Public policies are not single decisions but complex processes whereby the objectives of interventions

are formulated, implementation is organised, and effects (intended and unintended) eventually take
place. Normally, public policies attempt to foster the well-being of a target population.

Policy evaluation consists of reviewing the design, implementation and results of a policy in order to
keep both public opinion and policy-makers informed of its strengths and its weaknesses. According to
the European Commission, “evaluation is defined as an evidence-based judgement of the extent to
which an intervention has been effective and efficient, been relevant given the needs and its objectives,
been coherent both internally and with other EU policy interventions and achieved EU added-value”
(European Commission, 2015: 49).

Policy evaluation uses a range of research methods to investigate in a systematic way, the
effectiveness of policies. This can include interventions, implementation, and the processes used to
deliver policy outcomes. It is important in policy evaluation to use a range of quantitative and
qualitative methods, experimental and non-experimental designs, descriptive and experiential methods,
theory based approaches, and economic appraisal approaches. The reason for using a range of methods
is to ensure a balanced view and reduce the shortcomings of using only one method, Olusegun,
Obadanjo. (2010).

There are two main types of policy evaluation, summative and formative evaluation. Summative
Evaluation - (often referred to as impact evaluation) looks at the impact a policy, programme or other
form of policy intervention has on specific outcomes for different groups. It seeks to gauge the effects
of a policy with its planned outcome, or compared with some form of intervention, or even with doing
nothing (sometimes referred to as counterfactual). For example, when introducing new technology into
school classrooms, summative evaluation may look at whether this had an impact on improving pupils’
exam results. This guide provides a brief overview of the use of policy evaluation – what it is, the
types of evaluation available, and their main concepts, Adams, D. (2006).

Formative Evaluation (sometimes referred to as process evaluation) asks questions such as how, why
and under what conditions does a policy intervention, e.g. a project, programme or initiative, work or
not work? Formative evaluations are important in that they attempt to gauge the effectiveness of
policies, projects or programmes’ implementation. They seek to establish information on the
contextual factors, processes and mechanisms that underpin a policy’s success or failure, and to
understand not only if a policy was successful or not, but why. For example, when introducing new
technology equipment into school classrooms, formative evaluation may try to uncover whether the
new equipment was used in accordance with its intended use.
Although the two approaches to evaluation differ in their purpose, they are often inter-related in their
application. One evaluation theory known as the “Theories of Change” approach, suggests that
deciding whether or not a policy has worked or on its effectiveness, usually involves investigating how
it has worked, for whom, why it has worked, and under what conditions it has or has not worked.
However, in order to ensure a clearer application of policy evaluation techniques, evaluating whether a
policy has been effective (summative evaluation), and why it has been effective (formative evaluation)
it is the usual convention to apply them separately.

Theory-based Evaluation; These approaches usually apply to formative evaluations where the
emphasis is more on finding ways to improve programme effectiveness than on simply judging
impacts. These types of evaluations do not focus on whether a programme works or not (or how often
it works), but on identifying where it works or does not work, and the reasons why it does not work.
They attempt to analyse the logical or theoretical consequences of a policy, and can increase the
likelihood of achieving the desired outcome.

Economic appraisal usually takes place at the outset of policy making to determine which of various
policy options is most likely to produce the desired outcomes and at what cost. Economic evaluation is
undertaken after a given policy has been running for some time in order to determine whether the
anticipated outcomes have been achieved. Economic appraisal and evaluation uses the analytical
methods of economics to determine the cost, value and worth of a policy intervention. This includes
estimating the value of alternative uses of a given resource. Types of economic analysis used in
economic evaluation include: Cost-analysis-this compares the costs of different initiatives without
considering the outcomes sought. Its major limitation is the lack of information on outcomes and about
the relative effectiveness of different interventions, and serves little purpose in a robust policy
evaluation. Cost-effectiveness-analysis compares the differential costs involved in achieving a given
objective or outcome. It provides a measure of relative effectiveness of different interventions. • Cost-
benefit analysis-considers the differential benefits gained by a given cost of resources. It considers
alternative uses of a given resource, or the opportunity cost of doing something compared with doing
something else. Cost utility analysis – evaluates the utility of different outcomes for different users of a
policy or service. It normally involves subjective appraisals and evaluations of outcomes using
qualitative and quantitative information.

Before deciding to evaluate a policy, programme or project it is always important to ask whether it is
even possible to evaluate it. Some policies are so complicated that it will be impossible to meet the
main requirements of evaluability. These requirements include that the interventions, and the target
population, are clear and identifiable; that the outcomes are clear, specific and measurable; and that it
is practical to implement an appropriate evaluation design.
Evaluability assessment provides a systematic approach to planning evaluation projects. It involves
structured engagement with stakeholders to clarify intervention goals and how they are expected to be
achieved, the development and evaluation of a logic model or theory of change, and provision of
advice on whether an evaluation can be carried out at reasonable cost or further development work on
the intervention should be completed first.

One of the most frequently asked questions in policy evaluation is ‘have we achieved the goals set out
for a policy, programme or project?’ This is commonly known as “Goals-based evaluation”. Before
and after methods of evaluation, using both quantitative and qualitative research methods are often
used to answer these types of questions. You can use comparisons with different sub-groups of a
population, such as different areas, in order to see if there are any variations in achievement, Amaele,
S. et al (2011).

Goals-based evaluations do not always assume that the chosen goals are valid or indeed appropriate
measures of effectiveness. Even when the goals of a policy, programme or project are achieved, it does
not always mean that the policy has been responsible for this outcome. Other factors, sometimes other
policies or projects, may have influenced the outcome.

In order to know whether a policy has been responsible for an expected outcome, some evaluation of
the “counterfactual” is needed, in other words, what would have happened anyway, or because of other
factors. The usual method of assessing the counterfactual of a policy is to conduct an experimental
evaluation such as a randomized control trial, Himmelstrend, ULF (1984).

A randomized control trial deals with the problem of other possible factors influencing an outcome by
exposing an experimental group of people, and a non- experimental, or control group, of people to
exactly the same factors except the policy under investigation. For example, in testing the effectiveness
of new drugs on patients, two randomly selected groups are often chosen; one group is administered
the drug and another group is given a placebo, and the results are monitored over time.

You can also use Quasi-Experimental methods such as controlled matched comparisons which,
although similar to randomized control trials, don’t assign individuals randomly to different
experimental and control groups, but on the basis of characteristics like gender and age. Quasi-
experimental approaches are often supported by statistical modeling techniques.

Policy-makers and evaluators are often interested in the “unintended” outcomes of a policy. These
unintended outcomes may be positive or negative. “Dark logic modeling” is a specific technique that
can be used to explore possible negative unintended effects which can be used to inform how an
intervention is implemented such as to minimize unintended effects.
Good governance is essential for any organization to succeed and thrive. But how do you know if
you’re succeeding? Monitoring and evaluation are key components of good governance. They provide
the data and evidence you need to make informed decisions, track progress, and ensure
accountability.Monitoring and evaluation are essential for good governance as they provide feedback
on the effectiveness of policies, programs, and services , Lichman, W. (1972) . They allow
governments to identify successes and areas for improvement, enabling them to adjust their strategies
and ensure that resources are used in the most effective way.Monitoring and evaluation also provide
information for decision-making, helping to ensure that policies and programs are based on evidence
rather than guesswork. Furthermore, they are essential for accountability, as they provide information
on how public funds are being used and what results are achieved.

Finally, monitoring and evaluation can help to ensure that public services are delivered in a cost-
effective and equitable manner, allowing governments to identify and address any disparities in access
to the services dedicated to the community.Monitoring is an essential tool for any organization that
wants to ensure their objectives are being achieved efficiently and effectively. By investing in M&E
systems and processes, organizations can ensure that their activities are being monitored and evaluated,
which will help them to make strategic decisions and optimize resources. In addition to these benefits,
M&E also provides organizations with valuable insights into the impact of their interventions and the
strengths and weaknesses of their operations. Ultimately, it is essential for long-term organizational
success.Monitoring and evaluation are important tools that can help organizations measure their
progress and assess the effectiveness of the strategies they have implemented.Tracking results over
time can provide insight into where there is room for improvement, allowing organizations to adjust
their strategies accordingly.Monitoring and evaluation are also essential when it comes to securing
funding and demonstrating impact to external stakeholders.Monitoring and Evaluation are critical for
understanding the effectiveness of any project or program.Regular assessment allows you to identify
successes and areas where improvements can be made.It also ensures accountability, allowing
stakeholders to track progress and hold each other responsible for achieving goals.Monitoring and
evaluation can help identify areas where improvement is needed and track progress over time.It also
allows for better decision-making by providing data-driven insights into what is working and not
working.Regular monitoring and evaluation can also help ensure that resources are allocated
effectively and goals are being met.
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