CRM & Human Factors

•CREW RESOURCE MANAGEMENT (CRM):-

CRM stands for Crew Resource Management system

(also called Cockpit Resource Management) definition is

not as complicated as one might think, however. It is a

skill set utilized by crews to recognize, avoid, and
mitigate risk. The purpose of CRM is to improve aviation
and flight safety as well as cognitive and interpersonal
skills of those who are responsible for seeing the flight
through – pilots and cabin crew. Crew Resource
Management (CRM) is a systematic approach to training

that helps aviation crews use their resources effectively to

ensure safe and efficient flight operations. CRM focuses
on non-technical skills like communication, teamwork,
and situational awareness.

CRM was developed as a response to new insights into

the causes of aircraft accidents which followed from the
introduction of flight data recorders (FDRs) and cockpit
voice recorders (CVRs) into modern jet aircraft.
Information gathered from these devices has suggested
that many accidents do not result from a technical

malfunction of the aircraft or its systems, nor from a

failure of aircraft handling skills or a lack of technical
knowledge on the part of the crew; it appears instead
that they are caused by the inability of crews to respond
appropriately to the situation in which they find
themselves. For example, inadequate communications

between crew members and other parties could lead to a

loss of situational awareness, a breakdown in teamwork
in the aircraft, and, ultimately, to a wrong decision or
series of decisions which result in a serious incident or a
fatal accident.

CRM is concerned not so much with the technical

knowledge and skills required to fly and operate an

aircraft but rather with the cognitive and interpersonal

skills needed to manage the flight within an organised
aviation system. In this context, cognitive skills are
defined as the mental processes used for gaining and
maintaining situational awareness, for solving problems

and for taking decisions. Interpersonal skills are regarded

as communications and a range of behavioural activities
associated with teamwork. In aviation, as in other walks
of life, these skill areas often overlap with each other, and
they also overlap with the required technical skills.
Furthermore, they are not confined to multi-crew aircraft,

but also relate to single pilot operations, which invariably

need to interface with other aircraft and with various
ground support agencies in order to complete their
missions successfully.

Crew resource management was conceived in the

1970s after the crash of United Airlines flight 173, a DC-8
that crashed in Portland, Oregon, en route from Denver.
According to NTSB (National Transportation Safety
Board), an authoritarian dynamic on the flight deck
invalidated legitimate concerns raised by crew members
and created a catastrophic error chain that could have
been broken if all three pilots had an equal voice
regarding decision-making.

ICAO’s issued Advisory Circular for Crew Resource Management

training program details key topics that CRM training should
cover. While it acts as a strong recommendation, some of the
defined areas give a good idea of where the focus for enhancing
the soft skills come from:

•Human error and reliability, error chain, error prevention and

detection;
•Company safety culture, Standard Operating Procedures
(SOPs), organizational factors;
•Stress, stress management, fatigue and vigilance;
•Informational acquisition and processing, situational
awareness, and workload management;
•Decision making;
•Communication and coordination inside and outside the
cockpit;
•Leadership, team performance and behavior;
•Checklist and Briefing.

Six CRM skills

The CRM training is usually categorized into six core

competencies that are :-
1. Communication skills
‘Communication is key’ – a golden phrase, that, while

might be a tad bit repetitive, still rings extremely true.

The job of a pilot is a highly responsible one. To improve
communication and be clearly and effectively understood
by teams both airborne and on ground is as important in
a case of emergency as the honed technical skills. The
objective of CRM here is to enhance verbal

communication.
By equipping the team with a set of tools and techniques,
they are able to convey information more effectively to
one another. Incident and accident reports throughout
the years show that one of the leading causes in

miscommunication is the lack of callback (or

clarification), usually on the pilot’s end.

2. Decision making
Poor communication affects decision making. The
combination of incorrect information, assumptions and
time pressure mix into a truly blood-chilling concoction.
Crew Resource Management training helps to improve
this crucial skill. The main approach to this is to follow a
structured process – evaluating potential courses of

action and choosing the best one for that situation.

Additionally, briefing and debriefing procedures also play
a role here. Briefings ensure that the crew is aware of the
goals and objectives, as well as relevant information or
issues that may impact the flight. Debriefings, on the
other hand, review the flight after it has been completed.
3. Situational awareness
Situational awareness is the ability of the flight crew to

see what is going on around them, understand what it

means, and make predictions about what might happen
next – tuning in their cognitive skills. It is essential for
overall safety and successful decision-making. Flight crew
is trained to maintain constant vigilance, keeping a
watchful eye on their surroundings, monitoring crucial

instrument readings, and staying alert to any changes in

weather conditions or external factors that could
influence flight operations.

4. Teamwork
Historically, the flight crew has a very hierarchal
structure. When it comes to it, the Captain’s word is the
law. While it does makes sense, this can become an

obstacle when the team find themselves in dire straits.

Crew Resource Management focuses on breaking down
that power structure among the team.

5. Task allocation
To avoid unnecessary overloading, another skill area that

CRM covers is task management and allocation. Dividing

up responsibilities among the team members to reach
their goals effectively is key here.
6. Leadership
Despite promoting breaking down the hierarchy aboard
an aircraft, Crew Resource Management also supports

effective leadership. Among many other things, pilots

have to be good leaders. Their position here is to
effectively organize and manage the resources available
for the job to be completed. Effective leaders equal
effective crew, which as a result, ups the team
performance.
•Human Factor :-

Human factor refers to the study of how human

characteristics, limitations, and behaviors interact with
aircraft systems, procedures, and the environment,
impacting safety and performance in the aviation
industry; essentially, it examines how people interact with

the complex systems involved in flying, including the

aircraft itself, its controls, communication protocols, and
organizational structures, to identify potential areas for
error and improve safety measures.
It is important to point out that today; aviation is the
safest mode of transport. One of the key challenges
facing the aviation industry and regulatory authorities is

to improve the safety of the air transport system. The

solution to this issue is associated with some difficulties.
Considering flight operations only from the point of view
of safety, it is impossible to solve this problem, since
flights must be both safe, regular, and cost-effective. At
the same time, safety is an essential factor in flight

operations. There is no safe human activity, that is, risk-

free activity. It is impossible to completely avoid the risk
in aviation, while in this area of human activity, errors are
the most critical, as they can often lead to human losses.

For aviation, the problem of the human factor is perhaps

more acute than in most sectors hazardous to life, due to
the most stringent requirements for people. High speed
of processes taking place in the aviation transport system
and their potential danger to human life and health are
primary reasons. The share of accidents caused by direct
violations by the flight personnel of the established flight
operations rules is especially high.

A systematic approach to training in the field of the

human factor is the most effective means of knowing

oneself and increasing the level of one’s own reliability.

Currently, the theoretical and practical training of flight

crews in the field of the human factor is used. Safety
training is carried out in classrooms, and functional
training is carried out on simulators, where the pilot’s
personality is in the center of attention and acts as the
core of professional practice. In the process of training, it
can be seen that different levels of individuality in

different ways determine the characteristics of

professional activity in group work in the audience and
on the simulator. It is difficult to develop an automatic
system designed to recognize a large number of possible
types of dangerous situations. However, using the
analysis of accident statistics, among the entire

population, one can single out a set of the most common

typical circumstances characterized by certain common
signs by which they can be identified.

1. The Role of Human Factors in Aviation Safety

Human factors contribute to nearly 80% of aviation
accidents.
These errors arise from:
•Cognitive limitations (e.g., memory lapses,
misinterpretation of data)
•Physical limitations (e.g., fatigue, stress, sensory
overload)
•Psychological influences (e.g., decision-making under
pressure, teamwork, communication breakdowns)
By understanding human factors, aviation professionals
can predict, mitigate, and prevent these issues.
2. Key Components of Human Factors in
Aviation
A. Situational Awareness (SA)
•Knowing what is happening around you, understanding
its meaning, and predicting future conditions.
•Loss of SA can lead to Controlled Flight Into Terrain
(CFIT) or mid-air collisions.
Example: A pilot misjudging altitude due to distractions.

B. Decision-Making in High-Stress Situations

•Aviation requires quick, high-stakes decisions.
•The DECIDE Model (Detect, Estimate, Choose, Identify,
Do, Evaluate) helps pilots make structured decisions.
•Poor decision-making can result from stress, fatigue, or
incomplete information.
Example: A pilot choosing whether to divert to another
airport due to bad weather.
C. Communication & Teamwork
•Effective communication prevents misunderstandings
between pilots, air traffic controllers (ATC), and crew
members.
•The use of standardized phraseology reduces errors.
•Cockpit Resource Management (CRM) improves
teamwork and coordination.
Example: The 1977 Tenerife disaster occurred partly due
to miscommunication between a pilot and ATC.
D. Fatigue & Stress Management
•Fatigue impairs reaction time, judgment, and
concentration.
•Causes: long flight hours, circadian rhythm disruption,
high workload.
•Regulations limit duty hours to ensure pilots get
adequate rest.
Example: The Colgan Air Flight 3407 crash in 2009 was
linked to pilot fatigue.

E. Automation Dependency & Human Interaction

•Modern aircraft rely on automation for navigation and
flight control.
•Automation complacency occurs when pilots rely too
much on technology, reducing manual flying skills.
•Pilots must stay engaged and ready to take control when
needed.
Example: The 2013 Asiana Airlines Flight 214 crash
occurred partly due to over-reliance on automation.

F. Human Error & Error Management

•Mistakes happen, but managing them is key.
•Threat and Error Management (TEM) helps crews
recognize and mitigate risks.
•Errors can be slips (unintentional mistakes), lapses
(memory errors), or violations (breaking rules
intentionally).
Example: A pilot forgetting to extend landing gear before
touchdown.

G. Workload & Task Management

•Managing tasks effectively prevents overload and tunnel
vision.
•Prioritization is essential during emergencies.
Example: A pilot focusing on a minor cockpit warning
while missing a critical altitude call.

3. Human Factors and Training in Aviation

Crew Resource Management (CRM) Training
CRM teaches pilots, flight attendants, and ATC
personnel:

How to work as a team

How to communicate effectively

How to handle stress and fatigue

How to make better decisions

Fatigue Risk Management Systems (FRMS)
Airlines use biological data and scheduling strategies to
ensure pilots and crew get proper rest.
Limits on flight hours and mandatory rest periods reduce fatigue
risks.

Error Prevention Strategies

Checklists – Reduce memory lapses

Briefings – Ensure everyone is aligned

Automation Monitoring – Stay engaged

Stress Management – Improve performance under

pressure
4. Why Human Factors Matter
•Human errors cannot be eliminated but can be managed
and reduced.
•Training in human factors has led to safer aviation
operations worldwide.
•Airlines, regulators (FAA, EASA, ICAO), and
manufacturers continuously improve human factor
research to prevent accidents.