Peter Oliva's 10 Axioms for Curriculum Designers

Every curriculum designer, implementer, or evaluator should take in mind the following general axioms as a guide in
curriculum development (Oliva, 2003).
1. Curriculum change is inevitable, necessary, and desirable. Earlier it was stated that one of the characteristics of
curriculum is its being dynamic. Because of this, teachers should respond to the changes that occur in schools and in its
context. Societal development and knowledge revolution come so fast that need to address the changing condition requires
new curriculum designs.
2. Curriculum reflects as a product of its time. A relevant curriculum should respond to changes brought about by
current social forces, philosophical positions, psychological principles, new knowledge, and educational reforms. This is
also called timeliness.
3. Curriculum changes made earlier can exist concurrently with newer curriculum changes. A revision in a
curriculum starts and ends slowly. More often, curriculum is gradually phased in and phased out thus the change that
occurs can coexist and oftentimes overlaps for long periods of time.
4. Curriculum change depends on people who will implement the change. Teachers who will implement the
curriculum should be involved in its development, hence should know how to design a curriculum. Because the teachers
are the implementers of the curriculum, it is best that they should design and own the changes. This will assure an
effective and long-lasting change.
5. Curriculum development is a cooperative group activity. Group decisions in some aspects of curriculum
development are suggested. Consultations with stakeholders when possible will add to a sense of ownership. Even
learners should participate in some aspect of curriculum designing. Any significant change in the curriculum should
involve a broad range of stakeholders to gain their understanding, support, and input.
6. Curriculum development is a decision-making process made from choices of alternatives. A curriculum developer
or designer must decide what contents what teach, philosophy or point of view to support, how to provide for
multicultural groups, what methods or strategies, and what type of evaluation to use.
7. Curriculum development is an ongoing process. Continuous monitoring, examination, evaluation, and improvement
of curricula are to be considered in the design of the curriculum. As the needs of learners change, as society changes, and
as new knowledge and technology appear, the curriculum must change.
8 Curriculum development is more effective if it is a comprehensive process, rather than a "piecemeal'. A
curriculum design should be based on a careful plan, intended outcomes clearly established, support resources and needed
time available and teaching staff pedagogically equipped.
9. Curriculum development is more effective when it follows a systematic process. A curriculum design is composed
of desired outcomes, subject matter content complemented with references, set of procedures, needed materials and
resources and evaluation procedure which can be placed in a matrix.
10. Curriculum development starts from where the curriculum is. Curriculum planners and designers should begin
with existing curriculum. An existing design is a good starting point for any teacher who plans to enhance and enrich a
curriculum.
Building upon the ideas of Oliva, let us continue learning how to design a curriculum by identifying its components. For
most curricula the major components or elements are answers to the following questions:
1. What learning outcomes need to be achieved? (Intended Learning Outcomes)
2. What content should be included to achieve the learning outcomes? (Subject Matter)
3. What learning experiences and resources shall be employed? (Teaching-Learning Methods)
4. How will the achieved learning outcomes be measured? (Assessment of Achieved Learning Outcomes)

Elements or Components of a Curriculum Design

There are many labels or names for curriculum design. Some would call it a syllabus, or a lesson plan.
Let us take the Lesson Plan as a miniscule curriculum. For a lesson plan or teaching guide includes (1) Intended Learning
Outcomes (ILO) or the Desired Learning Outcome (DLO) was formerly labelled as behavioral objectives, (2) Subject
Matter or Content, (3) Teaching and Learning Methods, and (4) Assessment Evaluation. Each of these components or
elements is described below

I. Behavioral Objectives or Intended Learning Outcomes

Begin with the end in view. The objectives or intended learning outcomes are the reasons for undertaking the learning
lesson from the student's point of view. It is desired learning outcome that is to be accomplished in a particular learning
episode, engaged in by the learners under the guidance of the teacher. As a curriculum designer, the beginning of the
learning journey is the learning outcomes to be achieved. In this way, both the learner and the teacher are guided by what
to accomplish.

The statement should be SMART: Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Result oriented and Time bound. For a beginner, it
Would help if you provide the Condition, Performance and Extent or Level of Performance in the statement of the
intended earning outcomes
For example, a lesson intends the students to identify the parts of a simple flower or stated in desired learning outcomes
should be "must have identified the parts of a simple flower. Sometimes the phrase intended learning outcomes is used to
refer to the anticipated results after completing the planned activity or lesson. In framing learning outcomes, it is good
practice to: Express each outcome in terms of what successful students will be able to do. For example, rather than stating
Students will be able to explain the reason why... it should be: "Students must have explained the reasons why... This
helps students to focus on what they have to achieve as learning. It will also help curricularist devise appropriate
assessment tasks. Include different kinds of outcomes. The most common are cognitive objectives (learning facts,
theories, formulae, principles etc.) and performance outcomes (learning how to carry out procedures, calculations and
processes, which typically include gathering information and communicating results). In some contexts, affective
outcomes are important too (developing attitudes or values, e.g. those required as a person and for a particular profession).
II. Content/Subject Matter
The content of the lesson or unit is the topics or subject matter that will be covered. In selecting content, you should bear
in mind the following principles in addition to those mentioned about the content in previous lessons. Subject matter
should be relevant to the outcomes of the curriculum. An effective curriculum is purposive, clearly focused on the planned
learning outcomes. Subject matter should be appropriate to the level of the lesson or unit. An effective curriculum is
progressive, leading students towards building on previous lessons. Contents which are too basic or too advanced for the
development levels of learners make students either bored or baffled, and affect their motivation to learn.
Subject matter should be up to date and, if possible, should reflect current knowledge and concepts.

III. References
The reference follows the content. It tells where the content or subject matter has been taken. The reference maybe a book,
a module, or any publication. It must bear the author of the material and if possible, the publications. Some examples are
given below.
1. Project Wild (1992). K to 12 Activity Guide, An Interdisciplinary, Supplementary Conservation and Environmental
Education Program. Council of Environmental Education, Bethesda, MD
2. Shipman, James and Jerry Wilson, et al (2009). An Introduction to Physical Science. Houghton Mifflin Co. Boston MA
3. Romo, Salvador B. (2013). Horticulture an Exploratory Course. Lorimar Publishing Inc. Quezon City
4. Bilbao, Purita P. and Corpuz, Brenda B. et al (2012). The Teaching Profession 2nd Ed. Lorimar Publishing Inc. Quezon
City

IV. Teaching and Learning Methods

These are the activities where the learners derive experiences. It is always good to keep in mind the teaching strategies
that students will experience (lectures, laboratory classes, fieldwork etc.) and make them learn. The teaching-learning
methods should allow cooperation, competition as well as individualism or independent learning among the students. For
example:
 Cooperative learning activities allow students to work together. Students are guided to learn on their own to find
solutions to their problems. The role of the teachers is to guide the learners.
 Democratic process is encouraged, and each one contributes to the success of learning. Students learn from each
other in ways. Group projects and activities considerably enhance the curriculum.
 Independent learning activities allow learners to develop personal responsibility. The degree of independent to
learn how to learn is enhanced. This strategy is more appropriate for fast learners.
 Competitive activities, where students will test their competencies against another in a healthy manner allow
learners to perform to their maximum. Most successful individuals in their adult life are competitive, even in early
schooling. They mostly become the survivors in a very competitive world.
 The use of various delivery modes to provide learning experiences is recommended. Online learning and similar
modes are increasingly important in many curricula but these need to be planned carefully to be effective.

VI. Assessment/Evaluation
Learning occurs most effectively when students receive feedback, i.e. when they receive information on what they
have (and have not) already learned. The process by which this information is generated is assessment. It has three
main forms:
 Self-assessment, through which a student learns to monitor and evaluate their own learning. This should be a
significant element in the curriculum because we aim to produce graduates who are appropriately reflective
and self-critical.
 Peer assessment, in which students provide feedback on each other's learning. This can be viewed as an
extension of self- assessment and presupposes trust and mutual respect. Research suggests that students can
learn to judge each other's work as reliably as staff.
 Teacher assessment, in which the teacher prepares and administers tests and gives feedback on the student's
performance.

Assessment may be formative (providing feedback to help the student learn more) or summative (expressing a judgment
on the student's achievement by reference to stated criteria). Many assessment tasks involve an element of both, e.g. an
assignment that is marked and returned to the student with detailed comments.

Summative assessment usually involves the allocation of marks or grades. This helps the teacher make decisions about the
progress or performance of the students. Students usually learn more by understanding the strengths and weaknesses of
their work than by knowing the mark or grade given to it. For this reason summative assessment tasks (including unseen
possible. examinations) should include an element of formative feedback, if Designs. Application of the Fundamental
Components in Other Curriculum While our example, refers only to designing a lesson plan which is a mini curriculum,
similar components will also be used in making a syllabus for teaching in higher education courses or other curricular
projects. Based on the curriculum models we have learned, the fundamental components include the following:

Some curricularists would

describe curriculum mapping as
making a map to success. There
are common
Types of Curriculum design Models
There are many ways of looking at curriculum and designing one. For our own purposes, let us focus on the most widely
used examples.
1. Subject-Centered Design This is a curriculum design that focuses on the content of the curriculum. The subject
centered design corresponds mostly to the textbook because textbooks are usually written based the specific subject or
course. Henry Morrison and William Harris are the few curricularists who firmly believed in this design. As practiced,
school hours are allocated to different school subjects such as Science, Mathematics, Language, Social Studies, physical
Education, and others. This is also practiced in the Philippines, because a school day is divided into class period, a school
year into quarters or semester. Most of the schools using this kind of structure and curriculum design aim for excellence
in the specific, subject discipline content. Subject-centered curriculum design has also some variations which are focused
on the individual subject, specific discipline and a combination of subjects or disciplines which are a broad field or
interdisciplinary.
1.1.Subject design
What subject are you teaching? What subject are you taking? These are two simple questions that the teacher and the
learner can easily answer. It is because they are familiar with the subject design curriculum.
Subject design curriculum is the oldest and so far the most familiar design for teachers, parents and other laymen.
According to the advocates, subject design has an advantage because it is easy to deliver. Textbooks are written and
support instructional materials are commercially available. Teachers are familiar with the format, because they were
educated using also the design. In the Philippine educational system, the number of subjects in the elementary
education is fewer than in the secondary level. In college, the number of subjects also differs according to the degree
programs being pursued. For each subject, a curriculum is being designed.
However, the drawback of this design is that sometimes, learning is so compartmentalized. It stresses so much the
content and forgets about students’ natural tendencies, interests and experiences. The teacher becomes the dispenser
of knowledge and the learners are the simply the empty vessel to receive the information or content from the teacher.
This is a traditional approach to teaching and learning.
1.2.Discipline design This curriculum design model is related to the subject design. However, while subject design
centers only on the cluster of content, discipline design focuses on academic disciplines. Discipline refers to specific
knowledge learned through a method which the scholars use to study a specific content of their fields. Students in
history should learn the subject matter like historians, students in biology should learn how the biologists learn, and so
with students in mathematics, who should learn how mathematicians learn. In the same manner, teachers should teach
how the scholars in the discipline will convey the particular knowledge.
Discipline design model of curriculum is often used in college, but not in the elementary or secondary levels. So, from
the subject centered curriculum, curriculum moves higher to a discipline when the students are more mature and are
already moving towards their career path or disciplines as science, mathematics, psychology, psychology, humanities,
history and others.
1.3.Correlation design
Coming from a core, correlated curriculum design links separate subject designs in order to reduce fragmentation.
Subjects are related to one another and still maintain their identity. For example, English literature and social studies
correlate well in the elementary level. In the two subjects, while history is being studied, different literary pieces during
the historical period are also being studied. The same is true when science becomes the core, mathematics is related to
it, as they are taken in chemistry, physics, and biology. Another example is literature as the core with art, music, history,
geography, related to it. To use correlated design, teachers should come together and plan their lessons cooperatively.
1.4.Broad field design/Interdisciplinary
Broad field design or interdisciplinary is a variation of the subject-centered design. This design was made to cure the
compartmentalization of the separate subjects and integrate the contains that are related to one another. Thus, subjects
such as geography, economics, political science, anthropology, sociology and history are fused into one subject called
social studies. Language arts will include grammar, literature, linguistics, spelling, and composition. Sometimes called
holistic curriculum, broad fields draw around themes and interrelation. Interdisciplinary design is similar to thematic
design, where a specific theme is identified, and all other subject areas revolve around the theme.

2. Learner-Centered Design Among the progressive educational psychologists, the learner is the center of the educative
process. This emphasis is very strong in the elementary level; however, more concern has been placed on the secondary
and even the tertiary levels. Although in high school, the subject or content has become the focus and in the college
level, the discipline is the center, both levels still recognize the importance of the learner in the curriculum. Here are
some examples of curriculum designs which are learner-centered.
2.1.Child- centered design.
This design is often attributed to the influence of John Dewey, Rouseau, Pestallozi and Froebel. This curriculum design is
anchored on the needs and interests of the child. The learner is not considered a passive individual but one who engages
with his/her environment. One learns by doing. Learners actively create, construct meanings and understanding as
viewed by the constructivists. In the child centered design, learners’ interest with the teachers and the environment,
thus there is a collaborative effort on both sides to plan lessons, select content and do activities together. Learning is a
product of the child’s interaction with the environment.
2.2. Experience- centered design.
This design is similar to the child-centered design. Although the focus remains to be the child, experience-centered
design believes that the interests and needs of learners cannot be pre-planned. Instead, experiences of the learners
become the starting point of the curriculum, thus the school environment is left open and free. Learners are made to
choose from various activities that the teacher provides. The learners are empowered to shape their own learning from
the different opportunities given by the teacher. In a school where experience-centered curriculum is provided, different
learning centers are found, time is flexible and children are free to make options. Activities revolve around different
emphasis such as touching, feeling, imagining, constructing, relating and others. The emergence of multiple intelligence
theory blends well with experience-centered design curriculum.
2.3.Humanistic design.
The key influence in this curriculum design is Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers. Maslow’s theory of self-actualization
explains that a person who achieves this level is accepting of self, others and nature; is simple, spontaneous and natural;
is open to different experiences; possesses empathy and sympathy towards the less fortunate among the many others.
The person can achieve this state of self-actualization later in life but has to start the process while still in school. Carl
Rogers, on the other hand, believed that a person can enhance self-directed learning by improving self understanding,
the basic attitude to guide behavior. In humanistic curriculum design, the development of self is the ultimate objective
of learning. It stresses the whole person and the integration of thinking, feeling and doing. It considers the cognitive,
affective and psychomotor domains to be interconnected and must be addressed in the curriculum. It stresses the
development of positive self-concept and interpersonal skills.
3. Problem-Centered Design
Generally, problem-centered design draws on social problems, needs, instead and abilities of the learners. Various
problems are given emphasis. There are those that center on life situations, contemporary life problems, areas of living
and many others. In this curriculum, content cuts across subject boundaries and must be based on the needs, concerns
and abilities of the students. Two examples are given for the problem-centered design curriculum.
3.1 Life-situation design.
What makes the design unique is that the contents are organized in ways that allow students to clearly view problem
areas. It uses the past and the present experiences of learners as a means to analyze the basic areas of living. As a
starting point, the pressing immediate problems of the society and the students’ existing concerns are utilized. Based on
Herbert Spencer’s curriculum writing, his emphases were activities that sustain life, enhance life, aid in rearing children,
maintain the individual’s social and political relations and enhance leisure, tasks and feelings. The connection of subject
matter to real situations increases the relevance of the curriculum.
3.2 Core problem design.
Another example of problem-centered design is core design. It centers on general education and the problems are based
on the common human activities. The central focus of the core design includes common needs, problems, and concerns
of the learners. Popularized by Faunce and Bossing in 1959, it presented ways on how to proceed using core design of a
curriculum. These are the steps:
Step 1. Make group consensus on important problems.
Step 2. Develop criteria for selection of important problem.
Step 3. State and define the problems.
Step 4. Decide on areas of study, including class grouping.
Step 5. List the needed information for resources.
Step 6. Obtain and organize information.
Step 7. Analyze and interpret the information.
Step 8. State the tentative conclusions.
Step 9. Present a report to the class individually or by group.
Step 10. Evaluate the conclusions.
Step 11. Explore other avenues for further problem solving.
These are some examples of curriculum designs there are many more which Are emerging and those that have evolved
in the past. The example given may be Limited, however, for our purposes, they can very well represent curriculum
designs.

Approaches to Curriculum Design

How will a particular design be approached by the teacher? After writing a curriculum based On the specific designs, let
us see how a teacher will approach this. We will find out the utilization of the example design.

Child or Learner-Centered Approach. This approach to curriculum design is based on the under Lying philosophy that
the child or the learner is the center of the educational process. It means that the curriculum is constructed based on
the needs, interest, purposes and abilities of the learners. The curriculum is also built upon the learners’ knowledge,
skills, previous learnings and potentials. From its design, how should a child-centered curriculum be approached? Let us
consider these principles.
Principles of Child-centered Curriculum Approach
1. Acknowledge and respect the fundamental rights of the child.
2. Make all activities revolve around the overall development of the learner.
3. Consider the uniqueness of every learner in a multicultural classroom.
4. Consider using differentiated instruction or teaching.
5. Provide a motivating supportive learning environment for all the learner. The child-centered approach is illustrated in
the example below:

School X is anchored on the theory of multiple intelligences in all its curricular and co-curricular activities. Every
classroom provides activity centers where children can learn on their own with the different learning resource materials.
Learners can just choose which learning center to engage in with different resources. This arrangement allows for the
capacity of every learner to be honed. It also allows learning how to learn, hence will develop independence. The
teacher acts as guide for every learner. The learner sets the goal that can be done within the frame of time.
Subject-Centered Approach. This is anchored on a curriculum design which prescribes separate distinct subjects for
every educational level: basic education, higher education or vocational- technical education. This approach considers
the following principles:
1. The primary focus is the subject matter.
2. The emphasis is on bits and pieces of information which may be detached from life.
3. The subject matter serves as a means of identifying problems.
4. Learning means accumulation of content, or knowledge.
5. Teacher’s role is to dispense the content. Example of subject-centered approach is given below:

In another setting, School Y aims to produce the best graduates in the school district. Every learner must excel in all
academic subjects to be on top of every academic competition. The higher the level of cognitive intelligence is, the
better the learner. Hence the focus of learning is mastery of the subject matter in terms of content. Every student is
expected to be always on top in terms of mastery of discipline. Memorization, and drill are important learning skills. The
school gives emphasis to intellectual development, and sets aside emotional, psychomotor and even value
development. Success means mastery of the content.

Problem-Centered Approach. This approach is based on a design which assumes that in the process of living, children
experience problems. Thus, problem solving enables the learners to become increasingly able to achieve complete or
total development as individuals. This approach is characterized by the following views and benefits:

1. The learners are capable of directing and guiding themselves in resolving problems, thus developing every learner to
be independent.
2. The learners are prepared to assume their civic responsibilities through direct participation in different activities.
3. The curriculum leads the learners in the recognition of concerns and problems in seeking solutions. Learners are
problem solvers themselves.
Example of the problem-centered Approach is present below:

School Z believes that a learner should be trained to solve real life problems that come about because of the needs,
interests and abilities of the learners. Problems persistent in life and society that affect daily living are also considered.
Most of the school activities revolve around finding solutions to problems like poverty, drug problem, climate change,
natural calamities and many more. Since the school is using a problem-based design, the same approach is used. Case
study and practical work are the teaching strategies that are utilized. Problem- centered approach has become popular
in many schools.

General Axioms of Curriculum Development

Schools and school systems grow and develop in proportion to their ability to respond to change and
adapt to changing conditions. Society and its institutions continuously encounter problems to which they
must respond.

o Curriculum revision rarely starts and ends abruptly. Changes can coexist and overlap for long periods of
time. Usually, curriculum is phased in and phased out on a gradual basis.

o Most curriculum planners begin with an existing curriculum.

o The curriculum responds to, and is changed by, factors such as social forces, philosophical positions,
psychological principles, accumulating knowledge, and educational leadership at its moment in history.
o Examples of decisions curriculum developers must make include what to teach, what philosophy or point
of view to support, how to differentiate for special populations, what methods or strategies to use to
deliver the curriculum, and what type of school organization best supports the curriculum.
o Curriculum development should not be a hit or miss proposition, but should involve careful planning and
be supported by adequate resources, needed time, and sufficient personnel.
o A set of procedures, or models, for curriculum should be established in advance, and be known and
accepted by all who are involved in the process. The model should outline the sequence of steps to be
followed for the development of the curriculum.

o Most curriculum planners begin with an existing curriculum.

o People who will implement the curriculum should be involved in its development. When individuals
internalize and own the changes in curriculum, the changes will be effective and long-lasting.
o Significant and fundamental changes in curriculum are brought about as a result of group decisions. Any
significant change in the curriculum should involve a broad range of stakeholders to gain their
understanding, support, and input.
o Continuous monitoring, examination, evaluation, and improvement of curricula are needed. No
curriculum meets the needs of everyone. As the needs of learners change, as society changes, and as new
knowledge and technology arise, the curriculum must change.