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The Editor
MARIA TATAR is the John L. Loeb Professor of Germanic Languages
and Literatures and Folklore and Mythology at Harvard University.
She is the author of Enchanted Hunters: The Power of Stories in
Childhood, Off with Their Heads! Fairy Tales and the Culture of
Childhood, and many other books on folklore and fairy tales. She is
also the editor and translator of The Annotated Hans Christian
Andersen, The Annotated Brothers Grimm, The Annotated Classic
Fairy Tales, The Annotated Peter Pan, and The Grimm Reader.
COVER: Maxfield Parrish, Enchanted Prince (1934, oil on board).
Art © Maxfield Parrish Family, LLC. Licensed by VAGA, New York,
NY. © Copyright 2016 National Museum of American Illustration™,
Newport, RI. Photo courtesy Archives of the American Illustrators
Gallery™, New York, NY.
 A NORTON CRITICAL EDITION

THE CLASSIC FAIRY TALES

TEXTS
CRITICISM

SECOND EDITION

Edited by
MARIA TATAR
HARVARD UNIVERSITY
For Lauren Blum and Daniel Schuker
 Contents

Cover
About the Editor
Title Page
Dedication
Introduction

The Texts of The Classic Fairy Tales

Neil Gaiman • Instructions
INTRODUCTION: Little Red Riding Hood
The Story of Grandmother
Charles Perrault • Little Red Riding Hood
Brothers Grimm • Little Red Cap
Italo Calvino • The False Grandmother
Roald Dahl • Little Red Riding Hood and the Wolf
Roald Dahl • The Three Little Pigs
The Tale of the Tiger Woman
Tsélané and the Marimo
INTRODUCTION: Beauty and the Beast
Jeanne-Marie Leprince de Beaumont • Beauty and the Beast
Giovan Francesco Straparola • The Pig King
Brothers Grimm • The Frog King, or Iron Heinrich
Angela Carter • The Tiger’s Bride
Urashima the Fisherman
The Enchanted Frog
The Swan Maiden
Chonguita
 The Dog Bride
INTRODUCTION: Snow White

Giambattista Basile • The Young Slave

Brothers Grimm • Snow White
Anne Sexton • Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs
Neil Gaiman • Snow, Glass, Apples
INTRODUCTION: Sleeping Beauty

Charles Perrault • The Sleeping Beauty in the Wood

Brothers Grimm • Briar Rose
Gabriel Garcia Márquez • Sleeping Beauty and the Airplane
Wilfred Owen • The Sleeping Beauty
INTRODUCTION: Cinderella
Rhodopis
Yeh-hsien
Cinderella
Cinderella
Charles Perrault • Donkeyskin
The Three Gowns
Joseph Jacobs • Catskin
The Story of the Black Cow
Lin Lan • [Cinderella]
The Princess in the Suit of Leather
INTRODUCTION: Bluebeard

Charles Perrault • Bluebeard

Brothers Grimm • Fitcher’s Bird
Brothers Grimm • The Robber Bridegroom
Joseph Jacobs • Mr. Fox
Mr. Bluebeard
The Forbidden Room
Mast-Truan
Margaret Atwood • Bluebeard’s Egg
Edna St. Vincent Millay • Bluebeard
INTRODUCTION: Tricksters
Brothers Grimm • Hansel and Gretel
Fulano de Tal and His Children
Brothers Grimm • The Juniper Tree
Joseph Jacobs • The Rose-Tree
 The Singing Bones
Charles Perrault • Little Thumbling
Alexander Afanasev • Vasilisa the Fair
Momotaro, or the Peach Boy
Joseph Jacobs • Jack and the Beanstalk
INTRODUCTION: Hans Christian Andersen

The Little Mermaid

The Little Match Girl
The Girl Who Trod on the Loaf
The Red Shoes
The Emperor’s New Clothes
The Nightingale
INTRODUCTION: Oscar Wilde

The Selfish Giant

The Happy Prince
The Nightingale and the Rose

Criticism
Ernst Bloch • The Fairy Tale Moves on Its Own in Time
• From Better Castles in the Sky at the Country Fair and
Circus, in Fairy Tales and Colportage
Walter Benjamin • From The Storyteller: Reflections on the Works of
Nikolai Leskov
Robert Darnton • Peasants Tell Tales: The Meaning of Mother Goose
Max Lüthi • Abstract Style
Sandra M. Gilbert and Susan Gubar • [Snow White and Her Wicked
Stepmother]
Karen E. Rowe • From To Spin a Yarn: The Female Voice in Folklore and
Fairy Tale
Marina Warner • From The Old Wives’ Tale
Jack Zipes • Breaking the Disney Spell
Donald Haase • From Yours, Mine, or Ours? Perrault, the Brothers
Grimm, and the Ownership of Fairy Tales
Maria Tatar • From Sex and Violence: The Hard Core of Fairy Tales
Lewis Hyde • From Slipping the Trap of Appetite
Maria Tatar • From Female Tricksters as Double Agents
 Cristina Bacchilega • From The Fairy-Tale Web
Jessica Tiffin • From Magical Illusion: Fairy-Tale Film
Hans-Jörg Uther • From The Types of International Folktales
Vladimir Propp • From Folklore and Literature
• From Morphology of the Folktale
Maria Tatar • Valediction

Selected Bibliography
Copyright
Norton Critical Editions: Victorian Era
 Introduction

“That’s nothing but a fairy tale.” Dismissive phrases like this one ignore just
how powerfully the world of make-believe is implicated in the making of
beliefs. Storytelling is anything but frivolous, juvenile, shallow, and
inconsequential. If fairy tales have a high quotient of weirdness, it is because
they recruit the extraordinary to help us understand the ordinary and what lies
beneath it. Riddles wrapped in mysteries inside enigmas, they challenge us to
make sense of nonsense.
Fairy tales may present us with counterfactuals—C. S. Lewis called them
“lies breathed through silver”—but they also transmit higher truths that help us
navigate reality.1 More important, they hold forth the promise of escape to a
better and more colorful Elsewhere. As Neil Gaiman puts it, what you bring
back from reading fairy tales and fantasy fiction is “knowledge about the world
and your predicament … weapons … armour: real things you can take back into
your prison. Skills and knowledge and tools you can use to escape for real.”2
The term fairy tale has not served the genre well. The sprightly supernatural
creatures featured so prominently in the name rarely make an appearance in
representative stories. There are no fairies in “Little Red Riding Hood,” “Jack
and the Beanstalk,” or “Beauty and the Beast.” And although there may be
enchantresses and fairy godmothers in “Cinderella” and in “Rapunzel,” they bear
no resemblance to the woodland creatures found frequently in British and Celtic
lore. It was the French, more specifically Mme d’Aulnoy, author of many literary
fairy tales, who gave us the term contes de fées, leading us to frame the stories as
if they turned on the lives of diminutive folk rather than ordinary people—men
and women, girls and boys, all of whom are up against monsters of one kind or
another.
There is magic in fairy tales, and the presence of enchantment is perhaps the
defining feature of the genre.3 We are not so much in the realm of fairies as in
the domain of what J. R. R. Tolkien referred to as Faërie, that “Perilous Realm”
where anything can happen. Rumpelstiltskin spins straw to gold; Hansel and
Gretel discover a woodland cottage with a roof made of bread and windows of
spun sugar; a skull lying on the forest floor begins to talk; a boy sails down the
river in a peach. Again and again we witness transformations that create a crisis,
breaking down the divide between life and death, nature and culture, animal and
human, or self and other. Magic implies metamorphosis, and presto! we can see
the clear link between these two defining features of the fairy tale.
Fairy tales take up deep cultural contradictions, creating what Claude Lévi-
Strauss called “miniature models”—stories that dispense with extraneous details
to give us primal anxieties and desires, the raw rather than the cooked, as it were.
They use magic, not to falsify or delude, but rather to move us to imagine “what
if?” or to wonder “why?” And that move, as both Plato and Aristotle assured us,
marks the beginning of philosophy. Minimalist and miniaturized, fairy tales
require us to fill in gaps, to think more and think harder about what moves the
figures in them. We rarely learn what goes on in the minds of Cinderella, Jack,
or Rumpelstiltskin—we just watch them in action. While fairy-tale heroes and
heroines wander, we track their moves and wonder, in both senses of the term, at
their adventures. It is no surprise that the term wonder tale has been proposed
and embraced as an alternative to the misleading “fairy tale,” for it captures both
the animating force of fairy tales and our sense of awe before the secondary
worlds they build.4
Fairy tales, like myths, capitalize on the kaleidoscopic with its multifaceted
meanings: sparkling beauty, austere form, and visual power. Once told around
the fireside or at the hearth, with adults and children sharing the storytelling
space, they captured the play of light and shadow in their environment, creating
special effects that yoked luminous beauty with the dark side. Imagine a time
before electronic entertainments, with long nights around campsites and other
sources of heat and light, and it is not much of a challenge to realize that human
beings, always quick to adapt, began exchanging information, trading wisdom,
and reporting gossip. “Literature,” Vladimir Nabokov tells us, “was born on the
day when a boy came crying wolf wolf, and there was no wolf behind him.”5
And that boy’s story was no doubt compact, electrifying, and vivid. Once the
conversation started about that wolf, it was easy enough, in subsequent versions,
to begin adding, embellishing, exaggerating, and doing all the things that make
for lively entertainments. Fairy tales are always more interesting when
something is added to them. Each new telling recharges the narrative, making it
crackle and hiss with cultural energy.
With the invention of printing, the rise of literacy, and the twin forces of
urbanization and industrialization, fairy tales moved gradually from oral
storytelling cultures into pamphlets, broadsheets, and books, with
improvisational energy and antic variation shut down, not for good of course but
at least slowed down. Removed from Tolkien’s Cauldron of Story (where they
had simmered away with successive generations adding new ingredients) as well
as from Salman Rushdie’s Ocean of the Streams of Story (with its swiftly
moving rainbow currents), print cultures enshrined standard tale versions that
made variants deviations from the norm rather than unique reinventions.6 Those
canonical versions of a story are nothing more than a fiction propping up our
faith in defunct archetypes.
Giovan Francesco Straparola’s The Facetious Nights (1551/1553),
Giambattista Basile’s Pentamerone (1634/1636), Charles Perrault’s Tales of
Mother Goose (1697), and Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm’s Children’s Stories and
Household Tales (1812/1815) serve as landmarks on the path from oral
storytelling traditions to print culture. These collections, like our own
postmodern retellings, remind us that there is no original when it comes to fairy
tales. To the contrary, these stories circulated in multiple versions, reconfigured
by each teller to form a uniquely new tale with distinctly different effects, hence
the advantages of referring to multiforms of a tale rather than variants. When we
say the word Cinderella, we are referring not to a single text but to an entire
array of tales with a persecuted heroine who may respond to her situation with
defiance, cunning, ingenuity, self-pity, anguish, or grief. She will be called Yeh-
Hsien in China, Cendrillon in Italy, Aschenputtel in Germany, and Catskin in
England. Her sisters may be named One-Eye and Three-Eyes, Anastasia and
Drizella, or she may have just one sister named Haloek, as is the case in an
Indonesian tale. Her tasks range from tending cows to sorting peas to fetching
embers for a fire.
Although the multiforms of a tale can now be found between the covers of
books and are often attributed to individual authors, editors, or compilers, the
tales themselves derive largely from collective efforts. Here’s how Angela Carter
reminded us that no one person can claim to be an authoritative source for a fairy
tale: “Who first invented meatballs? In what country? Is there a definite recipe
for potato soup? Think in terms of the domestic arts. ‘This is how I make potato
soup.’ ”7 The story of Little Red Riding Hood, for example, can be discovered
the world over, yet it varies radically in texture and flavor from one culture to the
next. Even in a single culture, that texture or flavor may be different enough that
a listener will impatiently interrupt the telling of a tale to insist: “That’s not how
I heard it.”
In France, Little Red Riding Hood and her grandmother are devoured by the
wolf. End of story. The German version recorded by the Brothers Grimm stages
a rescue scene in which a hunter intervenes to liberate the girl and her granny
from the belly of the wolf. A wolf in costume invites Caterinella, an Italian Red
Riding Hood, to dine on the teeth and ears of her grandmother. A Chinese girl
named Goldflower manages to slay the beast that wants to devour her by
throwing a spear into its mouth. The mother of an African girl rescues her
daughter from a predator by placing vipers and scorpions into the sack used by
the monster to stow away his victims.
Virtually every motif, trope, and image in a fairy tale, from the red riding
hood of the girl in the woods to the glass slipper of the young woman at the
royal ball, seems subject to change. In the British Isles, Cinderella goes by the
name of Catskin, Mossycoat, or Rashin-Coatie. The challenge facing one Italian
heroine is not spinning straw to gold but downing seven plates of lasagna. The
father of a Norwegian Beauty pleads with his daughter to marry a white bear,
while the mother in another tale runs interference for a snake. In Russia, the
cannibalistic witch in the forest has a hut set on chicken legs surrounded by a
fence with posts made of stacked human skulls. Rumpelstiltskin goes by many
different names, among them Titelitury, Ricdin-Ricdon, Tom Tit Tot, Batzibitzili,
Panzimanzi, and Whuppity Stoorie.
While there is no original or standard version of “Cinderella,” “Sleeping
Beauty,” or “Jack and the Beanstalk,” there is a basic plot structure (what
folklorists refer to as a “tale type”) that appears despite the rich cultural
variation. “Beauty and the Beast,” for example, according to the tale-type index
(known as the ATU) first compiled by the Finnish folklorist Antti Aarne in 1910
and revised by Stith Thompson and Hans-Jörg Uther, consists of the following
narrative moves, presented schematically as follows:
I. The monster as husband
II. Disenchantment of the monster
III. Loss of the husband
IV. Search for the husband
V. Recovery of the husband
Once we see the bones of the narrative known to folklorists as tale type 425C,
we recognize in a flash that “Beauty and the Beast” is structurally related to
“East o’ the Sun and West o’ the Moon,” along with other stories, such as “Cupid
and Psyche.” The stable core offers a useful tool for comparative analysis,
bringing together tales that exhibit spirited variation, with beasts that include
goats, mice, hedgehogs, crocodiles, and lions, along with heroines who must
cover vast tracts of land in iron shoes, sort peas from lentils in an impossibly
short time, or trick a rival into letting them spend the night in a castle.
Improvisational energy has always kept the fairy tale alive. Tellers walk down
familiar paths but can branch off into new terrain at any moment, then wander
back onto familiar territory.
Given the possibilities for creative reinvention, it seems odd that so many
writers have approached fairy tales with hushed reverence. The myth of fairy
tales as some kind of holy scripture was energetically propagated by Charles
Dickens, who brought to what he considered the literature of childhood the same
devout piety he accorded children. Like the Brothers Grimm, Dickens hailed the
“simplicity,” “purity,” and “innocent extravagance of fairy tales,” even as he
praised the stories as powerful instruments of constructive socialization: “It
would be hard to estimate the amount of gentleness and mercy that has made its
way among us through these slight channels. Forbearance, courtesy,
consideration for the poor and aged, kind treatment of animals, the love of
nature, abhorrence of tyranny and brute force—many such things have been first
nourished in the child’s heart by this powerful aid.”8 George Cruikshank, the
artist who illustrated Dickens’s novels, took issue with the views of his
contemporary. In the story “Hop-o’-my-Thumb,” a variant of “Jack and the
Beanstalk,” he finds a protagonist who is an “unfeeling, artful liar, and a thief.”
“Surely there is not much ‘purity’ in lying and thieving, and such a display of
artful falsehood and successful robbery cannot be very advantageous lessons for
the juvenile mind,” he added in outrage.9
Even in 1944, when Allied troops were locked in combat with German
soldiers, W. H. Auden decreed the Grimms’ fairy tales to be “among the few
indispensable, common-property books upon which Western culture can be
founded.” To drive home the point about fairy tales as sacred texts, he
emphasized that the tales “rank next to the Bible in importance.”10 Like the
devaluation of fairy tales, the overvaluation promotes a suspension of critical
faculties and prevents us from taking a good, hard look at stories that are so
obviously instrumental in shaping our values and aspirations. The reverence
brought by some readers to fairy tales mystifies these stories, making them
appear to be a source of transcendent spiritual truth and authority. That kind of
mystification fosters a hands-off attitude and conceals the fact that fairy tales are
constantly shape shifting, endlessly adaptable as they turn into different versions
of themselves depending on the cultural surround.
In some ways it is bracing to see the fairy tale, which belongs to popular
culture and draws on the vernacular, enshrined as a form of high art. Derided as
“simple stories” and “children’s tales,” they are rarely recognized as being the
plainspoken expression of complex thought. Although historical evidence points
to multigenerational audiences, both male and female, as the driving force for
oral storytelling cultures, inventing fairy tales has long been considered a
“domestic art,” at least since Plato in the Gorgias referred to the “old wives’
tales” told by nurses to amuse and to frighten children. Virtually all of the
national collections of fairy tales compiled in the nineteenth century were the
work of men—dignified scholars, urban and urbane. Yet the tales themselves
were ascribed to female narrators, symbolically represented as Gammer Grethel,
Mother Goose, and Mother Bunch, and embodied in real life as untutored
peasant women.
As early as the second century C.E., Apuleius, the North African author of The
Golden Ass, had designated his story of Cupid and Psyche (told by a drunken
and half-demented old woman) as belonging to the genre of “old wives’ tales.”
The Italian writer Straparola claimed to have heard the stories that constituted
his Facetious Nights “from the lips of lady storytellers,” and he embedded those
stories in a narrative frame featuring a circle of eloquent female narrators.11
Giambattista Basile’s Pentamerone also has women storytellers—quick-witted,
gossipy old crones who recount “those tales that old women tell to amuse
children.”12 The renowned Tales of Mother Goose by Charles Perrault was
designated by its author as a collection of old wives’ tales, “told by governesses
and grandmothers to little children.”13 Many of the most expansive informants
consulted by the Grimms were women—family friends, servants, and
acquaintances who had at their disposal a rich repertoire of folklore. The most
notable among them was Dorothea Viehmann, whose rough-hewn visage
became the face of the collection over the decades. Later collections too, like
George Dasent’s Popular Tales from the Norse, invoked an image of “old and
feeble women” as the “depositories of these national treasures.”
The association of fairy tales with the domestic arts and with old wives’ tales
has not done much to enhance their cultural status. “On a par with trifles,”
Marina Warner stresses, “ ‘mere old wives’ tales carry connotations of error, of
false counsel, ignorance, prejudice and fallacious nostrums—against heartbreak
as well as headache; similarly ‘fairy tale’ as a derogatory term, implies fantasy,
escapism, invention, the unreliable consolations of romance.”14 Fantasy, escape,
recovery, and consolation—these are the quartet of terms Tolkien defined as the
key positive components of fairy stories. By connecting fairy tales with the
mythical rather than maternal, Tolkien succeeded, with one magical stroke, in
restoring a level of dignity they apparently lacked when linked with gossips,
godmothers, and grannies.
Today, our portal to fairy tales is Disney Studios, and films like Sleeping
Beauty, Beauty and the Beast, and The Little Mermaid have real cultural traction
because of those feature-length animated films. Disney kept the stories alive yet
also created standard versions driven by market forces rather than communal
energies. What was once folk culture became mass culture, moving top down
rather than bottom up and mirroring values determined by a conglomerate rather
than by a storytelling collective. More important, by animating fairy tales with
cartoon technologies, Disney decisively moved fairy tales back to the nursery,
despite advertisements trumpeting their “magic” for the young and the “young at
heart.” Once again, fairy tales are dismissed as childish confections meant to
entertain and distract more than anything else. Disney’s nostalgic appropriations
form a stark contrast with many of the critically reflective adaptations in this
volume. Those rescriptings bring fairy tales back and self-reflexively critique
their terms by giving them new twists and turns. Yet Disney Studios also
continually reinvents the fairy tale, most recently with live-action versions that
mirror a growing understanding of the multigenerational appeal of the tales.
Efforts to include characters that deviate from the flat, stereotypical wonders of
Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs or Cinderella have added a form of self-
conscious narrative play and subtlety not seen in the early films. As critics of
arguments about the monolithic, numbing effects of the cultural industry in all its
corporate manifestations have also pointed out, film viewers are anything but
passive recipients. They actively engage in critique, reenactment, and recasting,
often disavowing rather than embracing the terms of what they watch.
A strong case could be made that Disney’s culturally conservative approach to
fairy tales accounts for the resurgence of adult interest in the genre. It was the
feminist critique of fairy tales (Disney versions in particular), beginning in the
1970s, which in some ways brought fairy tales back, restoring them to the canon
and making them culturally relevant by pointing to the obligation to reinvent
them. In what can be seen as a catalytic moment, Alison Lurie recruited fairy
tales to the feminist cause,15 while Marcia Lieberman denounced them for
acculturating women to “traditional social roles.” “Millions of women,” she
added, “must surely have formed their psycho-sexual self-concepts, and their
ideas of what they could or could not accomplish, what sort of behavior could be
rewarded, and the nature of reward itself, in part from their favorite fairy tales.”16
In the very same decade that Lurie and Lieberman set the terms for later
debates, Bruno Bettelheim was arguing for the revival of fairy tales and the
“uses of enchantment.” Drawing on psychoanalytic theories, he emphasized the
importance for children of stories with a dark side, tales that enacted in symbolic
form unconscious anxieties and desires. Fairy tales had the power to calm the
“cauldron of seething emotions” that is the mind of the child, with its
“narcissistic disappointments, oedipal dilemmas, sibling rivalries.”17 The
sensational content of fairy-tale plots—there is no shortage of bloodthirsty ogres,
cunning witches, flesh-eating giants, and cruel stepmothers in them—had
therapeutic benefits, according to Bettelheim.
The Uses of Enchantment put fairy tales squarely back in the canon of
children’s literature, and at the same time the volume legitimized the academic
study of fairy tales, revealing that there were multiple layers of latent meaning in
the manifest content of fairy tales. Scholars were drawn into the orbit of the
agenda Bettelheim set, studying the magic, mystery, and violence of tales in the
European canon. But given the orthodox Freudian readings of fairy tales set
forth in the volume, there was also much to contest and critique, setting the stage
for a powerful reorientation of the field toward multiple issues ranging from the
sexual politics of fairy-tale stereotypes to the cultural politics of fairy-tale
adaptations.
If Disney and Bettelheim both move in the restorative mode, seeking to bring
back “tales as old as time” for the young, feminist adaptations of fairy tales
move along a different path, producing creative adaptations that unsettle the
genre by breaking with tradition and renewing it. “Make it new” was never a
piece of advice you had to give storytellers spinning yarns at communal
gatherings. They were always making it new—shamelessly cutting and pasting
but always improvising as well—so that their stories would tick and whirr just as
smoothly as the ones told the night before. The most skillful raconteurs, then as
now, were the iconoclasts. They were able to preserve the raw energy of the tales
and keep them alive precisely because they were constantly trying to undo them.
In the 1980s Anne Sexton took up the role of iconoclast, undermining the history
and wisdom of the past encoded in fairy tales and reimagining the Grimms’ fairy
tales through parody and critique. Her Transformations takes up the excesses of
fairy tales, exaggerating and inflating them until they blow up, destroying them
and doing them one better at the same time.
The poems in Sexton’s volume stake a claim to producing fairy tales by
declaring the poet herself to be the new source of folk wisdom and of oracular
authority. She positions herself as speaker, “my face in a book” (presumably the
Grimms’ Children’s Stories and Household Tales), with “mouth wide, ready to
tell you a story or two.”18 In a self-described appropriation of the Grimms’
legacy (“I take the fairy tale and transform it into a poem of my own”), Sexton
models how to create new stories that stage “very wry and cruel and sadistic and
funny” psychic battles. As “middle-aged witch,” Sexton presents herself as a
master of the black arts, of an opaque art of illusion, and also as a disruptive
force, a figure of anarchic energy that subverts conventional cultural wisdom.
Nowhere is Sexton’s critique of romantic love, of the “happily ever after” of
fairy tales, more searingly expressed than in the final strophe of her
“Cinderella”:
Cinderella and the prince
lived, they say, happily ever after
like two dolls in a museum case,
never bothered by diapers and dust,
never arguing over the timing of an egg,
never telling the same story twice,
never getting a middle-aged spread,
their darling smiles pasted on for eternity.
Regular Bobbsey Twins.
That story.
Sexton’s transformations reveal the gap between “that story” and reality, yet at
the same time they expose the specious terms of “that story,” showing just how
intolerable it would be, even if true.
Sexton’s smart, sassy poems entered into an impassioned dialogue with the
Brothers Grimm, contesting their premises, interrogating their plots, and
reinventing their conclusions. Other writers, recognizing the social energy of
these tales, have followed her lead, rewriting and recasting stories written down
by Perrault, the Grimms, Madame de Beaumont, Hans Christian Andersen,
Alexander Afanasev, and many others. The intertextual dialogue may not always
be as pronounced as is the case with Sexton’s poetry. In some cases the fairy-tale
inspiration will not be announced in the title, and readers will have to make their
own connections, as is the case in many cinematic productions. Jane Campion’s
The Piano, for example, opens with a nod to Andersen’s “Little Mermaid,” then
alludes repeatedly to the Grimms’ “Robber Bridegroom” and Perrault’s
“Bluebeard.”
With her collection of stories The Bloody Chamber, Carter joined Sexton in
defamiliarizing and reworking the familiar scripts of fairy tales. Making it her
business to “demythify” fairy tales, Carter aimed to mount “a critique of current
relations between the sexes.” She positioned herself as a “moral pornographer,”
a writer seeking to “penetrate to the heart of the contempt for women that
distorts our culture.” “Beauty and the Beast,” “Little Red Riding Hood,”
“Bluebeard,” and “Sleeping Beauty”: all these stories have, according to Carter,
a “violently sexual” side to them, a latent content that becomes manifest in the
rescriptings of fairy tales for an adult audience.19 Carter aims above all to
demystify these sacred cultural texts, to show that we can break their magic
spells and that social change is possible once we become aware of how the tales
have guided our social, moral, and personal development, shaping our identity in
ways we fail to process at a conscious level.
In the same era as Carter and Sexton, Margaret Atwood was writing novels
and short stories that adapted and critiqued fairy tales, showing the degree to
which the stories inform our affective life, programming our responses to
romance, defining our desires, and constructing our anxieties. Like Sally, the
fictional heroine of her short story “Bluebeard’s Egg,” Atwood questions the
seemingly timeless and universal truths of our cultural stories by reflecting on
their assumptions and exploring how they can be unsettled through rewriting.
The full self-reflexive force of critical adaptations comes to bear on this story
about a woman taking a writing class in which she is given an assignment to
rewrite the Grimms’ “Fitcher’s Bird,” a variant of “Bluebeard.” As Jessica Tiffin
notes in a study of narrative and metafiction in modern fairy tales, adaptations
like Atwood’s recapture the magic of the fairy tale as a “self-aware artifact with
the power to adapt, change, and reflect the needs and concerns of its age.”20
Not all creative adaptations take the same turn as these feminist rewritings,
which set the stage for the proliferation of new fairy-tale treatments in Anglo-
American cultures and beyond. In this volume I have included two authors who
give us literary fairy tales that are neither restorative nor critical but something
of a hybrid of the two. Both Hans Christian Andersen and Oscar Wilde were
deeply familiar with oral traditions. Andersen, who grew up in impoverished
circumstances, listened to fairy tales in the spinning room at the local asylum
where his grandmother worked. “As a child, it was my greatest pleasure to listen
to fairy tales,” he wrote, “and some of those are either very little or not at all
known. I have retold one of them here, and if it wins approval, I plan to retell
several, and one day to publish a cycle of ‘Danish Folk Tales.’ ”21 Over the years,
however, it dawned on Andersen that he could “write” his own fairy tales rather
than just reproduce the ones he remembered from childhood. His excitement
about branching out into a form that would appeal to children and adults alike is
captured in a letter to a friend:
I believe that I have now found out how to write fairy tales! The first ones
I wrote were, as you know, mostly old ones I had heard as a child and that
I usually retold and recreated in my own fashion; those that were my very
own such as “The Little Mermaid,” “The Storks,” and “The Daisy,”
received, however, the greatest approval and that has given me inspiration.
Now I tell stories of my own accord, seize an idea for adults—and then tell
it for the children while still keeping in mind the fact that mother and
father are listening too, and they must have a little something for
thought!22
Like Andersen, Oscar Wilde, whose father had published a book on Irish
superstitions in 1852 and whose mother produced a book called Ancient
Legends, Mystic Charms, and Superstitions of Ireland, was steeped in folkloric
traditions as a child as well as in his adult life. The fairy tales he wrote share
much with stories from oral storytelling traditions, but, again like Andersen, he
added his own creative twists, strengthened the cult of beautiful objects in the
tales, and encoded them with messages about human suffering and social justice.
These literary re-creations replaced what the critic André Jolles referred to as the
naive morality of fairy tales (“our absolute instinctual judgment of what is good
and just”) with a belief in redemption through suffering as well as a heightened
sense of social justice.23 Both Andersen and Wilde inflected the tales in ways
that returned them to multigenerational audiences, revealing how the compact
form of the fairy tale lends itself to stories that are both intellectually engaging
and consonant with cultural values of their time.
Today, “Cinderella,” “Sleeping Beauty,” and “Jack and the Beanstalk” keep
coming back, always inflected in new ways. On screen, they trumpet their
genealogy in titles like Tommy Wirkola’s Hansel & Gretel: Witch Hunters or
Tex Avery’s Red Hot Riding Hood. But even more often they conceal their
affiliations, as in Steven Spielberg’s Jurassic Park (remember those female
raptors in the kitchen, eager to make a meal of Lex and Tim?) and David Slade’s
Hard Candy (with Ellen Page sporting a red hoodie and, for a change, stalking
the wolf).
Fairy tales seem to have a built-in refresh button, inviting us to adapt and
repurpose them as they migrate into new scenes of storytelling and make
themselves at home in new media. In the 1940s, the Bluebeard story set up shop
in Hollywood, and screenwriters dropped subtle hints about their folkloric point
of reference with oversize house keys, forbidden chambers, and marriages
haunted by the threat of murder. The vogue was brief but intense, with George
Cukor’s Gaslight (1944), Alfred Hitchcock’s Notorious (1946), and Fritz Lang’s
Secret beyond the Door (1947) among the most prominent examples.24 Ever
since Georges Méliès made the short film Barbe-bleue in 1902, we keep
encountering the fairy-tale figure on screen, in works ranging from Charlie
Chaplin’s Monsieur Verdoux (1947) to Catherine Breillat’s Barbe Bleue (2009)
and Alex Garland’s Ex Machina (2015), with its reclusive CEO of a tech
company known as Blue Book.
The question of adaptation has been taken up productively by Cristina
Bacchilega, who writes about a fairy-tale web (using a metaphor drawn from
discourses about the connectedness and interdependence of fairy tales in general)
and the “multimedial or transmedial proliferation of fairy-tale transformations in
recent years.”25 She is concerned with how stories “mingle with, influence,
anticipate, interrupt, take over, or support one another,” engaging in reciprocal
intertextual exchanges that cannot always be neatly identified and mapped.
This volume explores the process of adaptation—restorative, critical, and
creative—and those categories that, of course, have considerable overlap with
each other. The marvelous messiness of fairy-tale networks defies the systematic
classification systems developed by folklorists in the past century. As such, this
work can refer only in passing to the many fairy-tale motifs, tropes, and
characters that fuel the imaginations of writers, poets, filmmakers, dramatists,
and others. Little Red Riding Hood lurks in the shadows of many cultural
productions, just as Cinderella has informed the construction of many a female
protagonist. When Carrie loses a shoe in the television series Sex and the City,
has she turned into Cinderella? When the narrator of Neil Gaiman’s The Ocean
at the End of the Lane drives down a road flanked by brambles and briar roses, is
he reenacting the journey of the prince in Sleeping Beauty? Perhaps not, but the
stories flash out at us, deepening and complicating the quests undertaken in
those made-up lives.
How do we make it new today? What is the secret sauce for successful fairy-
tale adaptations? Poe’s “Imp of the Perverse” often steals into fairy-tale territory
to animate reinventions. Snow White luxuriates in her coffin and becomes a
vampiric ghoul in Neil Gaiman’s “Snow, Glass, Apples”; Sleeping Beauty
becomes a willing sexual slave in Anne Rice’s quartet of Sleeping Beauty
novels; Rumpelstiltskin is ready for a killing spree in John Katzenbach’s The
Analyst. Our adult entertainments demand fictions larger than life and twice as
unnatural, and fairy tales offer up scandalous melodrama in portions that are
generously extravagant, if sometimes profoundly unappetizing.
It is tempting to dismiss some of these adaptations as nothing more than
guilty pleasures served up to us by a cultural industry that recognizes the power
of narratives in a secular age. But fairy tales tap into something much deeper—
primal questions that are not just up close and personal but also deeply
implicated in our collective aspirations. These stories are encoded with enigmas,
provocative puzzles challenging us to debate their terms even if we cannot solve
them. Hansel and Gretel, forced to leave home, face down a demon who
embodies warmth and hospitality—offering the children comfort food and a soft
bed—but she soon turns murderously hostile, fattening them up for a feast. What
are we to make of this form of cruelty, masquerading as kindness? Beauty is
turned over to Beast in a story that tests the limits of compassion and empathy in
the face of monstrosity. How do we manage our own anxieties about alterity and
the dark doubles that haunt our imaginations? Briar Rose invites riskless
voyeurism in scenes that feed our desire for beauty’s protection against
mortality, corruption, and decay. Is Sleeping Beauty also somehow implicated in
all those magazine images of fashion models who are made up to appear as
lifeless as they are flawless? The constant in these stories is less character than
abstract concepts, always reshuffled and reinvigorated by the values of the next
generation of tellers.
“On the surface, an intelligible lie; underneath, an unintelligible truth.”26
These words, drawn from The Unbearable Lightness of Being (where they are
applied to a painting), tell us something about the illusory surfaces in all fairy
tales and about the challenging complexities of what lies beneath. The words of
Milan Kundera’s character remind us of why Einstein is reputed to have said, “If
you want intelligent children, read them fairy tales. If you want more intelligent
children, read them more fairy tales.”27 The stories possess what the philosopher
Paul Ricoeur calls ontological vehemence, a bracing liveliness that challenges us
to think more and to think harder.
Fairy tales deliver not only the shock of beauty, as Max Lüthi put it in a
folkloric meditation on the genre, but also jolts of horror, rewiring our brains and
also charging them up, challenging us to make sense of the harsh realities
exposed in them. The pleasures of the genre arouse curiosity about the world
around us and provide social, cultural, and intellectual capital for navigating its
perils. For that reason, fairy tales have been credited with an insurrectionary and
emancipatory potential that goes against the grain of conventional wisdom about
fairy tales as trivial pursuits. Jack Zipes tells us that fairy tales are “informed by
a human disposition to action—to transform the world and make it more
adaptable to human needs, while we try to change and make ourselves fit for the
world.”28 As the philosopher Ernst Bloch put it, fairy tales hold forth the utopian
promise of “something better,” or a “more colorful and easier somewhere else,”
a place that lies over the rainbow, east o’ the sun and west o’ the moon, in the
land of milk and honey.29
We are forever reinventing fairy tales, and scholarly efforts to classify,
categorize, and bring order into the storytelling world can easily misfire,
breaking spells in ways that destroy the spirit of stories rather than enabling
critical thinking about them. Still, some part of the brain seems to light up when
we discover that our Little Red Riding Hood has a distant relative in some other
time and place, or that “Beauty and the Beast” has a global reach, or that
Sleeping Beauty has many male counterparts in other cultures. The geographical
orientation in this volume is Anglo-American and European, not for the purpose
of establishing a canon but rather as a way of developing a disciplinary base.
Fairy tales were not invented in Europe or Great Britain. They have flourished in
every time and place since humans began telling stories to each other. Recent
efforts to locate the origins of fairy tales in sixteenth-century Venice fail to take
into account the fact that variants of the stories circulated in Asian and African
cultures long before they were written down and became part of a print culture.
Fairy tales not only seem to be part of our DNA, they also seem to have a
replicatory power of their own, operating like memes, to use Richard Dawkins’s
term. This volume includes units on a range of different tale types: “Little Red
Riding Hood,” “Beauty and the Beast,” “Snow White,” “Sleeping Beauty,”
“Cinderella,” and “Bluebeard.” It then turns to trickster figures, boys and girls
who use their wits and courage to escape from monsters and find their way back
home. Finally it concludes with literary fairy tales by Hans Christian Andersen
and Oscar Wilde, stories that have become collective cultural property, on a
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