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 Terrorism and Homeland Security, © 2009, 2006 Wadsworth Cengage Learning
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About the Author

Jonathan White is Professor of Criminal Justice at Grand Valley State

University, Grand Rapids, Michigan, and a Senior Research Associate for
the Institute for Intergovernmental Research, Tallahassee, Florida. He
holds a Ph.D. in Criminal Justice and Criminology from Michigan State
University and a Master of Divinity from Western Theological Seminary.
He teaches classes on religious terrorism for the Department of Justice,
Bureau of Justice Assistance, State and Local Anti-Terrorism Training
(SLATT) program, and at the FBI Academy in Quantico, Virginia. He has
also worked with several foreign police agencies and the United States
Department of State Anti-Terrorism Assistance program.

iv
 Brief Contents

PART I A Basic Introduction to Terrorism / 1

1 Terrorism Defined / 2
2 Conceptualizing Terrorism: Criminological, Political,
and Religious Underpinnings / 22
3 The Organization and Financing of Terrorism / 44
4 Terrorism and the Media / 73
5 Tactics and Force Multipliers / 97

PART II The History and Development of Terrorism / 117

6 The Beginnings of Modern Terrorism / 118
7 The Irish Troubles / 140
8 Latin American Influences on Terrorism / 161
9 Background to the Middle East / 184

PART III Terrorism Today / 215

10 The Question of Israel and Palestine / 216
11 International Umbrella Groups and
Terror Networks / 247
12 Africa, Asia, and the Pacific Rim / 279
13 Europe, Turkey, and Russia / 316
14 The Structure and Study of Domestic Terrorism / 346

PART IV Homeland Security / 391

15 An Introduction to Homeland Security
and Terrorism Prevention / 392
16 Law Enforcement Bureaucracy and
Homeland Security / 429
17 Homeland Security and Civil Liberties / 458

v
Contents

Preface / xvii

PART I

A Basic Introduction to Terrorism / 1

Chapter 1 Terrorism Defined / 2

The Pejorative Meaning of Terrorism / 3
The Context of Definitions / 6
Historical Circumstances / 6
War and Violence / 8
Political Power / 8
Repression / 9
Media Coverage / 9
Crime / 9
Religion / 9
Specific Forms of Terrorism / 10
A Range of Definitions / 10
Typologies of Terrorism / 12
Toward a Tactical Typology of Terrorism / 14
Defining the “War on Terrorism” / 19

Chapter 2 Conceptualizing Terrorism: Criminological, Political,

and Religious Underpinnings / 22
Terrorism as a Social Process: Two Frameworks / 23
The Meaning Framework / 23
The Structural Framework / 25

vi
 Contents vii

Terrorism as a Religious Process: Anthropological and Sociological

Approaches / 28
Criminological Views of Terrorism: Crime for a Cause / 30
The Process of Moral Justification / 34
Early Studies on Group Reinforcement and Isolation / 35
Recent Studies on the Justification of Violence:
Multiple Factors / 36
Classification Systems: Can the Terrorist Personality Be Profiled? / 38
Rejecting Terrorist Profiles / 39
Proposing a Multivariate Profile / 39

Chapter 3 The Organization and Financing of Terrorism / 44

Changing Dynamics and Structures / 45
Late Twentieth-Century Cells / 45
Newer Models: Umbrella Organizations and Modern Piracy / 48
Managing Terrorist Organizations / 51
Group Size and Length of Campaign / 52
Financing Modern Terrorism / 55
Funding: Sources and Networks / 57
Criminal Methods of Funding and Distribution / 58
Underground Networks and Organized Crime / 59
Legal Sources of Funding: Charities / 61
Nontraceable Funding: The Hawala System / 62
Legitimate Business Operations / 64
A Macroeconomic Theory of the New Terrorist Economy / 65
The Narco-terrorism Debate / 68
The Link between Drugs and Terrorism / 68
Narco-terrorism: Another View / 69

Chapter 4 Terrorism and the Media / 73

The Media and the Social Construction of Images / 74
Popular Media Misconceptions / 75
Tension between Security Forces and the Media / 76
The Media as a Weapon / 76
News Frames and Presentations / 77
Types of Frames / 78
Ambiguous Stories and News Frames / 79
Beating the War Drum / 80
Terrorism and Television / 80
viii Contents

The Internet and Terrorism / 83

Issues in the Media / 86
Liberal and Conservative Biases in Terrorism Reporting? / 86
The Contagion Effect / 91
Censorship Debates / 93

Chapter 5 Tactics and Force Multipliers / 97

The Tactics of Terrorism and Multiplying Force / 98
Technology / 100
Cyberterrorism / 101
WMD: Biological Agents / 102
WMD: Chemical and Radiological Weapons / 103
The Media as a Force Multiplier / 105
Economic Targeting and Transnational Attacks / 107
Tourism / 107
Energy / 108
Transportation / 110
Suicide Attacks and Religion / 110
A Theory of Suicide Terrorism / 111
Models for Suicide Bombing / 113

PART II

The History and Development of Terrorism / 117

Chapter 6 The Beginnings of Modern Terrorism / 118
Social Revolution and the Enlightenment / 119
The American Revolution, 1775–1783 / 120
The French Revolution, 1789–1799 / 122
The Reign of Terror / 123
Guerrillas and the Spanish Peninsula / 123
1848 and the Radical Democrats / 123
Socialists / 125
Anarchists / 126
Violent Anarchism / 127
Rhetoric, Internal Debates, and Action / 129
Anarchism and Nationalism / 132
A Contemporary Analogy? / 133
 Contents ix

Terrorism and Revolution in Russia: 1881–1921 / 134

The Peoples’ Will / 135
Czar Nicholas and the Revolutions of 1905 and 1917 / 136
Lenin and Trotsky / 137

Chapter 7 The Irish Troubles / 140

Vikings, Normans, and English Settlements, 800–1600 / 141
The Vikings / 141
The Normans / 142
The Reformation and Ireland / 143
The Plantation of Ulster, Oliver Cromwell, and the
Battle of the Boyne / 144
Republican Revolutionaries / 145
The Potato Famine / 146
Home Rule / 146
The Early Irish Republican Army / 148
The Easter Rising / 149
The Rising / 150
The Collapse of the Rising / 150
The Black and Tan War (1920–1921) / 151
Selective Terror / 152
Separation and Independence / 152
Trends in the IRA through 1985 / 153
Failed Civil Rights / 154
The Army and Overreaction / 155
Unionist Violence / 157

Chapter 8 Latin American Influences on Terrorism / 161

Toward a Theory of Urban Terrorism / 162
Frantz Fanon / 162
Carlos Marighella / 164
The Minimanual of the Urban Guerrilla / 166
Guerrilla War and a Rural Model of Terrorism / 166
The Cuban Revolution / 166
Guevara: On Guerrilla Warfare / 168
Debray: Expanding Guerrilla Warfare / 168
A Brief History of the Tupamaros: 1963–1972 / 169
Politics in Uruguay / 169
Raul Sendic: Waiting for the Guerrilla / 171
x Contents

The Urban Philosophy / 171

Following the Marighella Model / 172
The Influence of the Tupamaros / 174
Cold War or Urban Philosophy? / 175
Why Study the Tupamaros? / 175
Tupamaro Tactics / 177
Bank Robbery / 178
Kidnapping / 178
Organizational Characteristics / 179

Chapter 9 Background to the Middle East / 184

What Is the Middle East? / 185
Introduction to Islam / 186
The Centrality of Mohammed’s Revelation / 186
Creating the Muslim Community at Medina / 188
The Shiite-Sunni Split / 189
The Golden Age of Arabs / 190
Agrarian Response to Political Crisis / 191
Militant Philosophy / 192
Ibn Taymiyyah / 192
Abdul Wahhab / 193
Sayyid Qutb / 193
Modern Israel / 196
A Synopsis of Traditional Middle Eastern Issues / 196
Three Sources of Violence in Mahan’s Middle East / 198
The Early Zionist Movement in Palestine / 199
World War I and Contradictory Promises / 200
The Birth of Israel / 201
Arab Power Struggles and Arab-Israeli Wars / 202
The Rise of Terrorism / 205
Iran / 206
Uniquely Persian / 207
British Influence and Control / 207
Prelude to the 1979 Revolution / 208
The Revolution / 209
The Call to Karbala / 212
 Contents xi

PART III

Terrorism Today / 215

Chapter 10 The Question of Israel and Palestine / 216
PLO from the Six Days’ War to the Al Aqsa Intifada / 217
Fatah and the Six Days’ War / 218
Fatah after Karamah / 218
The PLO Expelled / 221
Black September and Munich / 222
The 1982 Invasion of Lebanon / 223
Factionalism in Palestinian Terrorism / 224
Divergent Terrorist Organizations / 224
The Abu Nidal Organization / 224
The Rise of Palestinian Islamic Jihad / 229
Hamas and the Rise of Religious Organizations / 232
An Overview of Hamas / 233
Struggles for Leadership / 234
The Al Aqsa Intifada / 234
The Future / 235
The Al Aqsa Martyrs Brigades / 237
Effective Tactics / 237
Leadership in the Martyrs Brigades / 238
Beginning a Network / 239
Violent Jewish Fundamentalism / 239
Kach / 239
Kahane Chai / 240
Gush Emunim / 240
Controversial Counterterrorist Policies / 242
Bulldozing / 242
Invading Lebanon / 242
The Wall / 243
Selective Assassination / 244

Chapter 11 International Umbrella Groups and

Terror Networks / 247
Hezbollah: Local and International / 248
The Metamorphosis of Hezbollah / 249
The Current State of Hezbollah / 254
xii Contents

A Sympathetic View of Hezbollah / 255

A Critical View of Hezbollah / 256
Umbrellas and Networks in North Africa / 258
The Armed Islamic Group / 258
The Egyptian Islamic Group / 260
Egyptian Islamic Jihad / 261
The Growth of International Jihadist Networks / 262
The Birth of Al Qaeda / 262
Misappropriated Theology / 263
The Origins of Jihadist Networks / 265
Jihad Continues in Afghanistan / 266
The Rise of Osama bin Laden / 266
Declaring War on the United States / 271
Eclectic Disassociation: Fifth-Generation Jihadists / 273
Decentralized Operations / 274
Communication and Sympathy / 275
Operation Iraqi Freedom and the Jihad / 275

Chapter 12 Africa, Asia, and the Pacific Rim / 279

Sub-Saharan Africa / 280
Sources of African Terrorism / 280
Oil Regions / 281
Terrorism in the Horn / 285
Unconventional War / 287
Iraq / 288
Afghanistan / 291
Asia / 292
Central Asia / 293
China’s Problems in Xinjiang / 296
The Maoist Rebellion in Nepal / 298
Terrorism on the Indian Subcontinent / 299
Pakistan / 299
Bangladesh / 301
Sri Lanka / 302
India / 306
Southeast Asia and the Pacific Rim / 309
Thailand / 309
Indonesia / 310
The Philippines / 311
Radicals and Religion in Japan / 312
 Contents xiii

Chapter 13 Europe, Turkey, and Russia / 316

Terrorism in Western Europe / 317
Ireland and the Peace Process / 318
The Basque Nation and Liberty / 320
The Demise of the Left in Europe / 323
Jihadist Operations in Western Europe / 328
Turkey / 331
Turkey’s Struggle with Terrorism / 332
The Kurdistan Workers Party and Its Alter Egos / 333
The Russian Federation / 337
Breakaway States and Crime / 337
Chechnya / 338

Chapter 14 The Structure and Study of

Domestic Terrorism / 346
Early Studies of Domestic Terrorism / 347
Nixon’s National Advisory Commission / 347
Bell and Gurr: Examining the History of Domestic Terrorism / 348
The Problem of Understanding Terrorism by Law Enforcement / 350
Terrorism Happens in Other Places / 350
Classifying Terrorism as Normal Crime / 350
Uneven Historical Development / 351
Confusing Hate Crime and Terrorism / 351
Classifying Terrorism in Criminal Justice / 352
The FBI Classification System / 353
Using the Classification System / 354
From Pipe Bombs and Dreams to Geospatial Analysis / 355
Pipe Dreams / 355
Leaderless Resistance and Geospatial Findings / 358
Jihadists in America / 361
International Jihadists / 361
Homegrown Jihadists / 366
Nationalistic Separatism: The Case of Puerto Rico / 368
The Evolution of Revolutionary Groups / 368
The Future of Puerto Rican Terrorism / 368
Right-Wing Violence / 369
The Development of Right-Wing Violence / 370
Christian Identity / 371
Contemporary Right-Wing Behavior, Beliefs, and Tactics / 372
xiv Contents

Right-Wing Conspiracies, Militias, and the Call to Arms / 375

The Turner Diaries and Hunter: Blueprints
for Revolution / 378
The Decline of the Left and the Rise of Single Issues / 379
Transformation to Single Issues / 380
Ecoterrorism, Animal Rights, and Genetic Engineering / 380
Black Hebrew Israelism: An Apocalyptic Single Issue / 382
Antiabortion Violence / 383

PART IV

Homeland Security / 391

Chapter 15 An Introduction to Homeland Security

and Terrorism Prevention / 392
Defining Homeland Security / 393
Searching for Defined Roles / 394
Security Missions / 395
Agencies Charged with Preventing and Interdicting Terrorism / 396
The Department of Homeland Security / 396
The Department of Justice / 397
The Department of Defense / 399
The Intelligence Community / 399
State, Local, and Tribal Law Enforcement / 400
Rethinking Conflict / 401
Networks and Law Enforcement / 401
Blurring War and Peace / 403
Networks and Classical Theories of Conflict / 404
Pearl Harbor and 9/11: Two Different Worlds / 407
Redefining Conflict: A New Approach to the Military / 408
Operating Deeply in Society / 408
A New Map for the Pentagon / 410
Building Intelligence Systems / 410
The Intelligence Process / 411
National Security and Criminal Intelligence / 411
A Checkered Past / 412
The New Jersey Intelligence System / 414
The California Intelligence System / 415
The NYPD Intelligence System / 416
U.S. Attorneys and JTTFs / 416
Plans, Networks, and Fusion Centers / 417
 Contents xv

Issues in Homeland Security / 419

Law Enforcement’s Special Role / 419
The Role of Symbols and Structures / 420
Planning for Homeland Security / 422
Creating a Culture of Information Sharing / 422
Intelligence and the 9/11 Commission Report / 424

Chapter 16 Law Enforcement Bureaucracy and

Homeland Security / 429
The Bureaucracy Challenge / 430
The Weberian Ideal / 431
Bureaucracy and Preventing Terrorism / 432
Intelligence and Bureaucracy / 433
State, Local, and Tribal Law Enforcement Bureaucracies / 435
Border Protection / 437
Policy Disputes / 438
The Immigration Debate / 439
Infrastructure Protection / 441
Private versus Governmental Partnerships / 442
The Need for Private Partnerships / 443
Governmental Partnerships / 444
The Federal Mission / 444
Expanding Local Roles / 445
Thinking Internationally / 445
Bureaucratic Problems / 447
Federal Rivalries / 447
FBI versus Locals / 448
Local Control and Revenue Sources / 448
Legal Bureaucracy / 449
Bureaucratic Solutions / 449
Border Security: Critique and Reform / 450
Preparing for Successful Law Enforcement Processes / 453
New Approaches to the Law Enforcement Mission / 454
Responding to Disasters / 455

Chapter 17 Homeland Security and Civil Liberties / 458

Security and Liberty / 459
Human Rights and Civil Liberties / 460
Defense in Depth / 461
xvi Contents

Civil Liberties and Federal Power / 464

The USA Patriot Act of 2001 / 464
The Debate about Governmental Power / 466
Debate and the 2006 Law / 469
Terrorism and the Constitution / 470
Constitutional Concerns / 470
Increased Executive Powers / 472
Limiting Executive Powers / 474
Executive Power and the Courts / 476
Civil Liberties and Police Work / 477
Controversies in Law Enforcement / 478
National Security and Crime / 479
Intelligence, Networks, and Roles / 480
Militarization and Police Work / 482

Glossary / 486
Works Cited / 505
Index / 551
Preface

This is a book written to introduce criminal justice and other social sci-
ence students to the field of terrorism. It is designed for students in law
enforcement, security, and military studies who have little or no under-
standing of the world of terrorism, and those readers who want to under-
stand terrorism as a social phenomenon. It is also written for students and
practitioners who are charged (or will be charged) with security opera-
tions. This revision is based on requests and comments from scholars and
practitioners in the field. It incorporates several new features designed to
enhance student comprehension with two recurring themes. First, the
major purpose of the book is to provide basic knowledge for further un-
derstanding. Second, this book focuses on the prevention of terrorism.
Issues in terrorism are emotionally charged. Therefore, the informa-
tion is presented from various positions. While it is written for those who
will counter terrorism, the purpose is to explain various points of view
without taking sides. This is true whether examining issues like the Israel-
Palestine conflict or the controversy surrounding the Patriot Act. Hope-
fully, the text presents enough information to allow students to make
informed decisions and to engage in critical thinking. The topics are de-
signed to increase classroom discussions, individual reflection, and stu-
dent research.

New Features
There are several new or enhanced features in this edition:
• Reorganization The Sixth Edition has been reorganized into four
sections to move students from complex introductory issues through to
efforts to prevent terrorism. The first part deals with theoretical and crim-
inological issues. The second part brings detailed historical discussions of
the birth and evolution of terrorism movements in various parts of the
world. Part III deals with contemporary international and domestic ter-
rorism, and the final part focuses on issues surrounding the prevention of
terrorism through homeland security.
• Enhanced History Contemporary terrorism is not practiced in a vac-
uum. Modern terrorism grew from the French Revolution into today’s

xvii
xviii Preface

international religious-inspired violence. An entire section of the book is

devoted to the historical explanation of the transformation of terrorism
over the past two centuries.
• Expanded Geographical Discussions The new edition includes
new areas of focus such as the Horn of Africa, Central Asia, the Pacific
Rim, and the Indian subcontinent. It also has a section on homegrown
terrorism.
• Running Glossary Since many concepts and key points are new to
students, a running glossary on the side of each page further explains
key terms used in the text. This is designed to improve student compre-
hension.
• Summary Questions The major sections of each chapter are fol-
lowed by summary questions. These questions are designed to help stu-
dents recall what they have read and to develop broad themes that relate
the major issues to one another.
• Essay Questions Each chapter closes with three essay questions to
relate the major themes of each chapter to each other and to push stu-
dents toward critical thought. Students are asked to consider various posi-
tions, to choose their own approach, and to cite evidence to support their
positions.
• Focus on Intelligence Terrorism frequently blurs the line between
law enforcement and national security intelligence. New chapter sections
in Part IV deal with law enforcement intelligence systems, fusion centers,
and national security intelligence. Each discussion is enhanced with dia-
grams and flow charts.
• Civil Liberties The prevention of terrorism involves intelligence
gathering and criminal investigation. These issues can threaten civil lib-
erties, and an entire chapter of the new edition focuses on civil liberties
from various perspectives.
• New Maps and Graphics Several professors have requested more
maps and new graphic summaries of information. These have been added
to the Sixth Edition.
• Another Point of View Many issues in terrorism and homeland se-
curity go beyond a two-sided debate. Therefore, sidebars labeled “Another
Point of View” appear in many chapters. These sidebars introduce contro-
versial opinions and alternative understandings of social processes.
• Updated Information Terrorism is perpetually in transition. The
material in the Sixth Edition is updated to reflect the latest information in
international and domestic terrorist activity.

Supplements
A number of pedagogic supplements are provided by Wadsworth to help
instructors use Terrorism and Homeland Security, Sixth Edition, in their
courses and to aid students in preparing for exams. Supplements are
available to qualified adopters. Please consult your local sales represen-
tative for details.
 Preface xix

For the Instructor

Instructor’s Resource Manual with Test Bank
Fully updated and revised, the Instructor’s Resource Manual with Test Bank
for this edition includes learning objectives, detailed chapter outlines,
key terms and figures, class discussion exercises, lecture suggestions,
and a complete test bank. Reviewed and revised by Criminal Justice
instructors, the Test Bank provides hundreds of test items, including
multiple choice, true/false, fi ll-in-the-blank, and essay questions. Our
Instructor Approved seal, which appears on the front cover, is our as-
surance that you are working with an assessment and grading resource
of the highest caliber. Each chapter’s test bank contains approximately
80 multiple-choice, true-false, fi ll-in-the-blank, and essay questions,
which are coded according to difficulty level, and which include a full
answer key.

Lesson Plans
New to this edition of Terrorism and Homeland Security, the instructor-
created Lesson Plans bring accessible, masterful suggestions to every
lesson. The Lesson Plans include a sample syllabus, learning objectives,
lecture notes, discussion topics, in-class activities, tips for classroom
presentation of chapter material, a detailed lecture outline, and assign-
ments for each chapter.

eBank PowerPoint Slides

These handy Microsoft® PowerPoint® presentations will save you time in
preparing engaging lectures and presentations for your course.

InfoTrac® College Edition

NOT SOLD SEPARATELY. Now available, free four-month access to In-
foTrac College Edition’s online database of more than 18 million reli-
able, full-length articles from 5,000 academic journals and periodicals
(including The New York Times, Science, Forbes, and USA Today). Access in-
cludes InfoMarks—stable URLs that can be linked to articles, journals,
and searches. InfoMarks allow you to use a simple copy and paste tech-
nique to create instant and continually updated online readers, content
services, bibliographies, electronic “reserve” readings, and current topic
sites. In addition, ask about other InfoTrac College Edition resources
available, including InfoMarks print and Online Readers with readings,
activities, and exercises hand-selected to work with the text. And to help
students use the research they gather, their free four-month subscription
to InfoTrac College Edition includes access to InfoWrite, a complete set
of online critical thinking and paper writing tools. (Certain restrictions
may apply. For additional information, please consult your local Wads-
worth representative.)
xx Preface

Classroom Activities for Criminal Justice

This valuable booklet, available to adopters of any Wadsworth crimi-
nal justice text, offers instructors the best of the best in criminal jus-
tice classroom activities. Containing both tried-and-true favorites and
exciting new projects, its activities are drawn from across the spectrum
of criminal justice subjects, including introduction to criminal justice,
criminology, corrections, criminal law, policing, and juvenile justice,
and can be customized to fit any course. Novice and seasoned instructors
alike will fi nd it a powerful tool to stimulate classroom engagement.

For the Student

Current Perspectives: Readings from InfoTrac®
College Edition
These readers, designed to give students a closer look at special topics
in criminal justice, include free access to InfoTrac College Edition. The
timely articles are selected by experts in each topic from within InfoTrac
College Edition. They are available free when bundled with the text.

Terrorism and Homeland Security 0-495-12994-1

Cyber Crime 0-495-00722-6
Juvenile Justice 0-495-12995-X
Crisis Management and National Emergency Response 0-495-12996-8
Racial Profiling 0-495-10383-7
New Technologies and Criminal Justice 0-495-10384-5
White-Collar Crime 0-495-10385-3

Terrorism: An Interdisciplinary Perspective, Third Edition

This provocative booklet includes a background to terrorism, the his-
tory of Middle Eastern terrorism, the intersection of religion and terror-
ism, the role of globalization, and domestic responses and repercussions.
Also available online.

Handbook of Selected Supreme Court Cases

for Criminal Justice
This supplementary handbook covers almost 40 landmark cases, each
of which includes a full case citation, an introduction, a summary from
WestLaw, excerpts from the case, and the decision. The updated edition
includes Hamdi v. Rumsfeld, Roper v. Simmons, Ring v. Arizona, Atkins v. Vir-
ginia, Illinois v. Caballes, and much more.

Careers in Criminal Justice 3.0 Interactive CD-ROM

Help your students fi nd the criminal justice careers that are right for
them. This CD includes 58 job descriptions, self-assessments, career
 Preface xxi

worksheets, and web links to help your students fi nd careers of interest.

Includes video interviews with criminal justice professionals.

Guide to Careers in Criminal Justice

This handy guide gives students information on a wide variety of career
paths, including requirements, salaries, training, contact information
for key agencies, and employment outlooks.

Writing and Communicating for Criminal Justice

This book contains articles on writing skills, along with basic grammar
review and a survey of verbal communication on the job, that will give
students an introduction to academic, professional, and research writ-
ing in criminal justice. The voices of professionals who have used these
techniques on the job will help students see the relevance of these skills
to their future careers.

Careers Website
The Careers in Criminal Justice Website provides students with exten-
sive career profi ling information and self-assessment testing, and is de-
signed to help them investigate and focus on the criminal justice career
choices that are right for them. With links and tools to assist students in
fi nding a professional position, this new version includes ten new Ca-
reer Profi les and four new Video Interviews, bringing the total number
of careers covered to 64.

Acknowledgments
Many people assisted by listening to concepts, critiquing ideas, or read-
ing manuscripts. Special thanks go to: Dr. David Carter, Michigan State
University; Dr. Richard Holden, Director of SLATT; Dr. Robert Taylor,
University of North Texas; Dr. Brent Smith, University of Arkansas; Dr.
Randy Borum, University of South Florida; Dr. Richard Ward and Dr.
Sean Hill, Sam Houston State University; Mr. D. Douglas Bodrero, Presi-
dent of IIR; Mr. Richard Marquise, FBI retired; and the reviewers of the
manuscript of this text:

Lee Ayers-Schlosser, Southern Oregon University

Damon D. Camp, Georgia State University
Robert Castelli, Iona College
James Jengeleski, Shippensburg University
John Neiswender, Curry College
Kathleen Sweet, Purdue University

Your ideas improved the product. The faults are mine, the improvements
belong to you.
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