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 Translat ion Studies
At a time when millions travel around the planet – some by choice,
some driven by economic or political exile – translation of the
written and spoken word is of ever increasing importance. This
guide presents readers with an accessible and engaging intro-
duction to the valuable position translation holds within literature
and society.

Leading translation theorist Susan Bassnett traces the history of

translation, examining the ways translation is currently utilized as
a burgeoning interdisciplinary activity and extending her analysis
into developing areas such as developing technologies and new
media forms.

Translation Studies, fourth edition displays the importance of trans-

lation across disciplines, and is essential reading for students and
scholars of translation, literary studies, globalization studies and
ancient and modern languages.

Susan Bassnett is Professor of Comparative Literature at the

University of Warwick. She has published extensively on trans-
lation, and her best known books include Reflections on Translation
(2011), Constructing Cultures written with André Lefevere (1996)
and Post-Colonial Translation co-edited with Harish Trivedi (1999).
She translates from several languages and lectures on aspects of
translation all over the world.
 IN THE SAME SERIES
Alternative Shakespeares ed. John Drakakis
Alternative Shakespeares: Volume 2 ed. Terence Hawkes
Critical Practice Catherine Belsey
Deconstruction: Theory and Practice Christopher Norris
Dialogue and Difference: English for the Nineties ed. Peter Brooker
and Peter Humm
The Empire Writes Back: Theory and Practice in Post-Colonial
Literature Bill Ashcroft, Gareth Griffiths and Helen Tiffin
Fantasy: The Literature of Subversion Rosemary Jackson
Dialogism: Bakhtin and his World Michael Holquist
Formalism and Marxism Tony Bennett
Making a Difference: Feminist Literary Criticism ed. Gayle Green
and Coppélia Kahn
Metafiction: The Theory and Practice of Self-Conscious Fiction
Patricia Waugh
Narrative Fiction: Contemporary Poetics Shlomith Rimmon-Kenan
Orality and Literacy: The Technologizing of the Word Walter J. Ong
The Politics of Postmodernism Linda Hutcheon
Post-Colonial Shakespeares ed. Ania Loomba and Martin Orkin
Reading Television John Fiske and John Hartley
The Semiotics of Theatre and Drama Keir Elam
Sexual/Textual Politics: Feminist Literary Theory Toril Moi
Structuralism and Semiotics Terence Hawkes
Studying British Cultures: An Introduction ed. Susan Bassnett
Subculture: The Meaning of Style Dick Hebdige
Telling Stories: A Theoretical Analysis of Narrative Fiction
Steven Cohan and Linda M. Shires
Susan

Bassnett
Translation Studies

Fourth edition
First published in 1980 by Methuen & Co. Ltd
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
and by Routledge
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017
Second edition first published 1991
Third edition published 2002
This edition published 2014
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 1980, 1991, 2002, 2014 Susan Bassnett
The right of Susan Bassnett to be identified as author of this work has
been asserted by her in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the
Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced
or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means,
now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording,
or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in
writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or
registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and
explanation without intent to infringe.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Bassnett, Susan.
Translation studies / Susan Bassnett.—4th edition.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
1. Translating and interpreting. I. Title.
PN241.B265 2013
418′.02—dc23
2013017303

ISBN: 978–0–415–50670–0 (hbk)

ISBN: 978–0–415–50673–1 (pbk)
ISBN: 978–0–203–48823–2 (ebk)
Typeset in Joanna by RefineCatch Limited, Bungay, Suffolk
For my father, who made it all possible.
This page intentionally left blank
 CONTENTS

General editor’s preface to the third edition ix

Acknowledgements xi

Preface to the fourth edition 1

Introduction 14

1 Central issues 24
Language and culture 24
Types of translation 25
Decoding and recoding 26
Problems of equivalence 33
Loss and gain 39
Untranslatability 40
Visibility 46
Science or ‘secondary activity’? 47
2 History of translation theory 50
Problems of ‘period study’ 51
The Romans 53
Bible translation 56
Education and the vernacular 60
viii contents
Early theorists 63
The Renaissance 65
The seventeenth century 67
The eighteenth century 70
Romanticism 72
Post-Romanticism 75
The Victorians 76
Archaizing 80
The twentieth century to the 1970s 81
The coming of age of Translation Studies 83

3 Specific problems of literary translation 88

Structures 88
Poetry and translation 92
Translating prose 119
Translating dramatic texts 128
Translation in the twenty-first century 141

Appendix: The original text of The Seafarer 149

Notes 153
Select bibliography 165
Index 185
GENERAL EDITOR’S PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION

No doubt a third General Editor’s Preface to New Accents seems hard to

justify. What is there left to say? Twenty-five years ago, the series began
with a very clear purpose. Its major concern was the newly perplexed
world of academic literary studies, where hectic monsters called
‘Theory’, ‘Linguistics’ and ‘Politics’ ranged. In particular, it aimed itself
at those undergraduates or beginning postgraduate students who were
either learning to come to terms with the new developments or were
being sternly warned against them.
New Accents deliberately took sides. Thus the first Preface spoke darkly,
in 1977, of ‘a time of rapid and radical social change’, of the ‘erosion
of the assumptions and presuppositions’ central to the study of litera-
ture. ‘Modes and categories inherited from the past’ it announced, ‘no
longer seem to fit the reality experienced by a new generation’. The
aim of each volume would be to ‘encourage rather than resist the
process of change’ by combining nuts-and-bolts exposition of new
ideas with clear and detailed explanation of related conceptual devel-
opments. If mystification (or downright demonisation) was the
enemy, lucidity (with a nod to the compromises inevitably at stake
there) became a friend. If a ‘distinctive discourse of the future’
beckoned, we wanted at least to be able to understand it.
With the apocalypse duly noted, the second Preface proceeded
x general editor’s preface to the third edition

piously to fret over the nature of whatever rough beast might stagger
portentously from the rubble. ‘How can we recognise or deal with the
new?’, it complained, reporting nevertheless the dismaying advance of
‘a host of barely respectable activities for which we have no reassuring
names’ and promising a programme of wary surveillance at ‘the
boundaries of the precedented and at the limit of the thinkable’. Its
conclusion, ‘the unthinkable, after all, is that which covertly shapes our
thoughts’ may rank as a truism. But in so far as it offered some sort of
useable purchase on a world of crumbling certainties, it is not to be
blushed for.
In the circumstances, any subsequent, and surely final, effort can
only modestly look back, marvelling that the series is still here, and not
unreasonably congratulating itself on having provided an initial outlet
for what turned, over the years, into some of the distinctive voices and
topics in literary studies. But the volumes now re-presented have more
than a mere historical interest. As their authors indicate, the issues they
raised are still potent, the arguments with which they engaged are still
disturbing. In short, we weren’t wrong. Academic study did change
rapidly and radically to match, even to help to generate, wide reaching
social changes. A new set of discourses was developed to negotiate
those upheavals. Nor has the process ceased. In our deliquescent world,
what was unthinkable inside and outside the academy all those years
ago now seems regularly to come to pass.
Whether the New Accents volumes provided adequate warning of,
maps for, guides to, or nudges in the direction of this new terrain is
scarcely for me to say. Perhaps our best achievement lay in cultivating
the sense that it was there. The only justification for a reluctant third
attempt at a Preface is the belief that it still is.

TERENCE HAWKES
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This book grew originally out of several years’ work with post-
graduates at the University of Warwick. The present, extended fourth
edition owes much to many more postgraduates, at universities around
world, and also to the many friends and colleagues engaged in trans-
lation in both theory and practice.
Special thanks are due to Caroline Parker for all her help with
preparing the manuscript for publication.
The author and publishers would like to thank the following
individuals and companies for granting permission to reproduce
material for this book:

E.J. Brill, Leiden, for the diagram taken from Eugene Nida’s Towards a
Science of Translating, 1964; MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass., for the dia-
gram from B.L. Whorf, Language Thought and Relativity, 1956; Oxford
University Press for Charles Kennedy’s translation of The Seafarer taken
from An Anthology of Old English Poetry (New York, 1960) and also for Sir
William Marris’s translation of Catullus Poem 13, first published in
1924; University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, for Frank Copley’s
translation of Catullus Poem 13, first published in 1957; Arnold
Mondadori for Ungaretti’s poem Un’altra notte and for the passage
xii acknowledgements

from Silone’s Fontamara; Stand for Charles Tomlinson’s translation and

Penguin Books Ltd for P. Creagh’s translation of Ungaretti’s poem;
Journeyman Press for G. David and E. Mossbacher’s translation of
Silone’s Fontamara; S. Fischer-Verlag, Frankfurt-am-Main for the
passage from Mann’s Der Zauberberg; Martin Secker & Warburg Ltd and
Alfred A. Knopf, Inc. for H.T. Lowe-Porter’s translation of Mann’s The
Magic Mountain; Faber and Faber Ltd for Robert Lowell’s translation of
Phaedra and Ezra Pound’s The Seafarer from The Translations of Ezra Pound;
Tony Harrison and Rex Collings, London, for Tony Harrison’s Phaedra
Brittanica.
 PREFACE TO THE
FOURTH EDITION

When this book first appeared in 1980, there seemed to be little

interest in the study of translation. Indeed, the notion of an inde-
pendent field, some would say discipline in its own right, focusing on
the theory and practice of translation would have been viewed with
astonishment in the academic world. Translator training programmes,
mostly outside the English-speaking world, provided professional
courses for business and industry, but translation was not a mainstream
university subject and when it was taught, appeared only as an adjunct
to foreign language learning.
Today that world has changed. Millions more people are moving
around the planet following the seismic changes of the late 1980s and
early 1990s, which saw the collapse of communism and the break-up
of the former Soviet Union, China opening her doors to the world, and
the end of apartheid in South Africa. The greater facility and lower
costs of international travel have also contributed to the movement of
peoples, so that today most societies are multilingual and multicultural
in ways that would have seemed impossible just a few years ago.
The 1980s was a decade of consolidation for the fledgling subject
known as Translation Studies. Having emerged onto the world stage in
the late 1970s, the subject began to be taken seriously, and was no
longer seen as an unscientific field of enquiry of secondary importance.
Throughout the 1980s interest in the theory and practice of translation
2 translation studies

grew steadily. Then, in the 1990s, Translation Studies finally came into
its own, for this proved to be the decade of its global expansion. Once
perceived as a marginal activity, translation began to be seen as a fun-
damental act of human exchange. Today, in the twenty-first century,
interest in the field has never been stronger and the study of translation
is taking place alongside an increase in its practice all over the world.
The electronic media explosion of the 1990s and its implications for
the processes of globalization highlighted issues of intercultural com-
munication. Not only has it become important to access more of the
world through the information revolution, but it has become urgently
important to understand more about one’s own point of departure. For
globalization has its antithesis, as has been demonstrated by the world-
wide renewal of interest in cultural origins and in exploring questions
of identity. Translation has a crucial role to play in aiding understand-
ing of an increasingly fragmentary world. The translator, as the Irish
scholar Michael Cronin has pointed out, is also a traveller, someone
engaged in a journey from one source to another. The twenty-first
century surely promises to be the great age of travel, not only across
space but also across time.1 Significantly, a major development in trans-
lation studies since the 1970s has been research into the history of
translation in different cultures, for an examination of how translation
has helped shape our knowledge of the world in the past better equips
us to shape our own futures.
Evidence of the interest in translation is everywhere. A great many
books on translation have appeared steadily throughout the past three
decades, new journals of translation studies have been established, and
international professional bodies such as the European Society for
Translation (EST) and the International Association for Translation and
Intercultural Studies (IATIS) have come into being. There are now a
number of translation encyclopaedias, Handbooks and Companions of
Translation Studies, along with Readers and other anthologies, many of
which enable research that appeared in small out-of-print journals to
be made available to a new generation of readers. The important work
of James Holmes, for example, who first coined the term ‘translation
studies’ in 1972, is now widely available. New courses on translation
in universities from Hong Kong to Brazil, from Montreal to Vienna
offer further evidence of extensive international interest in translation
 preface to the fourth edition 3
studies. There is no sign of this interest slowing down in the twenty-
first century; rather, it shows the extent to which a reappraisal of the
significance of translation in today’s world and in history is taking
place.
With so much energy directed at further investigation of the
phenomenon of translation, it is obvious that any such development
will not be homogeneous and that different trends and tendencies are
bound to develop. We should not be surprised, therefore, that con-
sensus in translation studies disappeared in the 1990s. However, that
has been followed by lively diversification that continues today around
the world. During the 1980s, Ernst-August Gutt’s relevance theory, the
skopos theory of Katharina Reiss and Hans Vermeer, and Gideon Toury’s
research into pseudotranslation all offered new methods for approach-
ing translation, while in the 1990s the enormous interest generated by
corpus-based translation research as articulated by Mona Baker opened
distinct lines of enquiry that continue to flourish. Indeed, after a period
in which research in computer translation seemed to have foundered,
the importance of the relationship between translation and the new
technology has risen to prominence and shows every sign of becoming
even more important in the future. Research into audiovisual trans-
lation, internet translation, news translation and the translation of
political discourse are among the fastest-growing fields at the present
time. Nevertheless, despite the diversity of methods and approaches,
one common feature of much of the research in Translation Studies is
an emphasis on cultural aspects of translation, on the contexts within
which translation occurs. Once seen as a sub-branch of linguistics,
translation today is perceived as an interdisciplinary field of study
and the indissoluble connection between language and way of life has
become a focal point of scholarly attention.
The apparent division between cultural and linguistic approaches to
translation that characterized much translation research until the 1980s
is disappearing, partly because of shifts in linguistics that have seen that
discipline take a more overtly cultural turn, partly because those who
advocated an approach to translation rooted in cultural history have
become less defensive about their position. In the early years when
Translation Studies was establishing itself, its advocates positioned
themselves against both linguists and literary scholars, arguing that
4 translation studies

linguists failed to take into account broader contextual dimensions and

that literary scholars were obsessed with making pointless evaluative
judgements. It was held to be important to move the study of transla-
tion out from under the umbrella of either comparative literature or
applied linguistics, and fierce polemics arguing for the autonomy of
Translation Studies were common. Today, such an evangelical position
seems quaintly outdated, and Translation Studies is more comfortable
with itself, better able to engage in borrowing from and lending tech-
niques and methods to other disciplines. The important work of trans-
lation scholars based in linguistics, such figures as Mona Baker, Roger
Bell, Basil Hatim, Ian Mason, Kirsten Malmkjaer, Katharina Reiss, Hans
Vermeer and Wolfram Wilss, to name but some of the better-known,
has done a great deal to break down the boundaries between disci-
plines and to move translation studies on from a position of possible
confrontation. Nor should we forget the enormous importance of such
figures as J.C. Catford, Michael Halliday, Peter Newmark and Eugene
Nida whose research into translation before Translation Studies started
to evolve as a discipline in its own right laid the foundations for what
was to follow.
Literary studies have also moved on from an early and more elitist
view of translation. As Peter France, editor of the Oxford Guide to Literature
in English Translation points out:

Theorists and scholars have a far more complex agenda than deciding
between the good and the bad; they are concerned, for instance,
to tease out the different possibilities open to the translator, and
the way these change according to the historical, social, and cultural
context.2

There is a growing body of research that reflects this newer, more

complex agenda, for as research in Translation Studies increases and
historical data become more readily available, so important questions
are starting to be asked, about the role of translation in shaping a
literary canon, the strategies employed by translators and the norms
in operation at a given point in time, the discourse of translators, the
problems of measuring the impact of translations and, most recently,
the problems of determining an ethics of translation.
 preface to the fourth edition 5
Perhaps the most exciting new trend of all is the expansion of the
discipline of Translation Studies beyond the boundaries of Europe. In
Canada, India, Hong Kong, China, Africa, Brazil and Latin America, the
concerns of scholars and translators have diverged significantly from
those of Europeans. More emphasis has been placed on the inequality
of the translation relationship, with writers such as Gayatri Chakravorty
Spivak, Tejaswini Niranjana and Eric Cheyfitz arguing that translation
was effectively used in the past as an instrument of colonial domi-
nation, a means of depriving the colonized peoples of a voice. For in the
colonial model, one culture dominated and the others were subser-
vient, hence translation reinforced that power hierarchy. As Anuradha
Dingwaney puts it,

The processes of translation involved in making another culture com-

prehensible entail varying degrees of violence, especially when the
culture being translated is constituted as that of the “other”.3

In the 1990s two contrasting images of the translator emerged.

According to one reading of the translator’s role, the translator is a
force for good, a creative artist who ensures the survival of writing
across time and space, an intercultural mediator and interpreter, a
figure whose importance to the continuity and diffusion of culture is
immeasurable. In contrast, another interpretation sees translation as a
highly suspect activity, one in which an inequality of power relations
(inequalities of economics, politics, gender and geography) is reflected
in the mechanics of textual production. As Mahasweta Sengupta argues,
translation can become submission to the hegemonic power of images
created by the target culture:

a cursory review of what sells in the West as representative of India

and its culture provides ample proof of the binding power of represen-
tation; we remain trapped in the cultural stereotypes created and
nurtured through translated texts.4

Translation scholarship in the twenty-first century continues to

emphasize the unequal power relationships that have characterized the
translation process. But whereas in earlier centuries this inequality was
6 translation studies

presented in terms of a superior original and an inferior copy, today

the relationship is considered from other points of view that can best
be termed post-colonial. Parallel to the exciting work of Indian, Chi-
nese and Canadian translation scholars, writers such as Octavio Paz,
Carlos Fuentes and Haroldo and Augusto de Campos have called for a
new definition of translation. Significantly, all these writers have come
from countries located in the continent of South America, from former
colonies engaged in reassessing their own past. Arguing for a rethink-
ing of the role and significance of translation, they draw parallels with
the colonial experience. For just as the model of colonialism was based
on the notion of a superior culture taking possession of an inferior one,
so an original was always seen as superior to its ‘copy’. Hence the
translation was doomed to exist in a position of inferiority with regard
to the source text from which it was seen to derive.
In the new, post-colonial perception of the relationship between
source and target texts, that inequality of status has been rethought.
Both original and translation are now viewed as equal products of the
creativity of writer and translator, though as Paz pointed out, the task of
these two is different. It is up to the writer to fix words in an ideal,
unchangeable form and it is the task of the translator to liberate those
words from the confines of their source language and allow them
to live again in the language into which they are translated.5 In con-
sequence, the old arguments about the need to be faithful to an ori-
ginal start to dissolve. In Brazil, the cannibalistic theory of textual
consumption, first proposed in the 1920s, has been reworked to offer
an alternative perspective on the role of the translator, one in which the
act of translation is seen in terms of physical metaphors that stress both
the creativity and the independence of the translator.6
Today the movement of peoples around the globe can be seen to
mirror the very process of translation itself, for translation is not just
the transfer of texts from one language into another, it is now rightly
seen as a process of negotiation between texts and between cultures, a
process during which all kinds of transactions take place mediated by
the figure of the translator. Significantly, cultural theorist Homi Bhabha
uses the term ‘translation’ not to describe a transaction between texts
and languages but in the etymological sense of being carried across
from one place to another. He uses translation metaphorically to
 preface to the fourth edition 7
describe the condition of the contemporary world, a world in which
millions migrate and change their location every day. In such a world,
translation is fundamental:

We should remember that it is the ‘inter’ – the cutting edge of transla-

tion and renegotiation, the in-between space – that carries the burden
of the meaning of culture.7

Central to the many theories of translation articulated by non-

European writers are three recurring strategems: a redefinition of the
terminology of faithfulness and equivalence, the importance of high-
lighting the visibility of the translator and a shift of emphasis that
views translation as an act of creative rewriting. The translator is seen as
a liberator, someone who frees the text from the fixed signs of its
original shape making it no longer subordinate to the source text but
visibly endeavouring to bridge the space between source author and
text and the eventual target language readership. This revised perspec-
tive emphasizes the creativity of translation, seeing in it a more har-
monious relationship than the one in previous models that described
the translator in violent images of ‘appropriation’, ‘penetration’ or
‘possession’. The post-colonial approach to translation is to see lin-
guistic exchange as essentially dialogic, as a process that happens in a
space that belongs to neither source nor target absolutely. As Vanamala
Viswanatha and Sherry Simon argue, ‘translations provide an especially
revealing entry point into the dynamics of cultural identity-formation
in the colonial and post-colonial contexts.’8
Until the end of the 1980s Translation Studies was dominated by the
systemic approach pioneered by Itamar Even-Zohar and Gideon Toury.
Polysystems theory was a radical development because it shifted the
focus of attention away from arid debates about faithfulness and
equivalence towards an examination of the role of the translated text in
its new context. Significantly, this opened the way for further research
into the history of translation, leading also to a reassessment of the
importance of translation as a force for change and innovation in
literary history.
In 1995, Gideon Toury published Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond,
a book that reassessed the polysystems approach disliked by some
8 translation studies

scholars for its over-emphasis on the target system. Toury maintains

that since a translation is designed primarily to fill a need in the target
culture, it is logical to make the target system the object of study. He
also points out the need to establish patterns of regularity of trans-
lational behaviour, in order to study the way in which norms are for-
mulated and how they operate. Toury explicitly rejects any idea that the
object of translation theory is to improve the quality of translations:
theorists have one agenda, he argues, while practitioners have different
responsibilities. Although Toury’s views are not universally accepted
they are widely respected, and it is significant that during the 1990s
there was a great deal of work on translation norms and a call for
greater scientificity in the study of translation.
Polysystems theory filled the gap that opened up in the 1970s
between linguistics and literary studies and provided the base upon
which the new interdisciplinary Translation Studies could build.
Central to polysystems theory was an emphasis on the poetics of the
target culture. It was suggested that it should be possible to predict the
conditions under which translations might occur and to predict also
what kind of strategies translators might employ. To ascertain whether
this hypothesis was valid and to establish fundamental principles, case
studies of translations across time were required, hence the emergence
of what has come to be termed descriptive studies in translation. Transla-
tion Studies began to move out into a distinctive space of its own,
beginning to research its own genealogy and seeking to assert its
independence as an academic field.
Whereas previously the emphasis had previously been on compar-
ing original and translation, often with a view to establishing what had
been ‘lost’ or ‘betrayed’ in the translation process, the new approach
took a resolutely different line, seeking not to evaluate but to
understand the shifts of emphasis that had taken place during the trans-
fer of texts from one literary system into another. Polysystems theory
focused exclusively on literary translation, though it operated with an
enlarged notion of the literary which included a broad range of items
of literary production including dubbing and subtitling, children’s
literature, popular culture and advertising.
Through a series of case studies, this broadening of the object of
study led to a division within the group of translation scholars loosely
 preface to the fourth edition 9
associated with the polysystems approach. Some, such as Theo Her-
mans and Gideon Toury sought to establish theoretical and method-
ological parameters within which the subject might develop, and
others such as André Lefevere and Lawrence Venuti began to explore
the implications of translation in a much broader cultural and histor-
ical frame. Lefevere first developed his idea of translation as refraction
rather than reflection, offering a more complex model than the old
idea of translation as a mirror of the original. Inherent in his view of
translation as refraction was a rejection of any linear notion of the
translation process. Texts, he argued, have to be seen as complex signi-
fying systems and the task of the translator is to decode and re-encode
whichever of those systems is accessible.9 Lefevere noted that much of
the theorizing about translation was based on translation practice
between European languages and pointed out that problems of the
accessibility of linguistic and cultural codes intensifies once we move
out beyond Western boundaries. In his later work, Lefevere expanded
his concern with the metaphorics of translation to an enquiry into
what he termed the conceptual and textual grids that constrain both
writers and translators, suggesting that

Problems in translating are caused at least as much by discrepancies

in conceptual and textual grids as by discrepancies in languages.10

These cultural grids determine how reality is constructed in both

source and target texts, and the skill of the translator in manipulating
these grids will determine the success of the outcome. Lefevere argues
that these cultural grids, a notion deriving from Pierre Bourdieu’s
notion of cultural capital, highlight the creativity of the translator, for
he or she is inevitably engaged in a complex creative process.
Similarly, Venuti insists upon the creativity of the translator and
upon the his or her visible presence in a translation.11 So important
did research into the visibility of the translator become in the 1990s,
that it can be seen as a distinct line of development within the subject
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source and target cultures ‘is a reminder that no act of interpretation
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