en.wikipedia.

org /wiki/Biology

Genetics
Inheritance

Punnett square depicting a cross between two pea plants heterozygous for purple (B) and white (b) blossoms

Genetics is the scientific study of inheritance.[64][65][66] Mendelian inheritance, specifically, is the process by which genes and traits are passed on from parents to offspring.[26] It has
several principles. The first is that genetic characteristics, alleles, are discrete and have alternate forms (e.g., purple vs. white or tall vs. dwarf), each inherited from one of two parents.
Based on the law of dominance and uniformity, which states that some alleles are dominant while others are recessive; an organism with at least one dominant allele will display the
phenotype of that dominant allele. During gamete formation, the alleles for each gene segregate, so that each gamete carries only one allele for each gene. Heterozygotic individuals
produce gametes with an equal frequency of two alleles. Finally, the law of independent assortment, states that genes of different traits can segregate independently during the
formation of gametes, i.e., genes are unlinked. An exception to this rule would include traits that are sex-linked. Test crosses can be performed to experimentally determine the
underlying genotype of an organism with a dominant phenotype.[67] A Punnett square can be used to predict the results of a test cross. The chromosome theory of inheritance, which
states that genes are found on chromosomes, was supported by Thomas Morgans's experiments with fruit flies, which established the sex linkage between eye color and sex in these
insects.[68]

Genes and DNA

Further information: Gene and DNA

Bases lie between two spiraling DNA strands.

A gene is a unit of heredity that corresponds to a region of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) that carries genetic information that controls form or function of an organism. DNA is
composed of two polynucleotide chains that coil around each other to form a double helix.[69] It is found as linear chromosomes in eukaryotes, and circular chromosomes in
prokaryotes. The set of chromosomes in a cell is collectively known as its genome. In eukaryotes, DNA is mainly in the cell nucleus.[70] In prokaryotes, the DNA is held within the
nucleoid.[71] The genetic information is held within genes, and the complete assemblage in an organism is called its genotype.[72] DNA replication is a semiconservative process
whereby each strand serves as a template for a new strand of DNA.[69] Mutations are heritable changes in DNA.[69] They can arise spontaneously as a result of replication errors that
were not corrected by proofreading or can be induced by an environmental mutagen such as a chemical (e.g., nitrous acid, benzopyrene) or radiation (e.g., x-ray, gamma ray,
ultraviolet radiation, particles emitted by unstable isotopes).[69] Mutations can lead to phenotypic effects such as loss-of-function, gain-of-function, and conditional mutations.[69] Some
mutations are beneficial, as they are a source of genetic variation for evolution.[69] Others are harmful if they were to result in a loss of function of genes needed for survival.[69]

Gene expression

The extended central dogma of molecular biology includes all the processes involved in the flow of genetic information.

Gene expression is the molecular process by which a genotype encoded in DNA gives rise to an observable phenotype in the proteins of an organism's body. This process is
summarized by the central dogma of molecular biology, which was formulated by Francis Crick in 1958.[73][74][75] According to the Central Dogma, genetic information flows from DNA
to RNA to protein. There are two gene expression processes: transcription (DNA to RNA) and translation (RNA to protein).[76]

Gene regulation

The regulation of gene expression by environmental factors and during different stages of development can occur at each step of the process such as transcription, RNA splicing,
translation, and post-translational modification of a protein.[77] Gene expression can be influenced by positive or negative regulation, depending on which of the two types of regulatory
proteins called transcription factors bind to the DNA sequence close to or at a promoter.[77] A cluster of genes that share the same promoter is called an operon, found mainly in
prokaryotes and some lower eukaryotes (e.g., Caenorhabditis elegans).[77][78] In positive regulation of gene expression, the activator is the transcription factor that stimulates
transcription when it binds to the sequence near or at the promoter. Negative regulation occurs when another transcription factor called a repressor binds to a DNA sequence called an
operator, which is part of an operon, to prevent transcription. Repressors can be inhibited by compounds called inducers (e.g., allolactose), thereby allowing transcription to occur.[77]
Specific genes that can be activated by inducers are called inducible genes, in contrast to constitutive genes that are almost constantly active.[77] In contrast to both, structural genes
encode proteins that are not involved in gene regulation.[77] In addition to regulatory events involving the promoter, gene expression can also be regulated by epigenetic changes to
chromatin, which is a complex of DNA and protein found in eukaryotic cells.[77]

Genes, development, and evolution

Development is the process by which a multicellular organism (plant or animal) goes through a series of changes, starting from a single cell, and taking on various forms that are
characteristic of its life cycle.[79] There are four key processes that underlie development: Determination, differentiation, morphogenesis, and growth. Determination sets the
developmental fate of a cell, which becomes more restrictive during development. Differentiation is the process by which specialized cells arise from less specialized cells such as
stem cells.[80][81] Stem cells are undifferentiated or partially differentiated cells that can differentiate into various types of cells and proliferate indefinitely to produce more of the same
stem cell.[82] Cellular differentiation dramatically changes a cell's size, shape, membrane potential, metabolic activity, and responsiveness to signals, which are largely due to highly
controlled modifications in gene expression and epigenetics. With a few exceptions, cellular differentiation almost never involves a change in the DNA sequence itself.[83] Thus,
different cells can have very different physical characteristics despite having the same genome. Morphogenesis, or the development of body form, is the result of spatial differences in
gene expression.[79] A small fraction of the genes in an organism's genome called the developmental-genetic toolkit control the development of that organism. These toolkit genes are
highly conserved among phyla, meaning that they are ancient and very similar in widely separated groups of animals. Differences in deployment of toolkit genes affect the body plan
and the number, identity, and pattern of body parts. Among the most important toolkit genes are the Hox genes. Hox genes determine where repeating parts, such as the many
vertebrae of snakes, will grow in a developing embryo or larva.[84]

Evolution
Evolutionary processes

Natural selection for darker traits

Evolution is a central organizing concept in biology. It is the change in heritable characteristics of populations over successive generations.[85][86] In artificial selection, animals were
selectively bred for specific traits. [87] Given that traits are inherited, populations contain a varied mix of traits, and reproduction is able to increase any population, Darwin argued that
in the natural world, it was nature that played the role of humans in selecting for specific traits.[87] Darwin inferred that individuals who possessed heritable traits better adapted to their
environments are more likely to survive and produce more offspring than other individuals.[87] He further inferred that this would lead to the accumulation of favorable traits over
successive generations, thereby increasing the match between the organisms and their environment.[88][89][90][87][91]

Speciation

A species is a group of organisms that mate with one another and speciation is the process by which one lineage splits into two lineages as a result of having evolved independently
from each other.[92] For speciation to occur, there has to be reproductive isolation.[92] Reproductive isolation can result from incompatibilities between genes as described by
Bateson–Dobzhansky–Muller model. Reproductive isolation also tends to increase with genetic divergence. Speciation can occur when there are physical barriers that divide an
ancestral species, a process known as allopatric speciation.[92]

Phylogeny

Phylogenetic tree showing the domains of bacteria, archaea, and eukaryotes

A phylogeny is an evolutionary history of a specific group of organisms or their genes.[93] It can be represented using a phylogenetic tree, a diagram showing lines of descent among
organisms or their genes. Each line drawn on the time axis of a tree represents a lineage of descendants of a particular species or population. When a lineage divides into two, it is
represented as a fork or split on the phylogenetic tree.[93] Phylogenetic trees are the basis for comparing and grouping different species.[93] Different species that share a feature
inherited from a common ancestor are described as having homologous features (or synapomorphy).[94][95][93] Phylogeny provides the basis of biological classification.[93] This
classification system is rank-based, with the highest rank being the domain followed by kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, and species.[93] All organisms can be classified
as belonging to one of three domains: Archaea (originally Archaebacteria), Bacteria (originally eubacteria), or Eukarya (includes the fungi, plant, and animal kingdoms).[96]

History of life

The history of life on Earth traces how organisms have evolved from the earliest emergence of life to present day. Earth formed about 4.5 billion years ago and all life on Earth, both
living and extinct, descended from a last universal common ancestor that lived about 3.5 billion years ago.[97][98] Geologists have developed a geologic time scale that divides the
history of the Earth into major divisions, starting with four eons (Hadean, Archean, Proterozoic, and Phanerozoic), the first three of which are collectively known as the Precambrian,
which lasted approximately 4 billion years.[99] Each eon can be divided into eras, with the Phanerozoic eon that began 539 million years ago[100] being subdivided into Paleozoic,
Mesozoic, and Cenozoic eras.[99] These three eras together comprise eleven periods (Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous, Permian, Triassic, Jurassic,
Cretaceous, Tertiary, and Quaternary).[99]

The similarities among all known present-day species indicate that they have diverged through the process of evolution from their common ancestor.[101] Biologists regard the ubiquity
of the genetic code as evidence of universal common descent for all bacteria, archaea, and eukaryotes.[102][3][103][104] Microbial mats of coexisting bacteria and archaea were the
dominant form of life in the early Archean eon and many of the major steps in early evolution are thought to have taken place in this environment.[105] The earliest evidence of
eukaryotes dates from 1.85 billion years ago,[106][107] and while they may have been present earlier, their diversification accelerated when they started using oxygen in their
metabolism. Later, around 1.7 billion years ago, multicellular organisms began to appear, with differentiated cells performing specialised functions.[108]

Algae-like multicellular land plants are dated back to about 1 billion years ago,[109] although evidence suggests that microorganisms formed the earliest terrestrial ecosystems, at least
2.7 billion years ago.[110] Microorganisms are thought to have paved the way for the inception of land plants in the Ordovician period. Land plants were so successful that they are
thought to have contributed to the Late Devonian extinction event.[111]

Ediacara biota appear during the Ediacaran period,[112] while vertebrates, along with most other modern phyla originated about 525 million years ago during the Cambrian explosion.
[113] During the Permian period, synapsids, including the ancestors of mammals, dominated the land,[114] but most of this group became extinct in the Permian–Triassic extinction
event 252 million years ago.[115] During the recovery from this catastrophe, archosaurs became the most abundant land vertebrates;[116] one archosaur group, the dinosaurs,
dominated the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods.[117] After the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event 66 million years ago killed off the non-avian dinosaurs,[118] mammals increased
rapidly in size and diversity.[119] Such mass extinctions may have accelerated evolution by providing opportunities for new groups of organisms to diversify.[120]

Diversity
Bacteria and Archaea

Bacteria are a type of cell that constitute a large domain of prokaryotic microorganisms. Typically a few micrometers in length, bacteria have a number of shapes, ranging from
spheres to rods and spirals. Bacteria were among the first life forms to appear on Earth, and are present in most of its habitats. Bacteria inhabit soil, water, acidic hot springs,
radioactive waste,[121] and the deep biosphere of the Earth's crust. Bacteria also live in symbiotic and parasitic relationships with plants and animals. Most bacteria have not been
characterised, and only about 27 percent of the bacterial phyla have species that can be grown in the laboratory.[122]

Archaea constitute the other domain of prokaryotic cells and were initially classified as bacteria, receiving the name archaebacteria (in the Archaebacteria kingdom), a term that has
fallen out of use.[123] Archaeal cells have unique properties separating them from the other two domains, Bacteria and Eukaryota. Archaea are further divided into multiple recognized
phyla. Archaea and bacteria are generally similar in size and shape, although a few archaea have very different shapes, such as the flat and square cells of Haloquadratum walsbyi.
[124] Despite this morphological similarity to bacteria, archaea possess genes and several metabolic pathways that are more closely related to those of eukaryotes, notably for the
enzymes involved in transcription and translation. Other aspects of archaeal biochemistry are unique, such as their reliance on ether lipids in their cell membranes,[125] including
archaeols. Archaea use more energy sources than eukaryotes: these range from organic compounds, such as sugars, to ammonia, metal ions or even hydrogen gas. Salt-tolerant
archaea (the Haloarchaea) use sunlight as an energy source, and other species of archaea fix carbon, but unlike plants and cyanobacteria, no known species of archaea does both.
Archaea reproduce asexually by binary fission, fragmentation, or budding; unlike bacteria, no known species of Archaea form endospores.

The first observed archaea were extremophiles, living in extreme environments, such as hot springs and salt lakes with no other organisms. Improved molecular detection tools led to
the discovery of archaea in almost every habitat, including soil, oceans, and marshlands. Archaea are particularly numerous in the oceans, and the archaea in plankton may be one of
the most abundant groups of organisms on the planet.

Archaea are a major part of Earth's life. They are part of the microbiota of all organisms. In the human microbiome, they are important in the gut, mouth, and on the skin.[126] Their
morphological, metabolic, and geographical diversity permits them to play multiple ecological roles: carbon fixation; nitrogen cycling; organic compound turnover; and maintaining
microbial symbiotic and syntrophic communities, for example.[127]

Eukaryotes

Euglena, a single-celled eukaryote that can both move and photosynthesize

Eukaryotes are hypothesized to have split from archaea, which was followed by their endosymbioses with bacteria (or symbiogenesis) that gave rise to mitochondria and chloroplasts,
both of which are now part of modern-day eukaryotic cells.[128] The major lineages of eukaryotes diversified in the Precambrian about 1.5 billion years ago and can be classified into
eight major clades: alveolates, excavates, stramenopiles, plants, rhizarians, amoebozoans, fungi, and animals.[128] Five of these clades are collectively known as protists, which are
mostly microscopic eukaryotic organisms that are not plants, fungi, or animals.[128] While it is likely that protists share a common ancestor (the last eukaryotic common ancestor),[129]
protists by themselves do not constitute a separate clade as some protists may be more closely related to plants, fungi, or animals than they are to other protists. Like groupings such
as algae, invertebrates, or protozoans, the protist grouping is not a formal taxonomic group but is used for convenience.[128][130] Most protists are unicellular; these are called
microbial eukaryotes.[128]

Plants are mainly multicellular organisms, predominantly photosynthetic eukaryotes of the kingdom Plantae, which would exclude fungi and some algae. Plant cells were derived by
endosymbiosis of a cyanobacterium into an early eukaryote about one billion years ago, which gave rise to chloroplasts.[131] The first several clades that emerged following primary
endosymbiosis were aquatic and most of the aquatic photosynthetic eukaryotic organisms are collectively described as algae, which is a term of convenience as not all algae are
closely related.[131] Algae comprise several distinct clades such as glaucophytes, which are microscopic freshwater algae that may have resembled in form to the early unicellular
ancestor of Plantae.[131] Unlike glaucophytes, the other algal clades such as red and green algae are multicellular. Green algae comprise three major clades: chlorophytes,
coleochaetophytes, and stoneworts.[131]

Fungi are eukaryotes that digest foods outside their bodies,[132] secreting digestive enzymes that break down large food molecules before absorbing them through their cell
membranes. Many fungi are also saprobes, feeding on dead organic matter, making them important decomposers in ecological systems.[132]

Animals are multicellular eukaryotes. With few exceptions, animals consume organic material, breathe oxygen, are able to move, can reproduce sexually, and grow from a hollow
sphere of cells, the blastula, during embryonic development. Over 1.5 million living animal species have been described—of which around 1 million are insects—but it has been
estimated there are over 7 million animal species in total. They have complex interactions with each other and their environments, forming intricate food webs.[133]

Viruses

Bacteriophages attached to a bacterial cell wall

Viruses are submicroscopic infectious agents that replicate inside the cells of organisms.[134] Viruses infect all types of life forms, from animals and plants to microorganisms, including
bacteria and archaea.[135][136] More than 6,000 virus species have been described in detail.[137] Viruses are found in almost every ecosystem on Earth and are the most numerous
type of biological entity.[138][139]

The origins of viruses in the evolutionary history of life are unclear: some may have evolved from plasmids—pieces of DNA that can move between cells—while others may have
evolved from bacteria. In evolution, viruses are an important means of horizontal gene transfer, which increases genetic diversity in a way analogous to sexual reproduction.[140]
Because viruses possess some but not all characteristics of life, they have been described as "organisms at the edge of life",[141] and as self-replicators.[142]

Ecology
Ecology is the study of the distribution and abundance of life, the interaction between organisms and their environment.[143]

Ecosystems
The community of living (biotic) organisms in conjunction with the nonliving (abiotic) components (e.g., water, light, radiation, temperature, humidity, atmosphere, acidity, and soil) of
their environment is called an ecosystem.[144][145][146] These biotic and abiotic components are linked together through nutrient cycles and energy flows.[147] Energy from the sun
enters the system through photosynthesis and is incorporated into plant tissue. By feeding on plants and on one another, animals move matter and energy through the system. They
also influence the quantity of plant and microbial biomass present. By breaking down dead organic matter, decomposers release carbon back to the atmosphere and facilitate nutrient
cycling by converting nutrients stored in dead biomass back to a form that can be readily used by plants and other microbes.[148]

Populations

Reaching carrying capacity through a logistic growth curve

A population is the group of organisms of the same species that occupies an area and reproduce from generation to generation.[149][150][151][152][153] Population size can be estimated
by multiplying population density by the area or volume. The carrying capacity of an environment is the maximum population size of a species that can be sustained by that specific
environment, given the food, habitat, water, and other resources that are available.[154] The carrying capacity of a population can be affected by changing environmental conditions
such as changes in the availability of resources and the cost of maintaining them. In human populations, new technologies such as the Green revolution have helped increase the
Earth's carrying capacity for humans over time, which has stymied the attempted predictions of impending population decline, the most famous of which was by Thomas Malthus in the
18th century.[149]

Communities

A (a) trophic pyramid and a (b) simplified food web. The trophic pyramid represents the biomass at each level.[155]

A community is a group of populations of species occupying the same geographical area at the same time.[156] A biological interaction is the effect that a pair of organisms living
together in a community have on each other. They can be either of the same species (intraspecific interactions), or of different species (interspecific interactions). These effects may
be short-term, like pollination and predation, or long-term; both often strongly influence the evolution of the species involved. A long-term interaction is called a symbiosis. Symbioses
range from mutualism, beneficial to both partners, to competition, harmful to both partners.[157] Every species participates as a consumer, resource, or both in consumer–resource
interactions, which form the core of food chains or food webs.[158] There are different trophic levels within any food web, with the lowest level being the primary producers (or
autotrophs) such as plants and algae that convert energy and inorganic material into organic compounds, which can then be used by the rest of the community.[50][159][160] At the next
level are the heterotrophs, which are the species that obtain energy by breaking apart organic compounds from other organisms.[158] Heterotrophs that consume plants are primary
consumers (or herbivores) whereas heterotrophs that consume herbivores are secondary consumers (or carnivores). And those that eat secondary consumers are tertiary consumers
and so on. Omnivorous heterotrophs are able to consume at multiple levels. Finally, there are decomposers that feed on the waste products or dead bodies of organisms.[158] On
average, the total amount of energy incorporated into the biomass of a trophic level per unit of time is about one-tenth of the energy of the trophic level that it consumes. Waste and
dead material used by decomposers as well as heat lost from metabolism make up the other ninety percent of energy that is not consumed by the next trophic level.[161]

Biosphere

Fast carbon cycle showing the movement of carbon between land, atmosphere, and oceans in billions of tons per year. Yellow numbers are natural fluxes, red are
human contributions, white are stored carbon. Effects of the slow carbon cycle, such as volcanic and tectonic activity, are not included.[162]

In the global ecosystem or biosphere, matter exists as different interacting compartments, which can be biotic or abiotic as well as accessible or inaccessible, depending on their forms
and locations.[163] For example, matter from terrestrial autotrophs are both biotic and accessible to other organisms whereas the matter in rocks and minerals are abiotic and
inaccessible. A biogeochemical cycle is a pathway by which specific elements of matter are turned over or moved through the biotic (biosphere) and the abiotic (lithosphere,
atmosphere, and hydrosphere) compartments of Earth. There are biogeochemical cycles for nitrogen, carbon, and water.

Conservation

Conservation biology is the study of the conservation of Earth's biodiversity with the aim of protecting species, their habitats, and ecosystems from excessive rates of extinction and
the erosion of biotic interactions.[164][165][166] It is concerned with factors that influence the maintenance, loss, and restoration of biodiversity and the science of sustaining evolutionary
processes that engender genetic, population, species, and ecosystem diversity.[167][168][169][170] The concern stems from estimates suggesting that up to 50% of all species on the
planet will disappear within the next 50 years,[171] which has contributed to poverty, starvation, and will reset the course of evolution on this planet.[172][173] Biodiversity affects the
functioning of ecosystems, which provide a variety of services upon which people depend. Conservation biologists research and educate on the trends of biodiversity loss, species
extinctions, and the negative effect these are having on our capabilities to sustain the well-being of human society. Organizations and citizens are responding to the current
biodiversity crisis through conservation action plans that direct research, monitoring, and education programs that engage concerns at local through global scales.[174][167][168][169]

See also
Biology in fiction
Glossary of biology
Idiobiology
List of biological websites
List of biologists
List of biology journals
List of biology topics
List of life sciences
List of omics topics in biology
National Association of Biology Teachers
Outline of biology
Periodic table of life sciences in Tinbergen's four questions
Science tourism
Terminology of biology

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Further reading
Alberts, B.; Johnson, A.; Lewis, J.; Raff, M.; Roberts, K.; Walter, P. (2002). Molecular Biology of the Cell (4th ed.). Garland. ISBN 978-0-8153-3218-3. OCLC 145080076.
Begon, M.; Townsend, C. R.; Harper, J. L. (2005). Ecology: From Individuals to Ecosystems (4th ed.). Blackwell Publishing Limited. ISBN 978-1-4051-1117-1. OCLC 57639896.
Campbell, Neil (2004). Biology (7th ed.). Benjamin-Cummings Publishing Company. ISBN 978-0-8053-7146-8. OCLC 71890442.
Colinvaux, Paul (1979). Why Big Fierce Animals are Rare: An Ecologist's Perspective (reissue ed.). Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-02364-9. OCLC 10081738.
Mayr, Ernst (1982). The Growth of Biological Thought: Diversity, Evolution, and Inheritance. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-36446-2. Archived from the original on
2015-10-03. Retrieved 2015-06-27.
Hoagland, Mahlon (2001). The Way Life Works. Jones and Bartlett Publishers inc. ISBN 978-0-7637-1688-2. OCLC 223090105.
Janovy, John (2004). On Becoming a Biologist (2nd ed.). Bison Books. ISBN 978-0-8032-7620-8. OCLC 55138571.
Johnson, George B. (2005). Biology, Visualizing Life. Holt, Rinehart, and Winston. ISBN 978-0-03-016723-2. OCLC 36306648.
Tobin, Allan; Dusheck, Jennie (2005). Asking About Life (3rd ed.). Belmont, California: Wadsworth. ISBN 978-0-534-40653-0.

External links
OSU's Phylocode
Biology Online – Wiki Dictionary
MIT video lecture series on biology
OneZoom Tree of Life
Journal of the History of Biology (springer.com)

Journal links

PLOS ONE
PLOS Biology A peer-reviewed, open-access journal published by the Public Library of Science
Current Biology: General journal publishing original research from all areas of biology
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Science: Internationally renowned AAAS science journal – see sections of the life sciences
International Journal of Biological Sciences: A biological journal publishing significant peer-reviewed scientific papers
Perspectives in Biology and Medicine: An interdisciplinary scholarly journal publishing essays of broad relevance