POLITICAL THOUGHT

PA 103
What is Political Thought?
The state is one of the most important and universal institutions in
human society. It plays a key role in shaping and guiding people's
social lives. Although the state has always influenced human life,
people's ideas about it have changed over time. Thinkers from
different eras, influenced by their surroundings, have given various
opinions about the state and its functions. These different ideas
about the state, formed by thinkers throughout history, are known as
"political thought.“
The Dual Theory of Political Thought : Normative and Empirical
Political thought is broadly divided into two categories—Normative
and Empirical. These two approaches represent different ways of
understanding the nature, structure, and functions of the state.
Professor W. T. Bluhm referred to these categories by different names:
"Noumenalist" for normative thought and "Naturalist" for empirical
thought.
Normative Political Thought
Normative political thought is based on reason, ideals, and
moral principles. It emphasizes what the state ought to be
rather than what it actually is. This approach is also known
as rationalistic thought, where moral values and
philosophical reasoning guide the analysis of political
institutions.
Examples of Normative Thinkers:
Plato: In "The Republic," he described an ideal state
governed by philosopher-kings, emphasizing justice and
moral governance.
Saint Thomas Aquinas: He combined Christian theology
with political theory, advocating for a moral and religious
basis for the state.
Empirical Political Thought
Empirical political thought focuses on practical experience,
observation, and real-world evidence. This approach examines
how the state actually functions in practice, rather than how it
ideally should function. It is also known as the naturalist
approach, as it is rooted in observable reality and scientific
methods.
Examples of Empirical Thinkers:
Machiavelli: In "The Prince," he provided a realistic and
pragmatic analysis of power and statecraft.
Thomas Hobbes: In "Leviathan," he analyzed the social contract
and the necessity of a sovereign authority for maintaining social
order.
John Locke: He emphasized empirical observation to support his
ideas on limited government and individual rights.
European and Non-European Political Thought
The current hub of European political thought lies in the Western
European countries, with Ancient Greece being its primary cradle. In
ancient times, the small, mountainous country along the shores of
the Mediterranean Sea fostered remarkable advancements in
political thought. While modern European political ideas have
enriched this legacy, they have not fundamentally surpassed the
foundations laid by ancient Greek thinkers.
In contrast, Non-European political thought encompasses the ideas
of ancient Egyptian, Babylonian, Persian, Indian, and Chinese
civilizations. Although these traditions did not significantly influence
modern political thought as Greek ideas did, their lack of recognition
does not indicate a lack of value or sophistication. In fact, these
traditions are as fundamental and valuable as the European legacy.
Conservative and Progressive Political Thought
From another perspective, the history of political thought can be divided
into Conservative and Progressive schools. Conservatives seek to preserve
the existing system and beliefs, while Progressives strive to improve political
theory by changing the status quo and promoting new ideas. Those in
power typically align with the conservative camp because they are
motivated to maintain their authority and prevent disruption in the
established system.
A classic example of conservative thought is the Divine Right Theory, which
suggests that rulers derive their authority directly from God. This theory
asserts that any opposition to the ruler is both a crime and a sin. When
societal demands for change arise, conservatives often become anxious
and resistant.
On the other hand, progressives become vocal in criticizing the existing
conditions and ideas. They aim to establish an entirely new political system
through various small and large changes and restructuring. The ideas and
beliefs of progressive thinkers focus on transforming the current system into
a more advanced and equitable framework.
Non-European Political Thought
Non-European political thought encompasses a wide range of ideas
that reflect diverse cultural, religious, and historical contexts. Unlike
Western theories of governance, which focus on individual rights and
state sovereignty, non-European traditions emphasize collective
responsibility, social harmony, and spiritual guidance.
In ancient Egypt, rulers were seen as divine figures who maintained
cosmic order, blending politics with religion.
Chinese political thought, shaped by Confucianism, emphasizes
moral governance and social harmony, with the ruler’s duty to care
for the people.
Indian political philosophy, through texts like the Arthashastra,
combines ethics with governance, stressing justice and the welfare
of the people.
Islamic and African political thoughts focus on divine law and
communal values, respectively, highlighting the importance of moral
leadership and social cohesion.
Ancient Egyptian political thought
Egyptian political thought, particularly during the ancient
period, was deeply intertwined with religious beliefs and
the concept of cosmic order. In ancient Egypt, the state
was viewed not merely as a political entity, but as a divine
institution, with the Pharaoh (the king) considered a living
god, often depicted as the intermediary between the
gods and the people.
The Pharaoh’s role as a divine figure meant that the state
and religion were inseparable in Egyptian thought. The
gods were believed to directly influence the political and
social realms, and the Pharaoh's actions were considered
as carrying out the will of the gods.
Chinese political thought
Chinese political thought is deeply influenced by several key philosophies,
including Confucianism, Daoism, and Legalism.
Confucius, the most prominent Chinese philosopher, emphasized the
importance of moral governance, social harmony, and the role of virtuous
rulers. His ideas are encapsulated in the Analects, which stress the
significance of ethics, filial piety, and education in maintaining social order.
Laozi, the founder of Daoism, advocated for rulers to adopt a passive, non-
interfering approach to governance, allowing natural order to prevail.
On the other hand, Han Feizi, a key figure in Legalism, argued for strict laws
and harsh punishments to maintain control over the state, believing that
humans were inherently selfish and needed strong regulation.
We can also mention the name of Sun Tzu , who was a military strategist
and philosopher of china and the writer of The Art of War.
These thinkers and their philosophies greatly shaped the political structures
and governance in ancient China, with Confucianism influencing imperial
administration and Daoism and Legalism shaping military and legal
policies.
Indian political thought
In Indian political philosophy, although the power of the state was expressed
through the king's personality, the king was not above the law. Like other citizens,
the king was also subject to the law and could be punished for breaking it, just like
any ordinary citizen. Therefore, it can be said without a doubt that the king’s
position was not a privileged one.
Indian philosophers actively advocated against arbitrary power. They believed
that rebelling against a tyrannical ruler was not unreasonable. Some thinkers even
said, "The collective opinion of many people is much stronger than the opinion of
the king.
The governance system of ancient India stipulated that the king should rule in
consultation with his council of ministers. This prevented any opportunity for the
king to become an authoritarian ruler. In fact, this discussion proves that India had
a system of limited monarchy rather than absolute monarchy, and balance was
maintained through regulation and control.
As Indian political philosophers, we can mention Kautilya and Manu, whose
Arthashastra and Manusmriti are particularly noteworthy. Kautilya's ideas on
governance, statecraft, and economics, influenced Indian administration for
centuries. Manu's Manu Smriti provided a structured framework for law,
governance, and social order in ancient India, shaping societal norms and legal
systems.