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PowerPoint Lecture Slides prepared by Janice Meeking, Mount Royal College
CHAPTER
The Human Body: An Orientation: Part A
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Overview of Anatomy and Physiology Anatomy: The study of structure Subdivisions:
Gross or macroscopic (e.g., regional, surface, and systemic anatomy)
Microscopic (e.g., cytology and histology)
Developmental (e.g., embryology)
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Overview of Anatomy and Physiology
Essential tools for the study of anatomy:
Mastery of anatomical terminology Observation Manipulation Palpation Auscultation
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Overview of Anatomy and Physiology Physiology: The study of function at many levels
Subdivisions are based on organ systems (e.g., renal or cardiovascular physiology)
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Overview of Anatomy and Physiology Essential tools for the study of physiology:
Ability to focus at many levels (from systemic to cellular and molecular) Basic physical principles (e.g., electrical currents, pressure, and movement) Basic chemical principles
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Principle of Complementarity
Anatomy and physiology are inseparable.
Function always reflects structure What a structure can do depends on its specific form
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Levels of Structural Organization Chemical: atoms and molecules (Chapter 2) Cellular: cells and their organelles (Chapter 3) Tissue: groups of similar cells (Chapter 4) Organ: contains two or more types of tissues Organ system: organs that work closely together Organismal: all organ systems
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Atom s
Molecule
Organelle Sm ooth m uscle cell 2 Cellular level Cells are m ade up of m olecules.
1 Chemical level Atom s com bine to form m olecules.
Sm ooth m uscle tissue
Cardiovascular system Heart Blood vessels
3 Tissue level Tissues consist of sim ilar types of cells. Blood vessel (organ) Sm ooth m uscle tissue Connective tissue
Epithelial tissue 4 Organ level Organs are m ade up of different types of tissues.
6 Organismal level The hum an organism is m ade up of m any organ system s.
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5 Organ system level Organ system s consist of different organs that w ork together closely.
Figure 1.1
Atom s
Molecule
1 Chemical level Atom s com bine to form m olecules.
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Figure 1.1, step 1
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Atom s
Molecule
Organelle Sm ooth m uscle cell 2 Cellular level Cells are m ade up of m olecules.
1 Chemical level Atom s com bine to form m olecules.
Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 1.1, step 2
Atom s
Molecule
Organelle Sm ooth m uscle cell 2 Cellular level Cells are m ade up of m olecules.
1 Chemical level Atom s com bine to form m olecules.
Sm ooth m uscle tissue
3 Tissue level Tissues consist of sim ilar types of cells.
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Figure 1.1, step 3
Atom s
Molecule
Organelle Sm ooth m uscle cell 2 Cellular level Cells are m ade up of m olecules.
1 Chemical level Atom s com bine to form m olecules.
Sm ooth m uscle tissue
3 Tissue level Tissues consist of sim ilar types of cells. Blood vessel (organ) Sm ooth m uscle tissue Connective tissue
Epithelial tissue 4 Organ level Organs are m ade up of different types of tissues.
Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 1.1, step 4
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Atom s
Molecule
Organelle Sm ooth m uscle cell 2 Cellular level Cells are m ade up of m olecules.
1 Chemical level Atom s com bine to form m olecules.
Sm ooth m uscle tissue
Cardiovascular system Heart Blood vessels
3 Tissue level Tissues consist of sim ilar types of cells. Blood vessel (organ) Sm ooth m uscle tissue Connective tissue
Epithelial tissue 4 Organ level Organs are m ade up of different types of tissues. 5 Organ system level Organ system s consist of different organs that w ork together closely.
Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 1.1, step 5
Atom s
Molecule
Organelle Sm ooth m uscle cell 2 Cellular level Cells are m ade up of m olecules.
1 Chemical level Atom s com bine to form m olecules.
Sm ooth m uscle tissue
Cardiovascular system Heart Blood vessels
3 Tissue level Tissues consist of sim ilar types of cells. Blood vessel (organ) Sm ooth m uscle tissue Connective tissue
Epithelial tissue 4 Organ level Organs are m ade up of different types of tissues.
6 Organismal level The hum an organism is m ade up of m any organ system s.
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5 Organ system level Organ system s consist of different organs that w ork together closely.
Figure 1.1, step 6
Overview of Organ Systems
Note major organs and functions of the 11 organ systems (Fig. 1.3)
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Hair Skin Nails
(a) Integumentary System Forms the external body covering, and protects deeper tissues from injury. Synthesizes vitamin D, and houses cutaneous (pain, pressure, etc.) receptors and sweat and oil glands.
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Figure 1.3a
Bones Joint
(b) Skeletal System Protects and supports body organs, and provides a framework the muscles use to cause movement. Blood cells are formed within bones. Bones store minerals.
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Figure 1.3b
Skeletal muscles
(c) Muscular System Allows manipulation of the environment, locomotion, and facial expression. Maintains posture, and produces heat.
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Figure 1.3c
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Brain
Spinal cord
Nerves
(d) Nervous System As the fast-acting control system of the body, it responds to internal and external changes by activating appropriate muscles and glands.
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Figure 1.3d
Pineal gland Thyroid gland Thymus Adrenal gland Pancreas
Testis
Pituitary gland
Ovary
(e) Endocrine System Glands secrete hormones that regulate processes such as growth, reproduction, and nutrient use (metabolism) by body cells.
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Figure 1.3e
Heart
Blood vessels (f) Cardiovascular System Blood vessels transport blood, which carries oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, wastes, etc. The heart pumps blood.
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Figure 1.3f
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Red bone marrow
Thymus Lymphatic vessels Thoracic duct Spleen
Lymph nodes
(g) Lymphatic System/Immunity Picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels and returns it to blood. Disposes of debris in the lymphatic stream. Houses white blood cells (lymphocytes) involved in immunity. The immune response mounts the attack against foreign substances within the body.
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Figure 1.3g
Nasal cavity Pharynx Larynx Trachea Lung Bronchus
(h) Respiratory System Keeps blood constantly supplied with oxygen and removes carbon dioxide. The gaseous exchanges occur through the walls of the air sacs of the lungs.
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Figure 1.3h
Oral cavity Esophagus
Liver Stomach Small intestine Large intestine
Rectum Anus
(i) Digestive System Breaks down food into absorbable units that enter the blood for distribution to body cells. Indigestible foodstuffs are eliminated as feces.
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Figure 1.3i
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Kidney Ureter
Urinary bladder Urethra
(j) Urinary System Eliminates nitrogenous wastes from the body. Regulates water, electrolyte and acid-base balance of the blood.
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Figure 1.3j
Mammary glands (in breasts) Prostate gland Ovary Penis Testis Scrotum Ductus deferens Uterine tube
Uterus Vagina
(l) Female Reproductive System (k) Male Reproductiv e System Overall function is production of offspring. Testes produce sperm and m ale sex horm one, and m ale ducts and glands aid in delivery of sperm to the fem ale reproductive tract. Ovaries produce eggs and fem ale sex horm ones. The rem aining fem ale structures serve as sites for fertilization and developm ent of the fetus. Mam m ary glands of fem ale breasts produce m ilk to nourish the new born.
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Figure 1.3k-l
Organ Systems Interrelationships
All cells depend on organ systems to meet their survival needs Organ systems work cooperatively to perform necessary life functions
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Digestive system Takes in nutrients, breaks them down, and eliminates unabsorbed matter (feces) Food
Respiratory system Takes in oxygen and eliminates carbon dioxide O2 CO2
Cardiovascular system Via the blood, distributes oxygen and nutrients to all body cells and delivers wastes and carbon dioxide to disposal organs
Blood
CO2 O2 Urinary system Eliminates nitrogenous wastes and excess ions
Heart Nutrients
Interstitial fluid
Nutrients and wastes pass between blood and cells via the interstitial fluid Integumentary system Protects the body as a whole Urine from the external environment
Feces
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Figure 1.2
Necessary Life Functions 1. Maintaining boundaries between internal and external environments
Plasma membranes Skin
2. Movement (contractility)
Of body parts (skeletal muscle) Of substances (cardiac and smooth muscle)
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Necessary Life Functions
3. Responsiveness: The ability to sense and respond to stimuli
Withdrawal reflex
Control of breathing rate
4. Digestion
Breakdown of ingested foodstuffs
Absorption of simple molecules into blood
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Necessary Life Functions 5. Metabolism: All chemical reactions that occur in body cells
Catabolism and anabolism
6. Excretion: The removal of wastes from metabolism and digestion
Urea, carbon dioxide, feces
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Necessary Life Functions 7. Reproduction
Cellular division for growth or repair Production of offspring
8. Growth: Increase in size of a body part or of organism
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Survival Needs
1. Nutrients
Chemicals for energy and cell building Carbohydrates, fats, proteins, minerals, vitamins
2. Oxygen
Essential for energy release (ATP production)
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Survival Needs 3. Water
Most abundant chemical in the body Site of chemical reactions
4. Normal body temperature
Affects rate of chemical reactions
5. Appropriate atmospheric pressure
For adequate breathing and gas exchange in the lungs
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Homeostasis Maintenance of a relatively stable internal environment despite continuous outside changes A dynamic state of equilibrium
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Homeostatic Control Mechanisms
Involve continuous monitoring and regulation of many factors (variables) Nervous and endocrine systems accomplish the communication via nerve impulses and hormones
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Components of a Control Mechanism
1. Receptor (sensor)
Monitors the environment
Responds to stimuli (changes in controlled variables)
2. Control center
Determines the set point at which the variable is maintained
Receives input from receptor
Determines appropriate response
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Components of a Control Mechanism 3. Effector
Receives output from control center Provides the means to respond Response acts to reduce or enhance the stimulus (feedback)
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4 Output: 3 Input: Information Information sent along Control sent along afferent efferent pathway to Center pathway to control effector. center. Afferent Efferent pathway pathway 2 5 Receptor Effector Receptor Response detects of effector change. feeds back 1 to reduce Stimulus the effect of BALANCE produces stimulus change in and returns variable. variable to homeostatic level.
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Figure 1.4
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Stimulus produces change in variable.
BALANCE
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Figure 1.4, step 1
Receptor detects change. Stimulus produces change in variable.
1
Receptor
BALANCE
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Figure 1.4, step 2
3 Input: Information Control sent along afferent Center pathway to control center. Afferent pathway 2 Receptor Receptor detects change.
Stimulus produces change in variable.
BALANCE
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Figure 1.4, step 3
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4 Output: 3 Input: Information Information sent along Control sent along afferent efferent pathway to Center pathway to control effector. center. Afferent Efferent pathway pathway 2 Receptor Effector Receptor detects change.
Stimulus produces change in variable.
BALANCE
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Figure 1.4, step 4
4 Output: 3 Input: Information Information sent along Control sent along afferent efferent pathway to Center pathway to control effector. center. Afferent Efferent pathway pathway 2 5 Receptor Effector Receptor Response detects of effector change. feeds back 1 to reduce Stimulus the effect of BALANCE produces stimulus change in and returns variable. variable to homeostatic level.
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Figure 1.4, step 5
Negative Feedback
The response reduces or shuts off the original stimulus Examples:
Regulation of body temperature (a nervous mechanism)
Regulation of blood volume by ADH (an endocrine mechanism)
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Information sent along the afferent pathway to control center
Control Center (thermoregulatory center in brain) Afferent pathway Efferent pathway
Information sent along the efferent pathway to effectors
Receptors Temperature-sensitive cells in skin and brain
Effectors Sweat glands Sweat glands activated Response Evaporation of sweat Body temperature falls; stimulus ends
Stimulus
Body temperature rises Response Body temperature rises; stimulus ends BALANCE
Stimulus
Body temperature falls
Effectors Skeletal muscles
Receptors Temperature-sensitive cells in skin and brain
Shivering begins
Efferent pathway Information sent along the efferent pathway to effectors
Afferent pathway Information sent along the afferent pathway to control center
Control Center (thermoregulatory center in brain)
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Figure 1.5
Negative Feedback: Regulation of Blood Volume by ADH Receptors sense decreased blood volume Control center in hypothalamus stimulates pituitary gland to release antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
ADH causes the kidneys (effectors) to return more water to the blood
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Positive Feedback
The response enhances or exaggerates the original stimulus May exhibit a cascade or amplifying effect
Usually controls infrequent events e.g.:
Enhancement of labor contractions by oxytocin (Chapter 28) Platelet plug formation and blood clotting
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1 Break or tear occurs in blood vessel w all.
Positive feedback cycle is initiated.
3 Released chem icals attract m ore platelets.
Positive feedback loop
2 Platelets adhere to site and release chem icals.
Feedback cycle ends w hen plug is form ed.
4 Platelet plug form s.
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Figure 1.6
1 Break or tear occurs in blood vessel w all.
Positive feedback cycle is initiated.
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Figure 1.6, step 1
1 Break or tear occurs in blood vessel w all.
Positive feedback cycle is initiated.
2 Platelets adhere to site and release chem icals.
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Figure 1.6, step 2
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1 Break or tear occurs in blood vessel w all.
Positive feedback cycle is initiated.
3 Released chem icals attract m ore platelets.
Positive feedback loop
2 Platelets adhere to site and release chem icals.
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Figure 1.6, step 3
1 Break or tear occurs in blood vessel w all.
Positive feedback cycle is initiated.
3 Released chem icals attract m ore platelets.
Positive feedback loop
2 Platelets adhere to site and release chem icals.
Feedback cycle ends w hen plug is form ed.
4 Platelet plug form s.
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Figure 1.6, step 4
Homeostatic Imbalance
Disturbance of homeostasis
Increases risk of disease Contributes to changes associated with aging May allow destructive positive feedback mechanisms to take over (e.g., heart failure)
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