International Journal on Infectious Disease and Epidemiology

Pharmacognosy, Phytotherapy and Modern

Review Article
Volume 4 Issue 1- 2023

Author Details
Bouopda Tamo Sylvain Parfait1* and Mundene-Timothee Junior Lawrence2
1
Department of Biochemistry, University of Yaounde I, Cameroon
2
Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Douala, Cameroon

*Corresponding author
Bouopda Tamo Sylvain Parfait, Department of Biochemistry, University of Yaounde I, Cameroon

Article History
Received: June 30, 2023 Accepted: July 13, 2023 Published: July 14, 2023

Abstract
Pharmacognosy has been developed from ancient civilization who used parts of plants and animals for healing, eliminate pain, control suffering
and to treat diseases. It is a science devoted to the study of medicines of natural origin of animal, mineral or vegetable origin. Pharmacognosy
deals, among other things, with the history, distribution, identification and methods of use of natural medicines. Nowadays, research carried out
in the field of pharmacognosy is mainly focused on the study of the therapeutic properties of plants and their derivatives. Indeed, the plant king-
dom is a huge source of natural medicines. More than 400,000 plant species have been scientifically identified. Despite the evolution of modern
medicine, herbal medicine occupies a prominent place in the management of human diseases. Scientific research carried out on medicinal plants
has enabled the isolation of more than 170,000 bioactive molecules from which almost 70% of our current pharmaceutical products originate.
The topics covered in this review have been selected to provide the reader with a general overview of pharmacognosy, herbal medicine and the
importance of plants in modern medicine.

Keywords: Pharmacognosy, Phytotherapy, Modern medicine

Introduction In fact, plants are the most widespread and accessible natural source
of medicines for humans. According to WHO, around 21,000 plant
The word “Pharmacognosy’’ was first introduced by the Austrian species have the potential for being used as medicinal plants. Medi-
physician Schmidt in 1811 and then in 1815 by Seydler in a work titled cinal plants, also called medicinal herbs, have been discovered and
Analecta Pharmacognostica. Pharmacognosy derives from the Latin used in traditional medicine practices since prehistoric times. Ancient
words Pharmakon which means «a drug» and Gignoso which means Unani manuscripts Egyptian papyrus and Chinese writings described
«to acquire knowledge of [1]. It may be defined as an important branch the use of herbs. Evidence exist that Unani Hakims, Indian Vaids and
of pharmacy which deals with the study of structural, physical, chem- European and Mediterranean cultures were using herbs for over 4000
ical, biochemical and sensory characters of crude drugs obtained from years as medicine. Indigenous cultures such as Rome, Egypt, Iran,
medicinal plants, animals, fungi, and other natural sources. It also in- Africa and America used herbs in their healing rituals, while other
cludes a study of their history, collection, identification, distribution, developed traditional medical systems such as Unani, Ayurveda and
preparation, cultivation, evaluation, preservation, use and commerce Chinese Medicine in which herbal therapies were used systematically.
[2]. Pharmacognosy has been developed from ancient civilization who Recently, WHO (World Health Organization) estimated that 80 per-
used parts of plants and animals for healing, eliminate pain, control cent of people worldwide rely on herbal medicines for some aspect of
suffering and to treat diseases. The primitive man tried to understand their primary health care needs. The global market value of medicinal
the rationale behind use of the crude drugs and transfer his knowledge plant products exceeds $100 billion per annum [4].
by mouth and later on by carving on to stones and clays and then writ-
ing on parchment or paper [3]. Nowadays, Pharmacognosy is mainly Ethnobotanical research is receiving particular attention, with
focused on phytoterapy which is the use of plants or herbs to manage growing interest in medicinal plants and their extracts as a potential
health conditions. source of medicine. Indeed, the treatment of human diseases by plants

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Pharmacognosy, Phytotherapy and Modern Medicine
2
is a common practice in traditional settings and several plant species plement in diphtheria vaccine is more than 100 years old. Horses used
are known for their therapeutic effects. Several curative potions made to be injected with small doses of bacteria that caused diphtheria so
from medicinal plants have been listed in the traditional pharmaco- that they could develop antibodies. Later, the blood of the infected ani-
poeia. An aqueous decoction of the leaves of Chromolaena odorata, mal was used to extract the antibodies and used in the vaccine. Simi-
for example, is consumed to treat diarrhea caused by Escherichia larly, the pancreas is a source of insulin, used in treatment of diabetes.
coli. The leaves of Saxifraga jacquemontiana are crushed and applied Sheep thyroid is a source of thyroxin, used in hypertension. Cod liver
on wounds. Capparis sepiaria bark is pounded and drunk with hot is used as a source of vitamin A and D. Blood of animals is used in
water to treat stomachache. Medicinal plants are vital sources of easily preparation of vaccines. Cochineal (dried full grown female insects)
accessible remedy used in the countryside healthcare system. Many consists of carminic acid used as colouring agent for foods, drugs and
sick people in the developing regions combine the conventional medi- for cosmetic products [3].
cine with traditional medicine [5]. Traditional medicines are usually
Marine Sources
cheaper than modern medicines, and probably the only natural rem-
edies available and accessible in the remote rural communities in de- Bioactive compounds from marine flora and fauna have extensive
veloping countries [6]. To date, traditional medicine and medicinal past and present use in the prevention, treatment or cure of many
plants in particular remain an important source for the discovery of diseases. Coral, sponges, fish, and marine microorganisms produce
new drugs. biologically potent chemicals with interesting anti-inflammatory,
anti-viral, and anticancer activity. For example curacin A from mar-
Drug discovery involves the identification of new chemical entities
ine cyanobacterium Lyngbya majuscule, eleutherobin from coral
of potential therapeutic value, which can be obtained through isola-
Eleutherobia sp., discodermolide from marine sponge Discodermia
tion from natural sources. In the last few decades, the Phytoterapy has
dissoluta, etc. show potent anti-tumour activity [13]. Macroalgae
become the interest of many scientists as a tool to improve the global
have been used as crude drugs in the treatment of iodine deficiency
health issues. In fact, plants produce chemical compounds as part of
states such as goiter, etc [3]. Halichondrin B is a complex polyether
their normal metabolic activities. These phytochemicals are divided
macrolide isolated from the marine sponge Halichondria okadai, with
into primary metabolites such as sugars and fats, which are found in
an extraordinarily high potency as an antitumor agent [14].
all plants; and secondary metabolites compounds which are found in
a smaller range of plants, serving more specific functions [7]. The sec- Mineral/Earth Sources
ondary metabolites produced by plants have various pharmacologic-
al properties in humans. They can act at several levels in the body, Minerals (both metallic and non-metallic minerals) have been used
which makes it possible to restore physiological balances and over- as drugs since ancient times. Our body requires trace elements of min-
come diseases [8]. Drug use from medicinal plants has advanced from erals in order to maintain homeostasis. Patients lacking an adequate
the formulation of crude drugs to the isolation, identification, and as- level of these materials may take specific mineral-based drugs to raise
sessment of bioactivity of active compounds in drug discovery. Plants the level of minerals. Some minerals can also be used in the treatment
provide an important source of drugs against various pharmacological of human diseases. As examples include ferrous sulfate in iron defi-
targets including cancer, alzheimer’s, malaria, pain, wounds, and so ciency anemia; magnesium sulfate as purgative; magnesium trisilicate,
on [1]. They are considered as rich resources of ingredients which can aluminum hydroxide and sodium bicarbonate as antacids for hyper-
be used in drug development [4]. This review first highlights the place acidity and peptic ulcer; zinc oxide ointment as skin protectant, in
of herbal medicine in pharmacognosy and then describes the import- wounds and eczema; gold salts (solganal, auranofin) as anti-inflamma-
ance of medicinal plants in modern medicine [9]. tory and in rheumatoid arthritis; selenium as anti-dandruff [13]. Iod-
ine is used for the treatment of goiter. Gold is used for the treatment
Objectives of Pharmacognosy of arthritis. Sulfur is used externally in skin diseases. Several silicates
such as Kaolin, Bentonite, Diatomite and compounds of Na, K, Al,
Pharmacognosy is a scientific discipline whose objectives are, among Ca, Mg etc. are obtained from mineral sources including Sulphur and
others, to: Iodine [11].
i. Search for new natural substances of therapeutic interest. Plant Products
ii. Make an in-depth study of the natural substances (medicinal Plants are the oldest source of drugs. Most of the drugs in ancient
plants) already introduced in therapy. times were derived from plants. Almost all parts of the plants are used
iii. Provide natural therapeutic substances in sufficient quality i.e. leaves, stem, bark, fruits and roots [3]. A number of plants have
and quantity. medicinal qualities and have been used for centuries as drugs or drug
sources. Although the earliest plant source for drugs was the leaf, other
iv. Find new ways to use natural substances. parts of plants (e.g., barks, fruits, roots, stem, wood, seeds, blossoms,
bulb etc.) were also later exploited for drug extraction. Where the
Sources of Natural Drugs product is used without further processing e.g., ground leaves or bark,
Microbial Metabolites boiled concoctions or powdered sap, the substance is called crude
drug [14]. Natural compounds isolated from medicinal plants are the
Historically, microorganisms have played an important role in pro- source of many of our pharmaceutical drugs. For example, vincristine
viding new structures, like antibiotics for drug discovery and develop- and vinblastine have been isolated from Vinca rosea flowers; anti-mal-
ment [10]. Several microbial species secreting natural antibiotics have arial compounds such as quinine and quinidine have been isolated
been identified. This is the case of Penicillium notatum which secretes from Cinchona bark [3].
penicillin, Actinobacteria which secrete Streptomycin, or even Bacil-
lus which produce polymyxin B and bacitracin. Several other mol- Phytotherapy
ecules derived from microbial metabolism are now used in pharmacy.
The best known are among others chloramphenicol, erythromycin, Indigenous use of Medicinal Plants
kanamycin, amphotericin, gentamicin, actinomycin, streptomycin Medicinal plants have been a vital source of both curative and pre-
and tetracycline [11]. ventive medical therapy preparations for human beings. Several plant
Animal Derivatives species such as Papaver somniferum and Glycyrrhiza glabra have been
mentioned on the clay tablets from Mesopotamia in 2600BC; these
Many drugs are derived from the animal’s body secretions, fluid or plants are still used either alone or as one of the ingredients of herbal
glands [12]. For example, the use of horse serum as an antibody sup- formulations for the treatment of various diseases [15]. Plant medi-

Citation: Parfait BTS, Lawrence MTJ. Pharmacognosy, Phytotherapy and Modern Medicine. Int Jr Infect Dis & Epidemlgy. 23;4(1):1‒5.
DOI: 10.51626/ijide.2023.04.00041
Pharmacognosy, Phytotherapy and Modern Medicine 3

cine has continuously been practiced for a long period, especially in masks [28]. There is no good medical evidence that aromatherapy can
some African tribes (Table 1) [16]. In traditional settings, several plant either prevents, treat or cure any disease [31]. Placebo-controlled trials
species are known for their curative effects on human diseases. These are difficult to design as the point of aromatherapy is the smell of the
medicinal plants are consumed in the form of teas, decoctions, herb- products. There is disputed evidence that it may be effective in com-
al powders and other formulations [17]. Diseases commonly treated bating postoperative nausea and vomiting [32].
can be headache, stomach disorder, ulcers, sprains, bone fractures,
Herbalism
measles, bodyache, fevers, coughs, etc. In the last decade traditional
medicine has become very popular in Africa, partly due to the long Herbalism consists of the preparation and marketing of medicinal
unsustainable economic situation in the country. However, multiple plants or derivative preparations. Common forms of treatment include
factors such as gender, age, ethnicity, education and social class are teas, tinctures, capsules containing liquids or powdered herbs, bath
shown to have association with prevalence of herbal remedies use. salts, oils, skin creams, ointments expressed juices, plant exudates, etc
The World Health Organization (WHO) defines traditional medicine [33]. These therapeutic formulations consist of extracts of one or more
as “the sum total of the knowledge, skills, and practices based on the medicinal plants [34]. All parts of the plant can be used; roots, seeds,
theories, beliefs, and experiences indigenous to different cultures, leave, etc. They are used fresh or dry. An herbalist is someone who uses
whether explicable or not, used in the maintenance of health as well plants for healing. These practitioners are not medical doctors, though
as in the prevention, diagnosis, improvement or treatment of physical some practitioners are also referred to as medical herbalists. Herbalist
and mental illness” [18]. Medicinal plants have been a vital source of generally chooses plants based on the symptoms or conditions that the
both curative and preventive medical therapy preparations for human patient describes during the consultation. They might also perform
beings since ancient times. Nowadays ethnobotanical research is of an additional clinical examination. Taking an herbal preparation may
great significance for the conservation of ancient medicinal cultures, not be suitable for people taking other medicines, including hormonal
as well as for understanding changes in history and culture. It is also contraceptives, such as the combined pill; people with serious health
important for the conservation of traditional medicinal plant resour- conditions, such as liver or kidney disease; people who are going to
ces [19]. The (Table 1) below illustrates some therapeutic preparations have surgery pregnant or breastfeeding women; the elderly; children.
used in traditional settings. It is necessary to consult a doctor or pharmacist for advice [35].

Phytotherapy in Modern Medicine Gemmotherapy

Complementary and Alternative Medicine Historically, buds first began to be used for therapeutic purposes in
the middle ages as a result of the influence of alchemical philosophy.
Complementary Medicine is used in addition to standard treat- The old pharmacopoeias mention more specifically the use of poplar
ments; Alternative Medicine is used instead of standard treatments, buds for making poplar ointment and fir buds for making herbal teas
and Integrative Medicine is an approach to medical care that combines and pectoral syrup [36]. The gemmotherapy is a field of the phyto-
conventional medicine with Complementary and Alternative Medi- therapy which uses the buds and the starts-up of trees and shrubs.
cine practices that have shown through science to be safe and effective. They are collected in spring, one key time of their natural development
Complementary and Alternative Medicine (CAM) is a group of di- cycle, and are prepared fresh in a mixture of water, alcohol and glycer-
verse medical and health care systems, practices, and products that are in. The buds and starts-up are composed of embryonic fabrics under
not generally considered to be part of conventional or orthodox medi- development full which contain all the power of the future plant; this
cine. Towards the end of last century, the practice of different forms is why they constitute true a concentrated of energy and vitality. They
of CAM gained enormous popularity. Natural medicines, including also contain active ingredients which will not be present any more in
herbs, vitamins, minerals and various other supplements, became an the adult plant. This explains the broad range of applications and the
important and widely used stream worldwide. They have three main effectiveness of the macérats-mother or macérats glycerol-coated con-
categories [27]: centrates [37].
i. Physical therapies, e.g. exercise, yoga, bright light, acupunc- Herbal Medicine in Pharmacy
ture;
Phytopharmaceutical drugs use products of plant origin obtained by
ii. Nutraceuticals (vitamins and minerals), e.g. Vitamin D, folic extraction and which are diluted in ethyl alcohol or another solvent.
acid, magnesium, omega-3 fatty acids; These extracts are dosed in sufficient quantities to have a sustained
iii. Herbal remedies, e.g. St. John’s wort, roseroot and saffron. and rapid action. They are presented like any other pharmaceutical
specialty in the form of syrup, drops, suppositories, capsules, lyoph-
Herbal medicine is also called phytomedicine or phytotherapy. De- ilisates, nebulisates, etc. The concentrations are quite high and the
spite the evolution of modern medicine, herbal products continue to non-toxicity of these drugs is sometimes relative [38].
meet therapeutic requirements in both traditional and clinical set-
tings. The types of phytotherapy observed in CAM include aromather- Chinese Herbal Medicine
apy, herbalism, gemmotherapy, herbal medicine in pharmacy, Chinese Chinese herbal medicine is the largest organized herbal system in the
herbal medicine, and so on. world. In China, it is considered to be a very powerful form of therapy
Aromatherapy that is used to treat most conditions [39]. Chinese herbal medicine
is based around the principles of Yin and Yang. This is the idea that
Aromatherapy has been used for thousands of years. Ancient cul- every living thing is balanced by two opposing forces of energy, Yin
tures in China, India, Egypt, and elsewhere incorporated aromatic and Yang, which make up Qi, or the ‘life energy’ that flows through
plant components in resins, balms, and oils [28]. Aromatherapy is the body. Chinese herbal medicines are mainly plant-based, but some
based on the usage of aromatic materials including essential oils and preparations include minerals or animal products [40]. There are
other aroma compounds [29]. Sometimes it’s called essential oil ther- over 300 herbs in common use. Herbal formulas may contain more
apy. Aromatherapy uses aromatic essential oils medicinally to improve different ingredients. Herbal formulas are taken in the form of teas,
the health of the body, mind, and spirit. It enhances both physical and powders, pills, tinctures, or syrups. Ingredients are primarily of plant
emotional health [28]. It is offered as a complementary therapy or as a origin, and may include roots, bark, seeds, flowers, and leaves. Each
form of alternative medicine [30]. It works through the sense of smell ingredient has unique characteristics, that when combined, offers a
and skin absorption using products such as diffusers, aromatic spritz- therapeutic effect. A practitioner makes a recommendation based on
ers, inhalers, bathing salts, body oils, creams, or lotions for massage their idea of the patient’s Yin and Yang, and which elements the affect-
or topical application, facial steamers, hot and cold compresses, clay

Citation: Parfait BTS, Lawrence MTJ. Pharmacognosy, Phytotherapy and Modern Medicine. Int Jr Infect Dis & Epidemlgy. 23;4(1):1‒5.
DOI: 10.51626/ijide.2023.04.00041
Pharmacognosy, Phytotherapy and Modern Medicine
4

ed body parts are made up of. Chinese herbs may help in the treatment Phytoterapy and Drug Discovery
of digestive disorders, mental-emotional state (stress, anxiety, and de-
pression), pain, autoimmune disorders, menopausal symptoms, men- By their richness in bioactive principles, plant extracts can act at sev-
strual issues, infertility (male and female), etc [40]. eral levels in the body, which makes it possible to restore physiologic-
al balances and overcome many diseases [42]. For many years, plants
Advantages, Precautions and Disadvantages have been recognized as a vital source of therapeutic agents by the
of Phytotherapy pharmaceutical and biotechnology industry. A wide range of modern
drugs are of plant origin (Table 2). Nearly 170,000 bioactive molecules
Phytotherapy nowadays occupies a place of choice in both tradition- have been isolated from medicinal plants and have led to the develop-
al and modern medicine. Its advantages can be the following: ment of around 70% of our current drugs [43]. Current research in
drug discovery from medicinal plants involves a multifaceted ap-
i. Phytotherapy is used to prevent or relieve a number of health
proach combining botanical, phytochemical, biological, and molecu-
concerns, from aging skin and acne, to diabetes, high blood pressure
lar techniques. Medicinal plant drug discovery continues to provide
and even cancer.
new and important leads against various pharmacological targets
ii. Medicines made from plant extracts are generally harmless including cancer, HIV/AIDS, Alzheimer’s, malaria, and pain. Several
and well tolerated by the body; They have a favorable benefit/risk natural product drugs of plant origin have either recently been intro-
ratio. duced to the market, including arteether, galantamine, nitisinone, and
tiotropium, or are currently involved in late-phase clinical trials [44].
iii. Phytomedicines are less expensive than pharmaceutical
drugs. Conclusion
iv. Phytotherapy is a resource for treatments. The majority of ac- The concept of pharmacognosy is primarily based on the study of
tive ingredients used in modern medicine are derived from medicinal medicinal plants as potential sources of drugs. Since antiquity, medi-
plants. Today, researchers place particular emphasis on herbal medi- cines made from plants have been used to meet health needs. Nowa-
cine as a source of new drugs. days, herbal medicine continues to occupy a place of choice both in
v. Satisfactory results are obtained in the strengthening of im- traditional settings and in modern health systems. Pending a complete
mune defenses, for diseases of the respiratory tract, rheumatic pains, transition from empirical phytotherapy to “second generation” phyto-
gastrointestinal problems, osteoarthritis, urinary tract infections, etc. therapy, phytomedicines are commonly used as alternatives to “clas-
As an accompanying therapy to stimulate the patient’s immune de- sic” treatment methods, despite the lack of well-defined legislation.
fences, herbal remedies prove to be relevant in cases of serious illness With the advance of biotechnologies, traditional medicines have been
such as cancer [41]. improved and medicinal plants are nowadays used as the main sources
for the discovery of new pharmaceutical molecules. This work aimed
vi. Phytotherapy can be used as a first aid treatment in remote to describe in a time a general view on the concept of pharmacognosy
areas. and to put a particular emphasis on phytotherapy as an effective thera-
peutic means. This work is an essential prerequisite for the extension
However, the use of phytomedicines must take into account a certain
of phytotherapy. It could be used in the training of students, research-
number of precautions. Patients should pay attention to the following
ers and health professionals.
points:
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Citation: Parfait BTS, Lawrence MTJ. Pharmacognosy, Phytotherapy and Modern Medicine. Int Jr Infect Dis & Epidemlgy. 23;4(1):1‒5.
DOI: 10.51626/ijide.2023.04.00041