English Grammar

Prepared and written by: Noorullah Mohmand Page |1

 Preface

First of all. I dedicate this book to my family who helped me in every educational part
and too much thanks from my dear and lovely teachers who persuaded me to compile
this kind of book. As we know that English is an international language and many
countries speak by it around the world. So I decided to write an easy and
comprehensive English grammar book for the students who have some problems in
English grammar. This book is not only for the students, but this is also more beneficial
for those teachers who teach English grammar. By this book both students and teachers can solve their daily
problems and also can communicate in a correct way. All the grammar topics have been explained with good
examples within this book. At the end of my speech if you face or see any kind of mistake, please contact me
to improve these mistakes in next time. Because we know that human is always humble and he isn’t
complete from himself.

Phone number # 0706766976

E-mail address: noor6766976@gmail.com

Sincerely
Noorullah Mohmand

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 Language
Language is a system of sounds and words which is used by humans to express their thoughts and feelings or
it is a system of communication in speech and writing which is used by the people of a particular country.
Ex: English language, Pashto language, Dari language etc.

Grammar
The scientific study of a language is called grammar or the study of the structure of a language is called
grammar or it explains the rules of a language. Ex: English grammar, Pashto grammar, Dari grammar etc.

Alphabet
Alphabet is a set of letters which is used for making the words or it is a set of letters which is used for writing
in a language or it is a set of letters which is used for writing a language.
Ex: English alphabet, Pashto alphabet, Dari alphabet etc.

Letter
Letter shows the basic sound of a language or a symbol which represents a sound is called letter.

Types of Letter According to Writing

1: Capital letters (Upper case letters)
Ex: A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, O, P, Q, R, S, T, U, V, W, X, Y, Z
2: Small letters (Lower case letters)
Ex: a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, v, w, x, y, z Note: English has
(26) letters.

The Usages of Capital Letters

1) The first letter of a sentence should be capital.
Ex: He is my brother
The first letter of proper noun and proper adjective should be capital.
Ex: We love Afghanistan.
Ex: I am Afghan.
2) The first letter of days, months, and holidays should be capital.
Ex: It was raining on Monday.
Ex: They will graduate in July.
Ex: All Muslims celebrate the Eid.
3) The pronoun (I) always should be capital.
Ex: The book that I study is very interesting.
4) The first letter of an abbreviation should be capital.
Ex: He is Dr. Nawaz

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Ex: Mr. Aryan is a teacher.
5) All the acronyms should be capital.
Ex: NATO, BBC, UK
6) The first letter of a sentence inside the quotation marks should be capital.
Ex: Ralph Waldo Emerson said, "The only way to have a friend is to be one."
7) The first letter of a salutation word and also the farewell word or complimentary close should be capital.
Ex: Hello,
Ex: Dear,
Ex: Sincerely,
Ex: Wishing you all the best, Ex: Yours truly,
8) The titles of the books, movies, songs, poems, plays, magazines, newspapers, articles, paragraphs, essays
should be capital.

Abbreviation vs. Acronym

The short form of a word is called abbreviation.
Ex: Dr. (doctor, driver)
Ex: Mr. (mister)
A word which is made from the first letters of the words which makes the name of something is called acronym.
Ex: NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization)
Ex: BBC (British Broadcasting Corporation)

Types of Letter According to Sound

1: Vowel letters: Vowel letters are those letters which have the sound and also give the sound to consonant
letters are called vowel letters.
They are five: (a, e, i, o, u) Ex: bed, bad
2: Consonant letters: Consonant letters are those letters which don't have the sound but take the sound from
vowel letters are called consonant letters.
They are nineteen: (b, c, d, f, g, h, j, k, l, m, n, p, q, r, s, t, v, x, z)

3: Semi vowel letters: Semi vowel letters are those letters which give the sound in some cases. They are two:
(w, y)
Ex: sky, wet

Types of Letter According to Structure

1: Singular letters: Singular letters are those letters which are made from one letter.
Ex: a, b, c, d, e...

2: Compound letters: Compound letters are those letters which are made from two or more letters or the
combination of two or more letters which give a particular meaning are called compound letters.

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Here are some compound letters:  (sh -‫) ش‬
wash, fish
 (ch -‫ ک‬،‫ ) چ‬chair, mechanic
 (tu - ‫ )چ‬future, nature
 (ph - ‫ )ف‬photo, phone
 (th -‫ ت‬،‫ ) د‬this, tooth
 (tion -‫ ) شن‬nation, education
 (ssion -‫ ) شن‬mission, profession
 (cient -‫ ) شنټ‬sufficient, ancient
 (cious -‫ ) شز‬precious, delicious
 (cial -‫ ) شل‬commercial, official
 (sion -‫ ) ژن‬television, decision
 (gh -‫ غ‬،‫ ف‬،‫ ) ګ‬ghost, laugh, Ghafoor
 (kh -‫ ) خ‬Khalid, Khan
 (su -‫ س‬،‫ ژ‬،‫ ) ش‬sugar, measure, summer
 (ge -‫ ګ‬،‫ ) ج‬generation, get
 (gi -‫ ګ‬،‫ ) ج‬ginger, giggle
 (gy -‫ ګ‬،‫ ) ج‬gymnasium, gyve
 (ce, ci, cy, ‫ )س‬cereal, city, bicycle

Silent Letters
Silent letters are those letters that we can spell them but we can't pronounce them.
Here are some silent letters:
• (b) When it comes after (m), (b) is a silent letter.
Ex: comb, dumb
Remember: If a letter comes after (b), it is not a silent letter.
Ex: umbrella, umbrage
• When it comes before (t), (b) is a silent letter.
Ex: debt, debtor
• (d) When it comes before (g) or (j), (d) is a silent letter.
Ex: edge, adjust
• (e) When it comes at the end of a word, (e) is a silent letter.
Ex: have, kite
Exceptions: resume, recipe, catastrophe, apostrophe, cafe etc.
• (g) When it comes before (n), (g) is a silent letter.
Ex: sign, design
Remember: If a letter comes after (n), it is not a silent letter.
Ex: signal, signature
• (k) When it comes before (n), (k) is a silent letter.

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Ex: knife, knee
• (l) When it comes before (k), (l) is a silent letter.
Ex: chalk, walk
Exceptions: milk, hulk etc.
• (n) When it comes after (m), (n) is a silent letter.
Ex: autumn, condemn
• (p) When it comes before (s) or (n), (p) is a silent letter.
Ex: Psychology, pneumonia
• (t) When it comes before (ch), (t) is a silent letter.
Ex: match, watch
• (w) When it comes before (r), (w) is a silent letter. Ex: wrist, write

Word
A group of letters which gives a particular meaning is called word.
Ex: teacher, boy

Types of Word
1: Synonym words: Synonym words are those words which are similar in the meaning or two different words
which are similar in the meaning are called synonym words.
Ex: happy - glad
2: Antonym words: Antonym words are those words which are opposite in the meaning.
Ex: hot - cold
3: Homophone words: Homophone words are those words which are similar in the pronunciation but are
different in the spelling and meaning.
Ex: sun - son
4: Homonym words: Homonym words are those words which are similar in the pronunciation and spelling
but are different in the meaning.
Ex: fall – fall
Sentence
A group of words which has the subject and verb and always gives a complete meaning is called sentence or a
group of words which has the subject and verb, and expresses a complete sense.
Ex: He is my brother.
Ex: We are sleeping now.

Parts of the Sentence

A sentence has two parts;
• Subject: The doer of an action is called subject. Ex: He
goes to school every day.
Ex: Kabul is the capital of Afghanistan.

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• Predicate: Predicate is that part of the sentence which
talks about the subject of the sentence or predicate is that part of
the sentence which has the verb and provides the details about the
subject of the sentence.
Ex: She is a good student.
Ex: We live in Kandahar.

Types of Sentence According to Mood

1: Declarative (assertive) sentence: A sentence which expresses a statement is called declarative sentence.
Ex: He is my brother.
Ex: They don't like Facebook.
It is divided into two kinds:
• Positive statement (affirmative sentence, positive
sentence) Ex: We are students.
• Negative statement (negative sentence) Ex: We are not
teachers.
2: Interrogative sentence: A sentence which asks a question is called interrogative sentence. Ex: Are you a
teacher?
Ex: What is your name?
3: Imperative sentence: A sentence which expresses command, request, instruction, advice, prohibition, and
suggestion is called imperative sentence.
Ex: Open the door. (Command)
Ex: Please bring me a glass of water. (Request)
Ex: Turn right at the corner. (Instruction)
Ex: Respect your elders. (Advice)
Ex: Do not laugh in the class. (Prohibition)
Ex: Let's go to the picnic. (Suggestion)
4: Exclamatory sentence: A sentence which expresses a strong or sudden feeling is called exclamatory
sentence.
Ex: What a nice car!
Ex: What a noisy boy he is!
Types of Sentence According to Structure
1: Simple sentence: A sentence which has one main clause (independent clause) but no subordinate (dependent
clause) clause is called simple sentence or a sentence which expresses a complete sense is called simple
sentence or a sentence which has the subject and verb and always gives a complete meaning is called simple
sentence.
Ex: He reads the book.
Ex: I have a computer.
2: Compound sentence: A sentence which has two main clauses (independent clauses) but no subordinate
clause (dependent clause) is called compound sentence.
Ex: You are intelligent, but he is lazy.
Ex: The moon was bright, and we could see our way.

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3: Complex sentence: A sentence which has one main clause (independent clause) and one subordinate clause
(dependent clause) is called complex sentence.
Ex: I was sleeping last night when the bomb exploded.
Ex: He could not stop the laughing while I was eating.
4: Compound - complex sentence: A sentence which has two main clauses (independent clauses) and one or
more subordinate clauses (dependent clauses) is called compound - complex sentence.
Ex: Although our car is old, it stills runs well, and we want to keep it.

Parts of Speech
The division of words in grammar is called parts of speech.

Kinds of Parts of Speech

1: Noun
2: Pronoun
3: Verb
4: Adjective
5: Adverb
6: Preposition
7: Conjunction
8: Interjection
Noun
Noun is a word which is used for person, place, thing, animal or idea
Ex: Ahmad, Kandahar, pen, cat, beauty
Types of Noun
1: Proper noun: Proper noun is used for a particular person, place or thing.
Ex: Mohammad, Kabul, Holy Quran
Note: Proper noun always begins with a capital letter.
2: Common noun: Common noun is used for a common person, place or thing. Ex: boy, bazaar,
car
3: Concrete noun: A noun which has the physical existence and can be tangible or a noun which has the
physical existence and can be can be seen, touched, smelled, heard, or tasted.
Ex: dog, building, coffee, tree, rain
4: Abstract noun: A noun which doesn't have the physical existence and also cannot be tangible or a noun
which can’t be seen or touched or a noun that we can’ t perceive or recognize with our five senses.
Ex: hunger, beauty, danger, happiness, friendship Or: Abstract noun
is used for quality, state, or concept.
Ex: sweetness, childhood, love
5: Material noun: It refers to the material or substance from which the things are made.
Ex: silver, gold, iron, cotton, diamond and plastic
6: Collective noun: A noun which the form is singular but the meaning is plural is called collective noun.
Ex: army, family, team etc.

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7: Compound noun: A noun which is made from two or more words is called compound noun.
Ex: homework, shopkeeper
Compound noun is divided into three kinds:
• Open compound noun: A compound noun which has the distance is called open compound noun.
Ex: sewing machine, mother tongue
• Closed compound noun: A compound noun which doesn't have the distance is called close compound
noun. Ex: homework, friendship
• Hyphenated compound noun: A compound noun which has the hyphen is called hyphenated
compound noun.
Ex: t-shirt, father-in-law
8: Countable nouns (Count nouns): Countable nouns are those nouns that we can count them or countable
nouns are those nouns that can be counted.
Ex: book - books, pen - pens, boy - boys, doctor - doctors, horse - horses
Note: We can use both definite article and indefinite articles with them, and also they have singular and plural
forms.
Ex: a book, the book, an apple, the apple
9: Uncountable nouns (Mass nouns): Uncountable nouns are those nouns that we can't count them or
uncountable nouns are those nouns that can't be counted.
Ex: milk, oil, sugar, water, gold, honesty
Remember: We can't use indefinite articles with uncountable nouns, and also they don't have the plural form.
They are always singular. Ex: water (correct) - a water (incorrect)
Ex: sugar (correct) - sugars (incorrect)
10: Singular noun: A noun which denotes one person, place or thing.
Ex: boy, city, pen
11: Plural noun: A noun which denotes more than one person, place or thing. Ex: boys, cities,
pens
The Properties of Noun
A noun has the following properties; 1: Gender: Gender
means sex.
Gender has the following four kinds:
• Masculine gender: Masculine gender is used for male. Ex: man, boy, dog
• Feminine gender: Feminine gender is used for female.
Ex: woman, girl, bitch
• Common gender: Common gender is used for both male and female.
Ex: teacher, student, doctor
• Neutral gender: Neutral gender is used for those things which are not male and female. Ex: pen,
chair, book 2: Number:
Noun according to number is divided into two kinds:
 Singular noun: A noun which denotes one person, place or thing.
Ex: chair, pen, book
 Plural noun: A noun which denotes more than one person, place or thing. Ex: chairs,
pens, books 3: Case:

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A noun can be used in two cases; • Subjective
case:
Ex: John is a student.
• Objective case:
Ex: I like Kabul.
Regularity of Nouns
1: Regular nouns: Regular nouns are those nouns which are changed to plural form by (s) or
(es).
Ex: pen - pens
Ex: watch - watches
2: Irregular nouns: Irregular nouns are those nouns which are not changed to plural form by (s) or (es) or
irregular nouns are those nouns which don't have special rules for changing to plural form.
Ex: man - men, woman - women, ox - oxen, foot - feet, child - children, mouse - mice, goose - geese etc.
Rules of Changing Singular Nouns to Plural Nouns
• Most singular nouns are changed to plural nouns by (s).
Ex: book - books, pen - pens
• Those nouns which are ended with (ch, sh, s, ss, x, z) letters are changed to plural nouns by (es).
Ex: watch - watches
Ex: dish - dishes
Ex: bus - buses
Ex: class - classes
Ex: box - boxes
Ex: quiz - quizzes
Exceptions: monarch - monarchs, stomach - stomachs, epoch - epochs etc.
• Those nouns which are ended with (consonant + y), so we change (y) to (i) and add (es) at the end of them.
Ex: army - armies, family - families
• Those nouns which are ended with (vowel + y), so we can't change (y) to (i) and add (s) at the end of them.
Ex: day - days, boy - boys
• Those nouns which are ended with (consonant + o), so we add (es) at the end of them.
Ex: mango - mangoes
Ex: potato - potatoes
Exceptions: memo - memos, photo - photos, piano - pianos, logo - logos etc.
• Those nouns which are ended with (vowel + o), so we add (s) at the end of them.
Ex: video - videos, radio - radios, studio - studios
• Those nouns which are ended with (Fe, f), so we change (Fe, f) to (ves).
Ex: wife - wives, knife - knives
Ex: leaf - leaves, thief - thieves, wolf - wolves
Exceptions: proof - proofs, chief - chiefs, chef - chefs, roof - roofs, gulf - gulfs etc.
• Some nouns are the same in both singular and plural forms.
Ex: fish - fish/fishes
Ex: sheep - sheep

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Ex: deer - deer
Ex: tuna - tuna
Ex: trout – trout
Remember: The word police is always plural. Do not say a police. Say a police officer, a policeman, or a
policewoman.
Ex: Police are still searching for the murder weapon.
Ex: The police were called.
Pronoun
Pronoun is a word which is used instead of noun to avoid the repetition of noun. Ex: Ahmad is a
teacher.
Ex: He is a teacher.
Types of Pronoun
1: Personal pronouns: Personal pronouns are those pronouns which are used instead of people, places or
things or they are used instead of nouns or they are used instead of subject and object nouns in the sentence.
Personal pronouns have two kinds:
• Subject pronouns: Subject pronouns are those pronouns which are used instead of subject or they are used
instead of subject nouns in the sentence. They are seven: (I, we, you, they, he, she, it) Ex: Ahmad and
Mohammad are students.
Ex: They are students.
• Object pronouns: Object pronouns are those pronouns which are used instead of object or they are used
instead of object nouns in the sentence. They are seven: (me, us, you, them, him, her, it) Ex: I am touching
Karim.
Ex: I am touching him.
What is Subject?
The doer of an action is called subject.
Ex: Ahmad works hard.
Ex: We live in Kandahar province.
What is Object?
The receiver of an action is called object.
Object is divided into two kinds:
• Direct object: An object which receives the first action is called direct object.
Ex: I bought a car last year.
Ex: He wrote a letter last night.
• Indirect object: An object which receives the second action is called indirect object.
Ex: He gave the letter to Ahmad.
Or: He gave Ahmad the letter.
Ex: I sent a gift to him yesterday.
Or: I sent him a gift yesterday.
Ex: We bought a car for Haroon.
Or: We bought Haroon a car.
Note: When the direct object is used after indirect object, we omit (to) and (for) from the sentence.

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 What is Complement?
A word (noun, adjective, adverb) or phrase which is added after the main verb to complete the meaning of the
sentence is called complement or a word or phrase which is added after the main verb and describe the subject
of the sentence is called complement.
Ex: John became a politician.
Ex: I am cold.
Ex: He speaks quickly.
Ex: We spent one month in France last year.
What is the Difference Between Object and Complement?
Object is always the receiver of an action, and the object should be noun or pronoun. Ex: We cut the
cake.
Ex: They teach us.
A word (noun, adjective, adverb) or phrase which is added after the main verb to complete the meaning of a
sentence is called complement.
Ex: John became a politician.
Ex: I am cold.
Ex: He speaks quickly.
Ex: We spent one month in France last year.
2: Possessive pronouns: Possessive pronouns are those pronouns which show the possession or ownership.
They are seven: (mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirs, its) Ex: Is this book
yours?
Ex: Afghanistan is ours.
Ex: That pen is mine.
Ex: My shoes are old, but yours are new.
Note: Possessive pronouns are used after noun, and they sometimes come at the end of a sentence.
3: Demonstrative pronouns: Demonstrative pronouns are those pronouns which point out to someone or
something.
They are four: (this, these, that, those) Ex: This is my
book, and that is your book.
4: Indefinite pronouns: Indefinite pronouns are those pronouns which are used for unknown person, place or
thing or they are used for indefinite nouns.
They are divided into three sections:
• (someone, somebody, something, somewhere): These indefinite pronouns are used in positive sentence.
Ex: Let's go somewhere.
Ex: Someone called me last night.
Ex: I want to buy something for you.
Note: We can use these pronouns in interrogative sentence when we offer something or ask for the things.
Ex: Would you like something to drink?
• (anyone, anybody, anything, anywhere): These indefinite pronouns are used in interrogative and
negative sentences.
Ex: Do you need anything?

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Ex: I didn't see anybody here.
• (no one, nobody, nothing, nowhere): These indefinite pronouns are used in positive sentence but give
the negative meaning.
Ex: He has nothing in the pocket.
Ex: Nobody is in the class.
5: Distributive pronouns: Distributive pronouns are those pronouns which refer to everyone in a group.
They are: (all, both, half, each, every, either, neither) Ex: All of you
are lazy.
Ex: Both of them passed away yesterday.
Ex: Half of us are sleeping now.
Ex: There were two witnesses, but I couldn't trust either of them.
Ex: Neither of them can cook.
Ex: Neither of us speaks English.
6: Relative pronouns: Relative pronouns are those pronouns which join two clauses or they join two
sentences.
They are: (who, which, that, whom, whose) Who: It is used for
persons.
Which: It is used for things.
That: It can be used for both persons and things.
Whom: It is the object form of who, and it is used for the persons.
Note: Whom is used in formal speech or writing, but in daily spoken or written English, people usually use
who rather than whom.
Whose: It is used for both persons and things, and it shows the possession.

Relative pronouns can be used in three cases:

• Subjective case: In subjective case, we use (who, which, that) relative pronouns. The relative pronoun (who)
is used instead of (he, she, they) subject pronouns, but the relative pronoun (which) is used instead of (it)
subject pronoun.
Remember: The relative pronoun (that) can be used instead of (who, which) relative pronouns because it can
be used for both persons and things.
Ex: We Know Ahmad. He is a good person.
We know Ahmad who/that is a good person.
Ex: Zeenab is an intelligent student. She got the first position at school last year.
Zeenab is an intelligent student who/that got the first position at school last year.
Ex: Ahmad and Karim are brothers with each other. They live in Kandahar.
Ahmad and Karim are brothers with each other who/that live in Kandahar.
Ex: I have a computer. It has a black color.
I have a computer which/that has a black color.
• Objective case: In objective case, we use (whom, which, that) relative pronouns. The relative pronoun
(whom) is used instead of (him, her, them) object pronouns, but the relative pronoun (which) is used instead
of (it) object pronoun.

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Remember: The relative pronoun (that) can be used instead of (whom, which) relative pronouns because it can
be used for both persons and things.
Ex: This is my teacher. I met him yesterday.
This is my teacher whom/that I met yesterday.
Ex: They are my students. I teach them everyday.
They are my students whom/that I teach everyday.
Ex: I have a beautiful house. I bought it last year.
I have a beautiful house which/that I bought last year.
• Possessive case: In possessive case, we use (whose) relative pronoun, and it is used instead of (his, her, their,
its) possessive adjectives.
Ex: I have a friend. His father is a doctor.
I have a friend whose father is a doctor.
Ex: Uzma is a teacher. Her brother died yesterday.
Uzma is a teacher whose brother died yesterday.
Ex: He has a computer. Its price is too high.
He has a computer whose price is too high.
The Deletion of Relative Pronouns
When the relative pronouns are used in the objective case, we can delete the relative pronouns.
Ex: This is a chair which/that he sits on it.
This is a chair; he sits on it.
Ex: I will talk to the teacher whom I met in the party last night.
I will talk to the teacher; I met in the party last night.
7: Reciprocal pronouns: Reciprocal pronouns are those pronouns which show mutual action.
Ex: The students should help with each other in the lessons.
Ex: They often stay at one another houses.
8: Interrogative pronouns: Interrogative pronouns are those pronouns which are used for asking the (wh)
questions.
Ex: Who are you?
Ex; Where is your brother?
9: Emphatic pronouns: Emphatic pronouns are those pronouns which emphasize an action in a sentence.
They are eight: (myself, yourself, yourselves, ourselves, themselves, himself, herself, itself) Ex: I myself saw
him yesterday.
Ex: She herself suicided last night.
10: Reflexive pronouns: Reflexive pronouns are those pronouns which show the reflection of an action back
to the subject.
They are eight: (myself, yourself, yourselves, ourselves, themselves, himself, herself, itself) Ex: I hurt myself
last week.
Ex: He cut himself while he was shaving.
Ex: The dog was washing itself.
By + Reflexive Pronoun
It means alone.

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Ex: I traveled to Kabul by myself.
Remember: Emphatic pronouns always come before the verb, but reflexive pronouns come after the verb in
the sentence.
Verb
Verb is a word which shows the action or state. Ex: I am a
teacher. (State)
Ex: He is writing the homework now. (Action)
Types of Verb
1: Main verbs: Main verbs are those verbs which give a particular meaning but can't make the changes in the
sentence.
Ex: go, swim, run, write etc.
Main verbs are divided into seven kinds:
• Transitive verbs: Transitive verbs are those verbs which need to the object. Ex: teach, break, decorate,
wear, cut, build etc.
• Intransitive verbs: Intransitive verbs are those verbs which don't need to the object.
Ex: sleep, live, happen, smile, run, walk etc.
• Dynamic (action) verbs: Dynamic verbs are those verbs which show the action.
Ex: go, write, speak, open, run etc.
• Stative verbs: Stative verbs are those verbs which don't show the action, but they show the state.
Ex: guess, understand, believe, love, hate, like, know, mind, have, has, own, belong, possess, see etc.
Remember: We can't use stative verbs in continuous tenses.
Ex: I am understanding. (Incorrect)
Ex: I understand. (Correct)
• Linking verbs (Copular verbs): Linking verbs are those verbs which connect the subject with the adjective
of the sentence or linking verbs are those verbs which connect the subject of the sentence with its
complement.
Ex: Your car looks nice.
Ex: The apple tastes delicious.
Ex: The house seems big.
Ex: She became angry.
• Phrasal verb: The combination of verb with preposition or adverb which gives a particular meaning is
called phrasal verb.
Ex: turn on, turn off, sit down, come back etc.
Phrasal verb is divided into two kinds:
• Separable phrasal verb: A verb which is separated by an object is called separable phrasal verb.
Ex: Turn on the fan.
Or: Turn the fan on.
Ex: Please put on the clothes.
Or: Please put the clothes on.
• Inseparable phrasal verb: A verb which is not separated by an object is called inseparable phrasal verb.
Ex: He will come back to home soon.

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Ex: I ran into with my old friend yesterday.
• Causative verbs: Causative verbs are those verbs which cause someone else to do something.
Causative verbs have two structures:
Structure A: verb + object + verb (make, let, have)
Structure B: verb + object + to + verb (get, help, want, would like) Here are
some causatives verbs:  Make - to force
Ex: I make him study hard.
 Let - to permit
Ex: Ahmad let his brother watch the TV.  Have - to
choose or hire
Ex: I had John wash my car.
Note: The causative verbs (make, let, have) are used in the first structure.
 Get - to persuade
Ex: We get him to work hard.
 Help - to assist
Ex: They help me to read the story.
 Want - to desire
Ex: I want my teacher to improve my mistakes.
 Would like - want or desire
Ex: I would like you to attend the class regularly.
Note: The causative verbs (get, help, want, would like) are used in the second structure. The causative verb
(help) can be used in both structures.
2: Auxiliary verbs: Auxiliary verbs are those verbs which don't give a particular meaning but can make the
changes in the sentence or auxiliary verbs are those verbs which make the different forms of the tense.
Ex: I am a doctor.
Ex: Am I a doctor?
Ex: I am not a doctor.
Ex: He can buy a car.
Ex: Can he buy a car?
Ex: He can not buy a car.
Auxiliary verbs are divided into three kinds:
1: Helping auxiliary verbs: Helping auxiliary verbs are those verbs which show the action, state or possession
and change their forms for singular and plural subjects.
Ex: I do my homework every night. (Action)
Ex: We are teachers. (State)
Ex: He has a computer. (Possession)
Helping auxiliary verbs are divided into three sections:
 To be verbs (is, am, are, was, were)
 To do verbs (do, does, did)
 To have verbs (have, has, had)

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2: Modal auxiliary verbs: Modal auxiliary verbs are those verbs which show the ability, permission,
possibility, obligation, advice, request, suggestion or prediction but can't change their forms for singular and
plural subjects.
They are: (can, could, will, would, shall, should, may, might, must and ought to) Modal Auxiliary
Verbs for Ability (Can and Could)
• Can: It is used for present ability. Ex: I can speak
English well.
• Could: It is used for past ability.
Ex: He could run fast when he was young.
Modal Auxiliary Verbs for Permission (May, Might, Can, Could)
Ex: May I come to class? (Formal)
Ex: Might I drive your car? (Informal)
Ex: Can I use your mobile for awhile? (Formal)
Ex: Could I ask you a personal question? (Informal)
Modal Auxiliary Verbs for Possibility (May, Might, Can, Could, Will, Shall)
• May: It is used for present possibility. Ex: I may
go to Kabul.
• Might: It is used for past possibility. Ex: He might
have gone.
• Can: It is used for present possibility. Ex: He can
be an intelligent student. (Formal) • Could: It is used for
present possibility.
Ex: Where is he? He could be in the class. (Informal) • Will/Shall:
They are used for future possibility.
Ex: He will be in the class.
Ex: She shall be in the kitchen.
Modal Auxiliary Verbs for Obligation (Must, Should, Ought to)
Ex: We must pray five times.
Ex: You should study hard.
Ex: I ought to call him.
Note: Must shows strong obligation than should and ought to.
Modal Auxiliary Verbs for Advice (Must, Should, Ought to)
Ex: You must not sit with bad people.
Ex: He should walk every morning.
Ex: They ought to buy a car.
Modal Auxiliary Verbs for Request (May, Might, Can, Could, Will, Would, Shall)
Ex: May I have a glass of water? (Formal)
Ex: Might I have a cigarette, please? (Informal)
Ex: Can you bring me a grammar book from the library? (Formal)
Ex: Could you please lend me some money? (Informal)
Ex: Will you help me, please? (Formal)

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Ex: Would you shut the window, please? (Formal)
Ex: Would you mind opening the window? (Polite request and more formal) Note: We can use
would for past habits.
Ex: When we worked in the same office, we would often have coffee together.
Ex: Shall you make a report for me? (Formal)
Modal Auxiliary Verbs for Suggestion (Will, Shall)
Ex: Shall we go to the cinema tonight?
Ex: Will we have a picnic on Friday?
Modal Auxiliary Verbs for Prediction (Shall and Will)
Ex: It shall rain tomorrow.
Ex: We will travel to Kabul next month.
Perfect Modal Auxiliary Verbs
Ex: I should have called him.
Ex: He must have gone.
Ex: She might/may have written the homework.
Ex: I could have gotten the first position.
3: Semi modal auxiliary verbs: They can't make the changes in the sentence, but they need to the help of to
be verbs and to do verbs.
They are: (be able to, be supposed to, used to, have to, has to, had better)  Be able to:
It shows present, past, and future ability.
Note: Be able to means can.
Ex: I am able to start the university.
Ex: He was able to run fast when he was young.
Ex: We will be able to buy a car next year.
 Be supposed to:
It has two usages:
First: In simple past tense, it shows the expectation.
Ex: I was supposed to present my topic.
Ex: The watchman was supposed to lock the doors.
Second: In simple present tense, it shows the rule or law.
Ex: The students are supposed to come on time.
Ex: You are not supposed to smoke at school.
 Used to: It talks about those things which happened in the past but don't happen now.
Note: Used to means before or ago.
Ex: He used to work in a bank.
Ex: They used to live in England.
Ex: I didn't use to like him much when he was at school.
Used to vs. Be used to
Used to talks about those things which happened in the past but don't happen now, but be used to talks about
those things that we are familiar with them. Be used to means (be accustomed to, be familiar with).

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Ex: I am used to getting up early.
Ex: We are used to working together.
 Have to/Has to:
1: They show obligation.
Ex: You have to study hard.
Ex: He has to come on time.
2: They show advice.
Ex: You don't have to sit with bad people.
Ex: He has to walk every morning.
Note: We can use have to for both obligation and advice in simple future tense.
Ex: He will have to take the test tomorrow.
Ex: My father will have to buy a cap for me tomorrow.
 Had better: It is used for strong advice.
Ex: You had better pay the bill.
Ex: You had better not misbehave in the class.
Note: It also can be used for giving the warning.
Ex: You had better not smoke at school.
Regularity of Verbs
• Regular verbs: Regular verbs are those verbs which take (ed, d) for second and third forms. Ex: trust
- trusted - trusted
Ex: believe - believed - believed
• Irregular verbs: Irregular verbs are those verbs which don't take (ed, d) for the second and third forms.
Ex: go - went - gone
Ex: keep - kept – kept
The Forms of Main Verbs
1: Simple form (Basic form, V1):
Ex: go, speak, work
2: Past form (Second form, V2):
Ex: went, spoke, worked
3: Past participle (Third form, V3): Ex: gone,
spoken, worked
4: Present participle (ing form):
Ex: going, speaking, working
Adjective
Adjective is a word which modifies noun or pronoun or it describes noun or pronoun.
Ex: I have a black car.
Ex: He is smart.
Types of Adjective
1: Adjectives of quality: Adjectives of quality are those adjectives which show the quality of noun or pronoun.
Ex: I ate a delicious soup yesterday.

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Ex: She is very beautiful.
2: Adjectives of quantity: Adjectives of quantity are those adjectives which show the quantity or amount of
someone or something.
They are: (many, much, a few, a little, a lot of/lots of, some, any, more, enough, half, most, plenty, majority,
a great deal)
• Many vs. Much: They are adjectives of quantity. Many is used before countable nouns in interrogative and
negative sentences, but much is used before uncountable nouns in interrogative and negative sentences. In
spoken English, they are not used in positive sentence, but we use a lot of/lots of instead of them. Because
it is more common in spoken English then them. But in written English, we can use them in positive
sentence.
Ex: Does he have many books? (Before countable noun in interrogative sentence)
Ex: We don't have many friends. (Before countable noun in negative sentence)
Ex: I have many brothers. (Before countable noun in positive sentence)
Ex: Do you have much money? (Before uncountable noun in interrogative sentence)
Ex: There is not much sugar in the glass. (Before uncountable noun in negative sentence)
Ex: They have much time for the interview. (Before uncountable noun in positive sentence)
The Usages of Many and Much with too/so
• Too many vs. Too much: They are the expressions of quantity. Too many is used before countable nouns
in positive sentence, but too much is used before uncountable nouns in positive sentence.
Ex: There are too many students in the classroom. (Before countable noun in positive sentence)
Ex: There is too much salt in the food. (Before uncountable noun in positive sentence)
• So many vs. So much: They are the expressions of quantity. So many is used before countable nouns in
positive sentence, but so much is used before uncountable nouns in positive sentence.
Ex: There are so many guests in the wedding. (Before countable noun in positive sentence)
Ex: There is so much work to be done. (Before uncountable noun in positive sentence)
• A few vs. A little: They are adjectives of quantity. A few is used before countable nouns, but a little is used
before uncountable nouns. They mean a small mount.
Ex: There were a few boys in the ground. (Before countable noun in positive sentence)
Ex: There is a little milk in the glass. (Before uncountable noun in positive sentence)
• A lot of/Lots of: It is adjective of quantity, and it is used before countable and uncountable nouns in positive
sentence.
Ex: They have a lot of/lots of books. (Before countable noun in positive sentence)
Ex: He has a lot of/lots of money. (Before countable noun in positive sentence)
• Some: Some is adjective of quantity, and it is used before countable and uncountable nouns.
Ex: I have some friends. (Before countable noun)
Ex: I would like some water. (Before uncountable noun)
• Any: Any is adjective of quantity, and it is used before countable and uncountable nouns in interrogative
and negative sentences.
Ex: Are there any girls in the class? (Before countable noun in interrogative sentence)
Ex: He didn't get any money. (Before uncountable noun in negative sentence)
• More: More is adjective of quantity, and it is used before countable and uncountable nouns.
Ex: I have more books. (Before countable noun)

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Ex: He has more time for the picnic. (Before uncountable noun)
• Enough: Enough is adjective of quantity which means sufficient or adequate, and it is used before countable
and countable nouns.
Ex: We have enough chairs for the students. (Before countable noun)
Ex: Do they have enough time for the meeting? (Before uncountable noun)
• Half: It is adjective of quantity, and it shows 50% of an amount, time, distance, number etc. Ex: Half village
destroyed in the flood.
Ex: We went to bazaar at half ten.
• Most: It is adjective of quantity, and it is used before countable and uncountable nouns.
Ex: Most people like chocolate. (Before countable noun)
Ex: Most pollution destroys our life. (Before uncountable noun)
Note: If we talk about a specific group of persons, things or places, we use most of instead of most.
Ex: Most of the people don't like old songs. (The specific group of persons)
Remember: If we talk about a type of person or thing in general rather than a specific group, we do not use the
preposition of.
• Plenty: Plenty is adjective of quantity, and it is used before countable and uncountable nouns.
Ex: There are plenty people in the wedding. (Before countable noun)
Ex: We have plenty time for the picnic. (Before uncountable noun)
Note: In spoken English, Most of the people use plenty of rather than plenty.
Ex: There are plenty of restaurants in Kabul.
• Majority: It is adjective of quantity, and it is used before countable and uncountable nouns.
Ex: Majority children love cartoon. (Before countable noun)
Ex: Majority pollution is made by factories. (Before uncountable noun)
Note: If we talk about a specific group of people, things or places, we use majority of instead of majority.
Ex: Majority of the students are very clever. (The specific group of persons)
Remember: If we talk about a type of person or thing in general rather than a specific group, we do not use the
preposition of.
• A great deal: It is the expression of quantity, and it is used with countable and uncountable nouns.
Ex: He has a great deal shops in Kandahar. (Before countable noun)
Ex: They had a great deal money last year. (Before uncountable noun)
Note: In spoken English, Most of the people use a great deal of rather than a great deal.
Ex: She has a great deal of books. (Before countable noun)
3: Demonstrative adjectives: Demonstrative adjectives are those adjectives which point out to someone or
something.
They are: (this, these, that, those) Ex: This book
is interesting.
Ex: That boy is very clever.
The Difference Between Demonstrative Adjectives and Demonstrative Pronouns
In demonstrative adjectives after (this, these, that, those) should be a noun, but in demonstrative pronouns after
(this, these, that, those) should be to be verbs.
Ex: These books are mine. (Demonstrative adjective)

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Ex: Those are computers. (Demonstrative pronoun)
4: Interrogative adjectives: Interrogative adjectives are those adjectives which are used for asking the wh
questions.
Ex: Which mobile do you like?
Ex: Whose book is this?
Ex: What time is it?
The Difference Between Interrogative Adjectives and Interrogative Pronouns
In interrogative adjectives after (wh) should be a noun, but in interrogative pronouns after (wh) should be to
be verbs.
Ex: Which car do you like? (Interrogative adjective)
Ex: What is your name? (Interrogative pronoun)
5: Distributive adjectives: Distributive adjectives are those adjectives which refer to everyone in a group.
They are: (all, both, half, each, every, either, neither) Ex: All the
students were tired yesterday.
Ex: Both children were born in Italy.
Ex: Half village destroyed in the flood.
Ex: Each student must come on time.
Ex: Every teacher knows him.
Ex: Either explanation is reasonable.
Ex: Neither answer is right.
The Difference Between Distributive Adjectives and Distributive Pronouns
In distributive adjectives after (all, both, half, each, every, either, neither) should be a noun, but in distributive
pronouns after (all, both, half, each, every, either, neither) should be object pronouns.
6: Possessive adjectives: Possessive adjectives are those adjectives which show the possession or relationship.
They are seven: (my, your, his, her, our, their, its)
Ex: This is my book. (Possession)
Ex: He is his brother. (Relationship)
Ex: I live in Kandahar, and I like its weather too much.
Note: Possessive adjectives always come before nouns.
7: Proper adjectives: Proper adjectives are those adjectives which are taken from proper nouns or those
adjectives which are derived from proper nouns or those adjectives which are made from proper nouns. Ex:
Afghanistan - Afghan
Ex: Greece - Greek,
Ex: America - American
8: Numerical adjectives: Numerical adjectives are those adjectives which express the number.
Ex: There are ten boys in the class.
Ex: We have five cars.

Numerical adjectives are divided into two kinds:

1: Definite numerical adjectives: Definite numerical adjectives are those adjectives which express the exact
number or they show the definite number.

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Definite numerical adjectives are divided into two kinds:
• Cardinal numbers: They show the quantity.
Ex: one, two, three, four etc.
• Ordinal numbers: They show the quality or they show the order of the things or they show the position of
an item in an ordered sequence.
Ex: first, second, third, fourth etc.
2: Indefinite numerical adjectives: Indefinite numerical adjectives are those adjectives which express the
inexact number or they show the indefinite number.
Ex: much, many, some, more etc.
9: Exclamatory adjectives: Exclamatory adjectives are those adjectives which show a strong or sudden
feeling.
Ex: What a nice car!
Ex: How an amazing prize!
10: Attributive adjectives: Attributive adjectives are those adjectives which modify a noun directly.
Ex: rich man, new book, fresh water
11: Verbal adjectives: Verbal adjectives are those adjectives which are made from the past participle form of
the verb (V3) or present participle form of the verb (v-ing).
Ex: I am very bored today.
Ex: He doesn't like a boring trip.
Ex: I have a fascinating book.
Ex: I was so fascinated to see the lion in the jungle.
Ex: My leg is broken.
Ex: She is hurt.
12: Hyphenated adjectives (compound modifiers): Hyphenated adjectives modify a noun, and they can
function as an adjective. They are also called compound modifiers.
Structure: a/an + cardinal number + hyphen + singular noun
Ex: I bought a four - door car. (Four - door is hyphenated adjective which modifies the noun) Ex: We watched
a three - hour movie. (Three - hour is hyphenated adjective which modifies the noun)
Adverb
Adverb is a word which modifies verb, adjective or another adverb.
Ex: He writes quickly. (Quickly is an adverb which modifies the verb.)
Ex: She is very tall. (Very is an adverb which modifies the adjective)
Ex: I run too fast. (Too is an adverb which modifies another adverb)
Note: In English language most adverbs are made by adding the (ly) to adjectives.
Ex: slow, slowly, quick - quickly, bad - badly etc.
• It can modify the whole sentence.
Ex: Especially, I love Islam. (Especially is an adverb which modifies the whole sentence.) Ex: Certainly, the
thief has chosen the wrong profession. (Certainly is an adverb which modifies the whole sentence.)
Types of Adverb
1: Adverbs of manner: These adverbs show how an action is done.
Ex: He drives the car carefully.

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Ex: You must run quickly.
Note: They sometimes come at the end of a sentence.
How Can We Make Adverbs of Manner?
• Most adverbs are formed by adding the (ly) to an adjective.
Ex: slow - slowly
Ex: quick - quickly
• If an adjective is ended with (c + y), we change (y) to (i) and (ly) to it.
Ex: easy - easily Ex: crazy -
crazily Exceptions:
Ex: shy - shyly Ex: sly - slyly
• If an adjective is ended with (v + y), we can't change (y) to (i) and add (ly) to it. Ex: coy - coyly
Ex: gay - gayly
• If an adjective is ended with (e), we add (ly) to it.
Ex: nice - nicely
Ex: cute - cutely
• If an adjective is ended with (c + le), we omit (e) and add (y) to it.
Ex: simple - simply
Ex: humble - humbly
• If an adjective is ended with (v + le), we can't omit (e) and add (ly) to it. Ex: agile - agilely Ex: sole - solely
Exception:
Ex: whole - wholly
• If an adjective is ended with (ue), we omit (e) and add (ly) to it.
Ex: true - truly
Ex: due - duly
• If an adjective is ended with (l), we keep the (l) and add (ly) to it.
Ex: careful - carefully
Ex: economical - economically
• If an adjective is ended with (ic), we add (ally) to it.
Ex: basic - basically
Ex: comic - comically
• If an adjective is ended with (ll), we add (y) to it.
Ex: dull - dully Ex: full - fully
• There are some words in English which have adjective and adverb forms.
They are: (fast, hard, well, alone)
Ex: It is a fast car. (Fast is used as an adjective)
Ex: She walks fast. (Fast is used as an adverb)
Ex: He is a hard worker. (Hard is used as an adjective)
Ex: We worked hard yesterday. (Hard as used as an adverb)
Ex: I am well. (Well is used as an adjective)
Ex: Did you sleep well? (Well is used as an adverb)

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Ex: They are alone in the house. (Alone is used as an adjective)
Ex: I cried like a child because I felt alone. (Alone is used as an adverb)
Note: In English there are some adjectives which are ended with (ly), but we should know that they are not the
adverbs.
Ex: silly, lovely, lonely, friendly, elderly
2: Adverbs of time: These adverbs show when an action happens.
They are: (later, next, now, today, tomorrow, yesterday, soon, then, never, daily) Ex: I will call
you later.
Ex: We have never been to Egypt.
Ex: He travelled to Turkey and then to Greece.
Ex: The zoo is open daily.
3: Adverbs of place: These adverbs show where an action happens.
They are: (here, there, out, everywhere, everyplace, upstairs, downstairs, across etc.) Ex: My brother
is here.
Ex: We travelled everywhere in Afghanistan.
Ex: Let's eat out tonight.
Ex: She went upstairs to get dressed.
Ex: He walked across the field.
4: Adverbs of frequency: These adverbs show the repetition of an action.
They are: (always, usually, sometimes, often, seldom, rarely, frequently, occasionally) The Position
of Adverbs of Frequency
• They come after auxiliary verbs.
Ex: He is usually present in the class.
Ex: They must always recite the Holy Quran.
• They come before main verbs.
Ex: We often play football.
Note: The adverb of frequency (sometimes) can be used at the beginning, middle or at the end of a sentence.
Ex: We sometimes watch Hollywood old movies.
Ex: Sometimes, he fights with me.
Ex: They disagree with him sometimes.
5: Adverbs of affirmation and negation: These adverbs show agreement or disagreement.
They are: (yes, no, maybe, sure, of course)
Ex: Can you speak Arabic? Yea, I can
Ex: Do you know him? No, I don't
6: Interrogative adverbs: These adverbs are used for asking the (wh) questions.
Ex: Where do you go?
Ex: Why does he speak in the class?
7: Adverbs of certainty: These adverbs show how certain or sure we feel about an action.
They are: certainly, definitely, probably, undoubtedly, surely The Position of
Adverbs of Certainty
• They come after auxiliary verbs. Ex: He is probably in the park.

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Ex: He has certainly forgotten the meeting.
• They come before main verbs.
Ex: He definitely left the house this morning.
• Sometimes these adverbs can be placed at the beginning of the sentence.
Ex: Undoubtedly, Winston Churchill was a great politician.
8: Adverbs of degree/Adverbs of quantity: These adverbs show the degree or quantity of an adjective or
adverb to emphasize them.
They are: (too, very, so, pretty, quite, enough, rather, hardly)
Ex: This coffee is too hot. (Here too is used before adjective)
Ex: You are speaking too loudly. (Here too is used before adverb)
Ex: I feel very cold. (Here very is used before adjective)
Ex: He drives the car very slowly. (Here very is used before adverb)
Ex: It was so embarrassing. (Here so is used before adjective)
Ex: He works so hard. (Here so is used before adverb)
Ex: They are pretty sure. (Here pretty is used before adjective)
Ex: We gave the exam pretty quickly. (Here pretty is used before adverb)
Ex: The exam was quite bad. (Here quite is used before adjective)
Ex: He is speaking quite badly. (Here quite is used before adverb)
Ex: She runs quite fast. (Here quite is used before adverb)
Ex: You are speaking enough now. (Here enough is used after verb)
Ex: Is the meat cooked enough? (Here enough is used after verb)
Ex: The water is warm enough for you. (Here enough is used after adjective)
Ex: Life is difficult enough without you. (Here enough is used after adjective)
Ex: Their business wasn't growing fast enough. (Here enough is used after adverb)
Remember: Enough as an adverb always comes after verb, adjective and adverb but never comes before them.
9: Adverbs of number: These adverbs show how often an action happens.
Ex: I have seen him once.
Ex: He has gone to the pilgrimage twice.
10: Relative adverbs: Relative adverbs are those adverbs which join two clauses or they join two sentences.
They are: where, when, why
Ex: This is the restaurant where we met for the first time.
Ex: I will be waiting for you when you come.
Ex: We don't know why he crashed yesterday.
11: Adverbs of reason: These adverbs show the reason of an action.
Ex: They are tired because they worked all the day.
Ex: They had not eaten the food, so they were hungry.
12: Conjunctive adverbs: These adverbs join two independent clauses.
Ex: The tire was flat. Therefore, we called a service station.
Ex: He failed in the exam. However, he had made a lot of preparation.

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 The Position of Adverbs
Adverbs have three main positions in the sentence: • Front
(before the subject) Ex: Now I am sick.
• Middle (between the subject and main verb)
Ex: We often study.
• End (after the verb or object) Ex: He drives
the car carefully.

Preposition
Preposition is a word which joins noun or pronoun with the other part of the sentence or it is a word shows
the relationship of noun or pronoun with the other part of the sentence or it is a word which shows the time,
place, direction etc.
Ex: The computer is on the desk.
Ex: He is in the kitchen.
Types of Preposition
1: simple prepositions: Simple prepositions are those prepositions which are made from one word.

Here are Some Simple Prepositions

About By Outside
Above Despite Over
Across Down Past
After During Since
Against Except Through
Along For Till
Among From Toward
Around In Throughout

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 At Inside Under
Before Into Underneath
Behind Like Until
Below Near Up
Beneath Of Upon
Beside Off With
Between On Within
Beyond Onto To
But Out Without

2: compound prepositions: Compound prepositions are those prepositions which are made from two or more
words.

Here are Some Compound Prepositions

According to On behalf of Far from
Ahead of By mean of out of
Along with Close to In charge of
As a consequence of Due to In conjunction with
As for as Except for In contrast to
As for For use in In front of
As per In accordance with In keeping with
As to In addition to In live of
As well as In association with In line with
Aside from In bread of In order to
Because of In case of In place of
In respect of On top of In reference to
In response to Owing to Instead of
In spite of Prior to Regardless of

The Usages of Some Important Prepositions

On
• It is used for streets, roads, avenues and highways. Ex: on Main Street, on Station Road, on Ocean Avenue
• It is used for days of the week.
Ex: on Friday, on Monday
• It is used for special days.
Ex: on Eid day, on my birthday
• It is used when something is on a surface.
Ex: The book is on the table.

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At
• It is used for the time.
Ex: at nine o'clock
• It is used for small places.
Ex: at hospital, at airport, at home, at school, at work, at station, at market etc.
• If a road, street or avenue has a number then we use the preposition (at).
Ex: at 2345 John Road
• It is used to show the age of someone for doing something.
Ex: He got married at the age of 25.
Ex: She left the school at the age of 16.
•
In
• It is used for large places. Ex: I live in Kandahar city.
• It is used for date and months of the year.
Ex: in 2018, in July
• It is used with a part of the day.
Ex: in the morning, in the afternoon • It is used for
the seasons of the year.
Ex: in spring, in summer
• It is used for the period of time.
Ex: in two hours, in three minutes
• It is used when something is surrounded by all sides. Ex: The money is in my pocket.
Conjunction
Conjunction is a word which joins two words, two sentences, two phrases and two clauses.
Ex: She likes tea and coffee. (Two words)
Ex: Ahmad is tall, but Akram is short. (Two sentences)
Ex: A hungry wolf and a dangerous lion (Two phrases)
Ex: You will get the first position if you study hard. (Two clauses)
Types of Conjunction
1: Coordinating conjunctions: Coordinating conjunctions are those conjunctions which join two independent
clauses, two words, and two phrases.
Coordinating conjunctions are seven: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so
Ex: I like car, but he likes motorbike. (Two independent clauses)
Ex: We want to buy cookies and milk. (Two words)
Ex: They like playing football and walking in the mountains. (Two phrases)
Note: When a coordinating conjunction joins two independent clauses, it is always correct to place a comma
before the conjunction.
2: Subordinating conjunctions: Subordinating conjunctions are those conjunctions which join subordinate
clause and main clause.
Subordinating conjunctions are: though, although, even though, as soon as, as long as, as, because, before,
after, how, if, once, since, than, that, till, until, unless, when, where, whether, while etc.

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Ex: I will see you as soon as I get the time.
Ex: The police didn't tell him why he was arrested.
Ex: Though she was sick, she came to the university.
3: Correlative conjunctions: Correlative conjunctions join pairs of words, phrases and clauses.
They always come in two parts.
Correlative conjunctions are: both...and, neither...nor, either...or, not only...but also
• Both...and: We use (both...and) when we join two positive ideas (two nouns, two adjectives).
Ex: We invited the director. Ex: We invited the secretary. We invited
both the director and the secretary. (Two nouns) Ex: She is pretty. Ex:
She is clever.
She is both pretty and clever. (Two adjectives)
Note: When (both...and) is used as the subject of a sentence, the verb of the sentence is plural. Ex: Cricket is
exciting. Football is exciting.
Both cricket and football are exciting.
• Neither...nor: We use (neither...nor) when we join two negative ideas.
Ex: My father is not here. Ex: My mother is not here.
Neither my father nor my mother is here.
Ex: I don't smoke. Ex: I don't drink.
I neither smoke nor drink.
Note: The verb is plural when the noun is plural after nor.
Ex: The teacher was not present. Ex: The students were not present.
Neither the teacher nor the students were present. (Plural)
Ex: Neither the students nor the teacher was present. (Singular)
• Either...or: We use (either...or) to talk about a choice between two possibilities
and more than two.
Ex: You can have tea. You can have coffee.
You can have either tea or coffee.
Ex: I will call either you or your friend.
When (either...or) joins two singular subjects, the verb is normally singular.
Either Akram or Israr is allowed to play.
But if the noun coming after or is plural, the verb is plural too.
Ex: Either the teacher or the students are ready to start the class.
Either...or can also join two clauses.
Ex: Either you will leave this house or I will call the police.
• Not only...but also: It shows the inclusion of two positive structures. Ex: Laila
is not only talented but also pretty.
Interjection: Interjection is a word which shows a strong or sudden feeling.
Ex: Ah! Oh! Alas! Bravo! Hurrah! Etc.
Tense

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 The word (tense) is taken from a Latin word [Tempus] which means time and also tense is that form of the
verb which shows the time or age of an action, state or event. Generally, there are three main tenses in
English language as following;
1- Past
It has four kinds:
 Simple past tense
 Past continuous tense
 Past perfect tense
 Past perfect continuous tense 2- Present
It has four kinds:
 Simple present tense
 Present continuous tense
 Present perfect tense
 Present perfect continuous tense
3- Future
It has four kinds:
 Simple future tense
 Future continuous tense
 Future perfect tense
 Future perfect continuous tense

Simple Past Tense

It shows an action which was started in the past and finished in the past in a specific time.
Structure: s + V (2) + c
The auxiliary verbs of simple past tense are: (was, were, did)
Remember: The auxiliary verbs of (was, were) are used for the state, but the auxiliary verb (did) is used for
the action.
Example for the state:
I was a teacher last year.
Was I a teacher last year?
I was not a teacher last year.
Was not I a teacher last year?
Or: Was I not a teacher last year?
Example for the action:
We bought a car yesterday.
Did we buy a car yesterday?
We did not buy a car yesterday.
Did not we buy a car yesterday?
Or: Did we not buy a car yesterday?
Note: When the auxiliary verb (did) is used in interrogative, negative or negative interrogative sentences, the
first form of the verb must be used.

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 The Rules of Adding (d, ed) to the Verbs
1: Those verbs which are ended with (e or ee), so we only add (d) at the end of them. Ex: injure -
injured Ex: agree - agreed
2: Those verbs which are ended with (consonant + y), so we change (y) to (i) and add (ed) at the end of them.
Ex: study - studied
Ex: try - tried
3: Those verbs which are ended with (vowel + y), so we can't change (y) to (i) and add (ed) at the end of
them. Ex: pray - prayed Ex: play - played
4: Those one syllable verbs which are ended with (c + v + c) letters, so we double the last consonant and add
(ed) at the end of them.
Ex: stop - stopped
Ex: drop - dropped
Remember: Those one syllable verbs which are ended with (c + v + c) letters, and the final letters are (x, w).
so we can't double the final consonant and add (ed) at the end of them. Ex: fix - fixed
Ex: bow - bowed
5: Those verbs that are more than one syllable if the stress is on the last letter, we double the final consonant
and add (ed) at the end of them.
Ex: kidnap - kidnapped
Ex: prefer - preferred
Past Continuous Tense
It shows an action which was going on in the past.
Structure: s + was, were + v - ing + c
The auxiliary verbs of past continuous tense are: (was, were) They were buying
the house yesterday.
Were they buying the house yesterday?
They were not buying the house yesterday.
Were not they buying the house yesterday?
Or: Were they not buying the house yesterday?
Ex: We were watching the wrestling when you came.
Ex: While we were traveling to Japan, we visited many museums.
Past Perfect Tense
It shows an action which was completed before another action in the past.
Structure: s + had + V (3) + c
The auxiliary verb of past perfect tense is: (had) We had eaten
the food when they came.
Had we eaten the food when they came?
We had not eaten the food when they came.
Had not we eaten the food when they came?
Or: Had we not eaten the food when they came?
Ex: The patient had died before the doctor arrived.
Ex: I had watched the film when you called me.

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 Past Perfect Continuous Tense
It insists on the duration of an action which was in progress before another action in the past.
Structure: s + had + been + v - ing + c
The auxiliary verb of past perfect continuous tense is: (had) I had been
studying for two hours when you knocked the door.
Had I been studying for two hours when you knocked the door?
I had not been studying for two hours when knocked the door.
Had not I been studying for two hours when you knocked the door?
Or: Had I not been studying for two hours when you knocked the door?
Ex: They had been reciting the Holy Quran for one hour before we arrived.
Ex: We had been living in Kabul before we came to Kandahar.
Ex: I had been following English lessons since 2005 before I started computer.
Ex: You had been waiting here since morning when he arrived.
Note: Since shows the beginning of an action, but for shows the duration of an action. We sometimes use since
and for in this tense.

Simple Present Tense

It shows an action which we do regularly or habitually.
Structure: s + v + c
The auxiliary verbs of simple present tense are: (do, does, is, am, are)
Remember: The auxiliary verbs (is, am, are) are used for the state, but the auxiliary verbs (do, does) are used
for the action.
Example for the state:
She is a doctor.
Is she a doctor?
She is not a doctor.
Is not she a doctor?
Or: Is she not a doctor?
Examples for the action:
I walk on the road every morning.
Do I walk on the road every morning?
I do not walk on the road every morning.
Do not I walk on the road every morning?
Or: Do I not walk on the road every morning?
He studies in the night.
Does he study in the night?
He does not study in the night.
Does not he study in the night?
Or: Does he not study in the night?
Note: In simple present tense, we add (s, es) to the verbs when the subject of the sentence is singular.
• We use this tense to talk about general and scientific facts.

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Ex: The sky is blue. (General fact)
Ex: People can't live in the moon. (Scientific fact) • We can use
this tense for future planned actions.
Ex: We travel to America next week.
Ex: I visit my friends tomorrow.
Present Continuous Tense
It shows an action which is going on right now.
Structure: s + is, am, are + v - ing + c
The auxiliary verbs of present continuous tense are: (is, am, are) We are working
now.
Are we working now?
We are not working now.
Are not we working now?
Or: Are we not working now?
• We can use this tense for future planned actions. Ex: Ahmad is
coming tomorrow.
Ex: We are going to party next week.
How to Make the (ing) Form?
1: Those verbs which are ended with (e), so we omit (e) and (ing) form at the end of them. Ex: write -
writing Ex: ride - riding
2: Those verbs which are ended with (ee, ye, oe), so we can't omit (e) and add the (ing) form at the end of them.
Ex: see - seeing
Ex: dye - dyeing
Ex: canoe - canoeing
3: Those one syllable verbs which are ended with (c + v + c) letters, so we double the last consonant and add
the (ing) form at the end of them.
Ex: run - running
Ex: swim - swimming
Remember: Those one syllable verbs which are ended with (c + v + c) letters, and the final letters are (x, w, y)
letters. So we can't double the final consonant and add the (ing) form at the end of them.
Ex: fix - fixing
Ex: mow - mowing Ex: buy -
buying
4: Those verbs that are more than one syllable if the stress is on the last letter, we double the final consonant
and add the (ing) form at the end of them.
Ex: kidnap - kidnapping
Ex: prefer - preferring
5: Those verbs which are ended with (consonant + y), so we can't change (y) to (i) and add the (ing) form at
the end of them.
Ex: study - studying Ex: try - trying
6: Those verbs which are ended with (ie), so we change (ie) to (y) and add the (ing) form at the end of them.

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Ex: lie - lying, die - dying
Present Perfect Tense
It shows an action which was started in the past and finished in the past in unspecific time.
Structure: s + have, has + V (3) + c
The auxiliary verbs of present perfect tense are: (have, has) We have gone
to Kabul.
Have we gone to Kabul?
We have not gone to Kabul.
Have not we gone to Kabul?
Or: Have we not gone to Kabul?
• If we use present perfect tense with since and for, it show an action which was started in the past and
still continue.
Ex: I have followed English lesson for six months.
Ex: They have lived in Chicago since 1982.
Ex: He has waited for us since 9:00.
Ex: They have played in the ground for three hours.
Ex: I know him since June.
Note: Since shows the beginning of an action, but for shows the duration of an action.
• If we use present perfect tense with (just), it shows an immediate past action which was occurred.
Ex: They have just come to the house.
Ex: We have just started the lessons.
Present Perfect Continuous Tense
It shows an action which was started in the past and still continue.
Structure: s + have, has + been + v - ing + c
The auxiliary verbs of present perfect continuous tense are: (have, has) I have been
studying since morning.
Have I been studying since morning?
I have not been studying since morning.
Have not I been studying since morning?
Or: Have I not been studying since morning?
Ex: We have been playing chess since noon.
Ex: She has been washing the children for thirty minutes.
Note: We sometimes use since and for in this tense.
• Without since and for, present perfect continuous tense shows an action that has recently stopped or just
stopped.
Ex: I feel tired because I have been working all day.
Ex: You are tired. Have you been running?
Simple Future Tense
It shows an action which will happen in the future or it shows an action which will take place in the future.
It has two structures:
1: s + will, shall + v + c

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2: s + is, am, are + going to + v + c
The auxiliary verbs of first structure are: (will, shall)
The auxiliary verbs of second structure are: (is, am, are)
Note: The first structure is used for future unplanned actions and prediction, but the second structure is used
for future planned actions and strong prediction.
I will meet you next week.
Will I meet you next week?
I will not meet you next week Will not I meet
you next week?
Or: Will I not meet you next week?
It is going to rain tomorrow.
Is it going to rain tomorrow?
It is not going to rain tomorrow.
Is not it going to rain tomorrow?
Or: Is it not going to rain tomorrow?
Future Continuous Tense
It shows an action which will be in progress in the future or it shows an action which will be going on in the
future.
First structure: s + will, shall + be + v - ing + c
Second structure: s + is, am, are + going to + be + v - ing + c
The auxiliary verbs of first structure are: (will, shall) The auxiliary
verbs of second structure are: (is, am, are) He will be cleaning the
room tomorrow.
Will he be cleaning the room tomorrow?
He will not be cleaning the room tomorrow.
Will not he be cleaning the room tomorrow?
Or: Will he not be cleaning the room tomorrow?
We are going to be studying hard for upcoming exam.
Are we going to be studying hard for upcoming exam?
We are not going to be studying hard for upcoming exam.
Are not we going to be studying hard for upcoming exam?
Or: Are we not going to be studying hard for upcoming exam?
Ex: In the year 2020, we will be traveling to the space.
Ex: I am going to be watching tennis match when you come.
Future perfect tense
It shows an action which will be completed before another action in the future or it shows an action which will
have completed before another action in the future.
First structure: s + will, shall + have + V (3) + c
Second structure: s + is, am, are + going to + have + V (3) + c

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The auxiliary verbs of first structure are: (will, shall) The auxiliary
verbs of second structure are: (is, am, are) He will have left the
house before you want to see him.
Will he have left the house before you want to see him?
He will not have left the house before you want to see him.
Will not he have left the house before you want to see him?
Or: Will he not have left the house before you want to see him?
She is going to have finished the homework before you call her.
Is she going to have finished the homework before you call her?
She is not going to have finished the homework before you call her.
Is not she going to have finished the homework before you call her?
Or: Is she not going to have finished the homework before you call her?
Future Perfect Continuous Tense
It insists on the duration of an action which will be in progress before another action in the future.
First structure: s + will, shall + have + been + v - ing + c
Second structure: s + is, am, are + going to + have + been + v - ing + c
The auxiliary verbs of first structure are: (will, shall)
The auxiliary verbs of second structure are: (is, am, are)
I will have been studying at Kandahar University for four years before I get married.
Will I have been studying at Kandahar University for four years before I get married?
I will not have been studying at Kandahar University for four years before I get married.
Will not I have been studying at Kandahar University for four years before I get married?
Or: Will I not have been studying at Kandahar university for four years before I get married?
He is going to have been sleeping for three hours when you arrive.
Is he going to have been sleeping for three hours when you arrive?
He is not going to have been sleeping for three hours when you arrive.
Is not he going to have been sleeping for three hours when you arrive?
Or: Is he not going to have been sleeping for three hours when you arrive?
Ex: In next December, we will have been living in America for five years.
Ex: All our classmates will have been getting ready for the exam next week by the time the teacher comes to
the class.
Note: We sometimes use since and for in this tense.
Wh Questions
Wh questions are those questions which we can’ t answer by yes/no and they need information. We have the
following Wh questions:
1: What
2: Where
3: When
4: Who
5: Whose
6: Why

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7: How
8: Which
• What: It asks the information about someone or something or it asks about the thing, opinion, and time.
Ex: What does he do?
Ex: What is your name?
Ex: What is this?
Ex: What kind of music do you like?
Ex: What subjects did you enjoy most?
Ex: What time is it?
• Where: It asks about the place.
Ex: Where is your home? My home is in Kandahar.
• When: It asks about the time.
When do you go to school? I go to school at 8: 00.
• Who: It asks about the person.
Who is he? He is my friend.
Note: The object form of who is whom, but in everyday spoken or written English, the people usually use who
rather than whom.
Ex: Whom did you give the book?
Ex: Who did you invite the party?
• Whose: It asks about the possession or relationship.
Ex: Whose book is this? It is mine. (Possession)
Ex: Whose brother are you? I am Ahmad’ s brother. (Relationship) • Why: It asks
about the reason.
Ex: Why do you study English? I study English because it is an international language.
• How: It asks about the state. Ex: How are you? I am fine.
• Which: It asks about the choice.
Ex: Which color do you like? I like black color.
Yes/No Questions
Yes/No questions are those questions which we can answer by yes/no and they don't need information.
EX: Can you speak English well? No, I can't.
Ex: Is he your brother? Yes, he is.
Tag questions
Tag questions are those questions which are used at the end of a sentence for emphasis and confirmation.
Rules:
• If the sentence is positive, the tag question should be negative.
Ex: He goes to school everyday, doesn't he?
Ex: I must go, must not I?
• If the sentence is negative, the tag question should be positive.
Ex: We are not working now, are we?
Ex: He can't swim well, can he?
• There should be a comma between sentence and tag question.

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• We use an auxiliary verb with a pronoun to make a tag question.
• There should be the question mark at the end of tag question.
• Imperative sentence has the tag question of (will you?). Ex: Open the door, will you?
• (Let's + verb) has the tag question of (shall we?). Ex: Let's go to the picnic, shall we?
• Indefinite pronouns have the tag question of (they). Ex: Someone will call me, will not they?
Ex: Nobody came to the party, did they?
• The tag question of (I am) is (aren't I?).
Ex: I am a teacher, aren't I?
Degrees of Adjective
We can compare nouns and pronouns with the help of degrees of adjective.
An adjective has the following degrees:
1: Positive degree of adjective: It describes noun or pronoun or it modifies noun or pronoun. It doesn't
compare two persons, places or things.
Ex: He is a tall boy.
Ex: John is a smart person.
2: Comparative degree of adjective: It compares two persons, places or things.
Ex: Ahmad is taller than Akbar.
Ex: Kandahar is more beautiful than Kabul.
Ex: Car is smaller than bus.
Note: We should use the preposition (than) in comparative degree of adjective.
Rules:
• We add (er) at the end of one syllable adjective.
Ex: tall - taller
Ex: small - smaller
• If one syllable adjective is ended with (c + v + c) letters, we double the last consonant and add
(er) to it.
Ex: hot - hotter
Ex: fat - fatter
• If an adjective is ended with (y), we change (y) to (i) and add (er) to it.
Ex: happy - happier
Ex: pretty - prettier
• If an adjective is more than one syllable, we add more or less before it.
Ex: interesting - more/less interesting
Ex: expensive - more/less expensive
• If one syllable adjective is ended with (e), we just add (r) to it.
Ex: brave - braver
Ex: fine - finer
• The following adjectives can take (er) or more/less.
(polite, clever, simple, gentle, narrow, pleasant, stupid etc.)
3: Superlative degree of adjective: It compares one person with a group of persons, one thing with a group
of things or one place with a group of places.

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Ex: He is the tallest student in our class.
Ex: Kabul is the most beautiful province in Afghanistan.
Ex: This is the smallest pen in my shop.
Note: We should use definite article (the) in superlative degree of adjective.
Rules:
• We add (est) at the end of one syllable adjective.
Ex: tall - tallest
Ex: small - smallest
• If one syllable adjective is ended with (c + v + c) letters, we double the last consonant and add (est) to it.
Ex: hot - hottest
Ex: fat - fattest
• If an adjective is ended with (y), we change (y) to (i) and add (est) to it.
Ex: happy - happiest
Ex: pretty - prettiest
• If an adjective is more than one syllable, we add most or least before it.
Ex: interesting - most/least interesting
Ex: expensive - most/least expensive
• If one syllable adjective is ended with (e), we just add (st) to it.
Ex: brave - bravest
Ex: fine - finest
The following adjectives take either (est) or most/least.
(polite, clever, simple, gentle, narrow, pleasant, stupid etc.)
Remember: We have some adjectives that they don't take (er or est) in comparative and superlative degrees
of adjective. These adjectives are called irregular adjectives. Irregular adjectives are those adjectives which
don't take (er/est) in comparative and superlative degrees of adjective.

The Following are Some Irregular Adjectives

Positive Degree Comparative Degree Superlative Degree
Good Better Best
Bad Worse Worst
Little Less Least
Much More Most
Far Farther/Further Farthest/Furthest

Affixes
Affixes are those letters which are added at the beginning of the words or at the end of the words to change
their meanings are called affixes or affixes are those letters which are coming at the beginning of the words or
at the end of the words to change their meanings are called affixes.
Affixes are divided into three kinds:

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1: Prefixes: Prefixes are those letters which are added at the beginning of the words to change their meanings
are called prefixes or prefixes are those letters which are coming at the beginning of the words to change their
meanings are called prefixes.
Ex: happy - unhappy
Ex: like - dislike
2: Suffixes: Suffixes are those letters which are added at the end of the words to change their meanings are
called suffixes or suffixes are those letters which are coming at the end of the words to change their meanings
are called suffixes.
Ex: teach - teacher
Ex: sad - sadness
3: Circumfix: The combination of prefix and suffix is called circumfix.
Ex: fortunate - unfortunately
Ex: break - unbreakable
Article
Article is a word which specifies noun or pronoun.
Article is divided into three kinds:
1: Definite article (the): Definite article is used before those nouns that we have information about them or it
is used before those nouns that are specific. Ex: I sat on the chair. (It refers to a specific chair, not any chair)
Ex: He gave me the orange. (It refers to a specific orange, not any orange)
Remember: We can use (the) with both singular nouns and plural nouns.
Ex: The books are on the table.
Ex: The water is fresh.
2: Indefinite articles (a, an): Indefinite articles are used before those noun that we don't have the information
about them or they are used before those nouns that are unspecific.
Ex: I saw a girl. (Any girl, not specific or definite)
Ex: He gave me an orange. (Any orange, not specific or definite) The usages of
indefinite articles:
(a): This indefinite article is used with those nouns that begin with a consonant.
Ex: a pen, a story, a cat
Note: Use (a) before (u) when it gives the sound of (you).
Ex: a union, a uniform, a unique computer, a university etc.
(an): This indefinite article is used with those nouns that begin with a vowel. Ex: an orange,
an animal, an egg, an hour, an honest person, an honor Remember: We can't use (a or an)
with plural nouns.
Ex: We have a books. (Incorrect)
Ex: I have books. (Correct)
3: Zero article: Using a noun without (a, an or the) is called zero article.
Ex: Time is gold.
Participle
The (ing/3rd)form of a verb is called participle.
Ex: swim - swimming

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Ex: work - worked, write - written Participle is divided
into two kinds:
1: Present participle: The (ing) form of a verb is called present participle or a verb which is ended with (ing)
form is called present participle.
Ex: sleep - sleeping
Ex: run - running
The usages of present participle:
• It is used as a main verb in all progressive tenses.
Ex: They are walking now.
• It is used as an adjective.
Ex: She watched a boring film.
2: Past participle: The (3rd) form of a verb is called past participle.
Ex: work - worked
Ex: write - written
The usages of past participle:
• It is used in perfect tenses.
Ex: They had worked hard yesterday. Ex: I have eaten
the food
• It is used in passive voice. Ex: A man was killed.
Ex: The meal has been eaten.
• It is use as an adjective.
Ex: He is bored with his job.
Ex: My leg is broken.

Determiners
Determiners are those words which are used before nouns to modify them.
Determiners have the following eight kinds: 1: Definite and indefinite articles: (a,
an, the) Ex: I have a car.
Ex: Close the door, please.
2: Demonstratives: (this, these, that, those) Ex: This place
is beautiful.
Ex: Those books are mine.
3: Possessives: (my, your, his, her, our, their, its) Ex: That is his
house.
Ex: This is my computer.
4: Quantifiers: (much, many, a lot of/lots of, some, any, a few, a little, more, half, enough) Ex: We have
lots of money.
Ex: I would like some water. 5: Numbers: (one,
two, and three ...) Ex: You have one wife.
Ex: They will spend two weeks in Kabul.
6: Wh questions:

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Ex: Which country do you like?
Ex: Whose book is this?
7: Distributives: (all, both, half, either, neither, each, every) Ex: Both
windows were open.
Ex: She drank half a bottle of wine. 8: Difference
words: (another, other) Ex: He will wear other shoes.
Ex: My other sister is a doctor.
Ex: I want another cup of tea.
Ex: I’ m busy right now. Could you come back another time?
Note: Another is used with singular nouns, but other is used for both singular and plural nouns.
Transitions
Transitions are those words or phrases which connect two ideas or they jump us from one idea to another idea.
The following are some transitions:
• In addition (furthermore, moreover, besides): It is used to add the information about the previous sentence
for the supporting.
Ex: Ishaq was a talented doctor. In addition, he was a good author.
• In fact (indeed, actually): It is used to give a fact about the previous sentence. Ex: He got the first position.
In fact, he had studied hard.
• However: It is used to show the contrast between two opposite ideas.
Ex: I am very poor. However, I have a happy life.
• For example (such as, for instance): It is used to add the examples about the previous sentence.
Ex: Afghanistan imports many things from other countries. For example, it imports cars, airplanes etc.
Phrase
A group of words which forms a grammatical unit is called phrase or a group of words without a finite verb
that forms a part of a sentence is called phrase or a group of words which doesn't have the subject and verb
and also doesn't give a complete meaning is called phrase.
Ex: the green car, on the road etc.
Types of Phrase
1: Prepositional phrase: A phrase which begins with a preposition is called prepositional phrase or a phrase
which is made from a preposition + noun or noun phrase is called prepositional phrase or a phrase which begins
with a preposition and ends with a noun or pronoun is called prepositional phrase.
Ex: I will call you on Tuesday.
Ex: The cat is under the table.
Ex: Come near me.
2: Noun phrase: A phrase which is made from a noun and its determiner or modifier is called noun phrase.
Ex: He drank juice.
Ex: He drank orange juice.
Ex: He drank the orange juice.
3: Verb phrase: A phrase which has a main verb and any object, adverb, or dependent clause that complete
the meaning of the verb is called verb phrase.
Ex: Who called you?

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Ex: He walked slowly.
4: Adverb phrase (Adverbial phrase): A phrase which functions as an adverb is called adverbial phrase.
Ex: She spoke very quickly.
5: Adjective phrase: An adjective phrase is a group of words that describe a noun or pronoun in a sentence.
The adjective in an adjective phrase can appear at the start, end, or in the middle of the phrase. The adjective
phrase can be placed before, or after, the noun or pronoun in the sentence.
Ex: The extremely tired kitten fell asleep by her food dish.
Ex: The movie was not too terrible.
Ex: This pie is very delicious and extremely expensive.
Ex: The very small kitten jumped at the big dog.
6: Gerund phrase: A phrase which acts like a gerund is called gerund phrase or a phrase or a phrase which is
made from gerund and modifiers or other related words linked to the gerund is called gerund phrase.
Ex: Crying of the baby disturbed me a lot.
Ex: He started writing the letter.
7: Infinitive phrase: A phrase which acts like an infinitive is called infinitive phrase or a phrase which is made
from infinitive and modifiers or other related words linked to the infinitive is called infinitive phrase.
Ex: I want to buy a car.
Ex: To get success in exam is an ambition of every student.
8: Participle phrase: A phrase which is made from the past participle of the verb (V3) or present participle of
the verb (v-ing), modifiers and other linked words. Ex: The chair, made of plastic, looks very beautiful. (Past
participle)
Ex: She got a mail, mentioning about her exam. (Present participle)
Ex: I saw the dog running towards the county fair. (Present participle)
Ex: The dog ran towards the county fair. (Past participle)
9: Appositive phrase: An appositive is a noun or a noun phrase that sits next to another noun to rename it or
to describe it in another way or
Ex: Dexter, my dog, will chew your shoes if you leave them there.
my Army
mate
Ex: Lee, , caught a whelk while fishing for bass.
the creator of the turnip brew
Ex: Dr. Pat, , sold 8 barrels on the first day.
a large lion with a mane like a bonfire
Ex: The beast, , was showing interest in our party.
10: Absolute phrase: An absolute phrase consists of a noun or a pronoun that is modified by a participle or a
participial phrase or an absolute phrase combines a noun and a participle with any accompanying modifiers
or objects.
Ex: Its leaves burned off by the fire, the dead tree fell.
Ex: Her arms folded across her chest, Professor Hill warned the class about the penalties of plagiarism. Ex:
The weather being fine, we went out for a picnic.
Infinitive

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(To + base form of the verb) is called infinitive.
Ex: to play, to go, to walk, to write etc.
The Functions of Infinitive
• It can be used as the subject in the sentence.
Ex: To respect the teachers is our duty.
Ex: To play cricket is interesting.
• It can be used as the object in the sentence.
Ex: We want to play cards.
Ex: I hope to buy a car.
• It can be used alone in the sentence.
Ex: I want to go.
Ex: He likes to run.
• It can be used as the complement of to be verbs in the sentence.
Ex: My greatest pleasure is to sing.
Ex: His habit is to ride the horse everyday.
• It can be used as the object of a preposition in the sentence.
Ex: She is outside to study Arabic.
Ex: The class is about to begin.
• It can be used after adjective in the sentence. Ex: The computer is cheap to buy.
Ex: He was happy to succeed in the exam.
• It can be used after the wh question word in the sentence.
Ex: They can't decide where to go for the honeymoon.
Ex: I don't know how to play cricket.
• It can be used after noun in the sentence. Ex: I have a book to read.
Ex: She bought a new grammar to learn.
Types of Infinitive
1: Full infinitive (Absolute infinitive): To + base form of the verb is called full infinitive.
Ex: We want to buy a new car.
Ex: She hopes to be a doctor.
2: Abridged infinitive: When the infinitive mark (to) is used after the main verb, is called abridged infinitive.
The short form of full infinitive is called abridged infinitive.
Ex: I have never seen Egypt, but I want to.
Ex: They haven't married yet, but they hope to.
3: Bare infinitive (Zero infinitive): A verb without (to) is called bare infinitive.
Ex: They will buy a car next week.
Ex: I made him wash the car.
4: Compound infinitive: When two infinitives are joined by a conjunction is called compound infinitive.
Ex: I like to learn and to teach. Or I like to learn and teach.
Ex: He wants to walk and to run. Or He wants to walk and run.
5: Split infinitive: When an adverb is used between to and verb, it is called split infinitive.

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Ex: You have to seriously work hard to succeed.
Ex: She seems to really like it.
Ex: I want to easily win the game.
Gerund
The (ing) form of a verb which functions as a noun is called gerund.
Ex: read (v) - reading (n)
Ex: walk (v) - walking (n)
The Functions of Gerund
• It can be used as the subject in the sentence.
Ex: Smoking is not allowed in the class.
Ex: Walking is a good exercise.
• It can be used as the object in the sentence. Ex: I enjoy studying English.
Ex: Children love making mud castles.
• It can be used alone in the sentence.
Ex: He likes swimming.
Ex: We love wrestling.
• It can be used as the complement of to be verbs in the sentence.
Ex: My bad habit is smoking cigarette.
Ex: My best hobby is playing football.
• It can be used as the object of a preposition in the sentence. Ex: I am tired of waiting.
Ex: We were prevented from seeing the prisoner.
Ex: Some students are afraid of speaking in front of the teachers.
• It can be used after adjectives and possessive adjectives in the sentence.
Ex: Clear speaking is my habit.
Ex: Your coming late bothers me a lot.
• It can be used after (No) for prohibition. This usage is common in public signs.
Ex: No smoking
Ex: No parking
• It can be used after (what/how about ...?) in the sentence.
Ex: What about drinking a cup of tea?
Ex: How about calling her right away?
Verbs That Can be Followed Either by Gerund or Infinitive
They are: (forget, remember, try, stop, continue, like, love, begin, start, propose, neglect, stand, hate)
Ex: I stopped watching the movie.
Ex: I stopped to watch the movie.
Ex: We forgot to ask him about his address.
Ex: She forgot calling me last night.
Mood
Mood is that form of the verb which shows how an action happens.
Types of Mood

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1: Indicative mood: Indicative mood is that form of the verb which expresses an action in positive, question
or negative forms.
Ex: I saw him twice.
Ex: Can you speak English?
Ex: We have not been to Paris yet.
2: Infinitive mood: Infinitive mood is that form of the verb which expresses an action without any subject.
Ex: To come on time is very necessary Ex: To play
football is interesting.
3: Imperative mood: Imperative mood is that form of the verb which expresses an action in command, request,
instruction, advice, prohibition or suggestion.
Ex: Open the door. (Command)
Ex: Please bring me a glass of water. (Request)
Ex: Turn right at the corner. (Instruction)
Ex: Respect your elders. (Advice)
Ex: Do not laugh in the class. (Prohibition)
Ex: Let's go to the picnic. (Suggestion)
4: Subjunctive mood: Subjunctive mood is that form of the verb which expresses condition, supposition or
ambition.
(a) Condition:
Ex: If you listen to me, I will be glad.
(b) Supposition:
Ex: Suppose you are the president of Afghanistan, what will you do?
(c) hope/ambition:
Ex: I hope you will get the first position.
5: Descriptive mood: Descriptive mood is that form of the verb which expresses an action in verbal and
attributive forms. Ex: He is speaking. (Verbal form)
Ex: I have a speaking class. (Attributive form)
Ex: He has completed the homework. (Verbal form)
Ex: It is a completed work. (Attributive form)
What is attributive form? In grammar, attributive form describes a noun which is also called attributive
adjective.
Ex: new car, fresh water, old life etc.
What is verbal form? A word that has been formed from a verb, for example gerund, participle or infinitive.
Clause
Clause is a group of words which has the subject and verb and sometimes gives the complete meaning but
sometimes doesn't.
Ex: If I get the job, (Here it doesn't give the complete meaning.)
Ex: If I get the job, I will make a party. (Here it gives a complete meaning.)
Note: When we join another independent clause with it, finally it will give a complete meaning.
Types of Clause

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1: Independent clause (Main clause): A group of words which has the subject and verb and always gives a
complete meaning is called independent clause or a group of words which has the subject and verb and can
form a sentence is called independent clause or a clause that can stand alone is called independent clause.
Ex: I have three brothers.
Ex: We live in Kandahar.
Remember: There is no any difference between independent clause and sentence.
Independent clause is divided into four kinds:
1: Declarative (assertive) clause: A clause which expresses a statement is called declarative clause.
Ex: He is my brother.
Ex: They don't like Facebook.
It is divided into two kinds:
• Positive clause (affirmative clause) Ex: We are
students.
• Negative clause:
Ex: We are not teachers.
2: Interrogative clause: A clause which asks a question is called interrogative clause. Ex: Are you a
teacher?
Ex: What is your name?
3: Imperative clause: A clause which expresses command, request, instruction, advice, prohibition, and
suggestion is called imperative clause.
Ex: Open the door. (Command)
Ex: Please bring me a glass of water. (Request)
Ex: Turn right at the corner. (Instruction)
Ex: Respect your elders. (Advice)
Ex: Do not laugh in the class. (Prohibition)
Ex: Let's go to the picnic. (Suggestion)
4: Exclamatory clause: A clause which expresses a strong or sudden feeling is called exclamatory clause.
Ex: What a nice car!
Ex: What a noisy boy he is!
How Can We Combine Two Independent Clauses?
We can combine two independent clauses by coordinating conjunctions.
Coordinating conjunctions are: (FANBOYS)
1: F (for) Ex: The children were hungry, for there was not food in the house.
Note: Here for means because.
2: A (and) Ex: I have much money, and I want to travel Egypt.
3: N (nor) Ex: I don’ t expect children to be rude, nor do I expect to be disobeyed.
4: B (but) Ex: Ice is cold, but fire is hot.
5: O (or) Ex: You want to stay at home, or you want to go outside.
6: Y (yet) Ex: I have an old car, yet it runs well.
7: S (so) Ex: He was sick, so he went to doctor.

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Note: Coordinating conjunctions always come between two independent clauses and they must be separated
by a comma.
2: Dependent clause (Subordinate clause): A group of words which has the subject and verb and doesn't
give a complete meaning is called dependent clause or a clause which can't stand alone and always attaches
with independent clause is called dependent clause.
Ex: When you come,
Ex: Before he arrives,
How Can We Join Dependent Clause with Independent Clause?
We can join the dependent clause with independent clause by subordinating conjunctions. Subordinating
conjunctions are those conjunctions which join the dependent clause (subordinate clause) with the independent
clause (main clause).
Subordinating conjunctions are: after, though, although, even though, as soon as, as long as, as, because, before,
how, if, once, since, than, that, till, until, unless, when, where, whether, while etc.
Ex: I punished him because he was naughty.
Ex: We don't know where he lives.
Dependent clause is divided into three kinds:
1: Adjective clause (Relative clause): A clause which begins with a relative pronoun and modifies noun or
pronoun or gives the extra information about noun or pronoun is called adjective clause.
Ex: Ahmad is my friend who is very smart.
Ex: Kabul, which is the capital of Afghanistan, is a beautiful province.
Adjective clause is divided into two kinds:
• Restrictive clause/Defining clause/Essential clause: This clause modifies noun or pronoun.
Ex: She bought a car which has a nice color.
Ex: He is my student who is very clever.
• Non-restrictive clause/Non-defining clause/Non-essential clause: This clause gives the extra
information about noun or pronoun.
Ex: John, who is very intelligent, got the first position in the class.
Ex: John's mother, who lives in Scotland, has six children.
Note: This clause needs two commas, and we can't use the relative pronoun (that) in this clause. 2: Adverb
clause: Adverb clause is a group of words which has the subject and verb and does the work of an adverb is
called adverb clause.
Ex: They studied hard because they had a test.
Ex: As soon as he arrives, we will have the lunch.
Adverb clause is divided into ten kinds:
1: Adverb clause of time
2: Adverb clause of place
3: Adverb clause of reasons
4: Adverb clause of condition (If clause)
5: Adverb clause of comparison
6: Adverb clause of manner
7: Adverb clause of purpose
8: Adverb clause of comment

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9: Adverb clause of opposition
10: Adverb clause of result
Adverb clause of time: This clause shows when an action happens.
Like: when, whenever, while, after, before, since, till, until, as soon as, as long as etc.
Ex: You can go when I come.
Ex: We will finish the homework before he arrives.
Ex: I have learned Pashto since I have come to Kandahar.
Ex: We can't eat the food until our father comes.
Ex: Can you wait till we get home?
Ex: I will give you my car as long as you drive it carefully.
Adverb clause of place: This clause shows where an action happens.
Like: where, wherever, somewhere etc.
Ex: This is the place where I work.
Ex: Don't forget the friendship wherever you are.
Adverb clause of reason: This clause shows the reason or cause of an action.
Like: because, therefore, for, why, due to etc.
Ex: He didn't come to class because he was sick.
Ex: The children were hungry, for there was no food in the house.
Ex: I don't know why he is so lazy.
Ex: Due to the fog, the flight was cancelled.
Adverb clause of condition/If clause/Conditional clause: This clause is often called (if clause), and it
expresses a condition.
Ex: If I earn the money, I will buy a car.
Ex: I would serve for my country if I were a doctor.
Adverb clause of comparison: This clause shows the comparison.
Like: as…as, than
Ex: He is as strong as I am.
Ex: She loves me more than you do.
Adverb clause of manner: This clause shows how an action is done.
Like: how, as
Ex: It is amazing how he ate the food so quickly.
Ex: As they graduated, they were looking for jobs.
Adverb clause of purpose: This clause shows the purpose of an action.
Like: so that, in order that
Ex: The school closes early so that the children can get home before dark.
Ex: He is working hard in order that he wants promotion.
Adverb clause of comment: By this clause a speaker expresses his own opinion or feeling by a short
expression.
Like:
Ex: You know, he is not an honest man.
Ex: I guess, you are not prepared completely.

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Ex: You see, she always fights me.
Adverb clause of opposition: This clause shows the opposition. Like: even though,
although, though, despite, in spite of, notwithstanding Ex: I bought a car even though
it was very expensive.
Ex: We cancelled the meeting in spite of all the teachers were present.
Adverb clause of result: This clause shows the result of an action.
Ex: He took my keys, so I went to home on my feet.
Ex: I had stomach ache, so I went to the doctor last night.
3: Noun clause: Noun clause is a group of words which has the subject and verb and does the work of a noun
is called noun clause. Noun clause is divided into two kinds:
1- Wh clause
2- That clause
Wh clause: This clause is introduced by (wh) interrogative words.
Ex: I don't know where he lives.
Ex: He knows well who stole his computer.
Ex: I will tell you when he comes.
That clause: This clause is introduced by the pronoun of that.
Ex: I know that he speaks English well.
Ex: They hope that I will get the first position.
Ex: We are sure that the teacher is in the class.
Conditional Clause (If Clause)
It is an adverb clause which is made from (if) and expresses a condition or a clause which expresses a condition
is called conditional clause.
Ex: If I study hard, I will succeed in the exam.
Ex: we will go to the pool if today is sunny.
Types of Conditional Clause
1- Zero conditional clause
2- First conditional clause (Type1, Real conditional clause)
3- Second conditional clause (Type2, Unreal conditional clause)
4- Third conditional clause (Type3)
5- Mixed conditional clause
Zero conditional clause: It talks about general and scientific facts.
Structure: If + simple present tense, simple present tense
Ex: If people don't drink the water, they die. (General fact)
Ex: If you heat ice, it melts. (Scientific fact)
First conditional clause (Type1, Real conditional clause): It talks about those things which have the reality
in the future or it talks about those things which might happen in the future. Structure: If + simple present
tense, simple future tense Ex: If you study hard, you will get the first position.
Ex: If he finds a job, he will make a party for us.
Second conditional clause (Type2, Unreal conditional clause): It talks about those things which don't have
the reality in the future or it talks about those things which might not happen in the future or it expresses the

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impossible or unreal situations in present or future. Structure: If + simple past tense, s +
would/could/might/should + v + c Ex: If I won the lottery, I would buy a car.
Ex: If he studied hard, he could get the first position.
Ex: If she were a doctor, she should serve for the society.
Ex: If I had a lot of money, I would travel around the world.
Third conditional clause (Type3): It talks about those things which don't have the reality in the past.
Structure: If + past perfect tense, s + would/could/might/should + have + V3 + c Ex: If I had been
the president of Afghanistan, I would have served for my country.
Ex: If I had had more time, I might have gone to the picnic with my friends.
Ex: If she had studied, she would have passed the exam.
Ex: If I hadn't eaten so much, I wouldn't have felt sick.
Ex: If we had taken a taxi, we wouldn't have missed the plane.
Mixed conditional clause: The combination of (type2 with type3) or (type3 with type2) is called mixed
conditional clause.
Ex: If you called me, I would have helped you. (Type2 + Type3)
Ex: If he had had the time, he would call me now. (Type3 + Type2) Syllable
The separation of sound in a word is called syllable.
Ex: beautiful - beau ti ful
Ex: country - coun try
How Many
This phrase is used before countable nouns to ask about the quantity of someone or something.
Ex: How many brothers do you have?
How Much
This phrase is used before uncountable nouns to ask about the quantity of something.
Ex: How much money do you want?
• We also use how much to ask about the price of something. Ex: How much is
it?
How Old
This phrase is used to ask about the age of someone or something.
Ex: How old is he? He is twenty years old.
Ex: How old is this tower? It is 400 years old.
How Often
This phrase is used to ask how many times an action happen.
Ex: How often do you eat in a day? I eat twice in a day.
How + Adjective
This structure shows the measurement.
Ex: How wide is your classroom? It is 133 feet wide.
Ex: How high is Spean Ghar? It is 2345 feet high.
Ex: How long is the Kabul River? It is 300 kilometers long.
Note: How long also shows the duration.

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Ex: How long have you been learning English? (Duration)
How far
The phrase is used to ask about the distance.
Ex: How far is your house? It is one mile far.
What Kind of...
This question phrase is used to ask for the information about a specific type in a general category.
Ex: What kind of books do you like to read?
Ex: What kind of car should I buy?
Really + Adjective
Really is an adverb and it is used before an adjective to emphasize it.
Ex: How was the party? It was really good.
Let me + Verb
This structure shows the permission.
Ex: Let me look your passport.
Be Born
This structure talks about someone's birth.
Ex: I was born in Kandahar city.
Ex: My nephew is born today.
Ex: His son will be born next month.
I Think Clause
We use this structure when we are doubtful or unsure about someone or something.
Ex: Where does Qasim live? I think he lives in Laghman. Ex: How old is
he? I think he is fifteen years old.

Pretty + Adjective/Adverb
Pretty is an adverb which is used before adjective or adverb to emphasize them. Ex: I am pretty
sure that he will come.
Ex: It is pretty hard.
Such as
Such as is used to give the examples of someone or something.
Ex: I like fruits. Such as, apple, orange, and watermelon.
Such a/an + Adjective + Noun
This structure is used to show the surprise.
Ex: It is such a beautiful place.
Ex: I bought such an expensive car.
As.... as Possible
This structure is used to talk about the highest quality or degree of someone or something. We can use an
adjective or an adverb between as....as
Ex: Be as polite as possible
Ex: You must study as hard as possible.

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 As.... as
This structure is used when we compare two persons, things or places.
Ex: Ahmad is as talented as me.
Ex: Kandahar is as beautiful as Kabul.
Know How to + Verb
This structure is used to talk about the ability or skill of a person.
Ex: I know how to cook the rice.
Ex: He knows to teach English.
Must + be
It shows probability.
Ex: Your brother is very intelligent, and you must be proud of him. Ex: Your job is
exciting, and you must be happy about it.

Wish + Past Form of the Verb (V2)

It shows an unreal present desire.
Ex: I wish I could speak English. Ex: He wishes
he were a teacher.
Note: “ Were” is used for all the subjects.
Wish + Past Perfect Tense (V3)
It shows an unreal past desire.
Ex: He wishes he had studied for the test.
Ex: Zabihullah wishes he hadn’ t left school.

Verb + er = Noun
We add “ er” at the end of a verb to change it to a noun.
Ex: teach + er = teacher
Ex: work + er = worker
Get + Noun
It means to receive or obtain.
Ex: I got a letter from Ali yesterday.
Ex: He is very sick. Please get a doctor.
Get + Adjective
It means to become.
Ex: He got crazy last year.
Ex: If I work hard, I will get bored.
Let’ s + Verb
It shows suggestion.
Ex: Let’ s go to the picnic.
One/Ones

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These pronouns are used to avoid the repetition of a noun in a sentence.
Ex: She has a black pen. She has a black one.
Ex: I like Japanese cars. I like Japanese one.
Noun + y = Adjective
The suffix (y) is added to the end of a noun to make it adjective.
Ex: wind - windy
Ex: cloud - cloudy
• If a noun is ended with (e), we omit (e) and add (y) to it.
Ex: ice - icy
• If one syllable noun is ended with c + v + c letters, we double the last consonant and add (y) to it.
Ex: sun - sunny
Ex: fun – funny
Have got/Has got
Have got and has got are verbs. Have got means have and has got means has. We use have got and has got to
show that we are the owner of something. We use have got with plural subjects like I, you, we, they. We use
has got with singular subjects like he, she, it.
Positive sentence: subject + have got/has got + noun.
Ex: We have got a bus. We have a bus.
Ex: She has got a car. She has a car.
Question sentence: Have/Has + subject + got + noun +?
Ex: Has she got a big house? Does she have a big house?
Ex: Have you got this book? Do you have this book?
Negative sentence: subject + haven’ t got/hasn’ t got + noun.
Ex: I haven’ t got a dog. I don’ t have a dog.
Ex: Waris hasn’ t got a pen. Waris doesn’ t have a pen.
Either
Either is an adverb which means (too, also, as well) and it is used to join two similar positive or negative
statements.
Ex: He got the first position. She got the first position.
He got the first position and she got either.
Ex: He can't swim. I can't swim.
He can't swim and I can't either.
Ex: They have not seen the movie. We have not seen the movie.
They have not seen the movie and we have not either.
Note: The either should be used at the end of the sentence.
Neither
Neither means not and It is used to join two similar negative statements.
Ex: We don't swim. They don't swim.
We don't swim and neither do they
Ex: I am not at school today. He is not at school today.

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I am not at school today and neither is he.
Although, Even though, Though
They are subordinating conjunctions which join two contradictory (opposite) ideas or clauses.
Ex: Although this car was expensive, I bought it.
Ex: He came to the university even though he was sick.
Too
Too is an adverb which means also or as well and it is used to joins two positive sentences.
Ex: Aziz can speak German. Abdullah can speak German.
Aziz can speak English and Abdullah can too.
Note: Too usually comes at the end of a sentence and to avoid the repetition of the words.
But
It is a coordinating conjunction which joins two opposite sentences.
Ex: Marry can speak English. Nazia can't speak English.
Marry can speak English, but Nazia can't.
Want
Want is used before noun or to + verb to show the desire.
Ex: I want to buy a computer.
Ex: He wants a car.
Need
It is used before noun or to + verb to show the necessity.
Ex: They need a car.
Ex: I need to learn English.
Like
It is used before noun or to + verb to show the preference.
Ex: I like Pashto
Ex: She likes to learn Arabic.
Would Like
It shows a polite request or offer. We can use it before a noun or to + verb.
Ex: I would like a hamburger, please. (Request)
Ex: Would you like to dance? (Offer)
Would Rather + Verb
This structure shows the choice or preference.
Ex: Would you rather go to Kabul or stay here? (Choice)
Ex: He would rather study tonight. (Preference)
Would You Mind + Verb - ing
This structure is used for making polite requests.
Ex: Reporter: Would mind answering a few questions?

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Ex: Responsible: I am sorry. (It means the responsible doesn’ t want to do the action.) Ex:
Responsible: No I wouldn’ t. (It means the responsible wants to do the action.) For positive
answers we usually say: No I wouldn’ t, Sure, I’ ll be glad to.
For negative answers we can say: I am sorry, I am too busy.
Until
The word until can be used as a preposition or as a conjunction to show how long the duration of an action or
situation is.
Ex: I waited for her until 4:00 o'clock.
Ex: We can't eat the food until our father comes.
Yet
It is an adverb which means up to now or so far and it is used in negative and question sentences.
It is used to talk about whether a situation has started to exist.
Ex: Have you met with him yet?
Ex: They haven't eaten yet.
Note: When a past event is being referred to, yet is usually used with perfect tenses, but it can be used with the
simple past tense in informal American English. Yet is usually placed at the end of a sentence.
Ex: Did Joe come back yet?
Already
Already is an adverb and it is used to say that something has been done before and does not need doing again
or it is an adverb of time which means before now.
Ex: We had already eaten the food when you arrived.
Ex: You already told me about him.
It is also used in question sentence.
Ex: Have you already written the homework?
Ex: Has she finished her homework already?
Position: Already can be place before the main verb (past participle) or at the end of a sentence.
It is often used in perfect tenses.
Still
Still is an adverb and it is used to say that something is in the present, not in the past - perhaps surprisingly not
finished. The adverb still can be used in positive, negative, and interrogative sentences.
Ex: He still lives in Kandahar.
Ex: Is it still raining?
Ex: Dawood still doesn't speak English fluently.
Position: We usually use still before verbs, but we use it after to be verbs Ex: They are
still at home.
Anymore
It is an adverb which means no longer and it is used at the end of negative statement.
Ex: He doesn't work here anymore.
Headlines
Headlines are the titles of newspapers reports, which are printed in large letters above the reports.

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• Headline are short titles in the newspaper.
• Headlines give the main idea of news report.
• Headlines are not usually complete sentences, so they are difficult to understand.
How to Understand the Meaning of Headlines?
A headline in present tense means that the action happened in the past.
Ex: Obama arrives to England. (Means Obama arrived in England).
A headline with verb + ing means that the action is happening in the present. Ex: Obama
meeting Nawaz Sherif. (Means Obama is meeting Nawaz Sherif) Headlines with to + verb
means that action will happen in future.
Ex: Karzai to visit Saudi Arabia. (Means president will visit Saudi) Ex: Oil prices to
increase. (Means oil prices will increase)
Arithmetical Calculations Common ways of
saying calculations are:
 4+3=7 Four and three is seven. (Informal)
Four plus three equals/is seven. (Formal)

 6-2=4 Two from six is four. (Informal)

Six minus two equals four. (Formal)

 2×4=8 Two four are eight. (Informal)

Two times four equals eight. (Informal)
Two multiplied by four equals eight. (Formal)

 6÷2=3 Six divided by two equals three. (Formal)

Included Questions in Questions
They are used for asking a question politely.
Remember the following points:
1. We use phrases, such as do you know, can you tell me, do you remember etc. at the beginning.
2. The word order of second clause is like a statement.
3. We use a Wh word for information questions.
4. We use if/whether for Yes/No questions.
5. We put a question mark at the end.
WH Questions:
Ex: Who is the director of the museum? Do you know who the director of the museum is?
Ex: Why don’ t you like the grammar? Can you tell me why you don’ t like the grammar? Ex: When did the
museum open? Do you remember when the museum opened?
Yes/No Questions:
Ex: Does Sam like modern art? Do you know if Sam likes modern art?
Ex: Was the exhibit in New York? Can you tell me whether the exhibit was in New York?
Ex: Was Karim an artist and a scientist? Do you remember if Karim was an artist and a scientist?

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 Included Questions in Statements
They are used for answering a question politely.
Remember the followings:
1. We use phrases, such as I don’ t know; I’ m not sure; I don’ t remember etc. at the beginning.
2. The word order of second clause is like a statement.
3. We use a Wh word for information questions.
4. We use if/whether for Yes/No questions.
5. We put a full stop at the end.
WH Questions:
Ex: Who is the director of the museum? I don’ t know who the director of the museum is.
Ex: Why doesn’ t he like the grammar? I am not sure why he doesn’ t like the grammar. Ex: When did the
museum open? I don’ t remember when the museum opened.
Yes/No Questions:
Ex: Does Sam like modern art? I don’ t know if Sam likes modern art.
Ex: Was the exhibit in New York? I am not sure whether the exhibit was in New York.
Ex: Was Karim an artist and a scientist? I don’ t remember if Karim was an artist and a scientist.
How to Apologize?
 I am sorry/Sorry:
They have the following usages:
- When we apologize for something, we use them. - When we
introduce a bad news, we use them.
- When we disagree with somebody, we use them.
 Excuse me/Pardon me:
They have the following usages:
- When we touch or push someone accidentally, we use them.
- When we interrupt in someone speech, we use them.
- When we want someone to repeat something, we use them.
- When we make a small embarrassing mistake, we use them.
Note: Excuse me and pardon me are more common in American English than in British English. When British
people accidentally touch or push someone, or make a small embarrassing mistake, they usually say sorry.
 I beg your pardon:
It has the following usages:
- When we make a small mistake, we use it.
- When we have not heard what someone said, and we want them to repeat it. So we use it.
Voice
Voice is that form of the verb that shows whether the subject of a sentence does an action or an action is done
to the subject.
Types of Voice
1: Active voice: Active voice is that form of the verb in which the subject of the sentence does an action or
active voice is that form of the verb which the subject of the sentence performs an action.
Ex: I wash the car.

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2: Passive voice: Passive voice is that form of the verb in which the subject of the sentence receives an action
or passive voice is that form of the verb in which the action is done to the subject or it is that form of the verb
in which the subject of the sentence is affected by the action of the verb.
Ex: The car is washed by me.
Changing Active Voice to Passive Voice
When we want to change active voice to passive voice, we must follow the below rules:
• The object of active voice becomes the subject of passive voice, and the subject of active voice becomes the
object of passive voice.
• We use (auxiliary verbs + past participle) in passive voice.
• In passive voice, in continuous tenses the word (being) is used after (to be) verbs, but in perfect tenses the
word (been) is used after (to have) verbs. Also the word (be) is used after modal auxiliary verbs and semi
modal auxiliary verbs.
• The preposition (by) is used with the object in passive voice.
• Four tenses can't be changed to passive voice because they are not common.
Like: past perfect continuous tense, present perfect continuous tense, future continuous tense and future perfect
continuous tense.
• Only transitive verbs can be changed to passive voice, but intransitive verbs can't be changed to passive
voice.
Ex: I go. (It can't be changed to passive voice because go is intransitive verb.) • Stative verbs
can't be changed to passive voice.
Ex: We love you. (It can't be changed to passive voice because love is a stative verb.)
Changing Tenses to Passive Voice
1: Past and its kinds:
Simple past tense:
Structure for passive voice: object + was, were + past participle + by + subject
Ex: I built a nice house. (Active voice)
Ex: A nice house was built by me. (Passive voice) Past continuous
tense:
Structure for passive voice: object + was, were + being + past participle + by + subject
Ex: He was washing the car yesterday. (Active voice)
Ex: The car was being washed by him yesterday. (Passive voice) Past perfect
tense:
Structure for passive voice: object + had + been + past participle + by + subject
Ex: Rita had written a letter. (Active voice)
Ex: A letter had been written by Rita. (Passive voice) Past perfect
continuous tense:
It can't be changed to passive voice.
2: Present and its kinds:
Simple present tense:
Structure for passive voice: object + is, am, are + past participle + by + subject
Ex: They insult him. (Active voice) Ex: He is insulted
by them. (Passive voice) Present continuous tense:

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Structure for passive voice: object + is, am, are + being + past participle + by + subject
Ex: Police are controlling the crimes. (Active voice)
Ex: The crimes are being controlled by police. (Passive voice) Present perfect
tense:
Structure for passive voice: object + have/has + been + past participle + by + subject Ex: She has
passed the exam. (Active voice)
Ex: The exam has been passed by her. (Passive voice) Present
perfect continuous tense: It can't be changed to passive voice 3:
Future and its kinds:
Simple future tense:
It has two structures for passive voice:
Structure (1): object + will/shall + be + past participle + by + subject
Ex: We will clean our house. (Active voice)
Ex: Our house will be cleaned by us. (Passive voice)
Structure (2): object + is, am, are + going to + be + past participle + by + subject
Ex: We are going to clean our house. (Active voice) Ex: Our house is
going to be cleaned by us. (Passive voice) Future continuous tense:
It can't be changed to passive voice.
Future perfect tense:
It has two structures for passive voice:
Structure (1): object + will/shall + have + been + past participle + by + subject
Ex: She will have turned on the lights. (Active voice)
Ex: The lights will have been turned on by her. (Passive voice)
Structure (2): object + is, am, are + going to + have + been + past participle + by + subject
Ex: She is going to have turned on the lights. (Active voice)
Ex: The lights are going to have been turned on by her. (Passive voice) Future perfect
continuous tense:
It can't be changed to passive voice.
Passive Voice in Modal Auxiliary Verbs
Structure: object + modal auxiliary verb + be + past participle + by + subject
Ex: I can buy a car. (Active voice)
Ex: A car can be bought by me. (Passive voice)
Ex: He may teach you. (Active voice)
Ex: You may be taught by him. (Passive voice)
Ex: He must not finish the homework. (Active voice)
Ex: The homework must not be finished by him. (Passive voice)
Ex: Children shouldn't smoke cigarette. (Active voice)
Ex: Cigarette shouldn't be smoked by children. (Passive voice)
Ex: Students ought to learn the vocabulary. (Active voice)
Ex: The vocabulary ought to be learned by students. (Passive voice)
Ex: We could beat you yesterday. (Active voice)

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Ex: You could be beaten by us yesterday. (Passive voice)
Passive Voice in Semi Modal Auxiliary Verbs
Structure: object + semi modal auxiliary verb + be + past participle + by + subject
Ex: The students had better practice English everyday. (Active voice)
Ex: English had better be practiced by students everyday. (Passive voice)
Ex: Children had better not drink whiskey. (Active voice)
Ex: Whisky had better not be drunk by children. (Passive voice)
Ex: She has to practice English every day. (Active voice)
Ex: English has to be practiced by her every day. (Passive voice)
Ex: He doesn't have to clean the room. (Active voice)
Ex: The room doesn't have to be cleaned by him. (Passive voice)
Ex: I am supposed to write the topic. (Active voice)
Ex: The topic is supposed to be written by me. (Passive voice)
Ex: John is not supposed to eat candy and gum. (Active voice)
Ex: Candy and gum are not supposed to be eaten by John. (Passive voice)
Ex: He was supposed to clean the living room. (Active voice)
Ex: The living room was supposed to be cleaned by him. (Passive voice)
Ex: We are able to drive the car. (Active voice)
Ex: The car is able to be driven by us. (Passive voice)
Ex: They are not able to paint this house. (Active voice)
Ex: This house is not able to be painted by them. (Passive voice)
Ex: She used to cook the eggs. (Active voice)
Ex: The eggs used to be cooked by her. (Passive voice)
Passive Voice in Perfect Modal Auxiliary Verbs
Structure: object + perfect modal auxiliary verb + have + been + past participle + by + subject
Ex: The students should have learned the words. (Active voice)
Ex: The words should have been learned by the students. (Passive voice)
Ex: The children shouldn't have broken the window. (Active voice)
Ex: The window shouldn't have been broken by the children. (Passive voice)
Ex: He might have called me. (Active voice)
Ex: I might have been called by him. (Passive voice)
Ex: The students might not have written the homework. (Active voice)
Ex: The homework might not have been written by the students. (Passive voice)
Ex: She would have done the homework. (Active voice)
Ex: The homework would have been done by her. (Passive voice)
Two Objects (Direct Object and Indirect Object) in Passive Voice
When there are two objects (direct object and indirect object) in active voice, only one of them can be used as
the subject in passive voice.
When an active voice has two objects, it can be changed to passive voice by two ways:
First way:

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I sent a letter to John. (Active voice)
A letter was sent to John by me. (Passive voice) Second way:
I sent John a letter. (Active voice)
John was sent a letter by me. (Passive voice) First way:
Professor Villa gave a book to Jorge. (Active voice)
A book was given to Jorge by Professor Villa. (Passive voice) Second way:
Professor Villa gave Jorge a book. (Active voice)
Jorge was given a book by Professor Villa. (Passive voice)
Note: If we want to make a passive voice interrogative, we bring the auxiliary verb to the beginning of the
sentence. If we want to make a passive voice negative, we add the word (not) after auxiliary verb. If we want
to make a passive voice negative interrogative, we bring (auxiliary + not) to the beginning of the sentence.
The car is washed by me. (Positive passive voice)
Is the car washed by me? (Interrogative passive voice)
The car is not washed by me. (Negative passive voice)
Is not the car washed by me? (Negative interrogative passive voice)
Passive Voice in Yes/No Questions
When we want to change active voice to passive voice in yes/no question, we should follow the below rules:
• If a question sentence in active voice begins with (do, does, and did) verbs, we omit them in passive voice
and use the form of to be verbs in place of them.
Do you do the homework? (Active voice)
Is the homework done by you? (Passive voice)
Does he cheat you? (Active voice)
Are you cheated by him? (Passive voice)
Did you fix the car? (Active voice)
Was the car fixed by you? (Passive voice)
Do you speak German? (Active voice)
Is German spoken by you? (Passive voice)
Does she cook the lunch? (Active voice)
Is the lunch cooked by her? (Passive voice)
Did he hang up the phone? (Active voice)
Was the phone hung up by him? (Passive voice)
• If a question sentence in active voice begins with to be verbs, we use the form of to be verbs in passive
voice too.
Are the students writing the notes? (Active voice)
Are the notes being written by the students? (Passive voice)
Is he inviting me? (Active voice)
Am I being invited by him? (Passive voice)
• If a question sentence in active voice begins with (have, has, had) verbs, we use the form of (have, has,
had) in passive voice as well.
Structure: have/has/had + object + been + past participle + by + subject +?
Had she decorated her room? (Active voice)

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Had her room been decorated by her? (Passive voice)
Have they told him about the quiz? (Active voice)
Has he been told about the quiz by them? (Passive voice)
Have you done your homework? (Active voice)
Has your homework been done by you? (Passive voice)
• If a question sentence in active voice begins with modal auxiliary verbs, we use the form of modal
auxiliary verbs in passive voice too. Will you teach him tomorrow? (Active voice)
Will he be taught by you tomorrow? (Passive voice)
Should he erase the board? (Active voice)
Should the board be erased by him? (Passive voice)
Can I sell this car? (Active voice)
Can this car be sold by me? (Passive voice)
Passive Voice in Wh Questions
Where will he submit the forms? (Active voice)
Where will the forms be submitted by him? (Passive voice)
When does someone clean this room? (Active voice)
When is this room cleaned? (Passive voice)
Who should erase the board? (Active voice)
By whom should the board be erased? (Passive voice)
Who broke down my car? (Active voice)
By whom was my car broken down? (Passive voice)
Who is teaching us? (Active voice)
By whom are we being taught? (Passive voice)
Who are we teaching? (Active voice)
Who is being taught by us? (Passive voice)
When have you beaten a person? (Active voice)
When has a person been beaten by you? (Passive voice)
When will you have finished the duty? (Active voice)
When will the duty have been finished by you? (Passive voice)
How are they playing the soccer? (Active voice)
How is the soccer being played by them? (Passive voice)
Where were they slapping you? (Active voice)
Where were you being slapped by them? (Passive voice)
Whose car did Sultan wash? (Active voice)
Whose car was washed by Sultan? (Passive voice)
How did Amir wash the car? (Active voice)
How was the car washed by Amir? (Passive voice)
Whom are we teaching? (Active voice)
Whom is being taught by us? (Passive voice)

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 Passive Voice in Imperative Sentence
Structure: Let + object + be + past participle + complement
Open the door. (Active voice)
Let the door be opened. (Passive voice)
Please perform the homework. (Active voice)
Let the homework be performed. (Passive voice)
Throw it away. (Active voice)
Let it be thrown away. (Passive voice)
Please give me your book. (Active voice)
Let your book be given to me. (Passive voice)
Passive Voice in Negative Imperative Sentence
Structure: Let + object + not + be + past participle + complement
Don't open the door. (Active voice)
Let the door not be opened. (Passive voice)
Please do not play cricket. (Active voice)
Let cricket not be played. (Passive voice)
Passive Voice in Negative Sentences
He won't help them. (Active voice)
They won't be helped by him. (Passive voice)
They can't do it? (Active voice)
It can't be done by them. (Passive voice)
Bob isn't reading his books. (Active voice)
His books aren't being read by Bob. (Passive voice)
She doesn't wash the dishes. (Active voice)
The dishes aren't washed by her. (Passive voice)
Sultan didn't invite us to his wedding party. (Active voice)
We weren't invited to his wedding party by sultan. (Passive voice)
We haven't washed the car. (Active voice)
The car hasn't been washed by us. (Passive voice)
I had not invited you. (Active voice)
You had not been invited by me. (Passive voice)
Passive Voice in Causative Verbs
Changing causative verbs to passive voice have two patterns.
Pattern 1:
I made Ahmad wash the dishes. (Active voice)
Ahmad was made to wash the dishes. (Passive voice)
(not... made wash)
My brother helped me to fix the car. (Active voice)
I was helped to fix the car. (Passive voice)
(Not... helped fix)

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The teacher let us go home early. (Active voice)
We were let go home early. (Passive voice)
(Not... let to go)
Note: Remember that we use bare infinitive after (make) in active voice, but we use (to infinitive) in passive
voice. But we always use bare infinitive after (let) whether it is passive voice or active voice.
Pattern 2:
Structure: causer + have/get + object + past participle
I had Ahmad wash the car. (Active voice)
I had the car washed. (Passive voice)
She had someone service her car. (Active voice)
She had her car serviced. (Passive voice)
Faisal got me to clean my room. (Active voice)
Faisal got my room cleaned. (Passive voice)
I will get him to paint my house. (Active voice)
I will get my house painted. (Passive voice)
Passive Voice in Reflexive Pronouns
I burned myself in the fire. (Active voice)
I was burned in the fire. (Passive voice)
He hurt himself in a crash last year. (Active voice)
He was hurt in a crash last year. (Passive voice)
Passive Voice in Negative Subjects
No one helps Afghans. (Active voice)
Afghans are not helped. (Passive voice)
Nothing can’ t hurt me. (Active voice)
I can't be hurt. (Passive voice)
Nothing will cure my disease. (Active voice)
My disease won't be cured. (Passive voice)
Passive Voice in Phrasal Verbs
John switched the light off. (Active voice)
The light was switched off by John. (Passive voice)
George took the notes down. (Active voice)
The notes were taken down by George. (Passive voice)
Passive Voice in Adverbs of Manner
He reads the book carefully. (Active voice)
The book is carefully read by him. (Passive voice)
She played the ball well. (Active voice)
The ball was well played by her. (Passive voice)
Passive Voice in Adverbs of Frequency
He usually writes a letter. (Active voice)
A letter is usually written by him. (Passive voice)

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She sometimes calls me. (Active voice)
I am sometimes called by her. (Passive voice)
Passive Voice in Adverbs of Time and Place
He called me yesterday. (Active voice)
I was called by him yesterday. (Passive voice)
We didn't see her last week. (Active voice)
She wasn't seen by us last week. (Passive voice)
You killed them in the yard. (Active voice)
They were killed by you in the yard. (Passive voice)
We are making the picnic here. (Active voice)
The picnic is being made by us here. (Passive voice)
Passive Voice in Cognate Object
He dreamed a dream. (Active voice)
A dream was dreamed by him. (Passive voice)
I fought a fight. (Active voice)
A fight was fought by me. (Passive voice)
She sings a song. (Active voice)
A song is sung by her. (Passive voice)
Using Other Prepositions Instead of (by) in Passive Voice
With: With is usually used in place of (by) when the agent (subject) is something.
Smoke filled the class. (Active voice)
The class was filled with smoke. (Passive voice)
(Not... by smoke)
Fire burned me. (Active voice)
I was burned with fire. (Passive voice)
(Not... by fire)
To: The (to) preposition is used after (known).
I know Ahmad. (Active voice)
Ahmad is known to me. (Passive voice)
Passive Voice in Infinitive
Passive voice in infinitive has the following three structures:
Structure 1: subject + infinitive verb + object + to be + past participle
I want to buy a car. (Active voice)
I want a car to be bought. (Passive voice)
He likes to study math. (Active voice)
He likes math to be studied. (Passive voice)
We want to build Afghanistan. (Active voice)
We want Afghanistan to be built. (Passive voice)
She forgot to lock the door yesterday. (Active voice)
She forgot the door to be locked yesterday. (Passive voice)

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Structure 2: subject + to be verb + adjective + to be + past participle
She is delighted to tell the truth. (Active voice)
She is delighted to be told the truth. (Passive voice)
We are nervous to punish. (Active voice)
We are nervous to be punished. (Passive voice)
Structure 3: subject + infinitive verb + to be + past participle
She hopes to pass. (Active voice)
She hopes to be passed. (Passive voice)
We wish to invite. (Active voice)
We wish to be invited. (Passive voice)
Passive Voice in Perfect Infinitive
Passive voice in perfect infinitive has the following two structures:
Structure 1: subject + infinitive verb + to have + been + past participle
She claims to have passed the exam. (Active voice)
She claims to have been passed the exam. (Passive voice)
They agreed to have punished. (Active voice)
They agreed to have been punished. (Passive voice)
Ahmad refused to have hijacked the airplane. (Active voice)
Ahmad refused to have been hijacked the airplane. (Passive voice)
Structure 2: subject + to be + adjective + to have + been + past participle
He is sad to have killed her. (Active voice)
He is sad to have been killed her. (Passive voice)
She is proud to have passed the test. (Active voice)
She is proud to have been passed the test. (Passive voice)
Passive Voice in Gerund
Passive voice in gerund has the following two structures:
Structure 1: subject + gerund verb + being + past participle of the gerund
She admitted kidnapping. (Active voice)
She admitted being kidnapped. (Passive voice)
He denied killing Ahmad. (Active voice)
He denied being killed Ahmad. (Passive voice)
I regret marrying her. (Active voice)
I regret being married her. (Passive voice)
We enjoy studying English. (Active voice)
We enjoy being studied English. (Passive voice)
Structure 2: subject + to be verb + adjective + being + past participle of gerund
She is proud of inviting. (Active voice)
She is proud of being invited. (Passive voice)
We are nervous about repatriating. (Active voice)
We are nervous about being repatriated. (Passive voice)

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I was tired of running yesterday. (Active voice)
I was tired of being run yesterday. (Passive voice)
Passive Voice in Perfect Gerund
Passive voice in perfect gerund has the following two structures:
Structure 1: subject + gerund verb + having + been + past participle of gerund
Ahmad denied having robbed the bank. (Active voice)
Ahmad denied having been robbed the bank. (Passive voice)
They should forget having fought. (Active voice)
They should forget having been fought. (Passive voice)
We don't admit having kidnapped her. (Active voice)
We don't admit having been kidnapped her. (Passive voice)
Structure 2: subject + to be verb + adjective + having + been + past participle of gerund
She is proud of having won the match. (Active voice)
She is proud of having been won the match. (Passive voice)
John is nervous about having failed. (Active voice) John is nervous
about having been failed. (Passive voice) Exceptions:
The spaghetti tastes delicious. (Active voice)
The spaghetti is delicious when it is tasted. (Passive voice)
The soup smells awful. (Active voice)
The soup is awful when it is smelled. (Passive voice)
Let's watch the TV. (Active voice)
The tv is suggested to be watched. (Passive voice)
Note: There are some transitive verbs that can't be used in passive voice.
Ex: have, has, fit, lack etc.
Why Do We Use Passive Voice?
• We use passive voice when we don't know who performed the action. Ex: The money was stolen.
• We use passive voice when we want to avoid mentioning the agent.
Ex: A criminal is sometimes regarded as a hero.
(We don't want to say who regards him as a hero.)
• We use passive voice when we want to focus on the receiver or the result of an action instead of the agent.
Ex: The thief was caught by the detective.
Speech
The word speech means “ talk" and also we can report our or someone else speech by two ways:
1- Direct speech: If the actual talk of a speaker is quoted, it is called direct speech.
The following points should be observed in direct speech:
 The comma should be used after the reporting verb.
 The actual talk of the speaker should be enclosed in quotation marks.
 The first letter of the sentence should be capital inside the quotation marks.
Ex: Musa said, “ I am a teacher."

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2- Indirect speech (Quoted speech): If the actual talk of a speaker is quoted with some changes, it is called
indirect speech.

Changing Direct Speech to Indirect Speech in Declarative Sentence

When we want to change direct speech to indirect speech in declarative (assertive) sentence, we must observe
the following rules:
 The comma and quotation marks are removed.
 The pronoun (that) is used after the reporting verb.
 The pronouns are changed according to the speaker and reporter.

Changing pronouns
Subject Pronouns
I To He , she
We To They
You To I, we
They To They
He To He
She To She
It To It
Object Pronouns
Me To Him/her
Us To Them
You To Me/us
Them To Them
Him To Him
Her To Her
It To It
Possessive Pronouns
Mine To His/hers
Ours To Theirs
Yours To Mine/our
Theirs To Their
His To His
Hers To Hers
Its To Its
Possessive Adjectives
My To His/her
Our To Their
Your To My/our

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Their To Their
His To His
Her To Her
Its To Its

 The tense is changed.

Changing the Tenses
 simple present tense ~ simple past tense
 present continuous tense ~ past continuous tense
 present perfect tense ~ past perfect tense
 present perfect continuous tense ~ past perfect continuous tense

 simple past tense ~ past perfect tense

 past continuous tense ~ past perfect continuous tense
 past perfect tense ~ past perfect tense
 past perfect continuous tense ~ past perfect continuous tense

 is, am, are + going to ~ was, were + going to

 The adverbs of time and place, possessive adjectives and other necessary words are changed. Changing
Adverbs of Time and Place and Other Necessary Words
 now ~ then
 here ~ there
 this ~ that
 these ~ those
 today ~ that day
 ago ~ before/earlier
 come ~ go
 thus ~ so
 tonight ~ that night
 tomorrow ~ the following day/the next day/the coming day
 next week ~ the following week/the coming week
 next month ~ the following month/the coming month
 next year ~ the following year/ the coming year
 yesterday ~ the previous day/the day before
 last night ~ the previous night/the night before
 last week ~ the previous week
 last year ~ the previous year Examples:
She said, “ It is cold." (Direct speech)
She said that it was cold. (Indirect speech)
Susan said, “ My parents are clever scientists." (Direct speech)

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Susan said that her parents were clever scientists. (Indirect speech)
They told me, “ She loves you." (Direct speech)
They told me that she loved me. (Indirect speech)
He told them, “ I do not believe you." (Direct speech)
He told them that he did not believe them. (Indirect speech)
James said, “ I am on the way coming to your house." (Direct speech)
James said that he was on the way going to my house. (Indirect speech)
Jerry told me, “ You are my friend." (Direct speech)
Jerry told me that I was his friend. (Indirect speech)
Ali said, “ We are watching the movie." (Direct speech)
Ali said that they were watching the movie. (Indirect speech)
Ahmad said, “ I am waiting here for my little brother." (Direct speech)
Ahmad said that he was waiting there for his little brother. (Indirect speech) He said, “ I
have been on the web since 1999." (Direct speech) He said that he had been on the web
since 1999.
He said, “ You have seen Afghanistan." (Direct speech)
He said that I had seen Afghanistan. (Indirect speech)
You said, “ I have been studying Arabic." (Direct speech)
You said that you had been studying Arabic. (Indirect speech)
Ahmad said, “ I wrote a letter." (Direct speech)
Ahmad said that he had written a letter. (Indirect speech)
She said, “ He told me the truth." (Direct speech)
She said that he had told her the truth. (Indirect speech)
They said, “ We went swimming with our friends." (Direct speech)
They said that they had gone swimming with their friends. (Indirect speech)
John said, “ I went to Kabul three days ago." (Direct speech)
John said that he had gone to Kabul three days earlier. (Indirect speech)
We said, “ We were eating the dinner yesterday." (Direct speech)
We said that we had been eating the dinner the previous day." (Indirect speech)
He said, “ You had passed in the exam." (Direct speech)
He said that I had passed in the exam. (Indirect speech)
She said, “ I had already been teaching for five minutes. (Direct speech)
She said that she had already been teaching for five minutes. (Indirect speech)
Changing Direct Speech to Indirect Speech in Modal Auxiliary Verbs
• will ~ would
• shall ~ would/should
• can ~ could
• must ~ had to
• may ~ might
• have to/has to ~ had to

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Note: The verbs (could, might, ought to, should, would, had to) are not changed in the indirect speech. Two
tenses of the past (past perfect tense and past perfect continuous tense) are not changed in the indirect form
too.
Examples:
He said, “ I will sell my car tomorrow." (Direct speech)
He said that he would sell his car the following day. (Indirect speech)
She said, “ I will teach English online tomorrow." (Direct speech)
She said that she would teach English online the following day. (Indirect speech)
Marry said, “ I shall read this book." (Direct speech)
Marry said that she would read that book. (Indirect speech)
They said, “ We shall buy a building." (Direct speech)
They said that they would buy a building. (Indirect speech)
He said, “ I can investigate about it." (Direct speech)
He said that he could investigate about it. (Indirect speech)
I said, “ I can teach Arabic." (Direct speech)
I said that I could teach Arabic. (Indirect speech)
She said, “ I must attend the meeting." (Direct speech)
She said that she had to attend the meeting. (Indirect speech)
You said, “ We must have the computer." (Direct speech)
You said that you had to have the computer. (Indirect speech)
He said, “ All the tickets must be bought in advance." (Direct speech)
He said that all tickets had to be bought in advance. (Indirect speech)
We said, “ We may come tonight." (Direct speech)
We said that we might go that night. (Indirect speech)
Bob said, “ I may ask John." (Direct speech)
Bob said that he might ask John. (Indirect speech)
He said, “ I might go to the cinema." (Direct speech)
He said that he might go to the cinema. (Indirect speech)
Jackson said, “ I have to play soccer." (Direct speech)
Jackson said that he had to play soccer. (Indirect speech)
Romaine said, “ I am going to sleep." (Direct speech)
Romaine said that he was going to sleep. (Indirect speech)
Michael told me, “ They are going to watch the TV." (Direct speech) Michael told me
that they were going to watch the TV. (Indirect speech) Note: In following cases, we
don't need to change the tense:
• When we report a general truth.
He said, “ The sun rises in the east." (Direct speech) He said that
the sun rises in the east. (Indirect speech) • If the reporting verb is
in the present or future.
He says, “ I go to school every day." (Direct speech)
He says that he goes to school every day. (Indirect speech)

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 Changing Direct Speech to Indirect Speech in Yes/No Questions
When we want to change direct speech to indirect speech in yes/no questions, we must observe the following
rules:
• The comma and quotation marks are removed.
• In place of (said or told), we use (asked, inquired, questioned, interrogated, wanted to know
etc.)
• We use (if or whether) in place of that.
• The pronouns are changed according to the speaker and reporter.
• The tense is changed.
• The adverbs of time and place, possessive adjectives and other necessary words are changed.
• The auxiliary verbs (do, does, did) are omitted when we change yes/no question to indirect speech.
• Question mark is not used and we use period (full stop) when we change yes/no question to indirect speech.
Examples:
Michael told me, “ Are you a new student?" (Direct speech)
Michael asked me if I was a new student. (Indirect speech)
He said to the teacher, “ Am I an intelligent student?" (Direct speech)
He asked the teacher whether he was an intelligent student. (Indirect speech)
John said to me, “ Are you coming to the party tonight?" (Direct speech)
John inquired me whether I was going to the party that night. (Indirect speech)
Sett said to Michael “ Do you need to borrow the money?" (Direct speech)
Sett questioned Michael if he needed to borrow the money. (Indirect speech)
He said, “ Do you know me?" (Direct speech)
He asked if I knew him. (Indirect speech)
The mayor said, “ Will the roads be built soon?" (Direct speech)
The mayor wanted to know whether the roads would be built soon. (Indirect speech)
They said, “ Can she speak English?" (Direct speech)
They questioned if she could speak English. (Indirect speech)
He said, “ Did they abduct you?" (Direct speech)
He asked if they had abducted me. (Indirect speech)
She told us, “ Have you visited Paris?" (Direct speech)
She asked us if we had visited Paris. (Indirect speech)
Changing Direct Speech to Indirect Speech in Wh Questions
When we want to change direct speech to indirect speech in wh questions, we must observe the following
rules:
• The comma and quotation marks are removed.
• In place of (said or told), we use (asked, inquired, questioned, interrogated, wanted to know
etc.)
• We use the (wh word) in place of that, but we don't use if or whether.
• The pronouns are changed according to the speaker and reporter.
• The tense is changed.
• The adverbs of time and place, possessive adjectives and other necessary words are changed.

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• The auxiliary verbs (do, does, did) are omitted when we change wh question to indirect speech.
• Question mark is not used and we use period (full stop) when we change the wh question to indirect speech.
Examples:
She told me, “ What is your name?" (Direct speech)
She asked me what my name was. (Indirect speech)
He said, “ When do you visit me?" (Direct speech)
He questioned when I visited him. (Indirect speech)
You said, “ Where were you yesterday?" (Direct speech)
You interrogated where I had been the previous day. (Indirect speech)
They said to me, “ Where is your brother?" (Direct speech)
They asked me where my brother was. (Indirect speech)
Amir said, “ When should I come back?" (Direct speech)
Amir asked when he should come back. (Indirect speech)
Ahmad told, "Why did he deny our invitation?" (Direct speech)
Ahmad wanted to know why he had denied their invitation. (Indirect speech)
Sett said, " What will he bring for tonight?" (Direct speech)
Sett asked what he would bring for that night. (Indirect speech)
They said, “ Why isn't John attending class today?" (Direct speech)
They inquired why John wasn't attending class that day. (Indirect speech)
The teacher told us, “ Why have you come late?" (Direct speech)
The teacher asked us why we had come late. (Indirect speech)
She said, “ Whose work don't you like?" (Direct speech)
She asked whose work I didn't like. (Indirect speech)
The students said, “ When is our examination" (direct speech)
The students questioned when their examination was. (Indirect speech)
Changing Direct Speech to Indirect Speech in Imperative Sentence
When we want to change direct speech to indirect speech in imperative sentence, we must observe the
following rules:
• The comma and quotation marks are removed.
• In place of (said or told), we use (ordered, commanded, requested, advised etc.)
• We don't use the words if or whether and that.
• We use (to) in positive case.
• We use (not to) in negative case.
• The adverbs of time and place, possessive adjectives and other necessary words are changed.
Examples:
I said to my brother, “ Do your homework." (Direct speech)
I ordered my brother to do his homework. (Indirect speech)
His father told him, “ Don’ t waste your money." (Direct speech)
His father commanded him not to waste his money. (Indirect speech)
Ahmad said to me, “ Please study your lessons." (Direct speech)
Ahmad requested me to study my lessons. (Indirect speech)

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He said to his servant, “ Bring me a glass of water." (Direct speech)
He commanded his servant to bring him a glass of water. (Indirect speech)
Changing Direct Speech to Indirect Speech in Exclamatory Sentence
When we want to change direct speech to indirect speech in imperative sentence, we must observe the
following rules:
• The comma and quotation marks are removed.
• In place of (said, told), we use (exclaimed with joy, exclaimed with sorrow, appreciated saying, admired
saying, applauded saying, shouted etc.) • The pronoun (that) is used after the reporting verb.
• The pronouns are changed according to the speaker and reporter.
• The tense is changed.
• The adverbs of time and place, possessive adjectives and other necessary words are changed.
• The sign of exclamation is replaced by full stop at the end of each sentence.
Examples:
Ahmad said, “ Wow! I won the game." (Direct speech)
Ahmad exclaimed with joy that he had won the game. (Indirect speech)
He said, “ Alas! My brother died." (Direct speech)
He exclaimed with sorrow that his brother had died. (Indirect speech)
They said, “ Bravo! You have done well." (Direct speech)
They appreciated me saying that I had done well. (Indirect speech)
She said, “ What a noisy man he is!" (Direct speech)
She shouted what a noisy man he was. (Indirect speech)
Different Types of Sentences in Reported Speech
• We can change good morning, good afternoon, good evening, good noon, hi, hello etc. to (greeted) in
reported speech.
He said to me, “ Good morning” (Direct speech)
He greeted me. (Indirect speech)
We told them, “ Hello” (Direct speech)
We greeted them. (Indirect speech)
• The expression which shows thanks can be reported by using the verb (thanked).
He said to him, “ Thank you” (Direct speech)
He thanked him. (Indirect speech)
• We use (bade farewell) when we report any kind of words that are used to show goodbye or farewell.
They said to me, “ Good bye” (Direct speech)
They bade me farewell. (Indirect speech)
We told them, “ Adieu” (Direct speech)
We bade them farewell. (Indirect speech)
• We change the words like ' sir, madam ' to (respectfully) in reported speech.
Zia said to the teacher, “ Sir, I want to go." (Direct speech)
Zia respectfully said to the teacher that he wanted to go. (Indirect speech)
• When let shows a proposal, the reporting verb is changed to (proposed or suggested) and we use the word
(should) in indirect speech.

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He said to us, “ Let’ s go to the park." (Direct speech)
He proposed us that we should go to the park. (Indirect speech)
• When let does not show the proposal, it should be changed to (might be allowed).
She said, “ Let me go." (Direct speech)
She said that she might be allowed to go. (Indirect speech)
He said to teacher, “ Let me participate in the contest." (Direct speech)
He said to teacher that he might be allowed to participate in the contest. (Indirect speech)

Punctuation
A set of symbols or marks which are used to clarify the meaning of a text by separating words, sentences,
clauses, and phrases or a set of symbols or marks which are used to separate words, sentences, clauses, and
phrases.
Ex: I bought a computer, mobile, and TV yesterday.
Ex: We are intelligent, but they are lazy.
Ex: If he gets the first position, he will make a party for us.
Ex: She likes walking on the road, climbing to the mountains, and swimming in the pool.
Common Punctuation Marks
1: Full stop (Period):
• It is used at the end of declarative (assertive) sentence.
Ex: Ahmad goes to the university.
Ex: Ali doesn’ t go to the university.
• It is used at the end of imperative sentence.
Ex: Please, give me your book.
• It is after the abbreviation.
Ex: Mr.
Ex: Dr.
Ex: U.S.A.
• It is used as a decimal.
Ex: He borrowed 3.4 million dollars from the bank.
2: Question mark (?): It is used at the end of interrogative sentence.
Ex: Are you a teacher?
3: Exclamation mark (!): It is used after the exclamatory sentence or interjection. Ex: What a nice
car!
Ex: Oh! Wow!
4: Comma (,):
 It is used to separate the items in a sentence Ex: I bought a computer, mobile, and TV yesterday.
Ex: The height, width, or depth
Ex: If you study hard, you will get the first position. (Clauses)

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Ex: I like swimming in the pool, walking in the mountains and studying English books. (Phrases)  It is
used after reporting verb in direct speech. Ex: He said, “ I come here every day."  It is used after (yes) and
(no).
Ex: Are you a student? Yes, I am.
Ex: Can you speak French? No, I can't.
 It is used to separate two independent clauses which joined by a conjunction.
Ex: We have lots of money, and we want to buy a new house.
 It is used to separate non-restrictive clause.
Ex: John, who is very intelligent, got the first position in the class.
 It is used in date, address, greeting and closing of the letter.
Ex: I bought a new house on March 7, 2010.
Ex: They live in Dorahi, Kandahar.
Ex: Hello,
Ex: Sincerely,
 It is used after an introductory word or phrase.
Ex: Without spoiling the surprise, we need to tell her to save the date. Ex: Ironically,
she already had plans for that day.
5: Colon (:):
• It is used to introduce a list of items.
Ex: We will travel to three provinces: Kabul, Herat, and Takhar.
• It is used to introduce a quotation.
Ex: Mohammad (peace be upon him) said: “ Never lie."
6: Semicolon (;): It is used to separate two independent clauses that are not joined by a conjunction.
Ex: He is a student; I am a teacher.
7: Apostrophe ('):
• It shows the contraction.
Ex: He has finished the work. He's finished the work.
Ex: I do not have the time. I don't have the time.
• It shows the possession or relationship.
Ex: This is Qasim's book. (Possession)
Ex: He is Samad's brother. (Relationship) Apostrophe is divided
into two kinds:
1: Apostrophe s ('s): It is used with singular nouns and irregular plural nouns.
Ex: It is the student's book.
Ex: This is the children's classroom.
2: S apostrophe (s'): It is used with plural nouns.
Ex: These are boys' sweaters.
Ex: They are students' parents.
8. Hyphen (-): It connects the two parts of a compound noun.
Ex: man-of-war Ex: father-in-
law 9. Dash (—):

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• It is used between two numbers or date to express the duration.
Ex: I studied my book from 10 — 35 pages.
Ex: We want to live here from January — March.
• It is used to show a pause in the text.
Ex: Arrive to the interview early—but not too early.
• It is used to sett of the information in a sentence to show emphasis.
Ex: Any of the suits—except for the purple one—should be fine to wear.
10: Slash (/): It shows a choice between two words.
Ex: Do you like car/motorbike?
11: Quotation Marks/inverted commas (" "): It is used in direct quotation (direct speech). Ex: Akbar
said, “ I graduated from the school last year." 12: Parentheses ( ):
• It is used to express the meaning of something.
Ex: Hashish (narcotics) is harmful for the health.
• It is used to separate the extra information from the rest of the sentence.
Ex: Mount Robson (12972 feet) is the highest mountain in Canada.
• It is used with the numbers and letters.
Ex: There are four zones in Afghanistan.
(a) West zone (b) East zone (c) South zone (d) North zone
Ex: Our objectives are: (1) To admit and facilitate refugees inside the country (2) To distribute the food and
non-food items to refugees on time. (3) To send IDP (internal displaced persons) to their places of origin 13:
Italics: They are used to:
 Show emphasis.
Ex: Please send us the hard copy of his evaluation form.
 Indicate the foreign words.
Ex: There was a faux pass in your report.
14: Dots/ellipsis (...): They are used to indicate that word(s) have been omitted.
Ex: There are many tribes in Afghanistan …
What is Paragraph?
Paragraph is a group of sentences that talks about a specific topic.
The Formation of Paragraph
When we want to form a paragraph, we must follow the below rules:
 Leave one-inch margins on the left and right side of the page.
 Indent the first sentence.
 Double-space your paragraph.
Parts of Paragraph
A paragraph has three parts:
1: Topic sentence: The first sentence of a paragraph is called the topic sentence. It introduces the topic or what
the paragraph will be about.
A good topic sentence has two elements:
 Topic: A subject that people talk or write about.

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 Controlling idea: The controlling idea limits the topic of the paragraph to one definite idea or one aspect
of the topic that represents a particular idea, feeling, or opinion. The controlling idea must not be too broad,
it must be specific enough for the subject to be discussed within one paragraph.
Ex: Certain types of insects can benefit a garden.
Ex: The television is a major source of home entertainment.
 Point of view of the writer: A good topic sentence also expresses the point of view of the writer.
Ex: Digital cameras make photography easy and fun.
Ex: Everyone can benefit from exercise.
2: Supporting sentences: Supporting sentences provide the details and support the topic.
3: Concluding sentence: The concluding sentence is the last sentence of the paragraph. The Concluding
Sentence does not introduce anything new. It summarizes what you already talked about or paraphrases the
topic Sentence and it brings the paragraph to the end.

The Coconut Tree

When I was a boy and first learning about the world, I took a big risk. I was playing in the yard outside of my
family's house with my friends. It was a hot day, and we were resting in the shady side of our house. One of
my friends dared me to climb the coconut tree in our yard. I looked at the tree. It was mature and very tall, but
a little bit curved. I had seen men climbing these trees, and it looked easy, but I had never tried before. I wanted
to show my courage, so I said I would. The tree was scratchy, but I found places for my feet and hands and
soon I was near the top. But then the tree began to move in the breeze. Suddenly I fell. There was a great pain
in my arm. My friends ran to tell my mother who took me to the hospital. I had a broken arm, and one of my
ribs was broken. I felt bad for along time after that. And the worst part was that everyday I had to walk fast the
coconut tree and remember my foolish risk.

The Stories of Nepal

My mother grew up in a creative and interesting family in Nepal. Her father was an astronomer who worked
for the king of Nepal. Very often he would take her to the work with him so she could look through a telescope
and see the planets and stars. Then she would play in the planetarium until her older brother came to pick her
up. On the walk home, her brother would tell her the stories. Sometimes he would point to someone on the
street or standing in a doorway and tell her that the stranger was a musician or a time-traveler and begin a new
story about the person. My grandmother was also interested. She liked to paint portraits of children. She painted
many beautiful portraits of my mother and her cat, Sani, although my mother said it was difficult to sit still.
After my mother left Nepal, She studied computer programming in Wisconsin. I love to remember my mother's
stories, and now I enjoy telling my own daughter about her grandmother's life in Nepal.

Types of Paragraph
• Narrative paragraph: It talks about a story.

Hawaii
My girlfriend and I went on vacation to Hawaii about a year ago. We spent a week there and had a great time.
We stayed at a very nice hotel right on the beach in Honolulu. We spent a lot of time on the beach, of course,

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swimming, wading, walking, and soaking in the sun. At night we always went out to a fine restaurant for a
romantic dinner on the beach. We even took in a show once. One day we went snorkeling. That was fantastic!
The numbers and varieties of brightly colored fish we saw were just amazing. I thought about trying my hand
at surfing and parasailing, but I chickened out. On another day, we did the typical vacationer's tour; we went
to a Marine Museum, a traditional Hawaii market, and The Arizona War Memorial. One night we went to a
luau. The food at the luau was delicious, as were the tropical drinks. The organizers of the luau taught all the
women how to do the hula; all the men sat back, watched the dancing, and drank Mai Tai's. The luau was fun,
but I thought it was over-crowed. There were a least 150 people there. In spite of the crowds, Hawaii certain
is a vacation paradise.

The Best Sandwich of My Life

When I was thirteen years old, I had a great surprise. My favorite soccer team was visiting from Mexico, so I
went to the Grand Hotel to get autographs from some of the players. When I got there, I waited outside for a
long time because I was very nervous. Finally, I told my legs to start moving. I walked in and went up to my
favorite players, Sergio Verdirame to ask for his autograph. My voice was trembling, but I controlled it. He
stopped to listen to me. Then an amazing thing happened. He invited me to the dinner with the team. I could
not believe it! Suddenly I was sitting across the table from Sergio Verdirame! I ordered a huge sandwich with
everything on it. When the food came, my hands were shaking, and I could not eat or talk. After a while, I took
a deep breath, and said to myself, hey, this happens just in your life. I fought off my nerves and started talking
with the team and enjoying my meal. They were really great guys. We had a good time laughing and joking
together. That was the most delicious sandwich I ever ate because I was eating it with my hero.

• Descriptive paragraph: It describes someone or something or it describes a person, place or thing.

The Long Life of My Grandfather's Car

I own a car that has a special meaning for me because it belonged to my grandfather. When he was a young
man, he saved money so he could buy a beautiful car to use on trips around the country. He bought a Cadillac
convertible. It was white and blue with silver trim. There were white circles on tires. The car had a powerful
horn that made people jump out of my grandfather's way. The seats were also white, but the dashboard was
black. The steering wheel had a brown leather cover. The mats were gray and always clean. My grandfather
took very good care of his car. After my grandfather died, my uncle gave the car to me. I am very happy
because the car has still the original motor, and the body is intact. If it has problems, I will fix it myself. I plan
to take very good care of my grandfather's car. Someday I will use it to travel to all the states and cities that
my grandfather visited when he was young.

Samovar Memory
Every time I have a cup of strong Russian tea, I remember my sweet grandma and her magical samovar. When
I was a little girl, my grandmother used to make tea for me in this giant, gleaming tea urn, which is called
samovar. I was fascinated by the samovar and its tasty contents. Its copper sides were decorated with beautiful
red and black swirls. Grandma told me that the intricate decoration were painted by skilled craftsmen from her
village. I can still remember the smell of the dark tea that my grandma made using the urn. Its leaves always
filled her tiny apartment with an exotic aroma, and the rich brew tasted like liquid velvet.

• Example paragraph: It gives the specific examples about someone or something.

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 A Great Man
The South African leader Nelson Mandela changed history, but he suffered a lot. Mandela was born to the son
of a chief, and he was also named after the son of a king. He was the first to attend the school. His teacher gave
him the English name Nelson, but his real name is Rolihlahla. His name means "troublemaker". In his life he
made a lot of trouble, but it was trouble for people who did not do the right thing. Mandela's father died when
Nelson was very young, but he stayed in school. He became a lawyer and started the first black law firm in
South Africa. He fought apartheid, which kept black and white people separate. He went to prison for many
years for what he believed in. Later, however, the people of South Africa elected him president, and he won a
Noble Peace Prize. He is a great and courageous man.

• Process paragraph: It talks about how to do something.

How to Fight off a Shark

Although sharks seldom attack humans, it is a good idea to be prepared when you swim in the ocean. First,
avoid sandbars because these are areas when sharks find their prey. You will not want them to think that you
are competition for food or that you are a source of food. Second, swim in groups. Sharks seldom attack group
of people. Also, avoid swimming at night. You will not see sharks as easily in the dark, and sharks often attack
at this time of the day. If you do see a shark, leave the water as quickly as possible. Do not approach the shark
or get in its way. If a shark is coming toward you, make yourself look large or menacing so that the shark will
not think that you are easy to attack. Finally, if a shark attacks you, fight back. Hit the shark eyes or gills.
These areas are most sensitive to pain. Make quick, sharp jabs to these areas. Let the shark know that you are
not defenseless. Keep up the fight as you make your way to shore. Once you are on land, bandage any injuries,
and do not go back in the water. Report the shark attack to lifeguards or the police so that other swimmers do
not get hurt.

An Easy Sandwich
An egg salad sandwich is one of the easiest and most delicious foods to make for lunch. Boil two eggs for five
minutes. Take them out the water and let them cool off. Next, peel away the shells and put the eggs into a
bowl. Use a fork to mash them up very well. After that, add three tablespoons of mayonnaise. Add salt and
pepper to taste. Mix these ingredients well. Put the egg salad in the refrigerator for at least thirty minutes. Just
before lunch, spread the egg salad on bread and enjoy your creation.

• Definition paragraph: It defines something.

Gossip
According to the American Heritage dictionary, "gossip is a trivial rumor of a personal nature" but this
definition makes gossip sound harmless when it is really not. At first, gossip might not seem so bad. One
person tells a second person something about someone, and that second person tells a third, and so on. The
information passes from person to person. However, gossip is much more than just information and rumors.
As a rumor continues, it grows and changes. People do not know all the facts. They add information. As the
gossip goes from one person to the next person, the damage continues, and the person who is the subject of the
gossip can not do anything to answer or protect himself or herself. Because the potential damage may range
from hurt feelings to a lost career, gossip is much worse than simply a trivial rumor.

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 Gumbo
The dictionary definition of gumbo does not make it sound as delicious as gumbo really is. The dictionary
defines gumbo as a thick soup made in south Louisiana. However, anyone who has tasted this delicious dish
knows that this definition is too bland to describe gumbo. It is true that gumbo is thick soup, but it is much
more than that. Gumbo, one of the most popular of all Cajun dishes, is made with different kinds of seafood
or meat mixed with vegetables, such as green peppers and onions. For example, seafood gumbo contains
shrimp and crab. Other kinds of gumbo include chicken, sausage, or turkey. Regardless of the ingredients in
gumbo, this regional delicacy is a tasty delicious.

• Opinion paragraph: It talks about the writer opinion about someone or something.

Driving and Cell phones

Because cell phones and driving are a deadly mix, I am in favor of a ban on cell phones use by drivers. The
most obvious reason for this ban is to save lives. Each year, thousands of drivers are killed because they are
talking on cell phones instead of watching the road while they are driving. The first reason should be enough
to support a ban on cell phones when driving, but I have two reasons. My second reason that these drivers
cause accidents that kill other people. Sometimes these drivers kill other drivers; sometimes they kill
passengers or even pedestrians. These drivers certainly do not have to endanger other's lives! Finally, even in
cases where there are no injuries or deaths, damage to cars from these accidents cost us millions of dollars as
well as countless hours of lost work. To me, banning cell phones while driving is common sense. In fact, a
wide range of countries have already put this ban into effect, including Australia, Brazil, Japan, Russia, and
Turkey. Driving a car is privilege, not a right. We must be all careful drivers, and talking on a cell phone when
driving is not safe.

Lotteries Should be Banned

I strongly agree that lotteries should be banned. To begging with, I strongly believe that lotteries are a waste
of money. Every time we buy the lottery we have less money to buy things we need such as medicines or food.
Another reason is that playing the lottery is addictive. When we buy a lottery ticket and we don’ t win, we may
buy more and more tickets. Finally, I consider that playing the lottery is not a really good chance to make
money because we can’ t use our abilities or skills to win the lottery. Winning the lottery depends only on luck.
To conclude, I believe that it is not a good idea to buy the lottery because it is a waste of money, it is addictive,
and it is not really a good chance to make money.

• Compare and contrast paragraph: In compare and contrast paragraph, the writer points out to the
similarities and differences between two or more people, places, things, or ideas.

Shopping
Shopping at a superstore is far more superior than shopping at a specialty shore. Shopping at a super store is
much more convenient and time saving. First, a super store provides for one stop shopping, you can get
everything you need under one roof. If shopping at specialty shops, one may have to you need under one roof.
If shopping at specialty shops, one may have to drive all over town, spending half a day doing so, to complete
all of your purchases. Prices may also be much cheaper at a superstore. Super stores are able to buy in bulk,
passing on the savings to the customer. Many specialty stores are unable to provide this benefit to their

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customers. Parking at a super store is generally fast and easy since they always have large, spacious parking
lots. Finding a parking space for a specialty shop may be difficult. A person may end up parking one or two
blocks away, and may have to pay a parking fee. A super store may also provide the customer with greater
choice. The electronics department of a super store could have 10 different brands of televisions, with several
models of each brand to choose from. A specialty store may only have two or three brands, the brands that
they carry, to choose from. All in all, why would anyone want to shop at a specialty store?

Life Now and Life Five Years Ago

My life now and my life five years ago are similar but there are also some major differences. Five years ago,
I was living in Havre and going to high school. I didn’ t have to work because my parents supported me. I
went to school everyday and spent time with my friends. I babysat my nieces everyday after school because
both of my parents were working at the time. I had the responsibility of feeding them and making sure
nothing happened to them while I was watching them. I didn’ t really have any major goals five years ago. I
wasn’ t really thinking about my future quite yet. On the other hand, now I live in Great Falls and I’ m not in
high school anymore. I have to work now in order to support myself. I only work twenty hours a week because
I’ m in school right now. I have a lot more responsibility now than I did five years ago. I have to take
responsibility for myself now and everything that I do. I have a lot of major goals now. For instance, I want to
graduate and get my two-year degree. I want to come back and get a bachelor’ s degree. I have a lot of things
that I want to accomplish now. Five years ago, I really wasn’ t going anywhere with my life, but now I’ m
starting to get my life in order and deciding what I want to do. In addition, I am still living at home with my
parents and I still go to school. I still baby sit my nieces every once in a while. I find time to spend with my
family and friends. I still have some of the same responsibilities. I help my mom take care of my oldest niece.
She has always lived with us, so I’ ve always helped take care of her ever since she was a baby. Even though
she is not a baby anymore, I still have to baby sit her when my parents are gone because she is not quite old
enough to stay by herself yet. I still have to depend on my parents for transportation because I don’ t have a
vehicle right now. My life now has changed a lot in only five years.

• Cause and effect paragraph: It talks about the cause or effect or both of an event or action.

Effects of Alcohol
Letting alcohol take control over your life has many negative effects on a person and the people around them.
One important effect is the damage you can do to your body. Drinking can lead to severe illness and even
eventual death; some health consequences to consider might be liver disease, kidney failure and, for pregnant
women, the loss of their unborn child. Another detriment is that an addiction could lead to drinking and driving;
possibly causing a fatal car accident for either yourself and/or an innocent by stander. Another concern to
consider is the relationships alcohol can destroy. Alcohol abuse can have very serious effect on a person’ s
temperament, which can lead to spousal and even child abuse. Alcohol often is the number one cause in divorce
and spending time in jail. It can also affect relationships outside of the family; many people have lost lifelong
friends whether it is due to foolish arguments and behavior or possibly death. Lastly, drinking has negative
effects on self-esteem and rational thinking. People become more self-centered, develop low self-esteem, doing
things or behaving in ways that they would not normally. They have little or no regard to the outcomes of what

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is said or done when they grow reliant on getting that alcohol high. The negative effects of alcohol abuse are
overwhelming when considering the many consequences that drinkers and the people around them have to
deal with.

The Hard Life of Farmers

The lack of rain and snow has horrible effects on farmers. With no rain their land dries up, and it is very
difficult to grow anything. When the crops fail, the farmers haven't any choice but to get a second job in order
to make the money they need. Farming is a full time job and with a second job, farmers are overworked,
stressed and even depressed. Many farmers end up selling their land. Some farmers have accepted the
government program the Conservation Reserve Program (CRP), which is the land is left idle to let the grass
grow and must be left idle a certain number of years. While the land is in the CRP program, some farmers have
taken outside jobs. That is why when it doesn't rain, you notice that most of the farmers are very crabby. As a
farmer's daughter, I have experienced some good times and some bad times. I have gained a great respect for
farmers everywhere.

• Problem solution paragraph: In a problem analysis and solution paragraph the writer identifies a problem
and offers the solutions for that problem.

Obesity
Obesity has become a major health issue for North Americans, and this problem is aggravated by the lack of
physical activity in large segments of the population. In addition to healthier eating habits, one solution would
be to make it easier for obese North Americans to exercise on a daily basis. This could be done at work, before
and after the shift, to ensure full participation in program. This program would be beneficial to obese
employees as they would be required to participate twice daily to help decrease obesity among North
Americans.

How to Relieve Exam Anxiety?

There are certain things which students can do if they suffer from exam anxiety. To begin with, they should
get a good night’ s sleep the day before the exam. If they sleep well, they will be able to concentrate and do
well in the exam. If not, this will cause more stress and anxiety. The second effective solution is to change
their poor study habits. If they start to study one day before the exam, this will cause worry and stress. However,
if they change such habits and start to study regularly, this will give them confidence before and during the
exam. The last thing they should do is to think positive. When they think positive, they will get rid of all their
fears and worries. For example, visualizing themselves as a student who has a high mark before the exam can
make them feel better. In summary, getting a good night’ s sleep, changing their poor study habits and thinking
positive are effective solutions to deal with exam anxiety.

• Persuasion/persuasive paragraph: In a persuasion paragraph the writer attempts to persuade others to his
particular point of view or tries to convince others to do something.
Turn in Poachers
Hunters, hikers, and park recreationalists should turn in poachers. Poachers are people who kill animals
illegally by hunting without a proper permit, or trespassing on someone’ s property. Not only is it cruel to leave
an animal carcass lying out to rout, but it can also spread disease among the other animals. It also brings up
the price of hunting licenses for other hunters. That is why it is important we turn poachers in. The first thing

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that can be done is calling 1-800-TIP-MONT. When a call is placed, the operator will ask some questions.
They ask where and when the event happened, a physical appearance of the person or a vehicle description,
and was there any physical evidence left behind. So when you see this happening, either write it down on
paper, or just try to remember it. The second thing a person can do is try to get on the Internet. There you can
find out more information about what you need to do. If anyone sees one of these illegal acts being done, now
you know what to do to turn them in, and make Montana a better place for everyone and everything.
Laughter is the Medicine
Laughter is one of the greatest healing devices known to man. Laughter is powerful and can help people in
many different ways. It has the power to cure something as little as a bad day or to heal the wounds of a
terminally ill person. Laughing has helped create the smile which is the universal sign of well-being. Generally,
individuals who do not laugh live miserably and have unhappy lives. Dr. Robert Holden found out that smiling
and laughing releases endorphins in the brain which gives people an overall happy well-being. Using comedy,
many doctors have stimulated the healing process in manic depressants and fatally ill patients giving them
hope and ambition. In many clinics laughter is being used in replacing anti-depressants and reduces the need
for pain killers. (Dr. Gael Crystal). Take comedians for example, they usually live long and happy lives. Putting
a smile on faces and laughs in souls is what makes life complete. Laughter helps heal people and brightens
spirits for a better and healthier life. Laughing is a sign of joy and hope and keeps people normal and the world
happy. Using the techniques of laughter and happiness is the best medicine known to man. Laughter is the
universal sign of well-being and happiness within health. Laughing brightens the spirit and heals the mind and
body of people who allow it to overcome them. So try a smile and laugh on for size and live a longer happier
life with loved ones.

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