. China
has formulated national medium- and long-term water resources development
plans, as well as special planning relating to water utilisation for different
purposes. Steps have been taken to develop water resources in a scientific
viii Preface I

manner, optimise the layout of water engineering projects, and boost support
for water programmes in poverty-stricken regions. China has also sped up the
construction of major waterworks, key water-control projects, rural water
infrastructure, and engineering systems for flood control, drought relief, and
disaster reduction. In the meanwhile, we are pushing forward water-system
connection of rivers, lakes, and reservoirs, and establishing modernised net-
works of water facilities.
(5) Persist in reform and innovation to improve water governance mechanisms.
The ‘river chief’ system, in which government officials at every level are fully
responsible for the protection of rivers and lakes in their jurisdiction, is being
rolled out across the country. Dedicated policies are being formulated for every
river to improve its management and protection. Among other measures, China
has increased input from public finance and attracted investments of financial
and social capital in water conservancy. We have built more robust
water-pricing mechanisms and water-saving incentives, introducing block tariff
and escalating-tariff systems for water use above allowed quotas. China has
also sped up the development of water rights and water markets, established an
ecological compensation mechanism, perfected the water legal framework, and
fostered innovation in water science and technology to promote the progress of
‘smart water conservancy’.
(6) Encourage public participation and pool resources from the whole society. In
this regard, China has refined the government responsibility system by evalu-
ating its competence in water management. By incorporating indicators such as
consumption of water resources, damage to the water environment, and benefits
for the water ecology into the system for comprehensive assessment of eco-
nomic and social development, China is promoting a new pattern of green
development. Through public communication and education on water resour-
ces, China intends to create a civilised social trend of saving water, protecting
water, and loving water, and foster synergy across the whole society to value
and develop water. Thanks to persistent efforts, China has ensured the food
security of 21% of the world’s population, with 6% of the world’s freshwater
resources and 9% of its arable land resources, and safeguarded the country’s
medium-to-high-rate economic growth with only a marginal increase in total
amount of water consumption. This itself is a major contribution to global
sustainable development.
Addressing the issue of water security is a very complicated systematic
endeavour that requires concerted efforts from all countries around the globe. Our
world is confronted with many tough challenges in achieving the water-related
targets on the 2030 Sustainable Development Agenda. With the experiences of
China and other countries in mind, I believe we should focus our efforts on the
following aspects.
Preface I ix

(1) Develop national strategies to ensure robust top-level designs for safeguarding
water security. Water security strategy deserves an important place in the
overall national development strategy. The interdependence between water
security, food security, ecological security, flood control security, and energy
security should be taken into comprehensive consideration, in order to develop
forward-looking, integrated, targeted, and coherent water policies. Stronger
political will is required to build a consensus among various stakeholders and
turning commitments into practical actions.
(2) Further develop water conservancy to reinforce the foundation for
socio-economic development. Water conservancy, as an important foundation
for socio-economic development, requires scientific planning, general design of
and allocation of resources to specific programmes. Speeding up the con-
struction of water infrastructure will enhance the capacity for safeguarding
water security. Thus, the international community should assign infrastructure
construction a larger share in their aid programmes and help developing
countries gradually overcome their deficiencies in water infrastructure.
(3) Advocate water saving and promote the formation of green development pat-
terns. It is imperative to assign a prominent status to the conservation and
protection of water resources; to promote the formation of spatial layouts,
industrial structures, production modes, and consumption patterns that are
conducive to the conservation and protection of water resources; and to facil-
itate the adaptation of socio-economic development to the carrying capacity of
water resources, water environment, and water ecology.
(4) Augment financial input to the water sector and establish a sound and
multi-source water investment and financing regime. As water is foundational
and pro bono in nature, the government needs to allocate more public finance to
the water sector. In the meanwhile, we should make full use of market
mechanisms, actively explore the trading of water rights and financing models
such as public–private partnership and build–operate–transfer, and broaden
water investment and financing channels, in order to increase the effective
provision of public goods related to water.
(5) Insist on comprehensive implementation of policies and measures and accel-
erate the fulfilment of key water development targets. The resource, environ-
mental, and ecological functions of water should be taken into comprehensive
consideration. Domestic, production, and ecological water use should be pro-
vided for in a coordinated way. All stakeholders should be engaged in the
greater participation and stronger support. Synergetic efforts should be made to
promote achievements of those targets on the 2030 Sustainable Development
Agenda that are related to water use efficiency, drinking water safety,
wastewater treatment, ecological restoration, river basin management, and
water disaster prevention and mitigation.
(6) Strengthen international cooperation and improve the global water governance
system. It is vital to actively organise multi-level policy and strategy dialogues
in extensive areas. We should push forward pragmatic cooperation between
government departments, research institutes, water companies, and relevant
x Preface I

international organisations, so that all parties can learn advanced ideas, expe-
rience, and water governance technologies and management from each other,
and accelerate the formation of a global water governance system that is green,
safe, efficient, circular, and conservation-oriented.
This report brings together water security cases from ten countries and regions,
reflecting major challenges to water security under different natural and geo-
graphical circumstances, at different stages of economic development, and with
different endowments of water resources. Profound thinking triggered by such
challenges, responses undertaken by various stakeholders, and success stories from
different continents are available in this book. As such, it is an important source of
reference and inspiration for actions by countries around the world to raise public
awareness of water crisis, encourage public participation, upgrade the capacity for
scientific water governance and management, and address water security challenges
effectively. I am confident that this report will be well received by readers from all
walks of life. To address water challenges, enhance water governance, and safe-
guard water security is a major task that all humankind will need to face in the
process of sustainable development for a long time to come. China is more than
happy to work with other countries and international water organisations to expand
the breadth and depth of water cooperation, compare water experiences, share water
wisdom, and maintain water security, in order to enable water to become an
inexhaustible resource to nourish the shared future of the entire human community.

Chen Lei
Minister of Water Resources, People’s Republic of China
Preface II

Global Water Security: Strategies and Policy Implications

The need for strategies and policies to enable water security across the globe is
more pressing than at any time in history. Recent years have seen many regions
suffer more water scarcity, more extreme droughts, and more extreme floods. Water
issues underlie famines, migration, epidemics, inequalities, and political instability.
The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development’s Environmental
Outlook to 2050 estimates that by mid-century more than 40% of the world’s
population is likely to be living in river basins under severe water stress and 20%
of the population will be at risk from floods.
Yet, although reliable, safe water supplies and sound defences against droughts
and floods are vital for social and economic prosperity, few countries pay enough
attention to strategies and policies for water security. Strategies and policies for
water security are urgently required to protect populations, cities, economies, and
ecosystems from water-related risks—risks from droughts, floods, pollution, unsafe
drinking water, inadequate sanitation, and degraded ecosystems. Population
growth, urbanisation, the rising global demand for food, and climate change make
strategies and policies for water security imperative. One of the greatest challenges
ahead is to meet global demand for energy and food, which is expected to grow by
more than one-third by 2035, while providing adequate water to households.
Water security is critical in both developed and developing countries. Although
water-related risks mainly threaten developing countries, floods and droughts cause
enormous damage to economies and communities in developed countries as well.
By 2050, the value of assets at risk is expected to triple to around US$45 trillion.
Recent estimates from the High-Level Panel on Water indicate that US$650 billion
is required every year from now until 2030 to assure the infrastructure necessary to
achieve water security. Althouth current investment falls far short of global needs
and the impacts on communities, economies and the environment are significant.
Recognition is growing that water security is key to cross-sectoral sustainable
growth. Investing in water security reduces risks faced by society and economic

xi
xii Preface II

sectors associated with water and can have a positive effect on economic growth
and inclusiveness. The policy agenda for water must proactively build water-wise
policies across sectors. Water security, business security, and the well-being of the
planet depend on joined-up thinking and working together. We need to reach out to
all sectors.
Mainstreaming water security means catalysing knowledge to develop sustain-
able, bankable projects that are risk-resilient and will provide returns on investment.
It means mobilising political will for developing policies and strategies that will
create an enabling environment for the investment in multi-purpose infrastructure.
As water is often under-valued and underpriced, there are opportunities for
investing in higher value uses of water. Policy interventions can lessen the risks and
improve the returns of investments in water, thus encouraging a shift towards higher
value uses. Technological and business innovations can make investing in water
more attractive and need to be scaled up. Blended finance is a promising way of
financing large water infrastructure projects on viable terms. In the face of an
uncertain future, strategies to integrate individual investments and projects in basins
can build resilient, cost-effective water infrastructure that delivers multiple benefits.
Developing strategies and policies for financing water infrastructure is a priority
for achieving water security. The World Water Council has a history of addressing
the need to scale up investment in water, seeking to improve understanding of
investment risks and encouraging more investment in water infrastructure world-
wide. The partnership on water and finance between the Organisation for Economic
Co-operation and Development, the Government of the Netherlands, and the World
Water Council was a key to launching the Roundtable on Financing Water in 2017.
This group leverages policy, economic, and financial expertise and shares its
findings with leaders in the private sector, government, regulatory institutions,
academia, and civil society. The Roundtable contributes to the work of the
High-Level Panel on Water on developing policies and incentives to meet the
challenge of financing the world’s needs for water infrastructure.
In this collection of studies, the World Water Council with the generous support
of the Government of China has drawn on worldwide expertise. The prospects for a
water-secure world that meets the demands of increasing populations and growing
economies are surrounded by complexity and uncertainty. Most analyses to date
have been theoretical or have examined water security in a particular sector, such as
agriculture or energy. The governments we task with developing policies and
strategies for a sustainable future have little practical guidance on best bets for
building and managing water systems that will deliver water-secure development.
Crops that fail because of droughts or floods, cities that face water restrictions,
economies with insufficient water supplies to grow, and millions of livelihoods at
risk mean that it is imperative to gear up policies and strategies to ensure greater
water security—and to gear up now. This book, in discussing real-life policy,
management and governance decisions across food production, energy, ecology,
finance, industry, climate, and disaster-resilient issues, provides insights on what
Preface II xiii

can be done towards greater water security, the trade-offs, the short- and long-term
implications and the lessons learned. The Council hopes that the studies offer fresh
perspectives on strategies and policies for water security and that the recommen-
dations offer constructive advice.

Benedito P. F. Braga
President, World Water Council
Preface III

Water Security—Worldwide, for Us All, and by Us All

The world is lurching from crisis to crisis. Political tensions are flaring, while
military and diplomatic pressures are rising. The climate is changing at an alarming
pace. Energy and water are becoming increasingly scarce resources. People are
facing growing threats to their health, as well as to vital food supplies. Billions of
people all over the world are suffering from the accumulated effects of such crises.
As our economies and societies become more and more interdependent, as
demographic growth and urbanisation reach unprecedented levels, as news spreads
ever faster, and as people’s hopes for a better quality of life are raised, this suffering
is becoming more intense and more brutal. Yet, at the same time, it also strengthens
calls for peace and human dignity.
Peace and dignity, and a fairer world, depend in the long term on two things:
access to development opportunities and protecting the natural world. To develop
and to protect nature, we need to act with mutual respect and find a sustainable
balance between the use of our increasingly coveted natural resources and the need
to protect them.
Water is one of these resources. And it has become a rare commodity, in terms of
both quantity and quality. Despite our household, industrial, and agricultural uses of
water, and even its ecologically friendly use, the water in our rivers, boreholes,
water tables, dams, and reservoirs is rapidly being depleted. As the demand for
water increases, the supply is stagnating, at the local scale and at the global scale.
Our lives depend on water being available. If we fail to manage its availability, we
condemn entire populations to be excluded from development and the enjoyment of
fundamental human rights.
Collectively and individually, this is our responsibility, or rather, these are our
responsibilities. We must ensure water security, worldwide, for us all, and by us all.
To secure water use, we first need to secure the availability and protection of the
resource itself. We have to find the right balance between water now and water in
the future. That means a balance between the demand for water and the restrictions

xv
xvi Preface III

that come with water stress. Securing resources means finding the additional water
resources needed to meet the demand and establish that balance. To achieve all this,
we can rely on human ingenuity and the ability to constantly innovate and come up
with new solutions.
This begins with technical solutions. In the future, we will need to drill for water
more deeply, transport it over longer distances, store it for longer, and purify it more
efficiently. We will develop new, cheaper, and more advanced solutions, such as the
wider use of desalination and wastewater reuse. These will give us a fantastic
source of freshwater for agricultural and industrial use. Technological advances will
enable us to speed up the roll-out of new, smarter, more efficient, more
environment-friendly, more sustainable, and fairer solutions.
But apart from human ingenuity, there is also the need, indeed the obligation, to
take political action. The politician’s job is to take the lead, to implement and
oversee the use of water. We can think of water management as a house supported
by three pillars: governance, finance, and knowledge. These three pillars need to be
well built, to ensure that every drop of water is used as productively as possible.
To improve efficiency, we now need to go beyond the concept of integrated
water resource management, which is a vertical approach to the short water cycle. It
needs to be combined with a horizontal approach, based on the fundamental links
between water, energy, food, health, and education—the ‘five fingers’. This is a
new approach, one which finally enables development policies to be implemented
at national and local levels without segmentation or isolation, and without opposing
any of the five ‘fingers’ against the others, seeing them as implicitly interrelated,
rather than conflicting. Thus, expanding a city, or building a school, must answer to
each of these five basic factors simultaneously, rather than focusing on one to the
detriment of the others. It is an approach exemplified in the slogan ‘Water and
energy, fighting for the same cause’.
With these emerging needs, we see that water security is now one of the key
strategic challenges faced by our planet, along with climate security, nuclear
security, and maritime security. Water scarcity makes human societies more vul-
nerable and leaves some states and communities in an extremely fragile situation.
Global water security has now become an integral part of every country’s
national security and foreign policy. Which brings us to the need to develop
‘hydro-diplomacy’. Hydro-diplomacy is the art of building peace based on this
most vital resource for mankind. It should operate not only through joint man-
agement of cross-border basins, but also in climate mitigation and adaptation
negotiations. Hydro-diplomacy is also needed to set up the effective and fair debt
refinancing mechanisms linked to water (and energy) for the world’s poorest
nations.
However, in the last few years, we have seen that governments no longer have a
monopoly on such a strategic vision. Ensuring water security, for the present and,
above all, for the future, will be in the hands of parliaments, local authorities, and
user communities. This is because the best people to ensure water security are, as
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