Jainism

By Neha Dimri

Introduction

Jainism is one of the oldest religions in the Indian subcontinent, emphasizing non-violence (ahimsa),
asceticism, and spiritual liberation (moksha). Rooted in a philosophy that stresses the duality of soul
(jiva) and matter (ajiva), Jainism seeks to liberate the soul from karmic bondage through ethical
living, self-discipline, and meditation. The religion owes much of its form to the teachings of the 24
Tirthankaras (spiritual teachers), the last of whom was Mahavira (599–527 BCE), a contemporary of
the Buddha.

Location and Timeline

Jainism originated in the Gangetic plains of India during the 1st millennium BCE, particularly in the
regions corresponding to modern-day Bihar and Uttar Pradesh. Over centuries, it spread to western
and southern India, especially in Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra, and Karnataka.

 Pre-Mahavira Phase (9th–6th century BCE): The origins of Jainism are debated, with some
scholars tracing its roots to the Indus Valley Civilization and others associating it with the
Shramana traditions of asceticism that predated Mahavira.

 Mahavira’s Era (6th century BCE): Mahavira’s teachings crystallized Jain doctrines.

 Post-Mahavira Period (4th century BCE onwards): Jainism flourished under Mauryan rulers
like Chandragupta Maurya (who is said to have converted to Jainism) and the Western
Ganga dynasty in Karnataka.

Main Features of Jainism

Social Aspects

1. Non-violence and Equality: Jainism’s central tenet of ahimsa contributed to a society that
opposed animal sacrifices, a significant departure from Vedic practices. It also encouraged
equality, transcending caste and gender norms, though it had limitations in practical
implementation.

2. Monastic and Lay Division: Jainism developed a dual community structure: monks and nuns
dedicated to asceticism and lay followers who supported them while adhering to ethical
principles.

3. Education and Literacy: Jains made significant contributions to education, emphasizing

scriptural study and establishing centers of learning, particularly in the medieval period.

Cultural Aspects

1. Art and Architecture: Jain contributions to Indian art are profound, with iconic cave temples
(e.g., Ellora, Udayagiri), temple complexes (e.g., Palitana in Gujarat), and towering statues
like the Gomateshwara in Shravanabelagola.

2. Literature: Jain scholars composed works in Prakrit, Sanskrit, Kannada, and Tamil. Seminal
texts include the Acaranga Sutra and Tattvartha Sutra.
 3. Festivals and Rituals: Festivals such as Paryushana and Mahavir Jayanti emphasize
introspection, penance, and community harmony.

Economic Aspects

1. Commerce and Trade: Jain communities excelled in trade, banking, and commerce. Their
adherence to non-violence led them to professions avoiding harm, such as banking, jewelry,
and textiles.

2. Wealth and Philanthropy: Jain merchants funded monumental temples and educational
institutions, influencing the economic and cultural landscape of medieval India.

Political Aspects

1. Royal Patronage: Jainism flourished under rulers like Chandragupta Maurya, Kharavela of
Kalinga, and the Rashtrakuta and Chalukya dynasties.

2. Political Neutrality: Jainism often avoided direct political involvement, emphasizing ethical
governance. However, Jain thinkers advised rulers, influencing administrative and legal
systems.

Historiography of Jainism

1. Colonial Narratives: Early British and European scholars such as Hermann Jacobi examined
Jainism primarily through textual sources, emphasizing its differences from Buddhism.
2. Indian Nationalist Historiography: Indian scholars like A. K. Roy and R. G. Bhandarkar sought
to place Jainism within the larger framework of Indian spirituality and its contribution to
cultural unity.

3. Recent Studies: Modern historians like Paul Dundas focus on the socio-economic contexts of
Jainism, exploring its adaptability and survival despite limited numerical strength. Recent
scholarship also delves into Jainism’s interaction with other religions and its role in regional
politics and trade networks.

Conclusion
Jainism’s influence on Indian society, culture, and thought extends far beyond its adherents. Its
doctrines of ahimsa, asceticism, and environmental consciousness resonate globally.
Historiographical debates highlight the need for a nuanced understanding of Jainism’s evolution,
especially its symbiotic relationship with Indian history and society. As a living tradition, Jainism
exemplifies resilience and adaptability, maintaining its relevance in a rapidly changing world.

Various Sects in Jainism and Their Evolution

Jainism, though unified in its core principles of ahimsa (non-violence), anekantavada (multiplicity of
viewpoints), and aparigraha (non-possessiveness), has experienced sectarian developments over its
long history. These divisions are primarily rooted in differences over practices, rituals, doctrinal
interpretations, and geographic and cultural contexts.

Early Divisions in Jainism

1. Pre-Mahavira Phase:
Jainism existed as a part of the Shramana tradition before Mahavira, and variations likely
 existed among followers of earlier Tirthankaras. However, these groups were more loosely
organized and lacked formal sectarian identities.

2. Post-Mahavira Period (6th Century BCE):

After Mahavira’s nirvana, his teachings were preserved by disciples, but disagreements
emerged over doctrinal issues, monastic codes, and practices. The most significant division
occurred during the 4th century BCE over the preservation of texts and monastic conduct,
eventually leading to the formation of two major sects:

o Svetambara (White-clad):
Followers believed that monks could wear white robes and that women could
achieve liberation. They argued that Mahavira's teachings were preserved in written
scriptures.

o Digambara (Sky-clad):
Adherents practiced complete nudity, believing it essential for renunciation. They
rejected the idea that women could attain liberation without rebirth as men and
emphasized oral traditions over written scriptures.

Major Jain Sects and Subsects

1. Svetambara Sect

 Formation and Beliefs:

Svetambara monks wear white clothing and follow a more moderate ascetic lifestyle
compared to the Digambaras. They believe that canonical texts, preserved during the
Vallabhi Council (5th century CE), represent Mahavira's teachings.
 Subsects:
a. Murtipujaka: Focus on idol worship in temples and elaborate rituals.
b. Sthanakavasi (15th Century CE): Reject idol worship, emphasizing meditation and moral
discipline. Founded by Lonka Shah, who opposed the ritualistic excesses of Murtipujakas.
c. Terapanthi (18th Century CE): A reformist sect emphasizing strict adherence to Jain ethics
and discipline. Founded by Acharya Bhikshu, Terapanthis avoid idol worship and have a
centralized religious authority.

2. Digambara Sect

 Formation and Beliefs:

Digambara monks practice strict asceticism, including renunciation of clothing. They rely on
oral tradition and reject Svetambara scriptures. Women are believed to require rebirth as
men to attain liberation.

 Subsects:
a. Bispanthi and Terapanthi: Differ on ritual practices, particularly regarding food offerings
and temple worship.
b. Taranpanthi: Founded in the 16th century by Taran Svami, this subsect emphasizes
meditation and scriptural study over idol worship.
c. Kanji Panth (20th Century): A relatively modern sect focusing on Digambara philosophical
doctrines with a reinterpretation of traditional texts by Kanji Swami.

Evolution of Jain Sects

 1. Geographical Factors:

o Jain communities spread to different regions, leading to localized practices and

interpretations. For instance, Digambaras became dominant in southern and central
India, while Svetambaras flourished in Gujarat and Rajasthan.

2. Scriptural Preservation:

o The Vallabhi Council (5th century CE) was a key event for the Svetambaras, where
canonical texts were compiled. Digambaras rejected this council, further solidifying
the divide.

3. Debates on Asceticism and Rituals:

o Differing views on monastic practices (e.g., nudity) and ritualistic practices like idol
worship became focal points for sectarian splits.

4. Reform Movements:

o The Sthanakavasi and Terapanthi subsects emerged as reformist movements within

the Svetambara tradition, rejecting idol worship and elaborate rituals, focusing
instead on ethical purity and meditation.

5. Cultural and Political Influences:

o Jain rulers and wealthy patrons influenced the development of sects, funding temple
construction and scripture preservation. Regional politics also played a role in
shaping sectarian dynamics.

Minor Jain Traditions

1. Yapaniya Sect (Defunct):

o A hybrid sect that emerged in the Deccan around the 4th century CE, combining
practices of both Svetambara and Digambara traditions. The Yapaniya sect faded by
the 15th century but played a significant role in early Jain philosophical debates.

2. Buddhivada and Nirgrantha Movements:

o These were smaller, less formalized Jain groups that eventually merged into larger
sects or disappeared.

Contemporary Implications of Sectarianism

 While sectarian identities remain strong, modern Jainism has also seen efforts toward unity,
especially in the diaspora, where shared practices often outweigh sectarian differences.

 Common values like ahimsa, environmentalism, and interfaith dialogue have become focal
points for collaboration among Jain sects.

Conclusion

The evolution of Jain sects reflects the dynamic interplay of doctrinal interpretations, regional
influences, and historical contexts. Despite sectarian differences, the shared commitment to core
Jain principles ensures the religion’s continued vibrancy. These divisions, while emphasizing distinct
identities, also enrich the tradition, demonstrating Jainism's adaptability across time and space.
Historiography of Jainism

The historiography of Jainism has evolved significantly over time, reflecting shifts in scholarly focus,
methodologies, and ideological frameworks. Early examinations of Jainism often viewed it through a
comparative lens with Buddhism and Hinduism, while modern scholarship places greater emphasis
on its unique contributions to Indian history and its sociocultural dynamics.

Colonial and Early Orientalist Scholarship

1. Hermann Jacobi (Late 19th Century): One of the earliest Western scholars to study Jainism
extensively, Jacobi translated Jain texts like the Kalpa Sutra (1884) and emphasized Jainism’s
antiquity and its role in the Shramana traditions. He viewed Jainism primarily through a
textual lens, portraying it as a reformist movement alongside Buddhism.

2. James Burgess (1880s): Focused on Jain architecture and inscriptions, highlighting the
religion's contributions to Indian art and temple-building traditions.

Nationalist and Early Indian Scholarship

1. R. G. Bhandarkar (1909): In his work Vaishnavism, Shaivism, and Minor Religious Systems,
Bhandarkar examined Jainism within the broader spectrum of Indian religions. He
underscored its ethical principles and its challenge to Vedic orthodoxy.
2. S. Radhakrishnan (1932): In Indian Philosophy, Radhakrishnan classified Jainism as a
distinctive philosophical system. He praised its emphasis on ahimsa but largely placed it
within the context of Indian metaphysics, potentially underplaying its practical dimensions.

Post-Independence Scholarship

1. N. N. Bhattacharyya (1975, 1996): Bhattacharyya made significant contributions to the

study of Jainism’s historical evolution and its interaction with other religious traditions. In his
works, such as Jainism in Early Indian Religion (1975), he argued that Jainism’s roots extend
deep into pre-Vedic times and linked it with the non-Aryan cultural substratum. His
approach emphasized the socio-economic and ritualistic dimensions of Jainism, moving
beyond its purely philosophical aspects.

2. A. K. Roy (1984): In A History of Jainism, Roy provided a comprehensive survey of Jainism’s

development, focusing on its doctrinal evolution and regional spread. He critically engaged
with its survival strategies amid religious competition in India.

Modern and Contemporary Scholarship

1. Paul Dundas (1992, 2002): Dundas, in The Jains, offered a detailed and accessible account of
Jain history, philosophy, and culture. His work is particularly notable for exploring the lived
practices of Jains, including their interactions with Hinduism and Buddhism. He emphasized
the adaptability of Jain communities in preserving their identity across centuries.

2. Padmanabh S. Jaini (1979, 1998): In The Jaina Path of Purification, Jaini explored Jainism’s
spiritual and philosophical dimensions while contextualizing its doctrines within broader
Indian traditions. He highlighted the practical aspects of Jain ethics and its role in daily life.

3. John Cort (2001): In Jains in the World: Religious Values and Ideology in India, Cort examined
Jain practices and ideologies, especially in contemporary settings. His ethnographic
 approach complemented earlier textual studies, shedding light on the community’s
adaptability in modern times.

4. Peter Flügel (2010): Flügel’s work delved into Jain monastic orders and sectarian divisions,
emphasizing the complex social organization of the Jain community. His research also
examined Jain festivals and public rituals, providing insights into their cultural significance.

Critical Themes in Historiography

1. Comparative Frameworks: Early studies often compared Jainism to Buddhism, with scholars
like Jacobi and Bhattacharyya analyzing their shared origins in the Shramana tradition while
distinguishing their doctrinal differences.

2. Jainism’s Antiquity: Scholars such as Bhattacharyya argued for Jainism’s prehistoric roots,
suggesting a connection with the non-Aryan Indus Valley Civilization, a view contested by
others due to lack of direct evidence.

3. Regional Histories: Recent works emphasize Jainism’s regional adaptations, particularly its
patronage by dynasties like the Western Gangas and Chalukyas.
4. Interfaith Dynamics: Modern scholars like Dundas and Cort examine Jainism’s interactions
with Hinduism and Islam, highlighting its resilience in maintaining distinct practices and
beliefs.

Recent Trends in Jain Historiography

1. Gender Studies: Scholars such as Sherry Fohr have explored the role of women in Jainism,
particularly the lives of nuns and their contributions to religious and community life.

2. Economic and Social History: Studies now focus on the economic contributions of Jain
merchant communities and their philanthropic efforts in shaping urban centers and cultural
institutions.

3. Global Jainism: Contemporary research examines Jain diasporas, exploring how the
community adapts its practices in new cultural and geographical contexts.

Conclusion

The historiography of Jainism reflects the religion’s multifaceted contributions to Indian civilization
and its evolving interpretations by scholars. From the textual focus of colonial and early Indian
scholars to the socio-cultural and economic analyses of contemporary researchers, Jainism’s study
highlights its enduring relevance and complexity. N. N. Bhattacharyya’s contributions, alongside
those of Dundas, Jaini, and others, underscore the importance of interdisciplinary approaches in
understanding Jainism’s historical and cultural dimensions.