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This page intentionally left blank
 INTERNATIONAL COMPETITION LAW

Should an international competition agreement be incorporated into the

World Trade Organisation? Taylor examines this question, arguing that
such an agreement would be beneficial. Existing initiatives towards the
regulation of cross-border, anti-competitive conduct have clear limitations
that could be overcome by an agreement, and the WTO would provide the
optimal institutional vehicle for it. At a practical level, Taylor points out, an
international competition agreement could address under-regulation and
over-regulation in the trade–competition regulatory matrix, realising sub-
stantive benefits to international trade and competition. This book iden-
tifies the appropriate content and structure for a plurilateral competition
agreement and proposes a draft negotiating text with accompanying com-
mentary, and as such will be an invaluable tool for policy-makers, WTO
negotiators, competition and trade lawyers, and international jurists.

martyn d. taylor specialises in competition law, international eco-

nomic law, telecommunications law and media & technology law, and has
advised a diverse range of clients in a number of jurisdictions. He has
worked or studied in the UK, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, China,
Japan, Singapore and Hong Kong and he holds a PhD, LLM, BSc, LLB
(Hons) and BA(Economics)(Hons) with first class honours. Dr Taylor has
spoken at a number of international conferences and has published exten-
sively, including as a contributor to Merger Control Worldwide (Cambridge
University Press, 2005).
 INTERNATIONAL
COMPETITION LAW
A New Dimension for the WTO?

MARTYN D. TAYLOR
cambridge university press
Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo

Cambridge University Press

The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge cb2 2ru, UK
Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York
www.cambridge.org
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521863896

© Martyn D. Taylor 2006

This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provision of

relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place
without the written permission of Cambridge University Press.

First published in print format 2006

isbn-13 978-0-511-24562-6 eBook (EBL)

isbn-10 0-511-24562-9 eBook (EBL)

isbn-13 978-0-521-86389-6 hardback

isbn-10 0-521-86389-9 hardback

Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of urls
for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication, and does not
guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.
To my beautiful wife, Meena, and our daughters, Maya and Tara.
In loving memory of my mother.
 CONTENTS

List of tables and figures page xii

List of abbreviations xv
1 Introduction 1

part i An International Competition Agreement

is Desirable
2 Is competition law beneficial? 7
2.1 What is competition law and what is its rationale and
philosophy? 8
2.2 Distributional fairness as a co-objective of competition law 24
2.3 How does competition law relate to other governmental laws and
policies? 28
2.4 Conclusion: competition law is beneficial 33

3 Is an international competition agreement desirable? 34

3.1 The globalisation of competition 35
3.2 Extraterritoriality and jurisdictional conflict (a ‘non-co-operative’
approach) 53
3.3 Conclusion: an international competition agreement
is desirable 69

4 Is there a sufficient basis for an international competition

agreement? 71
4.1 Competition laws within the Asia-Pacific Economic
Community 72
4.2 Macro issues: objectives, methodology and structure of
competition laws 76
4.3 Micro issues: particular content and application of
competition laws 79
4.4 Regulation of market structure – merger laws 84

vii
viii contents

4.5 Regulation of unilateral conduct – anti-monopoly laws 89

4.6 Regulation of concerted conduct – horizontal and
vertical agreements 93
4.7 Exemptions from the application of competition laws 97
4.8 Administration and enforcement of domestic
competition laws 100
4.9 Conclusion: there is a sufficient basis for an international competition
agreement 103

5 Have existing cross-border initiatives

proved sufficient? 106
5.1 A network of bilateral competition agreements 107
5.2 The current momentum towards plurilateral agreement 122
5.3 Current initiatives towards the realisation of multilateral
agreement 129
5.4 Insights into an international competition agreement 139
5.5 Conclusion: existing initiatives towards the regulation of cross-border
conduct have clear limitations that could be overcome by an
international competition agreement 142

part ii The WTO Would Provide a Suitable Institutional

Vehicle
6 Would the WTO provide a suitable institutional
vehicle for an international competition
agreement? 147
6.1 Historical relationship between trade law and
competition law 148
6.2 Are international trade law and international competition law
complementary? 163
6.3 Can international trade theory and international competition theory
be reconciled? 176
6.4 Conclusion: the WTO could provide a suitable institutional vehicle for
an international competition agreement 183

7 Would a WTO competition agreement promote international

trade? 185
7.1 The effects of anti-competitive practices on international
trade 187
 contents ix

7.2 The Kodak-Fuji Film case – application of WTO law to

anti-competitive conduct 191
7.3 To what extent do domestic competition laws otherwise prevent such
conduct? 201
7.4 International Conduct 212
7.5 Existing WTO provisions regulating Domestic Conduct and
International Conduct 217
7.6 Conclusion: an international competition agreement would promote
international trade 221

8 Would competition regulation of trade measures promote

competition? 224
8.1 The effects of trade measures on international competition 226
8.2 Domestic Measures 232
8.3 International Measures 241
8.4 Government Commercial Activities 251
8.5 Conclusion: competition regulation of trade measures would promote
competition 257

9 Should competition principles be introduced into

anti-dumping law? 260
9.1 The basis and purpose of modern anti-dumping law 261
9.2 International competition law as an alternative to
anti-dumping law 271
9.3 Conclusion: competition principles should be introduced into
anti-dumping law 283

part iii The Optimal Form for a WTO Competition

Agreement
10 What are the optimal objectives and principles for a WTO
competition agreement? 289
10.1 What would be the optimal institutional vehicle for an international
competition agreement? 289
10.2 Existing proposals for a WTO competition
agreement 298
10.3 The objectives for a WTO competition agreement 315
10.4 Core principles for a WTO competition agreement 318
10.5 Conclusion: the WTO is the optimal vehicle for an international
competition agreement 334
x contents

11 What is the optimal content for a WTO competition

agreement? 336
11.1 To what extent should any WTO competition agreement seek
to achieve harmonisation of domestic competition
laws? 337
11.2 To what extent should any WTO competition agreement seek to
proscribe minimum international standards? 348
11.3 To what extent should the provisions of a WTO competition
agreement be legally enforceable as binding precepts of
international law? 355
11.4 Amendments to existing WTO trade rules 365
11.5 Conclusions on optimal content and approach for a WTO
competition agreement 368

12 What is the optimal structure for a WTO competition

agreement? 370
12.1 What would be the most appropriate institutional basis for a WTO
competition agreement to promote effective compliance with its
substantive obligations? 371
12.2 What would be the most appropriate institutional basis for a WTO
competition agreement to mitigate potential international
competition disputes? 378
12.3 What would be the most appropriate institutional basis for a WTO
competition agreement to resolve international competition
disputes? 383
12.4 Would the suspension of trade concessions be an appropriate
sanction for a failure to comply with a WTO competition
agreement? 389
12.5 Conclusions on optimal institutional structure for a WTO
competition agreement 393

13 Would a WTO competition agreement be politically

achievable? 395
13.1 The negotiation of a WTO competition agreement 395
13.2 Meeting the concerns of developing countries 413
13.3 Four-point incremental strategy for realising a WTO competition
agreement 417
13.4 Conclusion: a plurilateral WTO competition agreement is politically
achievable 421
 contents xi

14 Conclusion: a plurilateral competition agreement should be

incorporated into the WTO 423
14.1 Summary 423
14.2 Conclusion 434

APPENDIX: Draft negotiating text for a plurilateral WTO

competition agreement 435

Index 483
 TABLES AND FIGURES

1 Structure of this book 3

2 Neoclassical (Marshallian) graphical representation of a
market 10
3 Neoclassical representation of monopoly pricing 17
4 Cumulative causation cycle of economic growth 22
5 Representation of the grand utility possibility frontier and
identification of the socially optimal point 25
6 Diagram illustrating the relationship between competition
law and competition policy 30
7 Three principal modes of supply into foreign markets 38
8 Diagram illustrating application of domestic competition law
to cross-border inter-firm commerce from Figure 7 39
9 Diagram illustrating application of domestic competition law
to cross-border intra-firm commerce from Figure 7 41
10 Conceptual diagram illustrating under-regulation 45
11 Conceptual diagram illustrating over-regulation 47
12 Conceptual diagram illustrating system frictions 49
13 Welfare consequences of under-regulation, over-regulation
and system frictions 50
14 Relationship between competition law enforcement and
content 82
15 Continuum of behavioural thresholds 91
16 Forms of business combination and their regulation by
competition law 93
17 Taxonomy of vertical agreements 96
18 Continuum of international agreements 107
19 Four principal elements of the First Generation Agreements 109
20 Six principal elements of the Second Generation Agreements 111
21 Six principal elements of the Third Generation Agreements 116
22 Procedural issues addressed by the ANZ Agreement 119

xii
 list of tables and figures xiii

23 Competition co-operation agreements within APEC 125

24 Competition issues addressed by the WTO Working Group 137
25 Institutional structure for the world economy proposed at
Bretton Woods (1947) 149
26 Existing competition law provisions in the WTO agreements 160
27 Matrix illustrating objectives of international trade policy and
international competition policy 168
28 Comparison between international trade law and policy and
international competition law and policy 171
29 Cross-perspectives between international trade law and
international competition law 177
30 Potential overlap between trade law and competition law 179
31 Venn diagram of relationship between barriers to trade and
barriers to market entry 181
32 Trade-competition regulatory matrix, showing regulatory
‘loopholes’ 189
33 Diagram illustrating analysis undertaken in Chapter 8 227
34 Governmental trade measures considered in Chapter 8 231
35 Application of a VER 242
36 Application of a VIE 247
37 Dumping occurs where the export price is less than normal
value 262
38 Effectiveness of each institutional structure 292
39 Scope of each institutional structure 293
40 Context for each institutional structure 295
41 Achievability of each institutional structure 299
42 Ranking to identify most suitable institutional vehicle for an
international competition agreement 300
43 Continuum indicating the extent to which the WTO could be
amended to incorporate competition rules 301
44 Convergence-harmonisation continuum illustrating
terminology 338
45 Illustration of marginal benefits in cost-benefit assessment 341
46 Illustration of marginal costs in cost-benefit assessment 345
47 Optimal extent of convergence of domestic competition laws 346
48 Indicative statistical distribution of domestic competition
laws with and without a minimum standard 349
49 Indicative distribution of domestic competition laws with and
without convergence to a minimum standard 358
xiv list of tables and figures

50 Continuum of regulatory approaches 364

51 Potential coercive relationships 372
52 Characteristics of the three principal types of competition
disputes 379
53 Negotiating positions of nations at the Doha Ministerial 406
54 Proposed modalities set out in draft Cancún Declaration 410
55 Negotiating positions of nations after the Cancún Ministerial 411
 ABBREVIATIONS

ABA American Bar Association

ACP African, Caribbean and Pacific Group
(Lomé Convention)
ANZ Australia and New Zealand
APEC Asia Pacific Economic Co-operation
ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations
CEECs Central and Eastern European Countries
CER Australia–New Zealand Closer Economic Relations Trade
Agreement
DC Developing country
EC European Commission
ECOSOC Economic and Social Council of the United Nations
EPG APEC Eminent Person Group
EU European Union (officially ‘European Communities’ in the
WTO)
FDI Foreign direct investment
FTAIA (US) Foreign Trade Antitrust Improvements Act
FTC (US) Federal Trade Commission
GATS General Agreement on Trade in Services
GATT General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GNP Gross National Product
GSP Generalised System of Preferences
GUPF Grand Utility Possibility Frontier
IAA International Antitrust Authority (as proposed by the
Munich Group)
IAEAA International Antitrust Enforcement Assistance Agreements
IAEA Act (US) International Antitrust Enforcement Assistance Act
1994
IBRD International Bank for Reconstruction and Development
(World Bank)
xv
xvi list of abbreviations

ICJ International Court of Justice

IIE Institute of International Economics
IMF International Monetary Fund
ITO International Trade Organisation (never established)
JFTC Japanese Fair Trade Commission
KHE Kaldor-Hicks efficiency
LDCs Less developed and developing countries
(for this book)
MFN Principle of most favoured nation treatment
MLAT Mutual Legal Assistance Treaty
MTN Multilateral trade negotiations
NAFTA North American Free Trade Agreement
NT Principle of national treatment
OAS Organisation of American States
OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
OPEC Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries
PECC Pacific Economic Co-operation Council
S&D Special and differential treatment
SCP Structure-conduct-performance
STE State Trading Enterprise
TPRB Trade Policy Review Body
TPRM Trade Policy Review Mechanism
TRIMS Trade-Related Investment Measures
TRIPS Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights
UN United Nations
UNCTAD United Nations Conference on Trade and Development
USTR United States Government Office of the Trade
Representative
VER Voluntary export restraint
VIE Voluntary import expansions
VRA Voluntary restraint agreement
WTO World Trade Organisation
WTO DSB World Trade Organisation Dispute Settlement Body
 1

Introduction

Modern business operates in a world that is highly economically

integrated, but that remains politically, culturally and legally diverse.
Notwithstanding globalisation, law and politics is still organised primar-
ily on the basis of nation-states. National laws reflect significant social and
political differences between nations. A fragmented international regula-
tory environment has evolved in which each government has developed
its own unique approach to the regulation of conduct that affects its
territory, often without regard to the effect of that regulation on other
nations.
Competition law (or ‘antitrust law’ as it is known in the United States) is
one form of such regulation. Competition law involves laws that promote
or maintain market competition by regulating anti-competitive conduct.
However, modern competition laws have traditionally evolved to promote
and maintain competition in markets principally within the territorial
boundaries of each nation-state. Domestic competition laws are not
usually concerned with activity beyond territorial borders unless it has
significant domestic effects.
This limited territorial approach has created difficulties in an increas-
ingly globalised world in which transactions subsume multiple territorial
spaces. Anti-competitive conduct may have adverse economic effects
in multiple jurisdictions, unconfined by territorial boundaries. In this
manner, while competition law remains essentially national, competi-
tion issues have become increasingly international, creating a regulatory
disjunction. To the extent the effect of anti-competitive conduct crosses
territorial boundaries, it may escape effective regulation.
On the one hand, under-regulation may occur. Anti-competitive
conduct may not be prevented due to ineffective regulation, particularly
as firms have every incentive to structure their arrangements to arbi-
trage cross-border regulatory differences. Conversely, over-regulation may
occur. Legitimate competition may be impeded by excessive regulation,
particularly where regulation aggregates over multiple jurisdictions.
1
2 international competition law

Historically, to address perceived under-regulation of anti-competitive

conduct, nations commenced applying their domestic competition laws
on an extraterritorial basis to regulate foreign anti-competitive practices
with adverse effects on their domestic markets. As identified in Chapter 3
of this book, such extraterritorial application of competition laws remains
limited and has created significant jurisdictional conflict.
More recently, to address both under-regulation and over-regulation,
nations have sought to negotiate bilateral co-operation agreements in
relation to competition law matters. As identified in Chapter 5 of this
book, while such bilateral agreements clearly assist, they do have clear
limitations. As a result, international attention has turned to the possibility
of negotiating a multilateral agreement on competition law, referred to
in this book as an ‘international competition agreement’.
Historically, the potential for an international competition agreement
has been recognised by several initiatives. In 1945, in negotiations preced-
ing the adoption of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (‘GATT’),
limited international competition obligations were proposed within the
Charter for an International Trade Organisation. While these obligations
were not adopted within the GATT at its inception in 1947, a number of
attempts were subsequently made to incorporate competition provisions.
In 1994, with the conclusion of the Uruguay Round of GATT Multilateral
Negotiations, the World Trade Organisation (‘WTO’) was created. The
Agreement Establishing the WTO included a range of limited provisions
addressing various cross-border competition issues on a sector-specific
basis
Following further consideration of international competition issues,
a formal WTO Working Group on the Interaction Between Trade and
Competition Policy was established by a WTO Ministerial Conference in
Singapore in 1996. The WTO Working Group has investigated various
issues relating to the incorporation of competition law and policy into
the WTO. Other organisations, such as the World Bank, the Organisa-
tion for Economic Co-operation and Development (‘OECD’), and the
International Bar Association, have also contributed to the analysis under
a variety of different initiatives. More recently, WTO Ministerial Con-
ferences in Doha (2001) and Cancún (2003), have contemplated formal
WTO negotiations on competition law and policy.
Accordingly, international competition issues now have a prominent
position on the international trade policy agenda.
With this background in mind, this book proposes that an international
competition agreement should be incorporated into the WTO in the form
identified in this book.
 introduction 3

Proposal
A plurilateral competition agreement should be incorporated into the WTO in the form
identified in this book.

Parts of this book Chapters of this book

An international competition An international competition agreement is desirable
agreement is desirable (Part I). and would be welfare-enhancing relative to the status
quo (Chapters 2 and 3).
There is a sufficient basis for an international
competition agreement (Chapter 4).
Existing initiatives towards the regulation of
cross-border anti-competitive conduct have clear
limitations that could be overcome by an international
competition agreement (Chapter 5).

The WTO could provide a The WTO could provide a suitable institutional vehicle
suitable institutional vehicle for for an international competition agreement. The
an international competition relationship between international trade law and
agreement (Part II). international competition law can be reconciled at a
theoretical level by the concept of market contestability
(Chapter 6).
At a practical level, an international competition
agreement could address under-regulation and
over-regulation in the trade-competition regulatory
matrix, realising substantive benefits to international
trade and competition (Chapters 7, 8 and 9).

The optimal form for an The WTO would provide the optimal institutional
international competition vehicle for an international competition agreement
agreement at the present time (Chapter 10).
would be a plurilateral WTO The optimal content, approach and structure for a
agreement in the form WTO competition agreement can be clearly
identified in this book (Part III). ascertained (Chapters 10, 11 and 12).
A multilateral WTO competition agreement would not
be politically achievable at the present time. However,
a plurilateral WTO competition agreement would be
politically achievable (Chapter 13).
Bearing the above in mind, a plurilateral agreement
should be incorporated into the WTO in the form set
out in the Appendix to this book (Chapter 14,
Appendix).

Figure 1: Structure of this book

4 international competition law

In order to work through these issues systematically, this book is divided

into three main parts as identified in Figure 1:
r Part I of this book identifies that an international competition agree-
ment is desirable. Such an agreement would be welfare-enhancing and
would address externalities in the cross-border regulation of competi-
tion. There is a sufficient basis for such an agreement. Existing initiatives
towards the regulation of cross-border anti-competitive conduct have
clear limitations that could be overcome by such an agreement.
r Part II of this book identifies that the WTO could provide a suitable
institutional vehicle for an international competition agreement. The
relationship between international trade law and international com-
petition law can be reconciled at a theoretical level by the concept of
market contestability. At a practical level, an international competition
agreement could address under-regulation and over-regulation in the
trade–competition regulatory matrix, realising substantive benefits to
international trade and competition.
r Part III of this book identifies that the optimal form for an inter-
national competition agreement would be a plurilateral WTO agree-
ment. A multilateral WTO competition agreement would not be polit-
ically achievable at this time. This book concludes by identifying the
appropriate content and structure for a plurilateral WTO competition
agreement and proposes a draft negotiating text with accompanying
commentary.
This book is intended to make a substantive contribution to knowl-
edge in this area with the intention of assisting policy-makers, lawyers,
diplomats, officials, academics, jurists and experts alike in identifying the
basis for, and formulating, an international competition agreement.
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