UNIT 5
Ethnicity and Identity Politics in India
Ethnicity and Identity Politics in India: A Critical Explanation
Ethnicity and identity politics have played a significant role in shaping the political landscape of
India, contributing to the complexities of its democratic processes. The Indian subcontinent is
home to a rich diversity of languages, religions, castes, and cultures. This pluralistic fabric has
given rise to a dynamic and often contentious relationship between ethnic groups and the
political system, which, over time, has shaped both regional and national politics.
Ethnic Diversity and Identity Politics:
India is a mosaic of ethnic identities, each defined by linguistic, cultural, religious, and historical
factors. These identities, often rooted in long-standing traditions and historical experiences,
influence the ways in which groups organize themselves politically. In a country with more than
2,000 distinct ethnic groups and hundreds of languages, the diversity can be seen as both a
source of strength and a challenge to political unity.
Identity politics in India emerged in response to the perceived marginalization of certain
communities by the dominant political, social, and economic structures. Historically, this was
evident in the caste-based politics of the country, where groups like the Dalits, OBCs (Other
Backward Classes), and Adivasis (indigenous tribal communities) sought political representation
to address systemic inequalities. Over time, the assertion of ethnic identities, particularly
through regional movements, expanded this landscape of identity politics.
Ethnic Mobilization and Regional Movements:
One of the most potent forms of identity politics in India has been the regional movements
based on ethnic and linguistic identities. For instance, the demand for a separate Tamil Eelam in
Sri Lanka influenced the rise of Tamil nationalist movements in Tamil Nadu, where ethnic
identity intertwined with political demands for autonomy. Similarly, the demand for a separate
state of Telangana from Andhra Pradesh was a response to the feeling of neglect of the
Telangana region's economic and cultural needs, highlighting the role of regional ethnic
identities in shaping politics.
The North-East region of India also presents an example of ethnic identity-based political
movements. Various insurgent groups and political parties in states like Nagaland, Assam, and
Mizoram have used ethnicity as a rallying cry for greater autonomy or secession. These
movements have resulted in varying degrees of success, with some leading to the creation of
new states, while others have been suppressed by the central government.
Caste-Based Politics and Reservation System:
While ethnicity often involves linguistic and regional identity, caste-based politics in India has
been another crucial form of identity politics. The caste system, despite legal abolition,
continues to shape social hierarchies and political behavior. Politicians have often mobilized on
the basis of caste to gain support. The reservation system, which provides affirmative action for
Scheduled Castes (SCs), Scheduled Tribes (STs), and OBCs, is a direct result of caste-based
identity politics. Though the system has enabled greater social mobility for marginalized
communities, it has also created political tensions, as some groups demand expanded quotas,
while others argue that it perpetuates division and inefficiency.
Religious Identity and Political Polarization:
Religious identity politics has been another source of division in Indian politics, particularly with
the rise of Hindu nationalism. The Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), for example, has been closely
associated with the promotion of Hindu identity, often at the expense of minority religious groups
like Muslims and Christians. The use of religious symbols and rhetoric in political campaigns has
led to significant polarization in society, especially in states with substantial Muslim populations,
such as Uttar Pradesh and Kashmir. The Babri Masjid demolition in 1992 and the subsequent
rise of Hindutva ideology are key examples of how religion has been politicized to assert ethnic
and national identity.
Criticism of Identity Politics:
While identity politics has allowed marginalized groups to gain political power, it has also been
criticized for exacerbating divisions within Indian society. Critics argue that identity politics
undermines national unity and leads to fragmentation. The focus on group-based interests
sometimes leads to the neglect of broader national issues like economic development,
environmental sustainability, and social justice. Moreover, identity politics can result in the
politicization of cultural and historical differences, which can escalate tensions between ethnic
and religious communities.
Another critique of identity politics is that it often leads to the creation of "vote banks," where
political leaders exploit the ethnic or religious sentiments of certain groups to secure electoral
victories. This reduces the political process to mere group competition, sidelining issues of
governance, accountability, and policy.
Conclusion:
In India, ethnic and identity politics are deeply intertwined with the country's historical, social,
and economic structures. These politics have allowed marginalized groups to assert their rights
and gain political representation, but they have also contributed to division and polarization. The
challenge for India moving forward lies in balancing the recognition of diverse identities with the
need for national unity and social cohesion. Political leaders must strive to transcend
identity-based mobilization and address the broader concerns of governance, while also
respecting the country's rich diversity. Only by doing so can India navigate the complexities of
ethnic and identity politics and ensure that its pluralistic democracy continues to thrive.
Role of Caste and Tribal Issues in Indian Politics: A Critical Explanation
Caste and tribal issues have been central to the political, social, and economic landscape of
India. Despite the legal abolition of the caste system and the recognition of tribal communities,
these issues continue to significantly influence the structure and dynamics of Indian society. The
impact of caste and tribal identity in politics is multifaceted, affecting everything from political
mobilization to economic development, and often serving as a tool for both social justice and
political opportunism.
Caste-Based Politics:
The caste system, although officially abolished by the Indian Constitution, remains deeply
ingrained in India's social fabric. Caste-based identity politics has been a critical factor in
shaping the country's democratic processes. Historically, the caste system has perpetuated
social stratification, with marginalized groups such as Dalits (formerly known as Untouchables)
and Other Backward Classes (OBCs) at the bottom of the social hierarchy. These groups have
faced systematic discrimination and exclusion from mainstream social, economic, and political
life.
The Indian political system has responded to these inequalities through affirmative action
policies, such as reservations in education, employment, and politics for Dalits, OBCs, and
Scheduled Tribes (STs). These policies, while necessary for addressing historical injustices,
have also led to the rise of caste-based political mobilization. Political parties, especially those
aligned with Dalit and OBC interests, have sought to consolidate caste-based vote banks, often
framing their political strategies around caste identities. This has led to the emergence of
powerful caste-based parties, such as the Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP) and the Samajwadi Party
(SP), which primarily cater to the interests of Dalits and OBCs.
While caste-based politics has empowered marginalized communities, it has also led to
divisiveness and the politicization of caste identities. This has at times overshadowed issues
such as governance, development, and national unity. Moreover, the reservation system, while
providing opportunities for historically marginalized groups, has faced criticism for promoting
inequality, inefficiency, and creating resentment among non-reserved groups.
Tribal Issues and Politics:
Tribal issues, too, are deeply rooted in India's historical, cultural, and political landscape. Tribal
communities in India, often referred to as Adivasis, constitute a significant portion of the
population, particularly in states like Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, and Madhya Pradesh.
Tribal communities have traditionally been marginalized, facing exclusion from mainstream
society and economy, and their way of life has often been threatened by industrialization, land
acquisition, and forest policies.
Politically, tribal communities have long struggled to protect their land rights, cultural identity,
and autonomy. Tribal movements, particularly in regions like the Northeast and Central India,
have often been driven by the demand for greater self-determination, land rights, and protection
from exploitation. In some cases, these movements have led to insurgencies, as seen in the
Naxalite-Maoist conflict, where tribal groups have fought against the state for greater control
over their resources and greater recognition of their rights.
The political discourse surrounding tribal issues has largely been focused on the protection of
land, forest rights, and the preservation of tribal culture. Tribal communities have often faced
exploitation at the hands of both the state and private corporations, especially with regard to
land acquisition for mining, dam projects, and other development activities. The Forest Rights
Act (2006) and the Panchayats (Extension to Scheduled Areas) Act (1996) have been some
legislative efforts to address the concerns of tribal communities, but these laws have often been
poorly implemented, leading to continued marginalization.
The Intersection of Caste and Tribal Issues:
In some regions, caste and tribal issues intersect, particularly where Dalits and Adivasis coexist
in the same geographical or social spaces. In states like Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, and
Chhattisgarh, the conflict between Dalits and Adivasis for land and resources has created
complex political dynamics. The competition for political power, social resources, and access to
government schemes has sometimes resulted in tensions between these two groups, both of
which face discrimination but in different forms.
Furthermore, the role of caste and tribal identity in the context of affirmative action has led to
debates on the proper allocation of reservations. The inclusion of certain castes and tribes
under the "Scheduled" category has sparked disputes over who should benefit from affirmative
action, with some arguing that these measures disproportionately benefit certain groups at the
expense of others.
Criticism and Challenges:
While caste and tribal issues have led to some political empowerment for marginalized
communities, these issues also pose significant challenges. One of the primary criticisms is that
caste and tribal identity politics often lead to a focus on group-based interests at the expense of
broader societal development. This focus on identity-based mobilization can result in
divisiveness, neglect of universal issues such as education, healthcare, and economic growth,
and perpetuation of communal and ethnic tensions.
Moreover, the politicization of caste and tribal issues has sometimes been manipulated by
political parties to secure electoral gains, leading to the creation of vote banks that often
prioritize short-term political gains over long-term socio-economic development. The use of
caste-based rhetoric and promises of reservations can serve as a distraction from more
substantial issues of governance, corruption, and policy implementation.
Conclusion:
Caste and tribal issues remain fundamental to India's political landscape, shaping both the
opportunities and challenges faced by marginalized communities. While affirmative action
policies have helped address historical inequities, caste and tribal politics have also led to social
fragmentation and have been criticized for promoting divisive, identity-based politics. Moving
forward, it is essential for Indian society and politics to strike a balance between recognizing the
rights and identity of marginalized communities and fostering national unity and social cohesion.
Comprehensive policy reforms and the effective implementation of laws protecting caste and
tribal rights are critical for ensuring that these communities can fully participate in India's
development without being exploited or marginalized.
GENDER ISSUES IN INDIAN POLITICS
The Women’s Reservation Bill, also known as the Nari Shakti Vandan Adhiniyam, marks a
significant advancement toward gender equality in Indian politics. The bill, passed as the
Constitution (128th Amendment) Bill, aims to provide 33% reservation for women in the Lok
Sabha, state assemblies, and the Legislative Assembly of the National Capital Territory of
Delhi. It received strong bipartisan support, passing with near unanimity in both the Rajya
Sabha and the Lok Sabha by September 2023. This landmark legislation represents a bold
step toward addressing the gender disparity in India’s political representation.
The key provision of the bill is the reservation of “as nearly as possible” one-third of the seats for
women, which will include designated seats for Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, and
Anglo-Indians. However, its implementation is linked to the completion of the delayed 2021
census and subsequent delimitation exercise, after which the reserved seats will be allocated.
This reservation system will rotate every ten years, ensuring broader representation across
regions and communities. The bill will initially last for 15 years, with a parliamentary review to
determine its future course.
The journey to this historic moment has spanned decades of political discourse and failed
attempts. The first significant push came in 1987, under Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi, when a
committee recommended reserving seats for women in electoral bodies. The 1992
Constitutional Amendments mandated 33% reservations for women in local governance
(Panchayati Raj institutions), marking a milestone in women’s political participation. Subsequent
attempts, like the 1996 Women’s Reservation Bill and the 2008 Constitution (108th
Amendment), encountered hurdles due to political disagreements and concerns about the
representation of Other Backward Classes (OBCs). Despite setbacks, the BJP included the
reservation bill in its election manifestos in 2014 and 2019, reflecting its commitment to gender
parity in politics.
Gender dynamics in Indian politics have long been marked by underrepresentation of women.
Presently, women hold just 15% of Lok Sabha seats, and state legislative assemblies show
even lower participation. In comparison, countries like the Philippines, Bangladesh, and Nepal
have adopted similar measures and achieved higher representation. India's current ranking
highlights the need for substantial reforms to bridge the gender gap.
While the bill is celebrated as a step forward, concerns remain. Critics question the bill’s link to
delimitation, arguing it could lead to the selection of candidates based on factors other than
merit, which may compromise governance quality. Additionally, the limited focus on illiteracy
and economic empowerment could impede effective implementation.
In conclusion, the Women’s Reservation Bill is a crucial step in India’s quest for gender equality,
advocating for political justice and social change, echoing the vision of leaders like Hansa
Mehta, who emphasized that true progress for India is not possible without the cooperation of
women.
REGIONALISM AND POLITICS OF SUCCESSION AND SEPARATION
Regionalism and the politics of succession and separation are significant facets of political
dynamics in India, particularly in the context of its diverse social, cultural, and economic
landscape. India’s federal structure, which allows states considerable autonomy, has often
provided the ground for regional aspirations and demands for more power or even
independence. While regionalism refers to the political and cultural focus on a specific region,
the politics of succession and separation refers to movements where regions seek to break
away and form independent states or alter their political status within the union.
Regionalism in India is a result of various factors, including linguistic, ethnic, cultural, and
economic disparities. Regions with distinct identities often feel that their needs and interests are
not adequately represented at the national level. This sense of marginalization can lead to the
formation of regional parties that advocate for the protection of local interests, whether
economic, social, or political. Examples of regionalism in India include the demands from Tamil
Nadu for the protection of Tamil culture and language, Punjab’s push for greater autonomy due
to religious and cultural factors, and Telangana’s movement for statehood based on regional
economic and political disparities.
In some cases, regionalism transcends mere demands for autonomy and turns into a more
radical politics of succession and separation. These movements involve the desire for the
region to become an independent entity, separate from India. The most prominent example is
the Khalistan movement in the 1980s, where there was a demand for an independent Sikh
state in Punjab. Similarly, Nagaland and Kashmir have seen separatist movements driven by
ethnic, religious, or political discontent with the Indian state. While these movements were often
violent and met with strong opposition from the government, they highlight the tension between
central authority and regional demands.
However, not all regional demands lead to separatism. Many regional parties in India, such as
the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK) in Tamil Nadu or the Trinamool Congress (TMC) in
West Bengal, seek greater autonomy or fiscal benefits for their states rather than full
independence. These parties often aim to increase regional power within the framework of
Indian federalism, advocating for more resources, political control, and decision-making
autonomy without seeking secession.
The politics of succession and separation often raise constitutional and legal challenges. The
Indian Constitution does not permit the division of states without the consent of the
Parliament, and the process of secession is considered illegal under the Constitution’s
provisions. However, regionalist demands and the politics surrounding them remain an integral
part of India’s political discourse, challenging the state to balance national unity with regional
aspirations.
