INTERNET OF THINGS

UNIT – I

Fundamentals of IoT: Introduction, Definitions & Characteristics of IoT, IoT Architectures, Physical &
Logical Design of IoT, Enabling Technologies in IoT, History of IoT, About Things in IoT, The Identifiers
in IoT, About the Internet in IoT, IoT frameworks, IoT and M2M. Applications of IoT: Home Automation,
Smart Cities, Energy, Retail Management, Logistics, Agriculture, Health and Lifestyle, Industrial IoT, Legal
challenges, IoT design Ethics, IoT in Environmental Protection.

UNIT - II

Sensors Networks : Definition, Types of Sensors, Types of Actuators, Examples and Working, IoT
Development Boards: Arduino IDE and Board Types, RaspberriPi Development Kit, RFID Principles and
components, Wireless Sensor Networks: History and Context, The node, Connecting nodes, Networking
Nodes, WSN and IoT.

Unit - III

Wireless Technologies for IoT: WPAN Technologies for IoT: IEEE 802.15.4, Zigbee, HART, NFC, Z-
Wave, BLE, Bacnet and Modbus. IP Based Protocols for IoT: IPv6, 6LowPAN, LoRA, RPL, REST, AMPQ,
CoAP, MQTT. Edge connectivity and protocols.

Unit - IV

Arduino Simulation Environment: Arduino Uno Architecture, Setting up the IDE, Writing Arduino
Software, Arduino Libraries, Basics of Embedded C programming for Arduino, Interfacing LED, push
button and buzzer with Arduino, Interfacing Arduino with LCD. Sensor & Actuators with Arduino:
Overview of Sensors working, Analog and Digital Sensors, Interfacing of Temperature, Humidity, Motion,
Light and Gas Sensors with Arduino, Interfacing of Actuators with Arduino, Interfacing of Relay Switch
and Servo Motor with Arduino.

Unit – V

Developing IOT’s: Implementation of IoT with Arduino, Connecting and using various IoT Cloud Based
Platforms such as Blynk, Thingspeak, AWS IoT, Google Cloud IoT Core etc. Cloud Computing, Fog
Computing, Privacy and Security Issues in IoT.

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 IOT-INTRODUCTION:

The Internet of Things (IoT) refers to the network of physical objects—“things”—that are embedded with
sensors, software, and other technologies to connect and exchange data with each other and other systems over the
internet, often without direct human interaction.

This interconnected network allows these "things" to collect information, share it, and trigger actions,
leading to more automated and efficient systems and providing new services and insights in various fields like smart
homes, industry, and healthcare.

Key Components and Characteristics

 Connected Devices:

The core of IoT is a vast network of physical devices, which can range from ordinary household objects to
complex industrial tools and even wearable sensors.

 Sensors and Software:

These devices are equipped with sensors to gather data from their environment and software to process that
data and communicate over a network.

 Data Exchange:

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 IoT enables these connected devices to send and receive data to and from other devices and systems, creating
a continuous flow of information.

 Automation:

By collecting and processing data, IoT systems can automate actions and decisions without requiring human
input, like adjusting a thermostat or sending an alert based on sensor data.

 Unique Identification:

Each device or "thing" in the network is often assigned a unique identifier, allowing for distinct
communication and data management.

History of the Internet of Things

 Over the past few years, we have witnessed tremendous growth in IoT. But how did we reach there?
It ages back to the year 1964 when Carl Steinberg, a German computer scientist, said… “In a few
decades, computers will be interwoven into almost every industrial product.”

 It was a big statement at that time when computer technology was not so advanced. It took almost 25
years to invent the first IoT device in the year 1990 when John Romkey created a toaster, the first
IoT device ever, which can be controlled over the internet.

 In the following year, a group of students at the Carnegie Melon University had developed a Coca-
Cola vending machine with micro-switches over the internet to monitor the availability of coke
bottles and identify which columns in the vending machine had the most chilled coke.

 Know that, experts were using IoT applications long before the term IoT has been introduced. The
term IoT was first coined by Kevin Ashton, a British Technology Pioneer, in the year 1999, although
it further took almost 10-years for the IoT technology to resonate with the thought.

 The breakthrough of IoT technology, however, was occurred in the year 2008, 09 when more things
were connected through the internet than the human beings on this planet earth.

ARCHITECTURE OF INTERNET OF THINGS (IOT)

Internet of Things (IoT) technology has a wide range of applications and the use of the Internet of Things is
growing so faster. It is the networking of physical objects that contain electronics embedded within their architecture
to communicate and sense interactions amongst each other or to the external environment.

Architecture of IoT

The architecture of IoT is divided into 4 different layers i.e. Sensing Layer, Network Layer, Data processing
Layer, and Application Layer.

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  Sensing Layer: The sensing layer is the first layer of the Internet of Things architecture and is
responsible for collecting data from different sources. This layer includes sensors and actuators that
are placed in the environment to gather information about temperature, humidity, light, sound, and
other physical parameters. Wired or wireless communication protocols connect these devices to the
network layer.

 Network Layer: The network layer of an IoT architecture is responsible for providing
communication and connectivity between devices in the IoT system. It includes protocols and
technologies that enable devices to connect and communicate with each other and with the wider
internet. Examples of network technologies that are commonly used in IoT include WiFi, Bluetooth,
Zigbee, and cellular networks such as 4G and 5G technology. Additionally, the network layer may
include gateways and routers that act as intermediaries between devices and the wider internet, and
may also include security features such as encryption and authentication to protect against
unauthorized access.

 Data processing Layer: The data processing layer of IoT architecture refers to the software and
hardware components that are responsible for collecting, analyzing, and interpreting data from IoT
devices. This layer is responsible for receiving raw data from the devices, processing it, and making
it available for further analysis or action. The data processing layer includes a variety of technologies
and tools, such as data management systems, analytics platforms, and machine learning algorithms.
These tools are used to extract meaningful insights from the data and make decisions based on that
data. Example of a technology used in the data processing layer is a data lake, which is a centralized
repository for storing raw data from IoT devices.

 Application Layer: The application layer of IoT architecture is the topmost layer that interacts
directly with the end-user. It is responsible for providing user-friendly interfaces and functionalities
that enable users to access and control IoT devices. This layer includes various software and
applications such as mobile apps, web portals, and other user interfaces that are designed to interact
with the underlying IoT infrastructure. It also includes middleware services that allow different IoT
devices and systems to communicate and share data seamlessly. The application layer also includes

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 analytics and processing capabilities that allow data to be analyzed and transformed into meaningful
insights. This can include machine learning algorithms, data visualization tools, and other advanced
analytics capabilities.

physical and logical design OF IOT:

The physical and logical designs are interdependent. The physical components (sensors, actuators) collect
data, which is then processed and communicated using the logical components (protocols, software) to
perform actions and deliver insights to the user.

For instance, a physical sensor detects low soil moisture, sends this data to a gateway, which then
communicates it to the cloud. Logically, the cloud processes this data, and if it falls below a threshold,
triggers a logical command to activate a physical irrigation pump.

Physical Design

The physical design of an IoT system deals with the hardware components and their interaction with the
environment:

 Sensors:

These devices gather data from the physical world (e.g., temperature, humidity, motion) and convert it into
digital signals.

 Actuators:

These components perform actions in the physical world based on the data received from sensors or
commands from the system (e.g., motors, relays).

 Connectivity Modules:

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These enable data transfer using various technologies like Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, Zigbee, LoRa, or cellular
networks.

 Microcontrollers/Microprocessors:

These are the "brains" of the IoT devices, such as ESP32 or Raspberry Pi, that control device functions and
process data.

 Gateways:

These devices act as bridges, forwarding data between IoT devices and the cloud or other networks.

 Cloud Platforms/Data Centers:

These are the central locations for data storage, processing, and analytics.

Logical Design

The logical design outlines the software-based architecture and processes that govern how data is handled
within the IoT system:

 Data Flow:

Defines how data is collected, transmitted, stored, and processed across the various IoT components.

 Communication Protocols:

Specifies the rules for communication between devices, gateways, and the cloud, using protocols like MQTT
for lightweight messaging or HTTP for request-response interactions.

 Data Processing and Analytics:

Involves analyzing the collected data to extract meaningful insights, identify patterns, and trigger actions.

 IoT Services:

Includes cloud computing services, data management platforms, and other software functions that support
the IoT system.

 User Interface (UI):

The applications (web or mobile) and Application Programming Interfaces (APIs) that allow users to
monitor and control the IoT system.

IOT ENABLING TECHNOLOGIES:

IoT enabling technologies include sensors, connectivity protocols, data processing methods, and
communication technologies that make it possible for IoT devices to collect, transmit, and process data.

The primary enabling technologies for the Internet of Things (IoT) include sensors, Embedded Systems,
Communication Protocols (such as WiFi, Bluetooth, and cellular networks like 5G), Wireless Sensor
Networks (WSN), Cloud Computing for data storage and processing, and Big Data Analytics to extract

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insights from collected data. These technologies work together to allow devices to collect, communicate,
analyze, and act upon data, enabling connected and intelligent systems.

IoT(internet of things) enabling technologies are

1. Wireless Sensor Network

2. Cloud Computing

3. Big Data Analytics

4. Communications Protocols

5. Embedded System

1. Wireless Sensor Network(WSN) :

A WSN comprises distributed devices with sensors which are used to monitor the environmental and
physical conditions. A wireless sensor network consists of end nodes, routers and coordinators. End nodes
have several sensors attached to them where the data is passed to a coordinator with the help of routers. The
coordinator also acts as the gateway that connects WSN to the internet.
Example -

 Weather monitoring system

 Indoor air quality monitoring system

 Soil moisture monitoring system

 Surveillance system

 Health monitoring system

2. Cloud Computing :
It provides us the means by which we can access applications as utilities over the internet. Cloud means
something which is present in remote locations.
With Cloud computing, users can access any resources from anywhere like databases, webservers, storage,
any device, and any software over the internet.
Characteristics -

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 1. Broad network access

2. On demand self-services

3. Rapid scalability

4. Measured service

5. Pay-per-use

Provides different services, such as -

 IaaS (Infrastructure as a service)

Infrastructure as a service provides online services such as physical machines, virtual machines,
servers, networking, storage and data center space on a pay per use basis. Major IaaS providers are
Google Compute Engine, Amazon Web Services and Microsoft Azure etc.
Ex : Web Hosting, Virtual Machine etc.

 PaaS (Platform as a service)

Provides a cloud-based environment with a very thing required to support the complete life cycle of
building and delivering West web based (cloud) applications - without the cost and complexity of
buying and managing underlying hardware, software provisioning and hosting. Computing platforms
such as hardware, operating systems and libraries etc. Basically, it provides a platform to develop
applications.
Ex : App Cloud, Google app engine

 SaaS (Software as a service)

It is a way of delivering applications over the internet as a service. Instead of installing and
maintaining software, you simply access it via the internet, freeing yourself from complex software
and hardware management.
SaaS Applications are sometimes called web-based software on demand software or hosted
software.
SaaS applications run on a SaaS provider’s service and they manage security availability and
performance.
Ex : Google Docs, Gmail, office etc.

3. Big Data Analytics :

It refers to the method of studying massive volumes of data or big data. Collection of data whose volume,
velocity or variety is simply too massive and tough to store, control, process and examine the data using
traditional databases.
Big data is gathered from a variety of sources including social network videos, digital images, sensors and
sales transaction records.
Several steps involved in analyzing big data -

1. Data cleaning

2. Munging

3. Processing

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 4. Visualization

Examples -

 Bank transactions

 Data generated by IoT systems for location and tracking of vehicles

 E-commerce and in Big-Basket

 Health and fitness data generated by IoT system such as a fitness bands

4. Communications Protocols :
They are the backbone of IoT systems and enable network connectivity and linking to applications.
Communication protocols allow devices to exchange data over the network. Multiple protocols often
describe different aspects of a single communication. A group of protocols designed to work together is
known as a protocol suite; when implemented in software they are a protocol stack.
They are used in

1. Data encoding

2. Addressing schemes

5. Embedded Systems :
It is a combination of hardware and software used to perform special tasks.
It includes microcontroller and microprocessor memory, networking units (Ethernet Wi-Fi adapters), input
output units (display keyword etc. ) and storage devices (flash memory).
It collects the data and sends it to the internet.
Embedded systems used in
Examples -

1. Digital camera

2. DVD player, music player

3. Industrial robots

4. Wireless Routers etc.

THINGS IN IOT

In IoT, "things" are physical devices, objects, or entities (ranging from simple sensors to complex machines)
embedded with sensors, software, and other technologies to connect and exchange data over the internet or
other networks with minimal human intervention. These "things" collect data, transmit it to other devices or
systems, and can take action based on that data, forming a connected network to automate tasks or inform
users. Examples include smart home appliances, connected cars, fitness trackers, and even agricultural
sensors monitoring soil moisture.

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Key characteristics of "things" in IoT:

 Connectivity:

They are connected to a network (like the internet) to send and receive data.

 Sensors and Software:

They are equipped with sensors to collect data and software to process and transmit it.

 Unique Identity:

Each "thing" in the network has a unique identifier, allowing it to be addressed and tracked.

 Data Exchange:

They are designed to communicate with other devices, systems, and people.

 Automation:

They can automate actions or provide insights without constant human oversight.

Examples of "things" in IoT:

 Smart Home Devices: Smart thermostats, security systems, smart appliances.

 Wearables: Fitness trackers and medical devices like smart pacemakers.

 Connected Vehicles: Cars that can communicate with each other and infrastructure.

 Industrial Sensors: Devices that monitor machinery, environmental conditions, or logistics.

 Smart Agriculture: Sensors that monitor soil, weather, and crop growth.

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IoT identifiers

IoT identifiers are used to uniquely identify things (physical or virtual objects) in the Internet of
Things ecosystem. These identifiers can be broadly categorized into,

1.object identifiers

2.communication identifiers

3.application identifiers.

Examples include MAC addresses, IP addresses, RFID tags, barcodes, and URIs. They are crucial
for device discovery, communication, and application-level interactions within IoT systems.

Here's a more detailed breakdown:

1. Object Identifiers: These represent the physical or virtual entities within the IoT. They are used
to distinguish one thing from another and are often associated with the device itself.

 Examples:

o RFID tags: Used for identifying objects, often in supply chain management and logistics.

o Barcodes/2D codes: Commonly used for product identification and tracking.

o Unique Serial Numbers: Assigned to individual devices during manufacturing.

o MAC Addresses: Unique hardware identifiers for network devices.

o RFID tags: Used for identification and tracking of objects, especially in supply chains.

o Electronic Product Codes (EPC): Used in supply chain management to uniquely identify
items.

o Physically Unclonable Functions (PUFs): Exploits variations in manufacturing to create

unique device fingerprints, according to IEEE Xplore.

2. Communication Identifiers: These are used to locate and communicate with devices on a
network.

 Examples:

o IP Addresses (IPv4, IPv6): Used to address devices on the internet and other networks.

o 6LoWPAN addresses: Used for low-power wireless networks.

3. Application Identifiers: These are used to identify services, applications, and logical entities
within the IoT ecosystem.

 Examples:

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 o URIs (Uniform Resource Identifiers) / URLs (Uniform Resource Locators): Used to
identify and access resources on the internet and in IoT applications.

o HTTP Session Tokens: Used to maintain session state in web-based IoT applications.

o Decentralized Identifiers (DIDs): A new type of identifier that provides a secure and
privacy-preserving way to identify and manage devices and data in IoT systems, according
to Nature.

Importance of IoT Identifiers:

 Device Discovery:

Identifiers allow systems to locate and identify specific devices on the network.

 Communication:

They enable devices to exchange data and interact with each other.

 Security:

Identifiers play a role in authentication, authorization, and access control.

 Interoperability:

Standardized identifiers can improve the ability of different IoT devices and platforms to work
together.

 Data Management:

They help in organizing and managing the vast amount of data generated by IoT devices.

Challenges:

 Diversity:

The vast number of different IoT devices and platforms leads to a wide variety of identifier types,
making it challenging to achieve full interoperability, according to ScienceDirect.com.

 Security and Privacy:

Protecting the confidentiality and integrity of identifiers is crucial to prevent unauthorized access
and misuse.

 Scalability:

IoT systems need to be able to handle a large number of devices and identifiers as the number of
connected devices grows.

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ABOUT THE INTERNET IN IOT:

The internet serves as the communication backbone of the Internet of Things (IoT), enabling a vast network
of physical objects with sensors and software to connect, collect, and exchange data with other devices and
systems without human intervention. This allows for seamless automation, remote monitoring, and
sophisticated control in homes, industries, transportation, and more, transforming how we live and work by
converting everyday objects into "smart" devices.

How it Works

1. 1. Data Collection:

Devices embedded with sensors, such as smart thermostats, security cameras, or industrial machinery, gather
real-time data about their environment or operations.

2. 2. Internet Connectivity:

This collected data is transmitted wirelessly over the internet, using technologies like Wi-Fi or cellular
networks, to cloud-based platforms or other connected devices.

3. 3. Data Processing:

The data is analyzed to gain insights or trigger automated actions. This process can involve artificial
intelligence (AI) and machine learning for real-time decision-making.

4. 4. Action & Control:

Based on the analyzed data, instructions are sent back to the devices, allowing them to perform actions, such
as adjusting a thermostat, notifying a user about a problem, or controlling industrial processes.

IOT FRAMEWORK

An IoT framework is a set of standardized tools, protocols, and infrastructure that simplifies the creation,
deployment, and management of Internet of Things (IoT) systems by providing a structured approach to
connect devices, collect data, and build applications. These frameworks handle critical components like
device connectivity, data processing, cloud integration, and application development, enabling developers to
build secure, scalable, and efficient IoT solutions more quickly.

Key Components of an IoT Framework

An IoT framework typically provides support for several core elements of an IoT system:

 Hardware Devices:

The physical sensors, controllers, and other hardware that collect data from the real world.

 Software Applications:

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The software running on devices and in the cloud, used to manage hardware and deliver functionality.

 Communication Platforms:

The communication channels and protocols (like Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, or cellular) that connect devices and
transmit data.

 Cloud and Data Platforms:

Infrastructure for storing, processing, and analyzing the massive amounts of data generated by IoT devices.

 User Applications:

The interfaces (web or mobile apps) that allow users to monitor, control, and interact with the IoT system.

Types of IoT Frameworks

Frameworks can be categorized by their licensing model:

 Open-Source Frameworks:

These frameworks provide readily available code and community support, allowing for greater flexibility
and lower initial costs. Examples include Kaa IoT and Zetta.

 Proprietary Frameworks:

These are developed and owned by specific companies and often come with paid tiers or specific cloud
integrations. Examples include Amazon Web Services (AWS) IoT and Microsoft Azure IoT.

Benefits of Using an IoT Framework

 Accelerated Development:

Frameworks provide pre-built tools and structures, speeding up the entire development process.

 Reduced Complexity:

They simplify the intricate task of managing diverse IoT components, leading to more manageable
codebases.

 Scalability:

Frameworks are designed to support the addition of new devices and growing data volumes, ensuring
solutions can scale as needed.

 Security:

Many frameworks incorporate robust security features to protect devices, data, and communication
channels.

 Extensibility:

They allow for easier integration of new features and bug fixes through a structured and efficient design.

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M2M:

IoT and M2M are related, with M2M (Machine-to-Machine) being a foundational technology for the Internet
of Things (IoT). M2M refers to the direct, often point-to-point, communication between machines to share
data and automate tasks, while IoT is a broader ecosystem that uses the internet to connect numerous devices
to a network, enabling them to share data across multiple systems and services for more intelligent, large-
scale automation and decision-making.

Key Aspects of M2M in IoT

 Automated Communication:

M2M allows devices to communicate directly with each other, exchanging information and triggering
actions automatically.

 Data Exchange:

Devices capture data about their environment or status and transmit it to other machines or systems for
analysis and decision-making.

 Autonomous Operation:

M2M facilitates autonomous operation, where machines can manage and control their functions based on the
data they receive and share.

 Network Infrastructure:

M2M relies on various wired or wireless network technologies, including WiFi, Bluetooth, RFID, and
cellular networks, to enable communication between devices.

 Core of IoT:

M2M is considered the backbone or a fundamental subset of IoT, forming the basis for broader IoT networks
and applications.

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Difference between IoT and M2M :

Basis of IoT M2M

Abbreviation Internet of Things Machine to Machine

Devices have objects that are responsible Some degree of intelligence is

Intelligence
for decision making observed in this.

Connection type The connection is via Network and using

The connection is a point to point
used various communication types.

Traditional protocols and

Communication Internet protocols are used such
communication technology
protocol used as HTTP, FTP, and Telnet.
techniques are used

Data is shared between other applications

Data is shared with only the
Data Sharing that are used to improve the end-user
communicating parties.
experience.

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Basis of IoT M2M

Internet connection is required for Devices are not dependent on the

Internet
communication Internet.

Type of It supports point-to-point

It supports cloud communication
Communication communication.

Involves the usage of both Hardware and

Computer System Mostly hardware-based technology
Software.

A large number of devices yet scope is

Scope Limited Scope for devices.
large.

Business 2 Business(B2B) and Business 2

Business Type used Business 2 Business (B2B)
Consumer(B2C)

Open API support Supports Open API integrations. There is no support for Open APIs

It requires Generic commodity devices. Specialized device solutions.

Centric Information and service centric Communication and device centric.

Approach used Horizontal enabler approach Vertical system solution approach .

Devices/sensors, connectivity, data Device, area networks, gateway,

Components
processing, user interface Application server.

Smart wearables, Big Data and Cloud,

Examples Sensors, Data and Information, etc.
etc.

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The applications of the Internet of Things

The applications of the Internet of Things (IoT) span diverse sectors, including Home Automation for remote
control of appliances and security, Smart Cities for optimized traffic and waste management, Energy for
efficient consumption monitoring, Retail Management and Logistics for inventory tracking and supply chain
visibility, Agriculture for precision farming and livestock monitoring, Health and Lifestyle for wearable
devices and remote monitoring, Industrial IoT for predictive maintenance, and Environmental Protection for
monitoring pollution and water quality, while also presenting challenges such as Legal Issues and Ethics in
Design.

Home Automation

 Definition: IoT-enabled home automation allows for the remote and automatic control of a home's
electronic devices and systems.

 Key Applications:

o Smart Lighting: Control lights remotely via an app or voice command, set schedules, and
adjust brightness and color.

o Smart Appliances: Monitor and control kitchen and laundry appliances, such as refrigerators
and washing machines, from a distance.

o Smart Security: Remotely monitor security systems, including cameras and motion sensors,
and receive alerts on your smartphone.

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 o Temperature Control: Use smart thermostats and HVAC systems to adjust heating and
cooling automatically based on occupancy and schedules.

Smart Cities

 Definition: The use of IoT to connect various urban systems and sensors to improve efficiency,
sustainability, and quality of life.

 Key Applications:

o Traffic Management: Sensors and cameras gather real-time data to dynamically adjust traffic
signals, reducing congestion and emissions.

o Smart Parking: Guide drivers to available parking spots using wireless sensors, minimizing
search time and fuel consumption.

o Waste Management: Smart bins with fill-level sensors optimize collection routes, reducing
operational costs and maintaining cleanliness.

o Environmental Monitoring: IoT sensors continuously monitor air and water quality, noise
levels, and other factors to inform policy decisions and protect public health.

o Smart Grids: Two-way communication between smart meters and utility providers enables
more efficient energy distribution, demand response, and fault detection.

Energy

 Definition: The use of IoT devices to manage and monitor energy production, distribution, and
consumption.

 Key Applications:

o Smart Grids: Networked smart meters and sensors allow utilities to balance loads, integrate
renewable energy sources, and respond to outages automatically.

o Energy Management Systems: In commercial and industrial buildings, IoT tracks

consumption patterns at a granular level, helping to identify and reduce waste.

o Predictive Maintenance: Sensors monitor energy generation equipment (e.g., turbines) to

predict maintenance needs, increasing operational efficiency and preventing breakdowns.

o Energy Optimization: Use IoT to automate lighting, temperature, and equipment schedules
to reduce energy consumption and cost.

Retail Management

 Definition: Applying IoT to enhance the shopping experience, optimize operations, and gain insights
into customer behavior.

 Key Applications:

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 o Inventory Tracking: RFID tags and smart shelves provide real-time visibility into stock
levels, preventing overstocking and stockouts.

o Customer Behavior Analytics: In-store sensors and beacons track customer paths and dwell
times, helping retailers optimize store layout and product placement.

o Personalized Marketing: Location-based technology can send targeted advertisements and

promotions to customers' smartphones as they shop.

o Supply Chain Optimization: IoT devices can track shipments and monitor conditions (e.g.,
temperature) to improve logistics and reduce product damage.

Logistics

 Definition: The use of IoT to transform supply chain management into a connected, transparent, and
efficient network.

 Key Applications:

o Real-Time Fleet Management: GPS trackers provide real-time location and status of delivery
vehicles, enabling optimized routing and improved delivery time accuracy.

o Inventory and Warehouse Management: RFID tags and sensors automate inventory tracking
and enhance warehouse efficiency, reducing manual errors.

o Cold Chain Monitoring: Temperature and humidity sensors ensure the integrity of perishable
goods during transit and storage, minimizing spoilage.

o Predictive Maintenance: Sensors on vehicles can predict equipment failures, reducing

unplanned downtime and maintenance costs.

Agriculture

 Definition: "Smart farming" uses IoT to collect data and automate processes, leading to increased
efficiency, productivity, and sustainability.

 Key Applications:

o Precision Farming: Sensors monitor soil moisture, temperature, and nutrient levels to help
farmers optimize irrigation and fertilization.

o Livestock Monitoring: Wearable sensors on animals can track their health, behavior, and
location, allowing for early detection of illnesses.

o Smart Greenhouses: Automated systems regulate temperature, humidity, and lighting to

create optimal growing conditions, with minimal human intervention.

o Agricultural Drones: Drones with IoT sensors can monitor crop health, assess fields, and
assist with spraying and planting.

Health and Lifestyle

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  Definition: The Internet of Medical Things (IoMT) and consumer wearables enhance patient care,
health monitoring, and overall well-being.

 Key Applications:

o Remote Patient Monitoring: IoT devices track vital signs like heart rate, blood pressure, and
blood glucose, transmitting data to healthcare providers for remote monitoring.

o Wearable Devices: Fitness trackers, smartwatches, and other wearables help individuals
monitor their activity, sleep, and overall health.

o Smart Hospitals: IoT tracks assets, monitors environmental conditions, and manages
inventory within medical facilities to improve workflows.

o Emergency Alerts: Medical alert systems and other devices can automatically send alerts to
family members or healthcare providers in case of an emergency.

Industrial IoT (IIoT)

 Definition: A subset of IoT focused on industrial applications such as manufacturing, energy, and
logistics to improve efficiency, productivity, and safety.

 Key Applications:

o Predictive Maintenance: Sensors monitor machine performance to predict and prevent

equipment failures, reducing downtime.

o Asset Tracking: Real-time monitoring of industrial assets, tools, and inventory to improve
resource allocation and prevent loss.

o Quality Control: IoT-powered inspection systems can detect defective products during
production, minimizing errors.

o Workplace Safety: Wearable devices and environmental sensors can monitor worker health
and detect potential hazards in real-time.

Legal Challenges

 Data Privacy and Protection: The vast amounts of personal and sensitive data collected by IoT
devices raise significant concerns about potential breaches and unauthorized access. Existing
regulations like GDPR and CCPA provide some guidelines, but specific IoT frameworks are needed.

 Security: Many IoT devices lack robust security measures, making them vulnerable to hacking and
exploitation through botnet attacks. This poses risks not only to data but also to physical safety and
infrastructure.

 Data Ownership: Determining who owns the data generated by IoT devices (the user, the
manufacturer, or a third party) is a complex and often unclear issue.

 Jurisdiction: The global nature of IoT, with devices and data crossing borders, creates legal
complexities regarding data flow, sovereignty, and conflicts between different countries' laws.

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  Product Liability: It can be difficult to assign liability when an IoT device malfunctions and causes
harm, especially given the involvement of multiple components and companies in the supply chain.

IoT Design Ethics

 Privacy and Security: Design must prioritize user privacy and ensure robust security measures are
integrated from the start to prevent unauthorized access and data misuse.

 Transparency: Manufacturers must provide clear and understandable information to users about what
data is collected, how it is used, and who has access to it.

 Informed Consent: Users should have meaningful control over their data and the ability to consent to
or deny its collection and usage.

 Accountability: Developers and organizations must be held accountable for the potential social,
environmental, and economic impacts of their IoT products.

 Algorithmic Bias: Designers must be aware of and actively mitigate potential biases in AI and
machine learning algorithms that could lead to unfair or discriminatory outcomes.

IoT in Environmental Protection

 Pollution Monitoring: IoT sensors can monitor air, water, and soil quality in real-time to track
pollution levels and identify sources, enabling faster response and mitigation efforts.

 Waste and Recycling Management: Smart bins and recycling systems optimize collection routes,
reducing fuel consumption and operational costs.

 Resource Management: IoT enables efficient management of water and energy resources by tracking
usage and detecting leaks, reducing waste.

 Wildlife Conservation: Connected sensors and trackers can monitor wildlife and their habitats,
aiding in conservation efforts and preventing poaching.

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 Unit:2

Sensors are the devices that can detect and response to changes in the environment. These changes can be in
form of light, temperature, motion, moisture or any other physical property. The sensor converts these
physical changes into signal that can be measured. Sensors play an important role in IoT which will make an
ecosystem for collecting, analyzing, and processing data about a specific environment so that it can be
monitored, managed, and controlled more easily and efficiently. Sensors bridge the gap between the physical
world and the logical world.

Transducer : It converts the signal from one physical form to another physical form. it is also called energy
converter. For example, microphone converts sound to electrical signal . It is based on the principle of
conservation of energy.

Types of Sensors

We live in the world of sensors, there are different types of sensors in our homes, offices, cars etc. by
working to make our lives easier by turning on the lights by detecting our presence, adjusting the room
temperature, detect smoke or fire, make us delicious coffee, and automatic door closing and so on. here we
will discuss types of sensors one by one in detail:

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  Temperature sensors: Monitoring temperature of used devices in industrial applications. it is used
to measure temperature. this can be air temperature, liquid temperature or the temperature of solid. It
can be analog or digital. In an Analog Temperature Sensor, the change in the Temperature
correspond to change in its physical property like resistance or voltage. LM35 is a classic Analog
Temperature Sensor. In Digital Temperature Sensor, the output is a discrete digital value, DS1621
is digital sensor which generates 9 bits temperature data.

 Accelerometer sensors: It measures the rate of change of velocity and this sensor generate
magnitude and acceleration of the acceleration. Accelerometer sensor sensor ADXL335 provides 3
axes (X,Y, and Z) values in analog voltage. it is used in car electronics, ships, and agricultural
machines.

 Alcohol sensors: as the name suggests it detects alcohol. Usually, alcohol sensors are used in
breathalyzer devices, which determine whether the person is drunk or not. Law enforcement
personnel uses breathalyzers to catch drunk-and-drive culprits.

 Radiation sensors: Radiation Sensors/Detectors are electronic devices that sense the presence of
alpha, beta, or gamma particles and provide signals to counters and display
devices. Radiation detectors are used for surveys and sample counting.

 Position sensors: Position Sensors are electronic devices used to sense the positions of valves,
doors, throttles, etc. and supply signals to the inputs of control or display devices. Key specifications
include sensor type, sensor function, measurement range, and features that are specific to the sensor
type. Position sensors are used wherever positional information is needed in a myriad of control
applications. A common position transducer is a so-called string-pot, or string potentiometer.

 Gas sensors: It measures and detects concentration of different gases which is present in the
atmosphere or any other environment.

 Torque sensors: This sensor is used for measuring the rotating torque and it is used to measure the
speed of the rotation.

 Optical sensors: it is also called photosensors which can detect light waves at different points in the
light spectrum including ultraviolet light, visible light, and infrared light. it is extensively used in
smartphone, robotics and Blu-ray players.

 Proximity sensors: This sensor is used to detect the distance between two objects or detect the
presence of an object. it is used in elevators, parking lots, automobiles, robotics, and numerous other
environment.

 Touch sensors: Touch sensing devices detect physical contact on a monitored surface. Touch
sensors are used extensively in electronic devices to support trackpad and touchscreen technologies.
They're also used in many other systems, such as elevators, robotics and soap dispensers.

 Image sensor: it is used for distance measurement, pattern matching, color checking, structured
lighting, and motion capture and it is also used in different applications such as 3D imaging,
video/broadcast, space, security, automotive, biometrics, medical, and machine vision.

Given below the types of sensors :

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Application of Types of Sensors

Given below are the Application of Types of Sensors

 Automotive Industry: They are used in the Automotive industry for monitoring engine temperature,
speed and other parameters.

 Smart Homes: They are used in the Smart Homes for detecting movements, Control HVAC and
other measurements.

 Robotics: They are used in the Robotics for object recognition, Tracking the position and measuring
force.

 Transportation: Sensors such as GPS , Load, and Speed sensors are used in transportation
infrastructure.

Conclusion:

Sensors play a important role in modern technology. It provides accurate and reliable data for various
applications. From detecting environmental changes to ensuring the safety and efficiency of electronic
systems.

Actuators in IoT

An IoT device is made up of a Physical object (“thing”) + Controller (“brain”) + Sensors + Actuators +
Networks (Internet). An actuator is a machine component or system that moves or controls the mechanism of
the system. Sensors in the device sense the environment, then control signals are generated for the actuators
according to the actions needed to perform.

A servo motor is an example of an actuator. They are linear or rotatory actuators, can move to a given
specified angular or linear position. We can use servo motors for IoT applications and make the motor rotate
to 90 degrees, 180 degrees, etc., as per our need.

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The following diagram shows what actuators do, the controller directs the actuator based on the sensor data
to do the work.

Working of IoT devices and use of Actuators

The control system acts upon an environment through the actuator. It requires a source of energy and a
control signal. When it receives a control signal, it converts the source of energy to a mechanical operation.
On this basis, on which form of energy it uses, it has different types given below.

Types of Actuators :

1. Hydraulic Actuators -

A hydraulic actuator uses hydraulic power to perform a mechanical operation. They are actuated by a
cylinder or fluid motor. The mechanical motion is converted to rotary, linear, or oscillatory motion,
according to the need of the IoT device. Ex- construction equipment uses hydraulic actuators because
hydraulic actuators can generate a large amount of force.

Advantages :

 Hydraulic actuators can produce a large magnitude of force and high speed.

 Used in welding, clamping, etc.

 Used for lowering or raising the vehicles in car transport carriers.

Disadvantages :

 Hydraulic fluid leaks can cause efficiency loss and issues of cleaning.

 It is expensive.

 It requires noise reduction equipment, heat exchangers, and high maintenance systems.

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2. Pneumatic Actuators -

A pneumatic actuator uses energy formed by vacuum or compressed air at high pressure to convert into
either linear or rotary motion. Example- Used in robotics, use sensors that work like human fingers by using
compressed air.

Advantages :

 They are a low-cost option and are used at extreme temperatures where using air is a safer option
than chemicals.

 They need low maintenance, are durable, and have a long operational life.

 It is very quick in starting and stopping the motion.

Disadvantages :

 Loss of pressure can make it less efficient.

 The air compressor should be running continuously.

 Air can be polluted, and it needs maintenance.

3. Electrical Actuators -

An electric actuator uses electrical energy, is usually actuated by a motor that converts electrical energy into
mechanical torque. An example of an electric actuator is a solenoid based electric bell.

Advantages :

 It has many applications in various industries as it can automate industrial valves.

 It produces less noise and is safe to use since there are no fluid leakages.

 It can be re-programmed and it provides the highest control precision positioning.

Disadvantages :

 It is expensive.

 It depends a lot on environmental conditions.

Other actuators are -

 Thermal/Magnetic Actuators -
These are actuated by thermal or mechanical energy. Shape Memory Alloys (SMAs) or Magnetic
Shape‐Memory Alloys (MSMAs) are used by these actuators. An example of a thermal/magnetic
actuator can be a piezo motor using SMA.

 Mechanical Actuators -
A mechanical actuator executes movement by converting rotary motion into linear motion. It
involves pulleys, chains, gears, rails, and other devices to operate. Example - A crankshaft.

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  Soft Actuators

 Shape Memory Polymers

 Light Activated Polymers

 With the expanding world of IoT, sensors and actuators will find more usage in commercial and
domestic applications along with the pre-existing use in industry.

ARDUINO BOARD:

Arduino board was designed in the Ivrea Interaction Design Institute intended for students without a
background in electronics and programming concepts. This board started altering to adapt to new
requirements and challenges, separating its presence from simple 8-bit boards to products for IoT (Internet of
Things) applications, 3D printing, wearable, and embedded surroundings. All boards are entirely open-
source, allowing users to build them separately and finally adapt them to their exact needs. Over the years
the different types of Arduino boards have been used to build thousands of projects, from daily objects to
compound scientific instruments.

TYPES OF ARDUINO BOARDS:

There are several different types of Arduino boards, each designed for different purposes and featuring
different sets of capabilities. Some of the most popular types of Arduino boards include the Arduino Uno, the
Arduino Nano, the Arduino Mega, the Arduino Leonardo, and more.

ARDUINO UNO

The Arduino Uno is one of the most commonly used Arduino boards. It features a microcontroller, a USB
port, a power jack, and digital and analog input/output (I/O) pins. The Uno is a good choice for beginners
and for projects that don't require a lot of complex processing or a lot of I/O pins.

The Arduino Uno is a popular, open-source microcontroller board for beginners, featuring a main
ATmega328P microcontroller and providing 14 digital I/O pins (6 PWM-capable), 6 analog inputs, and a
USB port for programming and power. Key components include a 16 MHz clock, a power jack, a reset
button, and various indicator LEDs for power (ON), transmit (TX), and receive (RX) functions.

The board is programmable using the Arduino IDE with code resembling C, and it supports power from a
USB cable, a DC power jack (7-12V recommended), or its VIN pin.

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Arduino IDE

The Arduino IDE is the official, free software used to write and upload code (sketches) to Arduino
boards and other compatible microcontrollers, using C/C++ and its built-in libraries. It functions as
an Integrated Development Environment, providing a text editor for your code, a toolbar for verification and
uploading, a message area for feedback, and a console for serial communication. Key functions include
selecting the correct board and port, compiling the code into a machine-readable format, and then uploading
it to the microcontroller to run your program.

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Core Components

 Text Editor:Where you write your "sketch" (program) using Arduino's simplified C++ language.

 Toolbar:Provides buttons for common actions like verifying the code for errors and uploading the
code to the board.

 Message Area:Displays feedback during saving, exporting, and provides detailed error messages.

 Console:A text area at the bottom of the window that shows the configured board and serial port,
and can also display text output from the Arduino board via the Serial Monitor.

Key Functions

1. Writing Code: The IDE allows you to write, edit, and manage your sketches.

2. Verification (Verify Button): Checks your code for syntax errors, providing error messages to help
you debug.

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 3. Upload (Upload Button): Compiles the sketch into a binary file and uploads it to the connected
Arduino board.

4. Board and Port Selection: Users must select the correct Arduino board type and the serial port it's
connected to via the Tools menu to ensure proper communication.

5. Serial Monitor: A pop-up window that acts as a terminal, enabling two-way communication
between the computer and the Arduino board for debugging and data exchange.

6. Library Manager: Allows users to find, install, and manage third-party libraries and board support
packages directly within the IDE.

Compatibility and Use

 Cross-Platform:The Arduino IDE is available for Windows, macOS, and various Linux
distributions.

 Language:It supports C and C++ programming, along with its own set of functions and libraries.

 Projects:It's used to program a wide range of microcontroller boards, including the ESP32 and
Raspberry Pi Pico, in addition to various Arduino boards.

Raspberry Pi : is a series of small single-board computers (SBCs) originally developed in the United
Kingdom by the Raspberry Pi Foundation in collaboration with Broadcom.

The Raspberry Pi was originally created to help teach computer science in schools, but gained popularity for
many other uses due to its low cost, compact size, and flexibility. It is now used in areas such as industrial
automation, robotics, home automation, IoT devices, and SMALL projects.

A Raspberry Pi development kit provides essential hardware for building an embedded system, typically
including a core module (like the Compute Module 5) with a processor, RAM, and wireless capabilities,
an IO board for connecting peripherals, a power supply, and cooling solutions. Key components often
featured are eMMC storage, Gigabit Ethernet, Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, USB ports, micro HDMI ports for displays,
and GPIO pins for hardware control. The specific contents and focus of a development kit vary, with some
targeting beginners with integrated displays and sensors, while others, like the CM5 kit, are designed for
professional embedded product development and rapid prototyping.

Key components found in Raspberry Pi development kits:

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  Compute Module (CM) or Board: The central processing unit, containing the processor (e.g.,
Quad-core ARM Cortex-A76 in CM5), RAM (e.g., 4GB LPDDR4x), and wireless features (Wi-Fi,
Bluetooth).

 IO Board: A carrier board that provides interfaces for the compute module, including USB ports
(e.g., 2x USB 3.0, 2x USB 2.0), Gigabit Ethernet, dual micro HDMI outputs, camera (MIPI CSI) and
display (MIPI DSI) ports.

 Storage: Options include on-board eMMC (e.g., 32GB) and a micro SD card slot for the operating
system.

 Power Supply: A USB Type-C Power Delivery (PD) supply, often a high-wattage one (e.g., 27W for
CM5), to ensure reliable power for the development board.

 Cooling : A passive cooler or fan to manage heat from the processor.

 Case: A metal enclosure to protect the components and provide a stable platform.

 Antenna Kit: For enhanced wireless performance.

 Cables: Standard cables, such as a full-size HDMI cable and a USB-A to USB-C cable for
programming.

RFID (Radio-Frequency Identification)

RFID (Radio-Frequency Identification) works on the principle of using radio waves to automatically
identify and track tags attached to objects. The core components are an RFID reader (with a
transceiver and antenna) and an RFID tag (with a microchip and antenna). The reader sends a signal
to activate the tag, which then sends its stored data back to the reader via radio waves, allowing for
wireless, non-line-of-sight identification and data transfer to a database for processing.

Principles of RFID

 Wireless Communication:

RFID systems communicate wirelessly using radio waves, unlike barcodes that require line-of-sight
scanning.

 Activation and Data Transmission:

The RFID reader emits an electromagnetic pulse that powers the RFID tag.

 Data Response:

Once activated, the tag transmits its stored digital information, such as a unique identifier, back to
the reader.

 Data Integration:

The reader translates the data from the tag and sends it to a backend computer system or database for
processing and management.

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 Components of an RFID System

1. RFID Tag (Transponder):

 Microchip: Stores data, such as an item's unique serial number or other information.

 Antenna: Receives the signal from the reader and transmits the tag's data back to the
reader.

 Power Sources:

 Passive tags: No internal power; they rely on the reader's signal for power to
operate.

 Active tags: Have their own battery for power, allowing for longer read ranges and
more complex operations.

2. RFID Reader (Interrogator/Transceiver):

 Transceiver: Transmits radio waves to activate the tag and receives the data back from it.

 Antenna: The reader's antenna (which can be integrated or external) sends the radio waves
and picks up the signals from the tag.

 Microcontroller: Handles the signals, processes the data, and communicates with the
backend system.

3. Software (Backend System):

 Middleware: Software that collects, aggregates, and processes data from the reader.

 Database: Stores and organizes the data for various applications.

Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs)

Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) involve distributed, resource-constrained nodes that sense, process, and
wirelessly communicate data to a central base station for analysis. Their history traces back to military
systems, while modern WSNs are self-organizing and often form a core component of the Internet of
Things (IoT), connecting physical environments to the digital world. Each node typically contains a sensor,
processor, and communication system, which gather and transmit data through various topologies
like mesh or star networks.

History and Context

 Origins:The roots of WSNs can be found in the 1950s with the military's Sound Surveillance
System (SOSUS), which used sensors to detect submarines.

 Evolution:The development of cheaper cameras, microprocessors, and wireless technologies led to

the evolution of WSNs, enabling them to monitor a broader range of environmental and physical
conditions.

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  Purpose:WSNs serve to gather and relay data from the physical world to the digital world, enabling
richer data understanding and control over surroundings.

The Node

 Components:A WSN node consists of a sensor subsystem to detect physical quantities, a processing
system for data handling, and a communication system for wireless transmission.

 Characteristics:Nodes are resource-constrained, featuring limited processing power, memory, and

battery life.

Key Components and Functions

 Sensing Unit:This includes the actual sensor that detects physical phenomena (like temperature,
pressure, or light) and an analog-to-digital converter (ADC) to convert the analog signal into a
digital format for processing.

 Processing Unit:A microcontroller that processes the digital sensor data and performs computations
as needed.

 Memory Unit:Used for storing sensor data and program instructions.

 Communication Unit (Transceiver):Enables the node to transmit data to other nodes or a central
point and receive commands or data from them.

 Power Source:A battery or other energy-harvesting mechanism that powers the node, often a critical
constraint due to its limited lifespan.

How it Works

1. Data Acquisition: The sensor detects a physical input (e.g., heat) and generates an analog signal.

2. Conversion: The ADC converts this analog signal into a digital format.

3. Processing: The microcontroller processes the digital data, potentially performing local analysis or
filtering.

4. Storage: Processed data may be stored in memory for later transmission or use.

5. Communication: The transceiver transmits the processed data wirelessly to other nodes or a sink for
further aggregation and analysis.

Applications
Sensor nodes are vital in various fields:

 Internet of Things (IoT):They are a core component of IoT systems, providing real-time data for
smart homes, cities, and appliances.

 Environmental Monitoring:Used for tracking air and water quality, climate conditions, and natural
disaster detection.

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  Industrial Automation:Enabling monitoring of machinery, processes, and product quality in real-
time.

 Health Monitoring:In medical applications, sensor nodes can monitor vital signs and transmit data
for remote care.

Connecting Nodes (Network Topology)

Connecting nodes in an IoT network involves using gateways and communication protocols like Wi-Fi,
Bluetooth, or cellular to establish paths for data to flow between devices and the cloud, often utilizing
a central platform like Node-RED to manage and integrate hardware, APIs, and online services into a
cohesive network. Network topologies, such as mesh networks, can be used for efficient and scalable data
exchange, with nodes transmitting data directly to other nodes for increased resilience and performance.

Key Components & Concepts

 IoT Nodes:

These are the physical devices, sensors, or equipment that collect data from the physical world and bridge it
to the internet.

 Gateways:

Nodes that provide the connection point from the local network of devices to a wider network, such as the
internet.

 Protocols:

Communication methods like Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, cellular (including technologies like Sigfox and NB-IoT),
and MQTT are used by nodes to send and receive data.

 Network Topologies:

 Star Topology: All devices connect directly to a central gateway, creating a point of
dependency.

 Mesh Topology: Nodes can connect to multiple other nodes, allowing data to hop between
them and creating more robust, self-healing networks.

Steps to Connect IoT Nodes

1. Select Connectivity:

Choose the appropriate communication technology (Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, cellular) based on range, power, and
data requirements.

2. Establish a Path:

Connect the devices to a gateway or directly to the internet if they are cellular-connected nodes.

3. Utilize an IoT Platform:

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Use platforms like Node-RED, which are built on Node.js, to create "flows" by connecting different nodes
(devices, APIs, services) on a graphical canvas.

4. Configure Nodes:

Drag and drop nodes onto the canvas and configure them to read data, modify messages, and route
information between different parts of the IoT system.

5. Deploy and Monitor:

Deploy the application to see messages in the debug console, which helps in tracking data flow and
identifying potential issues.

Networking Nodes (WSN Functionality):

 Self-Organization:Nodes form a network and update their routing tables to maintain network
infrastructure.

 Data Aggregation:Nodes collect and aggregate data from various locations before sending it to a
network layer or central base station for analysis.

 Coordinated Operation:While nodes are independent, they collaborate to fulfill tasks, as a single
node is often insufficient.

WSN and IoT:

 Integration:WSNs are a fundamental component of the IoT, providing the physical sensors and
network infrastructure for the Internet of Things.

 Data Flow:WSNs bridge the physical world with the digital realm, enabling the collection,
processing, and analysis of real-world data via the internet.

 Applications:The combined WSN and IoT framework facilitates applications in areas like
environmental monitoring, smart agriculture, industrial control, and smart healthcare.

Relationship Between WSN and IoT

 WSN as a Subset:A WSN can serve as the sensing layer within a larger IoT system.

 Data Flow:In this scenario, the WSN collects local data, and that data is then sent via a router to an
IoT gateway or directly to the internet for processing, analysis, and intelligent action by the IoT
system.

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