1

Term 3 : DEVELOPMENT GEOGRAPHY

THE CONCEPT OF DEVELOPMENT

Terminology

Development: The use of resources and technology

to bring about change. This change is
positive and generally involves the
improvement in people’s quality of
life and improving the standard of
living in a country.

Development Indicators: Are used to measure the level of

development with regard to a
countries economic, social and
institutional growth.

Brandt Line: The line dividing the world into the

developed and developing world.

Industrialised: The country is involved in

manufacturing and processing of raw
materials in factories. The more
industrialised a country is the more
developed the country will be.

Infant Mortality: The number of children who die

because of childhood related and
other diseases.

Life expectancy: The average number of years a

person can expect to live.
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Primary Activities: The extraction of raw materials from

the earth’s surface. For example,
forestry, farming, mining, and
fishing.

Secondary Activities: Involves the manufacturing and

processing of goods obtained in the
primary activities.

Tertiary Activities: Provision of services.

Quaternary Activities: Involves research and technology

X-planation

Geographers classify countries according to their level of economic and human

development. There will always be poor people in rich countries and rich people in
poor countries. The Brandt Line is used to divide the world into two halves, the
developed north (rich, industrialised) and the developing south (poor).The Brandt
Line may also be referred to as the North-South divide. It is important to remember
that the Brandt line is not the same as the equator. There are some countries that
are found in the Southern Hemisphere but are north of the Brandt Line e.g.
Australia.
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FACTERS USED WHEN CLASSIFYING COUNTRIES ACCORDING TO THIS RICN-POOR

DIVIDE

NORTH

• 25% of the world’s population live in the rich north.

• 80% of the world’s income is earned here.
• Life expectancy greater than 70 years.
• Food security
• Most people educated at least through secondary school.
• The headquarters of most of the world’s multinational companies are located
here.

SOUTH

• 75% of the world’s population live in the poor south.

• 20% of the world’s income is earned here.
• Life expectancy less than 50 years.
• Food insecurity
• Half the population does not have the chance of formal education.
• Targeted as host countries by multinational companies which outsources their
production as resources and cheap labour are available in developing
countries.

Below is a table comparing the main differences between Developed and Developing
countries.

DEVELOPED COUNTRIES DEVELOPING COUNTRIES (LEDCs)

(MEDCs)

First world Third World

Rich world Poor World

The haves The have not’s

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More economically developed Less economically developed countries

countries ( MEDCs) (LEDCs}

Industrialised Non-industrialised/ Industrialising

The North The South

High income Low income

High human development Low human development index (HDI 0,5 and
index (HDI 0.8+) less)

E.g. United States of America, E.g. India, Ethiopia, Brazil

France, Japan

FIRST, SECOND AND THIRD WORLD COUNTRIES

These terms were used during the period known as “cold

war”. The classification refers to the manner in which a
country achieved development.

➢ First world countries: achieved development by capitalist

means or through a market economy.
➢ Second world countries: achieved development by
socialist means and state control.

➢ Third world countries: had not adopted any of the above

as they are still developing and generally poorer.
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ASPECTS OF DEVELOPMENT

Economic aspect

This refers to the way in which a country’s economy develops over time.

It is directly linked to the technological development in the county, the amount of

nutritional food available, trade relation, political stability and educational level of the
work force.

Social aspect

Social aspect of development focuses on:

• Education
• Training
• Creation of jobs
• Work opportunities and
• Provision of health care facilities.

Sustainable development

• It is the development that is able to provide for the needs of the present
generation without affecting the demands of future generations.
• The use of natural and human resources must be balanced through preparation
and planning for future.

Appropriate scale and spatial aspect of development

• Development occurs in equally in most countries. There are differences

between development in rural areas and urban areas.
• There are differences between what is available to the poor and to the wealthy.
• There are differences between what is given to men and women.
• Development actions need to help balance these differences so that everyone
benefits and has a close to similar standard of living.
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INDICATORS OF DEVELOPMENT

Geographers make use of different indicators in order to compare the level of

development around the world.

There are three different types of indicators that can be used in order to compare
developmen

indicators of
development

economic indicators social indicators

demogaphic
(Shows how well off ( show level of human indicators
a country development, welfare
(Statistics of a
is economically) and quality of life)
country's population)

Economic Indicators

• Gross National Income (GNI) – the amount of money the average person in a
country can expect to have. (Low income and middle income countries are
developing while high income countries are developed).

• Gross National Product (GNP) – Total value of all goods and services produced by
a country in one year including foreign earnings.

• Gross Domestic Product (GDP) – Shows the total value of all goods and services
produced by a country in one year.

NB! All of the above indicators are often given as per capita or per person. To calculate
this amount you take the GNI, GNP or GDP and divide by the country’s total
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population. It is therefore an average amount that is available to each person in that

country.

• Human Development Index (HDI) – This indicator is a combination of GDP per

capita, life expectancy and literacy rate. Zero (0) indicates the worst quality of life,
while one (1) shows an almost perfect place

Top 10 Countries according to the HDI Bottom 10 Countries according to the

(2013) HDI
(2013)

NORWAY (0,955) BURUNDI (0.355)

AUSTRALIA (0, 938) GUINEA (0,355)

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA (0,937) CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC (0,352)

NETHERLANDS (0,921) ERITREA (0,351)

GERMANY (0, 920) MALI (0,344)

NEW ZEALAND (0,9 19) BURKINA FASO (0,343)

IRELAND (0,916) CHAD (0,340)

SWEDEN (0,9 16) MOZAMBIQUE (0,327)

SWITZERLAND (0,9 13) DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF CONGO

(0,304)

JAPAN (0,912) NIGER (0,304)

Social Indicators

Social Indicators may include things like:

• The percentage of the population living in urban areas

• Education levels and level of literacy
• Availability of services such as water, electricity and healthcare
• Food and nutrition
• Quality of life
• Availability of medical facilities
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Demographic Indicators

The following are examples of demographic indicators and are usually obtained
through a census in a particular country. A Census is an official counting a country’s
population which is usually done every ten years.

• Birth rate
• Death rate
• Infant mortality rate
• Life expectancy
• Maternal Mortality rate( the number of mothers who dies during childbirth)
• Population growth rate (the percentage by which a country’s population grows
each year)
• Fertility rate (the expected number of children the average women in a country
has)
• % of urbanisation

Development from different contexts – local, regional and global

Local – refers to development in the area in which you are living. Development in a
local context is often small-scale.

Regional – refers to development in an area that has similar characteristics which

distinguish it from other areas (e.g. Gauteng)

Global – refers to development worldwide. Here the best example is the Millennium
Development Goals. These goals included:

• Eradicating extreme poverty and hunger

• Achieving universal primary education
• Promoting gender equality and empowering women
• Reducing child mortality
• Improving maternal health
• Combating HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases
• Ensuring environmental sustainability
• Developing a global partnership for development
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LESSON 8: FRAMEWORKS FOR DEVELOPMENT

Terminology

Globalisation: A process that leads to an

integrated global economy and
society.

Factor: An element or cause that

contributes to a result.

Model: A representation of an aspect of

the real world; a simplified or
generalized version of reality.

Economy: The system of production and

distribution in a society; the
economy is made up of four
sectors, primary, secondary,
tertiary and quaternary.

Core: An area which has an economic

advantage due to high levels of
capital, infrastructure and
employment opportunities. Most
developed parts.

Core and Periphery Model: A model that tries to explain where

economic development takes
place, using the concepts of core
and periphery.

Free Market Model: A model that tries to explain

development based on the
economy.

Periphery: An area which lacks capital,

infrastructure and employment
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opportunities. Less developed

area.

Sustainable Development: Any developments that will in the

long term sustain themselves and
not deplete the natural resources
of the area.

X-planation

Factors that Affect Development

POLITICAL FACTORS

History

• Colonization led to the extraction of resources by developed countries.

• No laws govern the use/exploitation of resources.
• Large multinational companies and investors exploit natural resources,
especially in developing countries.
• Labour is exploited and foreign expertise is used. Local labour is not skilled.

SOCIAL FACTORS

Population Growth

• The world’s population is increasing at a rapid rate.

• This puts pressure on resources such as wood, water and soil.
• These resources are becoming depleted or degraded.

Education and Training

• An educated labour force is essential for transfer or technology from

developed and developing countries.
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• High illiteracy rates hamper educational progress in a country.

ECONOMIC FACTORS

Trade Imbalances

• Globalisation has made it easy for countries to trade and exchange goods.
• World Trade Organisation has introduced a free market trade system in an effort
to attempt to integrate developing countries into the world’s trading and
economic systems.
• Developing countries often have to export to developed countries and suffer when
orders for their goods are cut back.

Energy

• More than half the world’s population does not have access to clean, cheap
energy.
• The high use of biomass fuel in developing countries means a lack of energy for
domestic use.
• This slows down development.
• Developed countries contribute to the world’s rising CO2 levels from the use
of fossils fuels for energy production.

Natural Resources limitations

• Carrying capacity (the maximum population that resources in a given

environment can support) is exceeded.
• Large populations put pressure on natural resources.

Environmental Degradation

• There is a lack of environmental education, government policy and effective

pollution control.
• There is an objective of profit at all costs.
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Access to resources

• There is an uneven distribution of the world’s natural resources.

• Developed countries need more resources than developing countries.
• There is a lack of access to water, electricity and sanitation in many developing
countries.
• Land ownership is prevented in some countries.
• There is a lack of opportunities in business owing to government policies.

Economic Models of Development

Rostow’s Model
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Rostow’s model is a very modern model that has been purely based on economic
development. Development took place over time as a result of free trade,
industrialisation and exports. It includes five main stages:

1. Traditional society: All societies begin underdeveloped, focusing on subsistence

agriculture, little technology and a balance between population and available
resources.
2. Preconditions for takeoff: Formal economy starts to grow, commercial agriculture,
technology and infrastructure improve, export of natural resources.
3. Takeoff: Industries develop, sustained economic growth, economy develops
further
4. Drive to maturity: economic growth spreads though country and industrialisation
and urbanisation.
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5. High mass consumption: Highly developed, advanced industrial economy, tertiary

sector grows.

Criticisms

• Model was mainly based on European countries with little relevance for
developing countries.
• Many countries remained in stage 1(traditional society) despite huge amounts
of money and time.
• The focus is on economic growth only.

CORE PERIPHERY MODEL

• Economic growth is mainly concentrated in the core.

• The periphery is dependent on the core.
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• Over time development should spread from the core to the periphery and in this
way the whole area becomes developed.
• The core periphery model can be applied at different scales, local and global

Sustainable Development Models

• These models focus on economic, social and environmental elements of

development.
• The emphasis is on well-being, justice, human resources and environmental
sustainability.
• Sustainable development can only occur if there is a balance between the three
components.
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Community based development

• Community based development programmes are designed to improve the quality

of life within specific communities.
• They take into account local conditions, culture and history.
• By evolving the community in the planning, execution and ongoing maintenance
of the programme, the people are more likely to buy into the idea.
• Community based development can be divided into rural development and urban
development.

TRADE AND DEVELOPMENT

Terminology Trade: The exchange of goods, services,

capital, labour and information
between two parties.

Barter: To exchange goods for other goods,

rather than selling them for money.

International trade: The exchange of goods, services,

capital, labour and information
between countries.

Balance of Trade: The relationship between the value

of a country’s exports and its imports.

Market: The place where goods and services

are bought and sold.

Commodities: The items (goods and services) that

countries trade. Anything sold in
large quantities.

Free Trade: Trade that occurs without any

restrictions.
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Tariffs: A type of tax placed on imported

goods, which makes these goods
more expensive than the local
product.

Customs: Taxes paid on importing and/or

exporting goods.

Quota: A limit to the amount of imported

goods that may enter a country
during a fixed period of time.

Subsidy: A form of financial assistance paid by

government to an industry or
economic sector.

Fair trade: Trade that supports farmers in

developing countries by paying fair
prices and encouraging social and
environmental development in their
communities.

Globalisation: A process that leads to an integrated

global economy and society.

Multinational Corporation (MNC): A company that owns or controls

production facilities in more than one
country.

Outsourcing: Having components made or

assembled in a country other than
where the headquarters of a
company is based.

Sweatshops: Workshop or factory where people

work long hours in poor conditions
for low pay, often making illegal or
counterfeit goods.
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X-planation

Trade

Trade can be described as the transfer of ownership of goods and services from one
person or entity to another. In its simplest form trade is a process where people or
entities barter – one side provides goods or services, while the other side pays with
money, goods or services.

International Trade

International Trade involves the movement of goods and services across borders
between countries. Trade between two countries is called bilateral trade, while trade
between more than two countries is referred to as multinational trade.

Commodities

Commodities are items that countries trade. They can either be raw materials or
finished products LEDC’s export mainly raw materials and unfinished goods, so their
share of global trade is very small. LEDCs also earn less for their exports than MEDCs,
because processed commodities fetch higher prices than raw materials do.

Terms of Trade

Terms of trade is a term used by economists to describe the relationship between the
prices a country sells its exports for and the prices it pays for its imports. It makes
economic sense to try and get more for what you sell, and pay less for what you buy.

Balance of Trade

The balance of trade is the relationship between the value of a country’s exports and
it imports. It can either be positive or negative.

NEGATIVE BALANCE OF TRADE = imports are greater than exports

POSITIVE BALANCE OF TRADE = exports are greater than imports

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Trade Relationships

TRADE
RELATIONSHIPS

FREE TRADE TRADE BARRIERS FAIR TRADE

Free Trade

• Is trade that occurs without any restrictions.

• When there is free trade, nations open their borders to one another, and goods
and services move freely between them.
• There are no tariffs or customs duties that might increase the process.
• Free trade is meant to benefit all trading partners.

Trade Barriers

This occurs in order to protect local manufacturers; governments might introduce

measures to make imported goods more expensive. These include:

• Import tariffs and taxes (taxes placed on imported goods making them more
expensive than local goods)
• Subsidies for local industries (a subsidy is financial assistance paid to a business to
help support that business, to create employment, stimulate business and reduce
imports)
• Quotas (limits that governments set to the amount of imported goods that can
enter a country within a particular time frame)
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Trade barriers are also used in order to protect jobs in a country, protect local
products from foreign competition and to encourage local industries.

Fair Trade

• Trade that supports farmers in developing countries by paying fair prices,

workers enjoy better working conditions and are not exploited.
• This type of trade is closely linked to sustainable development.
• Fair trade organisations also improve infrastructure and social development
(education and training) in developing countries.

Globalisation

• Globalisation is a process whereby the increased flow of goods, services,

capital, technology, ideas, information and people between countries leads to
an integrated global economy and society.
• Globalisation has resulted in some brands spreading across the globe.

Globalisation & Development

Globalisation impacts development in seven different ways:

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COMUNICATIO
N

GLOBAL
TRADE
GOVERNANCE

GLOBALISATION
INPACTS
DEVELOPMENT
IN SEVEN
DIFFERENT
MIGRATION OPEN BODERS
WAYS

ECONOMIC MULTINATIONAL
GROWTH COPORATIONNS

1. Trade - it is now easier to trade and exchange goods.

2. Communication - countries are better linked therefore can share knowledge.

3. Global Governance - international community is trying to regulate global economic

activities and minimise environmental damage.

4. Open Borders - borders are becoming less important as freer movement of people,
goods and ideas occurs.

5. Multinational Corporations - control world resources and operate globally.

6. Economic Growth - stimulated production, trade and economic growth.

7. Migration - more people move within their countries and across borders
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Export-Led Development

Export-led development is an economic strategy used by developing nations to

“catch-up” to developed nations. Their aim is to increase wealth (development) by
increasing exports through:

• Investing in industry, manufacturing and education in order to create specialised

export products, and then
• Re-investing the money earned in social and physical structure

Countries such as Honk Kong, Singapore, Taiwan and South Korea have become more
developed by using this approach.

DEVELOPMENT ISSUES AND CHALLENGES & THE ROLE OF AID IN DEVELOPMENT

Terminology

Gender: Male or female; way in which a

society/culture treats men and
women

Gender Inequality Index (GII): UN index indicating the degree of

equality/inequality between men and
women in a country

Informal sector: Self-employed people trading goods

on the street or working from
home/backyard workshops. Not part
of the formal economic sector.
Workers have no contracts, fixed
hours or benefits and do not pay tax

Permaculture: Type of agriculture that meets

people’s needs in a sustainable way.
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Environmental impact assessment A study undertaken to assess the

(EIA): impact on the environment of a
development project

Carbon emissions: Gases containing carbon dioxide that

pollute the atmosphere

Carbon footprint: The quantity of carbon gases a person

contributes to the pollution of the
atmosphere through his/her daily
lifestyle

Green economy: An economy that does not damage

the environment

Food security: When all people at all times have

access to sufficient, safe, nutritious
food to maintain a healthy active
lifestyle

Agroprocessing: Industries that process agricultural

products

Beneficiation: To treat and use a mineral so that the

‘benefits’ stay in the home country as
opposed to exporting a mineral and
then importing (at a greater expense)
the manufactured product

Aid: Help/assistance given by one country

or organisation to another country.
Examples include food, medicines,
money and technology

Development aid: Money, knowledge or skills that are

donated to developing countries in
order to assist in their economics,
social, political and environmental
development
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Donor: A country or organisation that gives

aid

Recipient: A country that receives aid

X-planation

The Role of Women in Development

Men and women do different things in society. We call these different things gender
roles. The roles are based on tradition and cultural or religious beliefs. In many parts
of the world the differences between gender roles is vast. Since people are the focal
area of development, there needs to be equality in all aspects between genders for
meaningful development to occur.

Gender Issues Are Related To:

Attitudes

Women are predominantly seen as the caregivers and homemakers. In many cultures
women are seen as belonging firstly to their fathers and after that belonging to their
husbands. Women are not encouraged to have an opinion or seek an education and
many accept their roles.

Access to Resources

Traditionally women have very little access to resources (education, property and
employment). Developed countries now offer equal education but still have more
men involved in science and engineering. Meanwhile in developing countries
educating boys is still given top priority. In many developing countries women are still
not able to own land and therefore are involved in subsistence agriculture. When they
do find employment outside agriculture, they are offered the lowest paying jobs or
work in the informal sector.

Power

In developing countries women are not involved in any decision making processes.
Many laws do exist to prevent discrimination against women but are seldom upheld
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by governments. Some societies do offer their women equal rights but still may suffer
different forms of discrimination. Girls and women suffer sexual abuse and violence.

The Gender Inequality Index (GII)

• The index indicating degree of equality/inequality between men and women in a

country.
• The following factors are used to determine the GII: health if girls and women,
political representation, education and job opportunities.
• A low GII closer to zero indicates maximum equality among males and females. A
higher GII closer to one means there is maximum inequality between genders.
• Generally speaking the MEDCs have scores that are close to zero while LEDCs have
scores close to one.

The Effect of Development on the Environment

Development is linked to increases in industrialisation and technology. The positive

impact this brings for human beings is economic and social improvements, however,
this can have a negative impact on the environment. Some of these effects include:

• Global warming
• Deforestation
• Soil erosion
• Water and air pollution
• Extinction of plants and animals

Overconsumption & Biocapacity

The more developed a society becomes, the more resources it consumes. A balance
between the rate of at which people use resources and the Earths capacity to
reproduce these resources needs to be maintained.

Biocapacity is the biological ability of the Earth to reproduce resources and absorb
waste generated by humans. The ecological footprint is the amount of biologically
productive area humanity uses in order to meet its needs. At the current rate
humanity’s ecological footprint is greater than Earth’s biocapacity.
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The Role of State and Business in Development in South Africa

• The ultimate responsibility for development of a country lies with the state.
• Various social and economic development policies and programmes are
implemented in order to do this.
• The government may choose its involvement in a programme, either it is
completely responsible or they only play a supportive role.

Ways that Government Assist Development

REDUCE
TAXIS FOR
INVESTORS
MAINTAINI IN THE
NG A COUNTRY ATTENDING
STABLE INTERNATION
CURRENCY AL TALKS TO
ENCOURAGE
GOVERNMENT TRADE
ASSISTANT IN
DEVELOPMENT

ENSURING
ONGOING
BUILDING
EDUCATION
INFRASTRUC
TOOBTAIN AN
TURE
EDUCATED WORK
FORCE

1. Central State Control

Central government, provinces and other state departments initiate development

projects. These projects are large-scale, long-term and require large sums of money.
A current example would be the NGP (New Growth Path). This is a state development
 27

policy for economic growth and equity. It plans to bring about development by
creating jobs and reducing inequality and poverty.

2. Weak State Control

Where state control is weak, government often fails to satisfy basic conditions and
carry out its responsibilities, such as to provide public services and to reduce
widespread corruption and criminality. The characteristics of these states are:

• an ineffective, weak central government

• little control over the states
• sharp economic decline

3. Public or Private Partnerships

• In any market-based economy, state owned, cooperative and private enterprises

need to work together.
• State enterprises should be able to make more decisions with respect to pricing,
production and distribution of products and services.
• The private should be expanded through privatisation (transfer of ownership from
the public to the private sector).
• This is believed to improve output, profits and efficiency of the organisations.
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The Role of Aid in Development

In order to improve the standard of living, especially in developing countries,

large sums of money are needed. International development aid is when the
MEDCs help LEDCs with loans donations and

assistance. The MEDCs are referred to as the donors as they are granting the aid
and the LEDCs are referred to as the foreign aid recipients.

Aid is used to develop economies and improve services to better the quality of
life for its population. Aid can also be given with or without conditions.

The following are a few examples of development aid:

• Bilateral – from one government/country to another

• Multilateral – from international organisations (UN, World Bank)
• Non-governmental organisations and private organisations ( Red Cross)
• Private banks
• Direct investors (MNCs, Apple, Sony)

Outline Showing the Main Types of Aid

TYPES OF DEVELOPMENT
AID

TECHNICAL CONDITIONAL HUMANITARIAN

technical solutions for usually with terms of given to people in distrss-
social problems repayment not

project aid bilateral individual organisations

programme aid multilateral or government provide
donations grants from NGOs relief such as clothd,
food,shelter and
oficial development loans donations
asistance
direct investment
 31

The Impact of Aid on Development

ADVANTAGES OF AID DISADVANTAGES OF AID

Education and skills training can be Government receiving aid may have secret
improved. bank accounts in which it hides the foreign
aid money for private purposes.
A recipient country can receive a large Food often ends up being sold privately on
sum of money to invest on the markets
development of that country (power
stations, harbours, bridges).
Money can be used to improve schools, Aid sometimes has conditions attached
health care and basic needs of people. e.g. governance and political reform.
Developing countries benefit from the Some governments in LEDCs manipulate
expertise and modern technology of their indicators of development to make
developed countries. them appear poor and in this way receive
extra aid payments.
Development projects create jobs, Aid is perceived as a hand-out, not to
benefiting the local people and the assist in economic development.
economy.
Debt repayments can outweigh the aid
received.
Projects encouraged are often
inappropriate to the needs of the people.
Products made in MEDCs from the LEDCs
natural resources are sold back to them at
higher process.