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          C# 7.0
          in a Nutshell
                                                 NOTE
 All code listings for Chapters 2 through 10, plus the chapters on concurrency, parallel programming, and
 dynamic programming are available as interactive (editable) LINQPad samples. You can download the whole
 lot in a single click: go to LINQPad’s Samples tab at the bottom left, click “Download more samples,” and
 choose “C# 7.0 in a Nutshell.”
Conventions Used in This Book
The book uses basic UML notation to illustrate relationships between types, as
shown in Figure P-1. A slanted rectangle means an abstract class; a circle means an
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Using Code Examples
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Acknowledgments
Joseph Albahari
First, I want to thank my brother, Ben Albahari, for persuading me to take on C# 3.0
in a Nutshell, whose success has spawned three subsequent editions. Ben shares my
willingness to question conventional wisdom, and the tenacity to pull things apart
until it becomes clear how they really work.
It’s been an honor to have superb technical reviewers on the team. In this and the last
edition, we had invaluable and extensive feedback from Rod Stephens, Jared
Parsons, Stephen Toub, Matthew Groves, Dixin Yan, Lee Coward, Bonnie DeWitt,
Wonseok Chae, Lori Lalonde and James Montemagno.
The book was built on previous editions, whose technical reviewers I owe a similar
honor: Eric Lippert, Jon Skeet, Stephen Toub, Nicholas Paldino, Chris Burrows,
Shawn Farkas, Brian Grunkemeyer, Maoni Stephens, David DeWinter, Mike
Barnett, Melitta Andersen, Mitch Wheat, Brian Peek, Krzysztof Cwalina, Matt
Warren, Joel Pobar, Glyn Griffiths, Ion Vasilian, Brad Abrams, Sam Gentile, and
Adam Nathan.
I appreciate that many of the technical reviewers are accomplished individuals at
Microsoft, and I particularly thank you for taking out time to raise this book to the
next quality bar.
Finally, I want to thank the O’Reilly team and extend personal thanks to Li, Miri,
and Sonia.
Ben Albahari
Because my brother wrote his acknowledgments first, you can infer most of what I
want to say. :) We’ve actually both been programming since we were kids (we
shared an Apple IIe; he was writing his own operating system while I was writing
Hangman), so it’s cool that we’re now writing books together. I hope the enriching
experience we had writing the book will translate into an enriching experience for
you reading the book.
I’d also like to thank my former colleagues at Microsoft. Many smart people work
there, not just in terms of intellect but also in a broader emotional sense, and I miss
working with them. In particular, I learned a lot from Brian Beckman, to whom I am
indebted.
Chapter 1. Introducing C# and the
.NET Framework
                                                 NOTE
 C# also allows parts of your code to be dynamically typed via the dynamic keyword. However, C# remains a
 predominantly statically typed language.
C# is also called a strongly typed language because its type rules (whether enforced
statically or at runtime) are very strict. For instance, you cannot call a function that’s
designed to accept an integer with a floating-point number, unless you first explicitly
convert the floating-point number to an integer. This helps prevent mistakes.
Strong typing also plays a role in enabling C# code to run in a sandbox—an
environment where every aspect of security is controlled by the host. In a sandbox, it
is important that you cannot arbitrarily corrupt the state of an object by bypassing its
type rules.
Memory Management
C# relies on the runtime to perform automatic memory management. The Common
Language Runtime has a garbage collector that executes as part of your program,
reclaiming memory for objects that are no longer referenced. This frees programmers
from explicitly deallocating the memory for an object, eliminating the problem of
incorrect pointers encountered in languages such as C++.
C# does not eliminate pointers: it merely makes them unnecessary for most
programming tasks. For performance-critical hotspots and interoperability, pointers
and explicit memory allocation is permitted in blocks that are marked unsafe.
Platform Support
Historically, C# was used almost entirely for writing code to run on Windows
platforms. Recently, however, Microsoft and other companies have invested in other
platforms, including Linux, macOS, iOS, and Android. Xamarin™ allows cross-
platform C# development for mobile applications, and Portable Class Libraries are
becoming increasingly widespread. Microsoft’s ASP.NET Core is a cross-platform
lightweight web hosting framework that can run either on the .NET Framework or on
.NET Core, an open source cross-platform runtime.
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