Educational Product

National Aeronautics and Educators Grades K–12

Space Administration
EG-2003-01-108-HQ

ROCKETS
An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science,
Mathematics, and Technology
 ROCKETS
An Educator’s Guide with Activities In Science,
Mathematics, and Technology

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Office of Human Resources and Education

Office of Education
Washington, DC

Teaching From Space Program

NASA Johnson Space Center
Houston, TX

This publication is in the Public Domain and is not protected by copyright.

Permission is not required for duplication.

EG-2003-01-108-HQ
Acknowledgments This publication was developed for the
National Aeronautics and Space
Administration with the assistance of
hundreds of teachers in the Texas Region IV
area and educators of the Aerospace
Education Services Program, Oklahoma
State University.

Writers:

Deborah A. Shearer
Gregory L. Vogt, Ed.D.
Teaching From Space Program
NASA Johnson Space Center
Houston, TX

Editor:

Carla B. Rosenberg
Teaching From Space Program
NASA Headquarters
Washington, DC

Special Thanks to:

Timothy J. Wickenheiser
Chief, Advanced Mission Analysis Branch
NASA Lewis Research Center

Gordon W. Eskridge
Aerospace Education Specialist
Oklahoma State University

Dale M. Olive
Teacher, Hawaii

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Table of Contents How To Use This Guide ............................... 1

Activity Format ............................................. 3

Brief History of Rockets ................................ 5

Rocket Principles ....................................... 13

Practical Rocketry ...................................... 18

Launch Vehicle Family Album .................... 25

Activities ..................................................... 35

Activity Matrix ....................................... 36

Pop Can Hero Engine .......................... 39
Rocket Racer ....................................... 45
3-2-1 Pop! ............................................ 53
Antacid Tablet Race ............................. 57
Paper Rockets ...................................... 61
Newton Car .......................................... 67
Balloon Staging .................................... 73
Rocket Transportation .......................... 76
Altitude Tracking .................................. 79
Bottle Rocket Launcher ........................ 87
Bottle Rocket ........................................ 91
Project X-35 ......................................... 95
Additional Extensions ......................... 114

Glossary ................................................... 115

NASA Educational Materials .................... 116

Suggested Reading .................................. 116

Electronic Resources ............................... 117

NASA Resources for Educators ............... 118

NASA Educator Resource

Center Network ................................. 118

Evaluation Reply Card .......................... Insert

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How To Use This Guide R ockets are the oldest form of self-contained
vehicles in existence. Early rockets were in
use more than two thousand years ago. Over a
long and exciting history, rockets have evolved
from simple tubes filled with black powder into
mighty vehicles capable of launching a spacecraft
out into the galaxy. Few experiences can
compare with the excitement and thrill of
watching a rocket-powered vehicle, such as the
Space Shuttle, thunder into space. Dreams of
rocket flight to distant worlds fire the imagination
of both children and adults.
With some simple and inexpensive materials,
you can mount an exciting and productive unit
about rockets for children that incorporates
science, mathematics, and technology education.
The many activities contained in this teaching
guide emphasize hands-on involvement,
prediction, data collection and interpretation,
teamwork, and problem solving. Furthermore,
the guide contains background information about
the history of rockets and basic rocket science to
make you and your students “rocket scientists.”
The guide begins with background information
on the history of rocketry, scientific principles, and
practical rocketry. The sections on scientific
principles and practical rocketry focus on Sir
Isaac Newton’s Three Laws of Motion. These
laws explain why rockets work and how to make
them more efficient.
Following the background sections are a series
of activities that demonstrate the basic science of
rocketry while offering challenging tasks in
design. Each activity employs basic and
inexpensive materials. In each activity you will
find construction diagrams, material and tools
lists, and instructions. A brief background section
within the activities elaborates on the concepts
covered in the activities and points back to the
introductory material in the guide. Also included is
information about where the activity applies to
science and mathematics standards, assessment
ideas, and extensions. Look on page 3 for more
details on how the activity pages are constructed.
Because many of the activities and
demonstrations apply to more than one subject
area, a matrix chart identifies opportunities for
extended learning experiences. The chart
indicates these subject areas by activity title. In
addition, many of the student activities encourage

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Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ
student problem-solving and cooperative your assistance in improving this guide in future editions
learning. For example, students can use by completing the questionnaire and making
problem-solving to come up with ways to improve suggestions for changes and additions.
the performance of rocket cars. Cooperative
learning is a necessity in the Altitude Tracking A Note on Measurement
and Balloon Staging activities.
The length of time involved for each In developing this guide, metric units of
activity varies according to its degree of difficulty measurement were employed. In a few
and the development level of the students. With exceptions, notably within the "Materials and
the exception of the Project X-35 activity at the Tools" lists, English units have been listed. In the
guide's end, students can complete most United States, metric-sized parts such as screws
activities in one or two class periods. and wood stock are not as accessible as their
Finally, the guide concludes with a glossary of English equivalents. Therefore, English units
terms, suggested reading list, NASA educational have been used to facilitate obtaining required
resources including electronic resources, and an materials.
evaluation questionnaire. We would appreciate

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Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ
 Activity Format
Objectives of
the Activity
Description of What Assessment Ideas
the Activity Does

Standards
Background
Information
Materials and Tools

Extensions

Management Tips

Discussion Ideas
What You Need

Student Data Pages

Student Instruction Pages

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Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ
Brief History of T oday’s rockets are remarkable collections of
human ingenuity that have their roots in the
science and technology of the past. They are
Rockets natural outgrowths of literally thousands of years of
experimentation and research on rockets and rocket
propulsion.
One of the first devices to successfully
employ the principles essential to rocket flight was a
wooden bird. The writings of Aulus Gellius, a
Roman, tell a story of a Greek named Archytas who
lived in the city of Tarentum, now a part of southern
Italy. Somewhere around the year 400 B.C.,
Archytas mystified and amused the citizens of
Tarentum by flying a pigeon made of wood.
Escaping steam propelled the bird suspended on
wires. The pigeon used the action-reaction
principle, which was not to be stated as a scientific
law until the 17th century.
About three hundred years after the pigeon,
another Greek, Hero of Alexandria, invented a
similar rocket-like device called an aeolipile. It,
too, used steam as a propulsive gas. Hero
mounted a sphere on top of a water kettle.
A fire below the kettle turned the water into
steam, and the gas traveled through pipes
to the sphere. Two L-shaped tubes on
opposite sides of the sphere allowed the gas
to escape, and in doing so gave a thrust to the
sphere that caused it to rotate.
Just when the first true rockets appeared is
unclear. Stories of early rocket-like devices appear
sporadically through the historical records of various
cultures. Perhaps the first true rockets were
accidents. In the first century A.D., the
Chinese reportedly had a simple form of
gunpowder made from saltpeter, sulfur, and
charcoal dust. They used the gunpowder
mostly for fireworks in religious and other
festive celebrations. To create explosions
during religious festivals, they filled bamboo tubes
with the mixture and tossed them into fires.
Perhaps some of those tubes failed to explode and
instead skittered out of the fires, propelled by the
gases and sparks produced from the burning
gunpowder.
The Chinese began experimenting with the
gunpowder-filled tubes. At some point, they
attached bamboo tubes to arrows and launched
them with bows. Soon they discovered that
these gunpowder tubes could launch
themselves just by the power produced
from the escaping gas. The true rocket was
born.
Hero Engine

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 The date reporting the first use of true By the 16th century rockets fell into a time of
rockets was in 1232. At this time, the Chinese and disuse as weapons of war, though they were still
the Mongols were at war with each other. During used for fireworks displays, and a German fireworks
the battle of Kai-Keng, the Chinese repelled the maker, Johann Schmidlap, invented the “step
Mongol invaders by a barrage of “arrows of flying rocket,” a multi-staged vehicle for lifting fireworks to
fire.” These fire-arrows were a simple form of a higher altitudes. A large sky rocket (first stage)
solid-propellant rocket. A tube, capped at one end, carried a smaller sky rocket (second stage). When
contained gunpowder. The other end was left open the large rocket burned out, the smaller one
and the tube was attached to a long stick. When continued to a higher altitude before showering the
the powder ignited, the rapid burning of the powder sky with glowing cinders. Schmidlap’s idea is basic
produced fire, smoke, and gas that escaped out the to all rockets today that go into outer space.
open end and produced a thrust. The stick acted as Nearly all uses of rockets up to this time
were for warfare or fireworks, but an interesting old
Chinese legend reports the use of rockets as a
means of transportation. With the help of many

Chinese Fire-Arrows

a simple guidance system that kept the rocket

headed in one general direction as it flew through
the air. How effective these arrows of flying fire
Surface-Running Torpedo
were as weapons of destruction is not clear, but
their psychological effects on the Mongols must assistants, a lesser-known Chinese official named
have been formidable. Wan-Hu assembled a rocket-powered flying chair.
Following the battle of Kai-Keng, the He had two large kites attached to the chair, and
Mongols produced rockets of their own and may fixed to the kites were forty-seven fire-arrow
have been responsible for the spread of rockets to rockets.
Europe. Many records describe rocket experiments On the day of the flight, Wan-Hu sat himself
through out the 13th to the 15th centuries. In on the chair and gave the command to light the
England, a monk named Roger Bacon worked on rockets. Forty-seven rocket assistants, each armed
improved forms of gunpowder that greatly increased with torches, rushed forward to light the fuses. A
the range of rockets. In France, Jean Froissart tremendous roar filled the air, accompanied by
achieved more accurate flights by launching rockets billowing clouds of smoke. When the smoke
through tubes. Froissart’s idea was the forerunner cleared, Wan-Hu and his flying chair were gone. No
of the modern bazooka. Joanes de Fontana of Italy one knows for sure what happened to Wan-Hu, but
designed a surface-running rocket-powered torpedo if the event really did take place, Wan-Hu and his
for setting enemy ships on fire. chair probably did not survive the explosion. Fire-
arrows were as apt to explode as to fly.

Rocketry Becomes a Science

During the latter part of the 17th century, the

great English scientist Sir Isaac Newton (1642-
1727) laid the scientific foundations for modern
rocketry. Newton organized his understanding of
physical motion into three scientific laws. The laws
explain how rockets work and why they are able to
work in the vacuum of outer space. (See Rocket
Principles for more information on Newton’s Three
Laws of Motion beginning on page 13.)

Chinese soldier launches a fire-arrow.

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 Austrian rocket brigades met their match against
newly designed artillery pieces. Breech-loading
cannon with rifled barrels and exploding warheads
were far more effective weapons of war than the
best rockets. Once again, the military relegated
rocketry to peacetime uses.

Modern Rocketry Begins

In 1898, a Russian schoolteacher,

Konstantin Tsiolkovsky (1857-1935), proposed the
idea of space exploration by rocket. In a report he
published in 1903, Tsiolkovsky suggested the use of
Legendary Chinese official Wan Hu braces
himself for "liftoff."
liquid propellants for rockets in order to achieve
greater range. Tsiolkovsky stated that only the
exhaust velocity of escaping gases limited the
speed and range of a rocket. For his ideas, careful
Newton’s laws soon began to have a
research, and great vision, Tsiolkovsky has been
practical impact on the design of rockets. About
called the father of modern astronautics.
1720, a Dutch professor, Willem Gravesande, built
Early in the 20th century, an American,
model cars propelled by jets of steam. Rocket
Robert H. Goddard (1882-1945), conducted
experimenters in Germany and Russia began
practical experiments in rocketry. He had become
working with rockets with a mass of more than 45
interested in a way of achieving higher altitudes
kilograms. Some of these rockets were so powerful
than were possible for lighter-than-air balloons. He
that their escaping exhaust flames bored deep
published a pamphlet in 1919 entitled A Method of
holes in the ground even before liftoff.
Reaching Extreme Altitudes. Today we call this
During the end of the 18th century and early
mathematical analysis the meteorological sounding
into the 19th, rockets experienced a brief revival as
rocket.
a weapon of war. The success of Indian rocket
In his pamphlet, Goddard reached several
barrages against the British in 1792 and again in
conclusions important to rocketry. From his tests,
1799 caught the interest of an artillery expert,
he stated that a rocket operates with greater
Colonel William Congreve. Congreve set out to
design rockets for use by the British military.
The Congreve rockets were highly
successful in battle. Used by British ships to pound
Fort McHenry in the War of 1812, they inspired
Francis Scott Key to write “the rockets’ red glare,” in
his poem that later became The Star-Spangled
Banner.
Even with Congreve’s work, the accuracy of
rockets still had not improved much from the early
days. The devastating nature of war rockets was
not their accuracy or power, but their numbers.
During a typical siege, thousands of them might be
fired at the enemy. All over the world, rocket
researchers experimented with ways to improve
accuracy. An Englishman, William Hale, developed
a technique called spin stabilization. In this method,
the escaping exhaust gases struck small vanes at
the bottom of the rocket, causing it to spin much as
a bullet does in flight. Many rockets still use
variations of this principle today.
Rocket use continued to be successful in
battles all over the European continent. Tsiolkovsky Rocket Designs
However, in a war with Prussia, the
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efficiency in a vacuum than in air. At the
time, most people mistakenly believed that
the presence of air was necessary for a
rocket to push against. A New York Times
newspaper editorial of the day mocked
Goddard’s lack of the “basic physics ladled
out daily in our high schools.” Goddard
also stated that multistage or step rockets
were the answer to achieving high altitudes
and that the velocity needed to escape
Earth’s gravity could be achieved in this
way.
Goddard’s earliest experiments
were with solid-propellant rockets. In 1915,
he began to try various types of solid fuels
and to measure the exhaust velocities of
the burning gases.
While working on solid-propellant
rockets, Goddard became convinced that a
rocket could be propelled better by liquid
fuel. No one had ever built a successful
liquid-propellant rocket before. It was a
much more difficult task than building solid-
propellant rockets. Fuel and oxygen tanks,
turbines, and combustion chambers would

Dr. Robert H. Goddard makes adjustments on the

upper end of a rocket combustion chamber in this 1940
picture taken in Roswell, New Mexico.

be needed. In spite of the difficulties, Goddard

achieved the first successful flight with a liquid-
propellant rocket on March 16, 1926. Fueled by
liquid oxygen and gasoline, the rocket flew for only
two and a half seconds, climbed 12.5 meters, and
landed 56 meters away in a cabbage patch. By
today’s standards, the flight was unimpressive, but
like the first powered airplane flight by the Wright
brothers in 1903, Goddard’s gasoline rocket
became the forerunner of a whole new era in rocket
flight.
Goddard’s experiments in liquid-propellant
rockets continued for many years. His rockets grew
bigger and flew higher. He developed a gyroscope
system for flight control and a payload compartment
for scientific instruments. Parachute recovery
systems returned the rockets and instruments safely
to the ground. We call Goddard the father of
modern rocketry for his achievements.
A third great space pioneer, Hermann
Oberth (1894-1989) of Germany, published a book
Dr. Goddard's 1926 Rocket in 1923 about rocket travel into outer space. His
writings were important. Because of them,
many small rocket societies sprang up
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around the world. In Germany, the formation of one
such society, the Verein fur Raumschiffahrt (Society
for Space Travel), led to the development of the V-2
rocket, which the Germans used against London
during World War II. In 1937, German engineers
and scientists, including Oberth, assembled in
Peenemunde on the shores of the Baltic Sea.
There, under the directorship of Wernher von
Braun, engineers and scientists built and flew the
most advanced rocket of its time.
The V-2 rocket (in Germany called the A-4) Warhead
was small by comparison to today’s rockets. It (Explosive charge)
achieved its great thrust by burning a mixture of
liquid oxygen and alcohol at a rate of about one ton Automatic gyro
every seven seconds. Once launched, the V-2 was control
a formidable weapon that could devastate whole Guidebeam and radio
city blocks. command receivers
Fortunately for London and the Allied forces,
the V-2 came too late in the war to change its
outcome. Nevertheless, by war’s end, German
rocket scientists and engineers had already laid
Container for
plans for advanced missiles capable of spanning alcohol-water
the Atlantic Ocean and landing in the United States. mixture
These missiles would have had winged upper
stages but very small payload capacities.
With the fall of Germany, the Allies captured
many unused V-2 rockets and components. Many
German rocket scientists came to the United States.
Others went to the Soviet Union. The German
scientists, including Wernher von Braun, were
amazed at the progress Goddard had made. Container for
Both the United States and the Soviet Union liquid oxygen
recognized the potential of rocketry as a military Container for
weapon and began a variety of experimental turbine propellant
programs. At first, the United States began a (hydrogen peroxide)
program with high-altitude atmospheric sounding Propellant
rockets, one of Goddard’s early ideas. Later, they Vaporizer for turbine turbopump
propellant (propellant
developed a variety of medium- and long-range turbopump drive)
intercontinental ballistic missiles. These became Steam
Oxygen main exhaust
the starting point of the U.S. space program. from turbine
Missiles such as the Redstone, Atlas, and Titan valve
would eventually launch astronauts into space. Rocket motor
On October 4, 1957, the Soviet Union
stunned the world by launching an Earth-orbiting Alcohol
main
artificial satellite. Called Sputnik I, the satellite was valve
the first successful entry in a race for space
between the two superpower nations. Less than a
month later, the Soviets followed with the launch of
a satellite carrying a dog named Laika on board. Jet vane Air vane
Laika survived in space for seven days before being
put to sleep before the oxygen supply ran out. German V-2 (A-4) Missile
A few months after the first Sputnik, the
United States followed the Soviet Union with a
satellite of its own. The U.S. Army

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launched Explorer I on January 31, 1958. In five minutes of microgravity then returned to Earth,
October of that year, the United States formally during which he encountered forces twelve times
organized its space program by creating the greater than the force of gravity. Twenty days later,
National Aeronautics and Space Administration though still technically behind the Soviet Union,
(NASA). NASA became a civilian agency with the President John Kennedy announced the objective to
goal of peaceful exploration of space for the benefit put a man on the Moon by the end of the decade.
of all humankind. In February of 1962, John Glenn became
Soon, rockets launched many people and the first American to orbit Earth in a small capsule
machines into space. Astronauts orbited Earth and so filled with equipment that he only had room to sit.
landed on the Moon. Robot spacecraft traveled to Launched by the more powerful Atlas vehicle, John
the planets. Space suddenly opened up to explor- Glenn remained in orbit for four hours and fifty-five
ation and commercial exploitation. Satellites minutes before splashing down in the Atlantic
enabled scientists to investigate our world, forecast Ocean. The Mercury program had a total of six
the weather, and communicate instantaneously launches: two suborbital and four orbital. These
around the globe. The demand for more and larger launches demonstrated the United States’ ability to
payloads created the need to develop a wide array send men into orbit, allowed the crew to function in
of powerful and versatile rockets. space, operate the spacecraft, and make scientific
Scientific exploration of space using robotic observations.
spacecraft proceeded at a fast pace. Both Russia The United States then began an extensive
and the United States began programs to investi- unmanned program aimed at supporting the
gate the Moon. Developing the technology to manned lunar landing program. Three separate
physically get a probe to the Moon became the projects gathered information on landing sites and
initial challenge. Within nine months of Explorer 1 other data about the lunar surface and the sur-
the United States launched the first unmanned lunar rounding environment. The first was the Ranger
probe, but the launch vehicle, an Atlas with an Able series, which was the United States first attempt to
upper stage, failed 45 seconds after liftoff when the
payload fairing tore away from the vehicle. The
Russians were more successful with Luna 1, which
flew past the Moon in January of 1959. Later that
year the Luna program impacted a probe on the
Moon, taking the first pictures of its far side. Be-
tween 1958 and 1960 the United States sent a
series of missions, the Pioneer Lunar Probes, to
photograph and obtain scientific data about the
Moon. These probes were generally unsuccessful,
primarily due to launch vehicle failures. Only one of
eight probes accomplished its intended mission to
the Moon, though several, which were stranded in
orbits between Earth and the Moon, did provide
important scientific information on the number and
extent of the radiation belts around Earth. The
United States appeared to lag behind the Soviet
Union in space.
With each launch, manned spaceflight came
a step closer to becoming reality. In April of 1961, a
Russian named Yuri Gagarin became the first man
to orbit Earth. Less than a month later the United
States launched the first American, Alan Shepard,
into space. The flight was a sub-orbital lofting into
space, which immediately returned to Earth. The
Redstone rocket was not powerful enough to place Close-up picture of the Moon taken by the Ranger
the Mercury capsule into orbit. The flight lasted only 9 spacecraft just before impact. The small circle
a little over 15 minutes and reached an altitude of to the left is the impact site.
187 kilometers. Alan Shepard experienced about

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take close-up photographs of the Moon. The
spacecraft took thousands of black and white
photographs of the Moon as it descended and
crashed into the lunar surface. Though the Ranger
series supplied very detailed data, mission planners
for the coming Apollo mission wanted more exten-
sive data.
The final two lunar programs were designed
to work in conjunction with one another. Lunar
Orbiter provided an extensive map of the lunar
surface. Surveyor provided detailed color photo-
graphs of the lunar surface as well as data on the
elements of the lunar sediment and an assessment
of the ability of the sediment to support the weight of
the manned landing vehicles. By examining both
sets of data, planners were able to identify sites for
the manned landings. However, a significant
problem existed, the Surveyor spacecraft was too
large to be launched by existing Atlas/Agena
rockets, so a new high energy upper stage called
the Centaur was developed to replace the Agena
specifically for this mission. The Centaur upper
stage used efficient hydrogen and oxygen propel-
lants to dramatically improve its performance, but
the super cold temperatures and highly explosive
nature presented significant technical challenges.
In addition, they built the tanks of the Centaur with
thin stainless steel to save precious weight. Moder-
ate pressure had to be maintained in the tank to
prevent it from collapsing upon itself. Rocket A fish-eye camera view of a Saturn 5 rocket just after
building was refining the United State's capability to engine ignition.
explore the Moon.
The Gemini was the second manned
capsule developed by the United States. It was developed the Saturn launch vehicle. The Apollo
designed to carry two crew members and was capsule, or command module, held a crew of three.
launched on the largest launch vehicle available— The capsule took the astronauts into orbit about the
the Titan II. President Kennedy’s mandate signifi- Moon, where two astronauts transferred into a lunar
cantly altered the Gemini mission from the general module and descended to the lunar surface. After
goal of expanding experience in space to prepare completing the lunar mission, the upper section of
for a manned lunar landing on the Moon. It paved the lunar module returned to orbit to rendezvous
the way for the Apollo program by demonstrating with the Apollo capsule. The Moonwalkers trans-
rendezvous and docking required for the lunar ferred back to the command module and a service
lander to return to the lunar orbiting spacecraft, the module, with an engine, propelled them back to
extravehicular activity (EVA) required for the lunar Earth. After four manned test flights, Apollo 11
surface exploration and any emergency repairs, and astronaut Neil Armstrong became the first man on
finally the ability of humans to function during the the moon. The United States returned to the lunar
eight day manned lunar mission duration. The surface five more times before the manned lunar
Gemini program launched ten manned missions in program was completed. After the lunar program
1965 and 1966, eight flights rendezvous and the Apollo program and the Saturn booster
docked with unmanned stages in Earth orbit and launched Skylab, the United State's first space
seven performed EVA. station. A smaller version of the Saturn vehicle
Launching men to the moon required launch ransported the United States' crew for the first
vehicles much larger than those available. To rendezvous in space between the United States and
achieve this goal the United States Russia on the Apollo-Soyuz mission.

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 During this manned lunar program, un- this to happen, rockets must become more cost
manned launch vehicles sent many satellites to effective and more reliable as a means of getting to
investigate our planet, forecast the weather, and space. Expensive hardware cannot be thrown away
communicate instantaneously around the world. In each time we go to space. It is necessary to con-
addition, scientists began to explore other planets. tinue the drive for more reusability started during the
Mariner 2 successfully flew by Venus in 1962, Space Shuttle program. Eventually NASA may
becoming the first probe to fly past another planet. develop aerospace planes that will take off from
The United State’s interplanetary space program runways, fly into orbit, and land on those same
then took off with an amazing string of successful runways, with operations similar to airplanes.
launches. The program has visited every planet To achieve this goal two programs are
except Pluto. currently under development. The X33 and X34
After the Apollo program the United States programs will develop reusable vehicles, which
began concentrating on the development of a significantly decrease the cost to orbit. The X33 will
reusable launch system, the Space Shuttle. Solid be a manned vehicle lifting about the same payload
rocket boosters and three main engines on the capacity as the Space Shuttle. The X34 will be a
orbiter launch the Space Shuttle. The reusable small, reusable unmanned launch vehicle capable
boosters jettison little more than 2 minutes into the of launching 905 kilograms to space and reduce the
flight, their fuel expended. Parachutes deploy to launch cost relative to current vehicles by two
decelerate the solid rocket boosters for a safe thirds.
splashdown in the Atlantic ocean, where two ships The first step towards building fully reusable
recover them. The orbiter and external tank vehicles has already occurred. A project called the
continue to ascend. When the main engines shut Delta Clipper is currently being tested. The Delta
down, the external tank jettisons from the orbiter, Clipper is a vertical takeoff and soft landing vehicle.
eventually disintegrating in the atmosphere. A brief It has demonstrated the ability to hover and maneu-
firing of the spacecraft’s two orbital maneuvering ver over Earth using the same hardware over and
system thrusters changes the trajectory to achieve over again. The program uses much existing
orbit at a range of 185-402 kilometers above Earth’s technology and minimizes the operating cost.
surface. The Space Shuttle orbiter can carry Reliable, inexpensive rockets are the key to en-
approximately 25,000 kilograms of payload into orbit abling humans to truly expand into space.
so crew members can conduct experiments in a
microgravity environment. The orbital
maneuvering system thrusters fire to slow
the spacecraft for reentry into Earth’s
atmosphere, heating up the orbiter’s
thermal protection shield up to 816°
Celsius. On the Shuttle’s final descent, it
returns to Earth gliding like an airplane.
Since the earliest days of discov-
ery and experimentation, rockets have
evolved from simple gunpowder devices
into giant vehicles capable of traveling
into outer space, taking astronauts to the
Moon, launching satellites to explore our
universe, and enabling us to conduct
scientific experiments aboard the Space
Shuttle. Without a doubt rockets have
opened the universe to direct exploration
by humankind. What role will rockets
play in our future?
The goal of the United States
space program is to expand our horizons Three reusable future space vehicles concepts under
in space, and then to open the space consideration by NASA.
frontier to international human expansion
and the commercial development. For

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Rocket Principles A rocket in its simplest form is a chamber
enclosing a gas under pressure. A small opening at
one end of the chamber allows the gas to escape,
and in doing so provides a thrust that propels the
rocket in the opposite direction. A good example of
this is a balloon. Air inside a balloon is compressed
by the balloon’s rubber walls. The air pushes back
so that the inward and outward pressing forces
balance. When the nozzle is released, air escapes
through it and the balloon is propelled in the
opposite direction.
When we think of rockets, we rarely think of
balloons. Instead, our attention is drawn to the
giant vehicles that carry satellites into orbit and
spacecraft to the Moon and planets. Nevertheless,
there is a strong similarity between the two.
Outside Air Pressure
The only significant difference is the way the
pressurized gas is produced. With space
rockets, the gas is produced by burning
propellants that can be solid or liquid
in form or a combination of the two.
One of the interesting facts
Inside Air Pressure about the historical development of
rockets is that while rockets and
rocket-powered devices have been
in use for more than two thousand
Air Moves Balloon Moves years, it has been only in the last
three hundred years that rocket
experimenters have had a scientific
basis for understanding how they
work.
The science of rocketry
began with the publishing of a book in
1687 by the great English scientist Sir
Isaac Newton. His book, entitled
Philosophiae Naturalis Principia
Mathematica, described physical principles in
nature. Today, Newton’s work is usually just called
the Principia.
In the Principia, Newton stated three
important scientific principles that govern the motion
of all objects, whether on Earth or in space.
Knowing these principles, now called Newton’s
Laws of Motion, rocketeers have been able to
construct the modern giant rockets of the 20th
century such as the Saturn 5 and the Space Shuttle.
Here now, in simple form, are Newton’s Laws of
Motion.

1. Objects at rest will stay at rest and objects in

motion will stay in motion in a straight line unless
acted upon by an unbalanced force.

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2. Force is equal to mass times acceleration.

3. For every action there is always an opposite and Gravity

equal reaction.

As will be explained shortly, all three laws are really

simple statements of how things move. But with
them, precise determinations of rocket performance
can be made. Ball at Rest

Newton’s First Law

This law of motion is just an obvious

statement of fact, but to know what it means,
it is necessary to understand the terms rest,
motion, and unbalanced force.
Rest and motion can be thought of as
being opposite to each other. Rest is the state of
an object when it is not changing position in
relation to its surroundings. If you are sitting still in
a chair, you can be said to be at rest. This term,
however, is relative. Your chair may actually be one
of many seats on a speeding airplane. The
important thing to remember here is that you are not
moving in relation to your immediate surroundings.
If rest were defined as a total absence of motion, it
would not exist in nature. Even if you were sitting in
your chair at home, you would still be moving,
because your chair is actually sitting on the surface
of a spinning planet that is orbiting a star. The star
is moving through a rotating galaxy that is, itself,
moving through the universe. While sitting “still,”
you are, in fact, traveling at a speed of hundreds of
kilometers per second.
Motion is also a relative term. All matter in Lift
the universe is moving all the time, but in the first
law, motion here means changing position in
relation to surroundings. A ball is at rest if it is
sitting on the ground. The ball is in motion if it is
rolling. A rolling ball changes its position in relation
to its surroundings. When you are sitting on a chair become unbalanced. The ball then changes from a
in an airplane, you are at rest, but if you get up and state of rest to a state of motion.
walk down the aisle, you are in motion. A rocket In rocket flight, forces become balanced and
blasting off the launch pad changes from a state of unbalanced all the time. A rocket on the launch pad
rest to a state of motion. is balanced. The surface of the pad pushes the
The third term important to understanding rocket up while gravity tries to pull it down. As the
this law is unbalanced force. If you hold a ball in engines are ignited, the thrust from the rocket
your hand and keep it still, the ball is at rest. All the unbalances the forces, and the rocket travels
time the ball is held there though, it is being acted upward. Later, when the rocket runs out of fuel, it
upon by forces. The force of gravity is trying to pull slows down, stops at the highest point of its flight,
the ball downward, while at the same time your and then falls back to Earth.
hand is pushing against the ball to hold it up. The Objects in space also react to forces. A
forces acting on the ball are balanced. Let the ball spacecraft moving through the solar system is in
go, or move your hand upward, and the forces constant motion. The spacecraft will travel

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 Satellite's Forward Motion
molecules in orbit or the firing of a rocket engine in
the opposite direction , slows down the spacecraft, it
Pull of
Planet's will orbit the planet forever.
Gravity
Resultant Path Now that the three major terms of this first
(Orbit)
law have been explained, it is possible to restate
this law. If an object, such as a rocket, is at rest, it
takes an unbalanced force to make it move. If the
object is already moving, it takes an unbalanced
force, to stop it, change its direction from a straight
line path, or alter its speed.

Newton’s Third Law

For the time being, we will skip the Second Law and
go directly to the Third. This law states that every
action has an equal and opposite reaction. If you
have ever stepped off a small boat that has not
been properly tied to a pier, you will know exactly
The combination of a satellite's forward motion and the pull
of gravity of the planet, bend the satellite's path into an
what this law means.
orbit. A rocket can liftoff from a launch pad only
when it expels gas out of its engine. The rocket
pushes on the gas, and the gas in turn pushes on
in a straight line if the forces on it are in balance. the rocket. The whole process is very similar to
This happens only when the spacecraft is very far riding a skateboard. Imagine that a skateboard and
from any large gravity source such as Earth or the rider are in a state of rest (not moving). The rider
other planets and their moons. If the spacecraft jumps off the skateboard. In the Third Law, the
comes near a large body in space, the gravity of jumping is called an action. The skateboard
that body will unbalance the forces and curve the responds to that action by traveling some distance
path of the spacecraft. This happens, in particular, in the opposite direction. The skateboard’s opposite
when a satellite is sent by a rocket on a path that is motion is called a reaction. When the distance
tangent to the planned orbit about a planet. The traveled by the rider and the skateboard are
unbalanced gravitational force causes the satellite's compared, it would appear that the skateboard has
path to change to an arc. The arc is a combination had a much greater reaction than the action of the
of the satellite's fall inward toward the planet's rider. This is not the case. The reason the
center and its forward motion. When these two
motions are just right, the shape of the satellite's
path matches the shape of the body it is traveling
around. Consequently, an orbit is produced. Since
the gravitational force changes with height above a
planet, each altitude has its own unique velocity that Action
results in a circular orbit. Obviously, controlling
velocity is extremely important for maintaining the
circular orbit of the spacecraft. Unless another
unbalanced force, such as friction with gas

Reaction

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skateboard has traveled farther is that it has less
mass than the rider. This concept will be better M
explained in a discussion of the Second Law. A F M A
With rockets, the action is the expelling of
gas out of the engine. The reaction is the
movement of the rocket in the opposite direction.
To enable a rocket to lift off from the launch pad, the
action, or thrust, from the engine must be greater
than the weight of the rocket. While on the pad the
weight of the rocket is balanced by the force of the cannon itself is pushed backward a meter or two.
ground pushing against it. Small amounts of thrust This is action and reaction at work (Third Law). The
result in less force required by the ground to keep force acting on the cannon and the ball is the same.
the rocket balanced. Only when the thrust is What happens to the cannon and the ball is
greater than the weight of the rocket does the force determined by the Second Law. Look at the two
become unbalanced and the rocket lifts off. In equations below.
space where unbalanced force is used to maintain
the orbit, even tiny thrusts will cause a change in
the unbalanced force and result in the rocket f =m (cannon )
a (cannon )
changing speed or direction.

f =m a
One of the most commonly asked questions
about rockets is how they can work in space where (ball ) (ball )
there is no air for them to push against. The answer
to this question comes from the Third Law. Imagine
the skateboard again. On the ground, the only part The first equation refers to the cannon and the
air plays in the motions of the rider and the second to the cannon ball. In the first equation, the
skateboard is to slow them down. Moving through mass is the cannon itself and the acceleration is the
the air causes friction, or as scientists call it, drag. movement of the cannon. In the second equation
The surrounding air impedes the action-reaction. the mass is the cannon ball and the acceleration is
As a result rockets actually work better in its movement. Because the force (exploding gun
space than they do in air. As the exhaust gas powder) is the same for the two equations, the
leaves the rocket engine it must push away the equations can be combined and rewritten below.
surrounding air; this uses up some of the energy of
the rocket. In space, the exhaust gases can escape
freely. m (cannon )
a (cannon )
=m a (ball ) (ball )

Newton’s Second Law In order to keep the two sides of the equations
equal, the accelerations vary with mass. In other
This law of motion is essentially a statement of a words, the cannon has a large mass and a small
mathematical equation. The three parts of the acceleration. The cannon ball has a small mass
equation are mass (m), acceleration (a), and force and a large acceleration.
(f). Using letters to symbolize each part, the Apply this principle to a rocket. Replace the
equation can be written as follows: mass of the cannon ball with the mass of the gases
being ejected out of the rocket engine. Replace the
f = ma mass of the cannon with the mass of the rocket
moving in the other direction. Force is the pressure
created by the controlled explosion taking place
inside the rocket's engines. That pressure
The equation reads: force equals mass times accelerates the gas one way and the rocket the
acceleration. To explain this law, we will use an old other.
style cannon as an example. Some interesting things happen with rockets
When the cannon is fired, an explosion propels a that do not happen with the cannon and ball in this
cannon ball out the open end of the barrel. It flies a example. With the cannon and cannon ball, the
kilometer or two to its target. At the same time the thrust lasts for just a moment. The thrust for the
rocket continues as long as its engines are

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firing. Furthermore, the mass of the rocket changes Putting Newton’s Laws of Motion
during flight. Its mass is the sum of all its parts. Together
Rocket parts include: engines, propellant tanks,
payload, control system, and propellants. By far, An unbalanced force must be exerted for a
the largest part of the rocket's mass is its rocket to lift off from a launch pad or for a craft in
propellants. But that amount constantly changes as space to change speed or direction (First Law).
the engines fire. That means that the rocket's mass The amount of thrust (force) produced by a rocket
gets smaller during flight. In order for the left side of engine will be determined by the rate at which the
our equation to remain in balance with the right mass of the rocket fuel burns and the speed of the
side, acceleration of the rocket has to increase as gas escaping the rocket (Second Law). The
its mass decreases. That is why a rocket starts off reaction, or motion, of the rocket is equal to and in
moving slowly and goes faster and faster as it the opposite direction of the action, or thrust, from
climbs into space. the engine (Third Law).
Newton's Second Law of Motion is
especially useful when designing efficient rockets.
To enable a rocket to climb into low Earth orbit, it is
necessary to achieve a speed, in excess of 28,000
km per hour. A speed of over 40,250 km per hour,
called escape velocity, enables a rocket to leave
Earth and travel out into deep space. Attaining
space flight speeds requires the rocket engine to
achieve the greatest action force possible in the
shortest time. In other words, the engine must burn
a large mass of fuel and push the resulting gas out
of the engine as rapidly as possible. Ways of doing
this will be described in the next chapter.
Newton’s Second Law of Motion can be
restated in the following way: the greater the mass
of rocket fuel burned, and the faster the gas
produced can escape the engine, the greater the
thrust of the rocket.

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 he first rockets ever built, the fire-arrows of the
Practical Rocketry T Chinese, were not very reliable. Many just
exploded on launching. Others flew on erratic
courses and landed in the wrong place. Being a
rocketeer in the days of the fire-arrows must have
been an exciting, but also a highly dangerous
activity.
Today, rockets are much more reliable.
They fly on precise courses and are capable of
going fast enough to escape the gravitational pull of
Earth. Modern rockets are also more efficient today
because we have an understanding of the scientific
principles behind rocketry. Our understanding has
led us to develop a wide variety of advanced rocket
hardware and devise new propellants that can be
used for longer trips and more powerful takeoffs.

Rocket Engines and Their Propellants

Most rockets today operate with either solid

or liquid propellants. The word propellant does not
mean simply fuel, as you might think; it means both
fuel and oxidizer. The fuel is the chemical the
rocket burns but, for burning to take place, an
oxidizer (oxygen) must be present. Jet engines
draw oxygen into their engines from the surrounding
air. Rockets do not have the luxury that jet planes
have; they must carry oxygen with them into space,
where there is no air.
Solid rocket propellants, which are dry to the
touch, contain both the fuel and oxidizer combined
together in the chemical itself. Usually the fuel is a
mixture of hydrogen compounds and carbon and
the oxidizer is made up of oxygen compounds.
Liquid propellants, which are often gases that have
been chilled until they turn into liquids, are kept in
separate containers, one for the fuel and the other
for the oxidizer. Just before firing, the fuel and
oxidizer are mixed together in the engine.
A solid-propellant rocket has the simplest
form of engine. It has a nozzle, a case, insulation,
propellant, and an igniter. The case of the engine is
usually a relatively thin metal that is lined with
insulation to keep the propellant from burning
through. The propellant itself is packed inside the
insulation layer.
Many solid-propellant rocket engines feature
a hollow core that runs through the propellant.
Rockets that do not have the hollow core must be
ignited at the lower end of the propellants and
burning proceeds gradually from one end of the
rocket to the other. In all cases, only the surface of
the propellant burns. However, to get higher thrust,
the hollow core is used. This increases the

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surface of the propellants available for burning. The
propellants burn from the inside out at a much
higher rate, sending mass out the nozzle at a higher
Payload
rate and speed. This results in greater thrust. Some
propellant cores are star shaped to increase the
burning surface even more.
To ignite solid propellants, many kinds of Igniter
igniters can be used. Fire-arrows were ignited by
fuses, but sometimes these ignited too quickly and
burned the rocketeer. A far safer and more reliable
form of ignition used today is one that employs
electricity. An electric current, coming through wires
from some distance away, heats up a special wire Casing
inside the rocket. The wire raises the temperature (body tube)
of the propellant it is in contact with to the
combustion point.
Other igniters are more advanced than the Core
hot wire device. Some are encased in a chemical
that ignites first, which then ignites the propellants.
Still other igniters, especially those for large rockets, Propellant
are rocket engines themselves. The small engine (grain)
inside the hollow core blasts a stream of flames and
hot gas down from the top of the core and ignites
the entire surface area of the propellants in a
fraction of a second.
The nozzle in a solid-propellant engine is an
opening at the back of the rocket that permits the Combustion
hot expanding gases to escape. The narrow part of Chamber
the nozzle is the throat. Just beyond the throat is
the exit cone.
The purpose of the nozzle is to increase the
acceleration of the gases as they leave the rocket Fins
and thereby maximize the thrust. It does this by
cutting down the opening through which the gases
can escape. To see how this works, you can
experiment with a garden hose that has a spray
nozzle attachment. This kind of nozzle does not Nozzle Throat
have an exit cone, but that does not matter in the
experiment. The important point about the nozzle is
that the size of the opening can be varied. Solid Propellant Rocket
Start with the opening at its widest point.
Watch how far the water squirts and feel the thrust
produced by the departing water. Now reduce the The other main kind of rocket engine is one
diameter of the opening, and again note the that uses liquid propellants, which may be either
distance the water squirts and feel the thrust. pumped or fed into the engine by pressure. This is
Rocket nozzles work the same way. a much more complicated engine, as is evidenced
As with the inside of the rocket case, by the fact that solid rocket engines were used for at
insulation is needed to protect the nozzle from the least seven hundred years before the first
hot gases. The usual insulation is one that successful liquid engine was tested. Liquid
gradually erodes as the gas passes through. Small propellants have separate storage tanks—one for
pieces of the insulation get very hot and break away the fuel and one for the oxidizer. They also have a
from the nozzle. As they are blown away, heat is combustion chamber, and a nozzle.
carried away with them.

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 chamber operates under high pressures, the
propellants need to be forced inside. Modern liquid
rockets use powerful, lightweight turbine pumps to
Payload take care of this job.
With any rocket, and especially with liquid-
propellant rockets, weight is an important factor. In
general, the heavier the rocket, the more the thrust
needed to get it off the ground. Because of the
pumps and fuel lines, liquid engines are much
Oxidizer heavier than solid engines.
One especially good method of reducing the
weight of liquid engines is to make the exit cone of
the nozzle out of very lightweight metals. However,
the extremely hot, fast-moving gases that pass
through the cone would quickly melt thin metal.
Therefore, a cooling system is needed. A highly
effective though complex cooling system that is
used with some liquid engines takes advantage of
the low temperature of liquid hydrogen. Hydrogen
becomes a liquid when it is chilled to -253o C.
Fuel Before injecting the hydrogen into the combustion
chamber, it is first circulated through small tubes
that lace the walls of the exit cone. In a cutaway
view, the exit cone wall looks like the edge of
corrugated cardboard. The hydrogen in the tubes
absorbs the excess heat entering the cone walls
Pumps and prevents it from melting the walls away. It also
makes the hydrogen more energetic because of the
heat it picks up. We call this kind of cooling system
regenerative cooling.
Injectors
Engine Thrust Control

Combustion Controlling the thrust of an engine is very

Chamber
important to launching payloads (cargoes) into orbit.
Fins Thrusting for too short or too long of a period of time
will cause a satellite to be placed in the wrong orbit.
This could cause it to go too far into space to be
useful or make the satellite fall back to Earth.
Nozzle Thrusting in the wrong direction or at the wrong time
will also result in a similar situation.
Liquid Propellant Rocket
A computer in the rocket’s guidance system
determines when that thrust is needed and turns the
The fuel of a liquid-propellant rocket is engine on or off appropriately. Liquid engines do
usually kerosene or liquid hydrogen; the oxidizer is this by simply starting or stopping the flow of propel-
usually liquid oxygen. They are combined inside a lants into the combustion chamber. On more
cavity called the combustion chamber. Here the complicated flights, such as going to the Moon, the
propellants burn and build up high temperatures engines must be started and stopped several times.
and pressures, and the expanding gas escapes Some liquid-propellant engines control the
through the nozzle at the lower end. To get the amount of engine thrust by varying the amount of
most power from the propellants, they must be propellant that enters the combustion chamber.
mixed as completely as possible. Small injectors Typically the engine thrust varies for controlling the
(nozzles) on the roof of the chamber spray and mix acceleration experienced by astronauts or to limit
the propellants at the same time. Because the the aerodynamic forces on a vehicle.

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 Solid-propellant rockets are not as easy to spot where all of the mass of that object is perfectly
control as liquid rockets. Once started, the balanced. You can easily find the center of mass of
propellants burn until they are gone. They are very an object such as a ruler by balancing the object on
difficult to stop or slow down part way into the burn. your finger. If the
Sometimes fire extinguishers are built into the material used to make
engine to stop the rocket in flight. But using them is the ruler is of uniform
a tricky procedure and does not always work. thickness and density,
Some solid-fuel engines have hatches on their sides the center of mass ROLL
that can be cut loose by remote control to release should be at the halfway
the chamber pressure and terminate thrust. point between one end
The burn rate of solid propellants is carefully of the stick and the
planned in advance. The hollow core running the other. If the ruler were YAW
length of the propellants can be made into a star made of wood, and a
shape. At first, there is a very large surface heavy nail were driven PITCH

available for burning, but as the points of the star into one of its ends, the
burn away, the surface area is reduced. For a time, center of mass would no
less of the propellant burns, and this reduces thrust. longer be in the middle.
The Space Shuttle uses this technique to reduce The balance point would
vibrations early in its flight into orbit. then be nearer the end
with the nail.
NOTE: Although most rockets used by The center of
governments and research organizations are very mass is important in
reliable, there is still great danger associated with rocket flight because it is
the building and firing of rocket engines. Individuals around this point that an unstable rocket tumbles.
interested in rocketry should never attempt to build As a matter of fact, any object in flight tends to
their own engines. Even the simplest-looking rocket tumble. Throw a stick, and it tumbles end over end.
engines are very complex. Case-wall bursting Throw a ball, and it spins in flight. The act of
strength, propellant packing density, nozzle design, spinning or tumbling is a way of becoming stabilized
and propellant chemistry are all design problems in flight. A Frisbee will go where you want it to only
beyond the scope of most amateurs. Many home- if you throw it with a deliberate spin. Try throwing a
built rocket engines have exploded in the faces of Frisbee without spinning it. If you succeed, you will
their builders with tragic consequences. see that the Frisbee flies in an erratic path and falls
far short of its mark.
Stability and Control Systems In flight, spinning or tumbling takes place
around one or more of three axes. They are called
Building an efficient rocket engine is only roll, pitch, and yaw. The point where all three of
part of the problem in producing a successful these axes intersect is the center of mass. For
rocket. The rocket must also be stable in flight. A
stable rocket is one that flies in a smooth, uniform
Center Center
direction. An unstable rocket flies along an erratic of of
path, sometimes tumbling or changing direction. Pressure Mass
Unstable rockets are dangerous because it is not
possible to predict where they will go. They may
even turn upside down and suddenly head back
directly to the launch pad.
Making a rocket stable requires some form
of control system. Controls can be either active or
passive. The difference between these and how
they work will be explained later. It is first important rocket flight, the pitch and yaw axes are the most
to understand what makes a rocket stable or important because any movement in either of these
unstable. two directions can cause the rocket to go off course.
All matter, regardless of size, mass, or The roll axis is the least important because
shape, has a point inside called the center of mass movement along this axis will not affect the flight
(CM). The center of mass is the exact path. In fact, a rolling motion will help stabilize the

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rocket in the same way a properly passed football is rockets usually require only a stabilizing control
stabilized by rolling (spiraling) it in flight. Although a system. Large rockets, such as the ones that
poorly passed football may still fly to its mark even if launch satellites into orbit, require a system that not
it tumbles rather than rolls, a rocket will not. The only stabilizes the rocket, but also enable it to
action-reaction energy of a football pass will be change course while in flight.
completely expended by the thrower the moment Controls on rockets can either be active or
the ball leaves the hand. With rockets, thrust from passive. Passive controls are fixed devices that
the engine is still being produced while the rocket is keep rockets stabilized by their very presence on
in flight. Unstable motions about the pitch and yaw the rocket’s exterior. Active controls can be moved
axes will cause the rocket to leave the planned while the rocket is in flight to stabilize and steer the
course. To prevent this, a control system is needed craft.
to prevent or at least minimize unstable motions. The simplest of all passive controls is a
In addition to center of mass, there is stick. The Chinese fire-arrows were simple rockets
another important center inside the rocket that mounted on the ends of sticks. The stick kept the
affects its flight. This is the center of pressure (CP). center of pressure behind the center of mass. In
The center of pressure exists only when air is spite of this, fire-arrows were notoriously inaccurate.
flowing past the moving rocket. This flowing air, Before the center of pressure could take effect, air
rubbing and pushing against the outer surface of the had to be flowing past the rocket. While still on the
rocket, can cause it to begin moving around one of ground and immobile, the arrow might lurch and fire
its three axes. Think for a moment of a weather the wrong way.
vane. A weather vane is an arrow-like stick that is Years later, the accuracy of fire-arrows was
mounted on a rooftop and used for telling wind improved considerably by mounting them in a
direction. The arrow is attached to a vertical rod trough aimed in the proper direction. The trough
that acts as a pivot point. The arrow is balanced so
that the center of mass is right at the pivot point.
When the wind blows, the arrow turns, and the head
of the arrow points into the oncoming wind. The tail et s
Ro an ctio

ck ge n
Ch ire

of the arrow points in the downwind direction.

ck ge n

o
D

R an ctio
et s

The reason that the weather vane arrow Ch ire

D
points into the wind is that the tail of the arrow has a
much larger surface area than the arrowhead. The
flowing air imparts a greater force to the tail than the
head, and therefore the tail is pushed away. There
is a point on the arrow where the surface area is the
Air Stream

same on one side as the other. This spot is called

Air Stream

the center of pressure. The center of pressure is

not in the same place as the center of mass. If it
were, then neither end of the arrow would be
favored by the wind and the arrow would not point.
The center of pressure is between the center of
mass and the tail end of the arrow. This means that
the tail end has more surface area than the head
end.
It is extremely important that the center of
pressure in a rocket be located toward the tail and
the center of mass be located toward the nose. If
they are in the same place or very near each other,
then the rocket will be unstable in flight. The rocket
will then try to rotate about the center of mass in the Moveable
pitch and yaw axes, producing a dangerous Fins
situation. With the center of pressure located in the
right place, the rocket will remain stable.
Control systems for rockets are intended to
keep a rocket stable in flight and to steer it. Small

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guided the arrow in the right direction until it was weight. The answer to this was the development of
moving fast enough to be stable on its own. active controls. Active control systems included
As will be explained in the next section, the vanes, movable fins, canards, gimbaled nozzles,
weight of the rocket is a critical factor in vernier rockets, fuel injection, and attitude-control
performance and range. The fire-arrow stick added rockets. Tilting fins and canards are quite similar to
too much dead weight to the rocket, and therefore each other in appearance. The only real difference
limited its range considerably. between them is their location on the rockets.
An important improvement in rocketry came Canards are mounted on the front end of the rocket
with the replacement of sticks by clusters of while the tilting fins are at the rear. In flight, the fins
lightweight fins mounted around the lower end near and canards tilt like rudders to deflect the air flow
the nozzle. Fins could be made out of lightweight and cause the rocket to change course. Motion
materials and be streamlined in shape. They gave sensors on the rocket detect unplanned directional
rockets a dart-like appearance. The large surface changes, and corrections can be made by slight
area of the fins easily kept the center of pressure tilting of the fins and canards. The advantage of
behind the center of mass. Some experimenters these two devices is size and weight. They are
even bent the lower tips of the fins in a pinwheel smaller and lighter and produce less drag than the
fashion to promote rapid spinning in flight. With large fins.
these “spin fins,” rockets become much more stable Other active control systems can eliminate
in flight. But this design also produces more drag fins and canards altogether. By tilting the angle at
and limits the rocket’s range. which the exhaust gas leaves the rocket engine,
With the start of modern rocketry in the 20th course changes can be made in flight. Several
century, new ways were sought to improve rocket techniques can be used for changing exhaust
stability and at the same time reduce overall rocket direction.
Vanes are small finlike devices that are
placed inside the exhaust of the rocket engine.
Tilting the vanes deflects the exhaust, and by
action-reaction the rocket responds by pointing the
t opposite way.
ke es
Ro an ctio
Ch ire

c g n Another method for changing the exhaust

Ro an ctio
ck ge n
D

et s

h e direction is to gimbal the nozzle. A gimbaled nozzle

C ir
D is one that is able to sway while exhaust gases are
passing through it. By tilting the engine nozzle in
the proper direction, the rocket responds by
changing course.
Vernier rockets can also be used to change
direction. These are small rockets mounted on the
outside of the large engine. When needed they fire,
producing the desired course change.
In space, only by spinning the rocket along
the roll axis or by using active controls involving the
engine exhaust can the rocket be stabilized or have
its direction changed. Without air, fins and canards
have nothing to work upon. (Science fiction movies
showing rockets in space with wings and fins are
long on fiction and short on science.) While
coasting in space, the most common kinds of active
control used are attitude-control rockets. Small
clusters of engines are mounted all around the
vehicle. By firing the right combination of these
Gimbaled small rockets, the vehicle can be turned in any
Nozzle direction. As soon as they are aimed properly, the
main engines fire, sending the rocket off in the new
direction.

23
Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ
 Mass A solution to the problem of giant rockets
weighing too much can be credited to the 16th-century
Mass is another important factor affecting fireworks maker Johann Schmidlap. Schmidlap
the performance of a rocket. The mass of a rocket attached small rockets to the top of big ones. When
can make the difference between a successful flight the large rocket was exhausted, the rocket casing was
and just wallowing around on the launch pad. As a dropped behind and the remaining rocket fired. Much
basic principle of rocket flight, it can be said that for higher altitudes were achieved by this method. (The
a rocket to leave the ground, the engine must produce Space Shuttle follows the step rocket principle by
a thrust that is greater than the total mass of the dropping off its solid rocket boosters and external tank
vehicle. It is obvious that a rocket with a lot of when they are exhausted of propellants.)
unnecessary mass will not be as efficient as one that The rockets used by Schmidlap were called
is trimmed to just the bare essentials. step rockets. Today this technique of building a rocket
For an ideal rocket, the total mass of the is called staging. Thanks to staging, it has become
vehicle should be distributed following this general possible not only to reach outer space but the Moon
formula: and other planets too.
Of the total mass, 91 percent should be
propellants; 3 percent should be tanks,
engines, fins, etc.; and 6 percent can be the
payload.
Payloads may be satellites, astronauts, or spacecraft
that will travel to other planets or moons.
In determining the effectiveness of a rocket
design, rocketeers speak in terms of mass fraction
(MF). The mass of the propellants of the rocket
divided by the total mass of the rocket gives mass
fraction:

mass of propellants
MF =
total mass

The mass fraction of the ideal rocket given

above is 0.91. From the mass fraction formula one
might think that an MF of 1.0 is perfect, but then the
entire rocket would be nothing more than a lump of
propellants that would simply ignite into a fireball. The
larger the MF number, the less payload the rocket can
carry; the smaller the MF number, the less its range
becomes. An MF number of 0.91 is a good balance
between payload-carrying capability and range. The
Space Shuttle has an MF of approximately 0.82. The
MF varies between the different orbiters in the Space
Shuttle fleet and with the different payload weights of
each mission.
Large rockets, able to carry a
spacecraft into space, have serious weight
problems. To reach space and proper
orbital velocities, a great deal of propellant
is needed; therefore, the tanks, engines,
and associated hardware become larger.
Up to a point, bigger rockets can carry
more payload than smaller rockets, but
when they become too large their struc-
tures weigh them down too much, and the
mass fraction is reduced to an impossible
number. Saturn 5 rocket being transported to the launch pad.

24
Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ
 he pictures on the next several pages serve as a
Launch Vehicle Tpartial "family album" of NASA launch vehicles.
NASA did not develop all of the vehicles shown, but
Family Album has employed each in its goal of "exploring the
atmosphere and space for peaceful purposes for
the benefit of all." The album contains historic
rockets, those in use today, and concept designs
that might be used in the future. They are arranged
in three groups: rockets for launching satellites and
space probes, rockets for launching humans into
space, and concepts for future vehicles.
The album tells the story of nearly 40 years
of NASA space transportation. Rockets have
probed the upper reaches of Earth's atmosphere,
carried spacecraft into Earth orbit, and sent
spacecraft out into the solar system and beyond.
Initial rockets employed by NASA, such as the
Redstone and the Atlas, began life as
intercontinental ballistic missiles. NASA scientists
and engineers found them ideal for carrying
machine and human payloads into space. As the
need for greater payload capacity increased, NASA
began altering designs for its own rockets and
building upper stages to use with existing rockets.
Sending astronauts to the Moon required a bigger
rocket than the rocket needed for carrying a small
satellite to Earth orbit.
Today, NASA's only vehicle for lifting
astronauts into space is the Space Shuttle.
Designed to be reusable, its solid rocket boosters
have parachute recovery systems. The orbiter is a
winged spacecraft that glides back to Earth. The
external tank is the only part of the vehicle which
has to be replaced for each mission.
Launch vehicles for the future will continue
to build on the experiences of the past. Vehicles
will become more versatile and less expensive to
operate as new technologies become available.

25
Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ
 Rocket Timeline

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X Rockets
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Pega

Most significant rocket developments have taken place in the twentieth century. After 1958, all
entries in this timeline relate to NASA space missions. Provided here are the years in which
new rocket systems were first flown. Additional information about these events can be found in
this guide on the pages indicated by parentheses.

26
Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ
Rockets for Launching
Satellites and Space Probes

NASA's Scout rocket is a four-stage solid

rocket booster that can launch small satellites
The Jupiter-C rocket that carried Explorer I
into Earth orbit. The Scout can carry about a
sits on the launch pad venting before 140 kilogram payload to a 185 kilometer high
launch, January 31, 1958. orbit. NASA used the Scout for more than 30
years. This 1965 launch carried the Explorer
27 scientific satellite.

One of NASA's most successful rockets is the

Delta. The Delta can be configured in a
variety of ways to change its performance to
meet needs of the mission. It is capable of
carrying over 5,000 kilograms to a 185
kilometer high orbit or 1,180 kilograms to a
geosynchronous orbit with an attached
booster stage. This Delta lifted the Galaxy-C
communication satellite to space on
September 21, 1984.

27
Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ
 A Titan III Centaur rocket carried Voyager 1,
the first interplanetary spacecraft to fly by
both Jupiter and Saturn, into space on
September 5, 1975. The Titan, a U.S. Air
Force missile, combined with NASA's
Centaur upper stage and two additional
side-mounted boosters, provided the
needed thrust to launchVoyager.

The Pegasus air-launched space

booster roars toward orbit following its
release from a NASA B-52 aircraft. The
booster, built by Orbital Sciences
Corporation and Hercules Aerospace
Company, is a low-cost way of carrying
small satellites to Earth orbit. This
launch took place on April 5, 1990.

28
Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ
Rockets for Sending Astronauts
Into Space

An Atlas launch vehicle, with a Mercury

space capsule at the top, underwent a static
firing test to verify engine systems before its
actual launch. The Mercury/Atlas
Allan Shepard became the first American combination launched four Mercury orbital
astronaut to ride to space on May 5, 1961. missions including the historic first American
Shepard rode inside a Mercury space orbital flight of John Glenn.
capsule on top of a Redstone rocket.

29
Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ
 Used to lift Apollo spacecraft to Earth orbit,
the nearly 70-meter-tall Saturn 1B rocket
carries the Apollo 7 crew on October 11,
1968. Saturn 1B rockets also transported
crews for Skylab (1973-74) and Apollo/
Soyuz missions (1975).
Virgil I. Grissom and John W. Young rode to
orbit inside a Gemini spacecraft mounted at
the top of this Titan rocket. The spacecraft
reached an orbit ranging from 161 to 225
kilometers on March 23, 1965.

30
Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ
 The 111-meter-high Saturn 5 rocket
carried the Apollo 11 crew to the
Moon.

Using a modified Saturn 5

rocket, NASA sent the 90,600
kilogram Skylab Space Station
to orbit on May 14, 1973. The
space station replaced the
Saturn 5's third stage.

31
Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ
Today, NASA Astronauts launch into space onboard the Space Shuttle. The Shuttle consists
of a winged orbiter that climbs into space as a rocket, orbits Earth as a satellite, and lands on a
runway as an airplane. Two recoverable solid rocket boosters provide additional thrust and an
expendable external tank carries the propellants for the orbiter's main engines. This was the
launch of STS-53 on December 2, 1992.

32
Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ
Concepts for Future Vehicles
The launch vehicles on this and the next page are
ideas for future reusable launch vehicles. Most are
variations of the winged Space Shuttle orbiter.

The Delta Clipper Experimental (DC-X) vehicle, originally developed for

the Department of Defense, lifts off at the White Sands Missile Range in
New Mexico. NASA has assumed the role of managing the vehicle's
further development. The DC-X lifts off and lands vertically. NASA
hopes this vehicle could lead to a low-cost payload launching system.
The Delta Clipper was recently renamed the "Clipper Graham" in honor
of the late space pioneer Lt. General Daniel O. Graham.

33
Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ
The X-34 is a reusable booster concept
that could lead to larger vehicles in the
future. This rocket would launch from a
carrier aircraft to deliver a payload to orbit.

NASA has choosen this concept to

replace the Space Shuttle fleet in
the 21st centry. The X-33 will be
a single-stage-to-orbit vehicle in
which the entire vehicle lifts off into
space and returns to Earth intact.

Looking like a Space Shuttle

orbiter, this new launcher concept
is also a single-stage-to-orbit
vehicle.

34
Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ
Activities Activity Matrix .......................................... 36

Pop Can Hero Engine ............................. 39

Rocket Car .............................................. 45

3-2-1 Pop! ............................................... 53

Antacid Tablet Race ................................ 57

Paper Rockets ......................................... 61

Newton Car ............................................. 67

Balloon Staging ....................................... 73

Rocket Transportation ............................. 76

Altitude Tracking ..................................... 79

Bottle Rocket Launcher ........................... 87

Bottle Rocket ........................................... 91

Project X-35 ............................................ 95

35
Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ
 Activity Matrix gy
lo es llen
ge
s
o
n iv ha
t ch ct
Standards and Skills r
e se
ls
ia s m
en
re tio
n
ig
n & er
Te spe al C
oc
at es nce l P in L
c ts M ces asu ana D e i a
e d e pl al ci oc
bj an Pro M gy
O s & Ex gy gic tS S lo
of ject and cy, , & olo olo bou l & hno
ry on b ts n ls hn n a na c
q ui nce oti f O ep nsta ode ec ech ing rso d Te
In cie & M s o onc Co , M d T f T d e n
o n P a
as S n tie C e, e n
nc ce a ties ers ce i nc
ta n e
c e cal itio er ing ng e i e
i p l i
ie
n ys os ro ify ha vid ien bi nd ien Sc
Sc Ph - P - P Un - C - E Sc - A - U Sc -

Pop Can Hero Engine

Rocket Racer

3-2-1 Pop!
Science Standards

Antacid Tablet Race

Paper Rockets

Newton Car

Balloon Staging

Rocket Transportation

Altitude Tracking

Bottle Rocket Launcher

Bottle Rocket

Project X-35
s ly
b le nal
a
g a s s at ria tio
a tin D at d el ph ing g D Va era g
n g nic ing ng g n g Mo Gr siz tin ling Op atin
a
v i u r t i n t i g g he re l g ig
s er mm asu llec erri dic kin kin pot erp ntro finin est
b Co e f e a a t v
O M Co In Pr M M Hy In Co De In
Pop Can Hero Engine
Science Process Skills

Rocket Racer

3-2-1 Pop!

Antacid Tablet Race

Paper Rockets

Newton Car

Balloon Staging

Rocket Transportation

Altitude Tracking

Bottle Rocket Launcher

Bottle Rocket

Project X-35

36
Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ
 ps
s hi
n n
io
lat atio
e s
er R stim ion
g b E t
n n m & nc
lvi atio s Nu ion Fu nt ry
S nic ing tio & at s & s lity ry eme ns met
o n
r t
u rn ti c i t
e ur io
em u n ec e b o
o bl mm aso nn mb mp tte atis oba om as nct igon
o e o u o e e
Pr C R C N C Pa St Pr G M Fu Tr
Pop Can Hero Engine
Mathematics Standards

Rocket Racer

3-2-1 Pop!

Antacid Tablet Race

Paper Rockets

Newton Car

Balloon Staging

Rocket Transportation

Altitude Tracking

Bottle Rocket Launcher

Bottle Rocket

Project X-35

37
Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ
38
Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ
 Educator Information

Pop Can Hero

Engine
Objectives:
• To demonstrate Newton's Third Law of Motion by using the
force of falling water to cause a soda pop can to spin.
• To experiment with different ways of increasing the spin of
the can.

Description:
A soft drink can suspended by a string spins by the force
created when water streams out of slanted holes near the
Science Standards: can's bottom.
Science as Inquiry Part One
Physical Science - Position and motion of objects
Unifying Concepts and Processes - Change, Materials and Tools:
constancy, and measurement • Empty soda pop can with the opener lever still
Science and Technology - Understanding about attached - one per group of students
science and technology • Common nail - one per group of students
• Nylon fishing line (light weight)
Science Process Skills: • Bucket or tub of water - several for entire class
Observing • Paper towels for cleanup
Communicating • Meter stick
Measuring • Scissors to cut fishing line
Collecting Data
Inferring
Predicting the learners construct the engine and test it.
Making Models Part two focuses on variables that affect the
Interpreting Data action of the engine. The experiment
Making Graphs
stresses prediction, data collection, and
Hypothesizing
Controlling Variables analysis of results. Be sure to recycle the
Defining Operationally soda pop cans at the end of the activity.
Investigating

Mathematics Standards: Background Information:

Computation and Estimation Hero of Alexandria invented the Hero engine
Whole Number Computation
in the first century B.C. His engine operated
Measurement
Statistics because of the propulsive force generated by
Probability escaping steam. A boiler produced steam
that escaped to the outside through L-shaped
Management: tubes bent pinwheel fashion. The steam's
This activity works well with small groups of escape produced an action-reaction force
two or three students. Allow approximately that caused the sphere to spin in the opposite
40 to 45 minutes to complete. The activity is direction. Hero's engine is an excellent
divided into two parts. In part one demonstration of Newton's Third Law of

39
Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ
Motion (See page 5 for more information How To Bend The Holes
about Hero's Engine and pages 15-16 for
details about Newton's Third Law of Motion.).
This activity substitutes the action force 1 Punch hole with nail.
produced by falling water for the steam in
Hero's Engine.

Part One:
Making a Soda Pop Can Hero Engine:
With nail still inserted,
1. Distribute student pages and one soda push upper end of nail
pop can and one medium-size common to the side to bend the
nail to each group. Tell the students that
you will demonstrate the procedure for 2 hole.

making the Hero engine.

2. Lay the can on its side and use the nail to
punch a single hole near its bottom.
Before removing the nail, push the nail to
one side to bend the metal, making the
Part Two:
hole slant in that direction.
Experimenting with Soda Pop Can Hero
3. Remove the nail and rotate the can
Engines
approximately 90 degrees. Make a
1. Tell the students they are going to do an
second hole like the first one. Repeat this
experiment to find out if there is any
procedure two more times to produce four
relationship between the size of the holes
equally spaced holes around the bottom
punched in the Hero Engine and how
of the can. All four holes should slant in
the same direction going around the can.
4. Bend the can’s opener lever straight up Part Two
and tie a 40-50 centimeter length of Materials and Tools:
fishing line to it. The soda pop can Hero • Student Work Sheets
engine is complete. • Hero Engines from part one
• Empty soda pop can with the opener lever still
attached (three per group of students)
Running the Engine:
• Common nails - Two different diameter shafts
1. Dip the can in the water tub until it fills (one each per group)
with water. Ask the students to predict • Nylon fishing line (light weight)
what will happen when you pull the can • Bucket or tub of water - Several for entire class
out by the fishing line. • Paper towels for cleanup
• Meter stick
2. Have each group try out their Hero
• Large round colored gum labels or marker pens
engine. • Scissors to cut fishing line

Discussion:
1. Why did the cans begin spinning when many times it rotates. Ask students to
water poured out of the holes? predict what they think might happen to
2. What was the action? What was the the rotation of the Hero engine if they
reaction? punched larger or smaller holes in the
3. Did all cans spin equally well? Why or cans. Discuss possible hypotheses for
the experiment.
why not?
40
Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ
2. Provide each group with the materials 4. In what ways are Hero Engines similar to
listed for Part Two. The nails should have rockets? In what ways are they different?
different diameter shafts from the one
used to make the first engine. Identify Assessment:
these nails as small (S) and large (L). Conduct a class discussion where students
Older students can measure the share their findings about Newton's Laws of
diameters of the holes in millimeters. Motion. Collect and review completed
Since there will be individual variations, Student Pages.
record the average hole diameter. Have
the groups make two additional engines Extensions:
exactly like the first, except that the holes • Compare a rotary lawn sprinkler to Hero's
will be different sizes. Engine.
3. Discuss how to count the times the • Research Hero and his engine. Was the
engines rotate. To aid in counting the engine put to any use?
number of rotations, stick a brightly- • Build a steam-powered Hero engine - See
colored round gum label or some other instructions below.
marker on the can. Tell them to practice
counting the rotations of the cans several Steam-Powered Hero Engine
times to become consistent in their A steam powered Hero engine can be
measurements before running the actual manufactured from a copper toilet tank float
experiment. and some copper tubing. Because this
4. Have the students write their answers for version of the Hero engine involves steam, it
each of three tests they will conduct on is best to use it as a demonstration only.
the can diagrams on the Student Pages.
(Test One employs the can created in Teacher Model
Part One.) Students should not predict Materials and Tools:
results for the second and third cans until
• Copper toilet tank float (available from some
they have finished the previous tests. hardware or plumbing supply stores)
5. Discuss the results of each group's • Thumb screw, 1/4 inch
experiment. Did the results confirm the • Brass tube, 3/16 I.D., 12 in. (from hobby
experiment hypothesis? shops)
• Solder
6. Ask the students to propose other ways of
• Fishing line
changing the can's rotation (Make holes • Ice pick or drill
at different distances above the bottom of • Metal file
the can, slant holes in different directions • Propane torch
or not slanted at all, etc.) Be sure they
compare the fourth Hero Engine they
make with the engine previously made 1. File the middle of the brass tube to
that has the same size holes. produce a notch. Do not file the tube in
half. File notch
Discussion: in middle
of tube.
1. Compare the way rockets in space (Step 1.)
change the directions they are facing in
space with the way Hero Engines work.
2. How can you get a Hero Engine to turn in
the opposite direction?
3. Can you think of any way to put Hero
Engines to practical use?
41
Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ
2. Using the ice pick or drill, bore two small Procedure:
holes on opposite sides of the float at its Using the Steam-Powered Hero Engine
middle. The holes should be just large 1. Place a small amount of water (about 10
enough to pass the tube straight through to 20 ml) into the float. The precise
the float. amount is not important. The float can be
3. With the tube positioned so that equal filled through the top if you drilled an
lengths protrude through the float, heat access hole or through the tubes by
the contact points of the float and tube partially immersing the engine in a bowl of
with the propane torch. Touch the end of water with one tube submerged and the
the solder to the heated area so that it other out of the water.
melts and seals both joints. 2. Suspend the engine and heat its bottom
4. Drill a water access hole through the with the torch. In a minute or two, the
threaded connector at the top of the float. engine should begin spinning. Be
5. Using the torch again, heat the protruding
careful not to operate the engine too long
tubes about three centimeters from each
because it may not be balanced well and
end. With pliers, carefully bend the tube
could wobble violently. If it begins to
tips in opposite directions. Bend the
wobble, remove the heat.
tubes slowly so they do not crimp.
6. Drill a small hole through the flat part of Caution: Wear eye protection when
the thumb screw for attaching the fish line demonstrating the engine. Be sure to confirm
and swivel. Twist the thumb screw into that the tubes are not obstructed in any way
the threaded connector of the float in step before heating. Test them by blowing
4 and attach the line and swivel. through one like a straw. If air flows out the
other tube, the engine is safe to use.

Finished Steam-Powered Hero Engine

42
Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ
 Pop Can Hero Engine
Names of Team Members:

Design an experiment that will test the effect that the size of the holes has on
the number of spins the can makes. What is your experiment hypothesis?

Mark each can to help you count the spins.

Test each Hero Engine and record your data on the cans
below.
Test Number 1
Hero Engine
Number o
f Holes:

Size of Holes:
Test Number 2 Predicted Number
Hero Engine of Spins:
Actual Number
Number o of Spins:
f Holes:
Difference (+ or -):
Size of Holes:
Predicted Number
of Spins:
Actual Number
of Spins:
Test Number 3
Difference (+ or -):

Based on your results, was your

Hero Engine
hypothesis correct? Number o
f Holes:

Why? Size of Holes:

Predicted Number
of Spins:
Actual Number
of Spins:
Difference (+ or -):

43
43
Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ
Design a new Hero Engine experiment. Remember, change
only one variable in your experiment.

What is your experiment hypothesis?

Compare this engine with the engine from your first experiment
that has the same size holes.

Based on your results, was

your hypothesis correct?
Hero Engine
Why? Number o
f Holes:

Size of Holes:
Predicted Number
of Spins:
Actual Number
of Spins:
Difference (+ or -):

Describe what you learned about Newton's Laws of Motion by

building and testing your Hero Engines.

Share your findings with other members of your class.

44
44
Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ
 Educator Information

Rocket Racer
Objectives:
• To construct a rocket propelled vehicle.
• To experiment with ways of increasing the distance the
rocket racer travels.

Description:
Students construct a balloon-powered rocket racer from a
styrofoam tray, pins, tape, and a flexible straw, and test it
along a measured track on the floor.
Science Standards:
Science as Inquiry
Physical Science - Position and motion of objects
Science and Technology - Abilities of technological Materials and Tools:
design • 4 Pins
Unifying Concepts and Processes - Change, • Styrofoam meat tray
constancy, and measurement • Masking tape
• Flexible straw
Science Process Skills: • Scissors
Observing • Drawing compass
Communicating • Marker pen
Measuring • Small round party balloon
Collecting Data • Ruler
Inferring • Student Sheets (one set per group)
Making Models • 10 Meter tape measure or other measuring
Interpreting Data markers for track (one for the whole class)
Making Graphs
Controlling Variables
Defining Operationally
Investigating
technology education and provides students
Mathematics Standards: with the opportunity to modify their racer
Mathematics as Problem Solving designs to increase performance. The
Mathematics as Communication optional second part of the activity directs
Mathematics as Reasoning students to design, construct, and test a new
Mathematical Connections rocket racer based on the results of the first
Measurement
Statistics and Probability
racer. Refer to the materials list and provide
Patterns and Relationships what is needed for making one rocket racer
for each group of two students. Styrofoam
Management: food trays are available from butchers in
This activity can be done individually or with supermarkets. They are usually sold for a
students working in pairs. Allow 40 to 45 few cents each or you may be able to get
minutes to complete the first part of the them donated. Students can also save trays
activity. The activity stresses at home and bring them to class.

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Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ
If compasses are not available, students can materials for the second racer until students
trace circular objects to make the wheels or need them.
use the wheel and hubcap patterns printed on 2. Students should plan the arrangement of
page 48. Putting hubcaps on both sides of parts on the tray before cutting them out. If
the wheels may improve performance. you do not wish to use scissors, students
can trace the pattern pieces with the sharp
If using the second part of the activity, provide point of a pencil or a pen. The pieces will
each group with an extra set of materials. snap out of the styrofoam if the lines are
Save scraps from the first styrofoam tray to pressed deeply.
build the second racer. You may wish to hold 3. Lay out a track on the floor approximately
drag or distance races with the racers. The 10 meters long. Several metric tape
racers will work very well on tile floors and measures joined together can be placed on
carpeted floors with a short nap. Several the floor for determining how far the racers
tables stretched end to end will also work, but travel. The students should measure in 10
racers may roll off the edges. centimeter intervals.
4. Test racers as they are completed.
Students should fill in the data sheets and
Although this activity provides one rocket
create a report cover with a drawing of the
racer design, students can try any racer
racer they constructed.
shape and any number, size, and placement
5. If a second racer will be constructed,
of wheels they wish. Long racers often work
distribute design pages so that the students
differently than short racers.
can design their racers before starting
construction.
Background Information:
The Rocket Racer is a simple way to observe Extensions:
Newton's Third Law of Motion. (Please refer • Hold Rocket Racer races.
to pages 15-16 of the rocket principles section • Tie a loop of string around the
of this guide for a complete description.) inflated balloon before releasing
While it is possible to demonstrate Newton's the racer. Inflate the balloon
Law with just a balloon, constructing a rocket inside the string loop each time
racer provides students with the opportunity you test the racers. This will
to put the action/reaction force to practical increase the accuracy of the
use. In this case, the payload of the balloon tests by insuring the balloon
rocket is the racer. Wheels reduce friction inflates the same amount each time.
with the floor to help racers move. Because • Make a balloon-powered pinwheel
of individual variations in the student racers, by taping another balloon to a
they will travel different distances and often in flexible straw. Push a pin through the straw
unplanned directions. Through modifications, and into the eraser of a pencil. Inflate the
the students can correct for undesirable balloon and watch it go.
results and improve their racers' efficiency.
Assessment:
Students will create "Rocket Racer Test
Making a Rocket Racer: Reports" to describe test runs and
1. Distribute the materials and construction modifications that improved their racer's
tools to each student group. If you are efficiency. Use these reports for assessment
going to have them construct a second along with the design sheet and new racer,
racer, tell them to save styrofoam tray should you choose to use the second part of
scraps for later. Hold back the additional this activity.

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Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ
 How To Build A Rocket Racer

1. Lay out your pattern

Car Body
Hubcaps
on a styrofoam tray.
You need 1 car body,
4 wheels, and 4 Wheels
hubcaps. Use a
compass to draw the
wheels.

2. Blow up the balloon and let the air

out. Tape the balloon to the short
end of a flexible straw and then
tape the straw to the rectangle.

3. Push pins through the

hubcaps into the wheels
and then into the edges of
the rectangle.

4. Blow up the balloon

through the straw.
Squeeze the end of the
straw. Place the racer on
floor and let it go!

47
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Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ
 Wheel Patterns
(Crosses mark the centers.)

Hubcap Patterns
(Crosses mark the centers.)

48
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Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ
 Rocket Racer
Test Report

Draw a picture of your rocket racer.

BY

DATE:

49
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Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ
 Rocket Racer Test Report
Place your rocket racer on the test track and measure how far it travels.

1. Describe how your rocket racer ran during the first trial run.
(Did it run on a straight or curved path?)

How far did it go? centimeters

Color in one block on the graph for each 10 centimeters your racer traveled.

2. Find a way to change and improve your rocket racer and test it again.

What did you do to improve the rocket racer for the second trial run?

How far did it go? centimeters

Color in one block on the graph for each 10 centimeters your racer traveled.

3. Find a way to change and improve your rocket racer and test it again.

What did you do to improve the rocket racer for the third trial run?

How far did it go? centimeters

Color in one block on the graph for each 10 centimeters your racer traveled.

4. In which test did your racer go the farthest?

Why?

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Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ
 Rocket Racer Data Sheet
Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology

Rocket Racer Trial #1

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Centimeters

Rocket Racer Trial #2

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Centimeters

Rocket Racer Trial #3

EG-2003-01-108-HQ

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Centimeters
51
51
 DESIGN SHEET

Front View
Design and build a new
rocket racer based on
your earlier experiments.

Side View
Top View

52
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Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ
 Educator Information

3-2-1 POP!
Objective:
To demonstrate how rocket liftoff is an application of
Newton's Laws of Motion.

Description:
Students construct a rocket powered by the pressure
generated from an effervescing antacid tablet reacting with
water.

Science Standards: The most common mistakes in constructing

Physical Science - Position and motion of objects the rocket are: forgetting to tape the film
Science and Technology - Abilities of technological canister to the rocket body, failing to mount
design - Understanding about science and
the canister with the lid end down, and not
technology
extending the canister far enough from the
Process Skills:
paper tube to make snapping the lid easy.
Observing
Communicating Some students may have difficulty in forming
Making Models the cone. To make a cone, cut out a pie
Inferring shape from a circle and curl it into a cone.
See the pattern on the next page. Cones can
Management: be any size.
For best results, students should work in
pairs. It will take approximately 40 to 45
minutes to complete the activity. Make
samples of rockets in various stages of Materials and Tools:
completion available for students to study. • Heavy paper (60-110 index stock or
This will help some students visualize the construction paper)
construction steps. • Plastic 35 mm film canister*
• Student sheets
A single sheet of paper is sufficient to make a • Cellophane tape
rocket. Be sure to tell the students to plan • Scissors
how they are going to use the paper. Let the • Effervescing antacid tablet
students decide whether to cut the paper the • Paper towels
short or long direction to make the body tube • Water
of the rocket. This will lead to rockets of • Eye protection
* The film canister must have an internal-sealing
different lengths for flight comparison.
lid. See management section for more details.

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Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ
Film canisters are available from camera Assessment:
shops and stores where photographic Ask students to explain how Newton's Laws
processing takes place. These businesses of Motion apply to this rocket. Compare the
recycle the canisters and are often willing to rockets for skill in construction. Rockets that
donate them for educational use. Be sure to use excessive paper and tape are likely to be
obtain canisters with the internal sealing lid. less efficient fliers because they carry
These are usually translucent canisters. additional weight.
Canisters with the external lid (lid that wraps
around the canister rim) will not work. These
Extensions:
are usually opaque canisters.
• Hold an altitude contest to see which rock-
ets fly the highest. Launch the rockets
Background Information: near a wall in a room with a high ceiling.
This activity is a simple but exciting Tape a tape measure to the wall. Stand
demonstration of Newton's Laws of Motion. back and observe how high the rockets
The rocket lifts off because it is acted upon travel upward along the wall. Let all stu-
by an unbalanced force (First Law). This is dents take turns measuring rocket altitudes
the force produced when the lid blows off by • What geometric shapes are present in a
the gas formed in the canister. The rocket rocket?
travels upward with a force that is equal and • Use the discussion questions to design
opposite to the downward force propelling the experiments with the rockets. Graph your
water, gas, and lid (Third Law). The amount results.
of force is directly proportional to the mass of
water and gas expelled from the canister and
how fast it accelerates (Second Law). For a
more complete discussion of Newton's Laws
of Motion, see pages 13-17 in this guide.

Procedure:
Refer to the Student Sheet.

Discussion:
• How does the amount of water placed in the
cylinder affect how high the rocket will fly?
• How does the temperature of the water
affect how high the rocket will fly?
• How does the amount of the tablet used
affect how high the rocket will fly?
• How does the length or empty weight of the
rocket affect how high the rocket will fly?
• How would it be possible to create a two-
stage rocket?

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Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ
 3-2-1 POP! 5
1
2
Ready for
flight

3
4

Wrap and tape

a tube of
paper around Lid
the film
canister. The
lid end of the
canister goes
down!
Tape fins to
your rocket.

Roll a cone of paper and

Cone Pattern tape it to the rocket's
upper end.
Tape
O
ve
r
la
p
th
is
ed

Cones can be
ge
to

any size!
fo
rm
co
ne

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Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ
ROCKETEER NAMES

COUNTDOWN:
1. Put on your eye protection.
2. Turn the rocket upside down
and fill the canister one-third
full of water.
Work quickly on the next steps!

3. Drop in 1/2 tablet.

4. Snap lid on tight.
5. Stand rocket on launch
platform.
6. Stand back.

LIFTOFF!
What three ways can you improve
your rocket?

1.

2.

3.

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Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ
 Educator Information

50
45
55 60 5
10
Antacid Tablet
15
40
35 1

30
25
20

Race
Objective:
To investigate methods of increasing the
500 ml 500 ml power of rocket fuels by manipulating
400 400 surface area and temperature.
300 300

200 200
Description:
100 100
Students compare the reaction rates of
effervescent antacid tablets under different
conditions.
Science Standards:
Science as Inquiry
the experiments. Give student groups only
Physical Science - Properties of objects and two tablets at a time. Make sure they know
materials how to fill in the stopwatch graphs on the
Science and Technology - Abilities of technological student pages. Although there is little eye
design hazard involved with the experiment, it is
valuable for students to get in the habit of
Science Process Skills:
wearing eye protection for experiments
Observing
Communicating involving chemicals.
Measuring
Collecting Data Background Information:
Inferring This activity enables students to discover
Predicting methods of increasing the rate that rocket
Interpreting Data
Making Graphs
propellants release energy. When rocket
Hypothesizing propellants burn faster, the mass of exhaust
Controlling Variables gases expelled increases as well as how fast
Investigating those gases accelerate out of the rocket
nozzle. Newton's Second Law of Motion
Mathematics Standards:
Mathematics as Communication
Mathematical Connections Materials and Tools:
Estimation • Effervescent Antacid tablets (four per
Measurement group)
Statistics and Probability • Two beakers (or glass or plastic jars)
• Tweezers or forceps
Management: • Scrap paper
• Watch or clock with second hand
This activity should be done in groups of two • Thermometer
or three students. The specific brand of • Eye protection
effervescent antacid tablets used for the • Water (warm and cold)
experiment is not important, but different
brands should not be mixed during

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Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ
states that the force or action of a rocket The second experiment measures the
engine is directly proportional to the mass reaction rate of tablets in different water
expelled times its acceleration. temperatures. Tablets in warm water react
Consequently, increasing the efficiency of much more quickly than tablets in cold water.
rocket fuels increases the performance of the In liquid propellant rocket engines, super cold
rocket. fuel, such as liquid hydrogen, is preheated
before being combined with liquid oxygen.
Students will discover two methods for This increases the reaction rate and thereby
increasing the efficiency of rocket fuels by increases the rocket's thrust. More
using antacid tablets. The first experiment information about this process appears on
measures the relationship between the page 20.
surface area of a tablet and its reaction rate
in water. Students will learn that increasing Assessment:
the surface area of a tablet by crushing it into Conduct a class discussion where students
a powder, increases its reaction rate with the explain how this experiment relates to the
water. This is a similar situation to the way a way rocket fuel burns. Collect and review
rocket's thrust becomes greater by increasing completed student pages.
the burning surface of its propellants.
Extensions:
Expanding the burning surface increases its • Try a similar activity relating to the surface
burning rate. In solid rockets, a hollow core area of rocket fuels using small pieces of
extending the length of the propellant permits hard candy. Take two pieces of candy and
more propellant to burn at a time. This crush one. Then, give the whole candy
increases the amount of gas (mass) and piece to one student and the crushed candy
acceleration of the gas as it leaves the rocket to another student to dissolve in their
engine. Liquid propellants spray into the mouths. Which candy will dissolve first?
combustion chamber of a liquid propellant
rocket to maximize their surface area.
Smaller droplets react more quickly than do
large ones, increasing the acceleration of the
escaping gases. (See page 20 for more
information.)

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Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ
 Team
Antacid Members:

Tablet Race
Experiment 1 Jar 1 Results
Your Prediction: ____________ seconds
1. Fill both jars half full with water that
is at the same temperature.

2. Put on your eye protection.

0 15
30
3. Predict how long it will take for the 45
tablet to dissolve in the water. Drop
a tablet in the first jar. Shade in the 5 1
stopwatch face for the actual number 15
of minutes and seconds it took to 30
complete the reaction. The
stopwatch can measure six minutes. 45

4 2
4. Wrap another tablet in paper and
place it on a table top. Crush the
tablet with the wood block. 3

5. Predict how long it will take for the

crushed tablet to dissolve. Drop the
Jar 2 Results
powder in the other jar. Shade in the Your Prediction: ____________ seconds
clock face for the number of minutes
and seconds it took to complete the
reaction.

Describe what happened in the experiment and why. 0 15

30
45
5 1
15
30
45

4 2

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Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ
 Experiment 2 Jar 1 Results
Temperature: ____________0C
1. Empty the jars from the first
Your Prediction:____________ Seconds
experiment. Put warm water in one
jar and cold in the other.

2. Measure the temperature of the first

jar. Predict how long it will take for a
tablet to dissolve. Drop a tablet in 0 15
the jar. Shade in the clock face for 30
45
the actual number of minutes and
seconds it took to complete the 5 1
reaction. 15
30
3. Measure the temperature of the
second jar. Predict how long it will 45
take for a tablet to dissolve in the 2
water. Drop a tablet in the jar.
4
Shade in the clock face for the actual
number of minutes and seconds it 3
took to complete the reaction.

Describe what happened in the

Jar 2 Results
experiment and why. Temperature: ____________0C
Your Prediction:____________ Seconds

0 15
30
45
5 1
15
30
How can you apply the results from
45
these experiments to improve rocket
performance? 4 2

60
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Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ
 Educator Information

Paper Rockets
Objective:
To design, construct, and fly paper rockets that will travel
the greatest distance possible across a floor model of the
solar system.

Description:
In this activity, students construct small flying rockets out of
paper and propel them by blowing air through a straw.

Science Standards: Materials and Tools:

Science as Inquiry • Scrap bond paper
Physical Science - Position and motion of objects • Cellophane tape
Science and Technology - Abilities of technological • Scissors
design • Sharpened fat pencil
Unifying Concepts and Processes - Evidence, • Milkshake straw (slightly thinner than pencil)
models, and explanation • Eye protection
• Metric ruler
Science Process Skills: • Masking tape or Altitude trackers
• Pictures of the Sun and planets
Observing
Communicating
Measuring
Collecting Data
Inferring When students complete the rockets,
Predicting distribute straws. Select a location for flying
Making Models
the rockets. A room with open floor space or
Interpreting Data
Controlling Variables a hallway is preferable. Prepare the floor by
Defining Operationally marking a 10-meter test range with tape
Investigating measures or meter sticks laid end to end.
As an alternative, lay out the planetary target
Mathematics Standards: range as shown on the next page. Have
Mathematics as Problem Solving
students launch from planet Earth, and tell
Mathematics as Reasoning
Mathematical Connections them to determine the farthest planet they are
Geometry and Spatial Sense able to reach with their rocket. Use the
Statistics and Probability planetary arrangement shown on the next
page for laying out the launch range.
Management: Pictures for the planets are found on page
After demonstrating a completed paper 63. Enlarge these pictures as desired.
rocket to the students, have them construct
their own paper rockets and decorate them. Record data from each launch on the Paper
Students may work individually or in pairs. Rocket Launch Record Report form. The
Because the rockets are projectiles, make form includes spaces for data from three
s u r e students wear eye protection. different rockets. After the first launches,

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Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-06-108-HQ
students should construct new and Making and Launching Paper Rockets:
"improved" paper rockets and attempt a
longer journey through the solar system. 1. Distribute the materials and construction
Encourage the students to try different sized tools to each student.
rockets and different shapes and number of 2. Students should each construct a rocket
fins. For younger students, create a chart as shown in the instructions on the
listing how far each planet target is from student sheet.
Earth. Older students can measure these 3. Tell students to predict how far their
distances for themselves. rocket will fly and record their estimates in
the test report sheet. After test flying the
Background Information:
rocket and measuring the distance it
Although the activity uses a solar system reached, students should record the
target range, the Paper Rockets activity actual distance and the difference
demonstrates how rockets fly through the between predicted and actual distances
atmosphere. A rocket with no fins is much on the Paper Rockets Test Report.
more difficult to control than a rocket with 4. Following the flight of the first rocket,
fins. The placement and size of the fins is students should construct and test two
critical to achieve adequate stability while not additional rockets of different sizes and fin
adding too much weight. More information designs.
on rocket fins can be found on pages 22-23
of this guide.

Pluto
Neptune

Jupiter Saturn
Mercury
Uranus
Sun

Mars
Venus
Suggested Target Range Layout
Arrange pictures of the Sun and the
Earth planets on a clear floor space as shown
below. The distance between Earth and
Pluto should be about 8 meters. Refer to
an encyclopedia or other reference for a
chart on the actual distances to each
planet.

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Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ
Planet Targets Enlarge these pictures on a copy machine or sketch copies
of the pictures on separate paper. Place these pictures on
(Not Drawn To Scale) the floor according to the arrangement on the previous
page. If you wish to make the planets to scale, refer to the
numbers beside the names indicating the relative sizes of
each body. Earth's diameter is given as one and all the
other bodies are given as multiples of one.

Mercury
0.38X

Venus
0.95X

Sun
108X
Earth
1X

Mars
0.53X

Saturn
9.4X

Jupiter
11.2X

Pluto
Uranus Neptune
0.9X
4X 3.9X
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Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-06-108-HQ
Discussion: Assessment:
1. What makes one rocket perform better Students will complete test reports that will
than another? (Do not forget to examine describe the rockets they constructed and
the weight of each rocket. Rockets made how those rockets performed. Ask the
with extra tape and larger fins weigh students to create bar graphs on a blank
more.) sheet of paper that show how far each of the
2. How small can the fins be and still three rockets they constructed flew. Have
stabilize the rocket? students write a summarizing paragraph in
3. How many fins does a rocket need to which they pick which rocket performed the
stabilize it? best and explain their ideas for why it
4. What would happen if you placed the performed as it did.
rocket fins near the rocket's nose?
5. What will happen to the rocket if you bend
the lower tips of the fins pinwheel
fashion?
6. Are rocket fins necessary in outer space?

Extensions:
Try to determine how high the rockets fly. To
do so, place masking tape markers on a wall
at measured distances from the floor to the
ceiling. While one student launches the
rocket along the wall, another student
compares the height the rocket reached with
the tape markers. Be sure to have the
students subtract the height from where the
rocket was launched from the altitude
reached. For example, if students held the
rocket 1.5 meters from the floor to launch it,
and it reached 4 meters above the floor, the
actual altitude change was 2.5 meters. Refer
to the Altitude Tracker activity starting on
page 79 for details on a second method for
measuring the height the paper rockets
reach.

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Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ
 PAPER ROCKETS
Follow the arrows to build your rocket.

Roll paper strip around

pencil.
H
4 C
st by 2
rip 8
N
of ce
pa nti
U
pe me A
r te
r L

Blow through
Tape tube in 3 places. straw to launch.

Fold over upper end

and tape shut. Insert straw.

Cut out fins in any

shape you like.
Cut off ends.

Fold out tabs and

tape fins to tube.

65
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Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-06-108-HQ
 Names:
Paper Rocket Test Report
1. Launch your rocket three times. How far did it fly each time. What is the average
distance your rocket flew? Write your answer in the spaces below.
2. Build and fly a rocket of a new design. Before flying it, predict how far it will go.
Fly the rocket three times and average the distances. What is the difference
between your prediction and the actual average distance?
3. Build a third rocket and repeat step 2.
4. On the back of this paper, write a short paragraph describing each rocket you built
and how it flew. Draw pictures of the rockets you constructed.
Rocket 1 Make notes about the flights here.

How far did it fly 1.

in centimeters? 2.
3.

Average distance
in centimeters?

Rocket 2 Make notes about the flights here.

Predict how many centimeters

your rocket will fly.

How far did it fly 1.

in centimeters? 2.
3.

Average distance?

Difference between your

prediction and the average
distance?

Rocket 3 Make notes about the flights here.

Predict how many centimeters

your rocket will fly.

How far did it fly 1.

in centimeters? 2.
3.

Average distance?
Difference between your
prediction and the average
distance?

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Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ
 Educator Information

Newton Car
Objective:
To investigate how increasing the mass of an
object thrown from a Newton Car affects the
car's acceleration over a rolling track
(Newton's Second Law of Motion).

Description:
In this activity, students test a slingshot-like
device that throws a mass causing the car to
move in the opposite direction.

Science Standards:
size of the string loop they tie, the placement
Science as Inquiry
Physical Science - Properties of objects and of the mass on the car, and the placement of
materials the dowels. Discuss the importance of
Unifying Concepts and Processes - Evidence, controlling the variables in the experiment
models, and explanation with your students.
Unifying Concepts and Processes - Change,
constancy, and measurement
Making the Newton Car involves cutting
Science Process Skills: blocks of wood and driving three screws into
Observing each block. Refer to the diagram on this
Communicating page for the placement of the screws as well
Measuring as how the Newton Car is set up for the
Collecting Data
Inferring
experiment. Place the dowels in a row like
Predicting railroad ties and extend them to one side as
Interpreting Data shown in the picture. If you have access to a
Making Graphs
Controlling Variables
Defining Operationally Materials and Tools:
Investigating • 1 Wooden block about 10 x 20 x 2.5 cm
• 3 3-inch No. 10 wood screws (round head)
Mathematics Standards: • 12 Round pencils or short lengths of similar
Mathematics as Problem Solving dowel
Mathematics as Communication • Plastic film canister
Mathematical Connections • Assorted materials for filling canister
Measurement (e.g. washers, nuts, etc.)
Statistics and Probability • 3 Rubber bands
Patterns and Relationships • Cotton string
• Safety lighter
Management: • Eye protection for each student
• Metric beam balance (Primer Balance)
Conduct this activity in groups of three
• Vice
students. Use a smooth testing surface such • Screwdriver
as a long, level table top or uncarpeted floor. • Meter stick
The experiment has many variables that
students must control including: the
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Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ
drill press, you can substitute short dowels for completely fill the canister with various
the screws. It is important to drill the holes materials, such as seeds, small nails, metal
for the dowels perpendicular into the block washers, sand, etc. This will enable them to
with the drill press. Add a drop of glue to vary the mass twice during the experiment.
each hole. Have students weigh the canister after it is
filled and record the mass on the student
The activity requires students to load their sheet. After using the canister three times,
"slingshot" by stretching the rubber bands first with one rubber band and then two and
back to the third screw and holding it in place three rubber bands, students should refill the
with the string. The simplest way of doing canister with new material for the next three
this is to tie the loop first and slide the rubber tests.
bands through the loop before placing the
rubber bands over the two screws. Loop the Refer to the sample graph for recording data.
string over the third screw after stretching the The bottom of the graph is the distance the
rubber bands back. car travels in each test. Students should plot
a dot on the graph for the distance the car
Use a match or lighter to burn the string. The traveled. The dot should fall on the y-axis
small ends of string left over from the knot line representing the number of rubber bands
acts as a fuse that permits the students to used and on the x-axis for the distance the
remove the match before the string burns car traveled. After plotting three tests with a
through. Teachers may want to give student particular mass, connect the dots with lines.
groups only a few matches at a time. To The students should use a solid line for Mass
completely conduct this experiment, student 1 and a line with large dashes for Mass 2. If
groups will need six matches. It may be the students have carefully controlled their
necessary for a practice run before starting variables, they should observe that the car
the experiment. As an alternative to the traveled the greatest distance using the
matches, students can use blunt nose greatest mass and three rubber bands. This
scissors to cut the string. This requires some conclusion will help them conceptualize
fast movement on the part of the student Newton's Second Law of Motion.
doing the cutting. The student needs to
move the scissors quickly out of the way after Background Information:
cutting the string.
The Newton car provides an excellent tool for
Tell the students to tie all the string loops investigating Isaac Newton’s Second Law of
they need before beginning the experiment. Motion. The law states that force equals
The loops should be as close to the same mass times acceleration. In rockets, the
size as possible. Refer to the diagram on the force is the action produced by gas expelled
student pages for the actual size of the loops. from the engines. According to the law, the
Loops of different sizes will introduce a greater the gas that is expelled and the faster
significant variable into the experiment, it accelerates out of the engine, the greater
causing the rubber bands to be stretched the force or thrust. More details on this law
different amounts. This will lead to different can be found on page 16 of this guide.
accelerations with the mass each time the
experiment is conducted.
The Newton Car is a kind of a slingshot. A
Use plastic 35 millimeter film canisters for the wooden block with three screws driven into it
mass in the experiments. Direct students to forms the slingshot frame. Rubber bands

68
Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ
stretch from two of the screws and hold to the Discussion:
third by a string loop. A mass sits between
1. How is the Newton Car similar to rockets?
the rubber bands. When the string is cut, the
rubber bands throw the block to produce an 2. How do rocket engines increase their
action force. The reaction force propels the thrust?
block in the opposite direction over some 3. Why is it important to control variables in
dowels that act as rollers (Newton's Third an experiment?
Law of Motion).
Assessment:
This experiment directs students to launch
the car while varying the number of rubber Conduct a class discussion where students
bands and the quantity of mass thrown off. share their findings about Newton's Laws of
They will measure how far the car travels in Motion. Ask them to compare their results
the opposite direction and plot the data on a with those from previous activities such as
graph. Repeated runs of the experiment Pop Can Hero Engine. Collect and review
should show that the distance the car travels completed student pages.
depends on the number of rubber bands Extensions:
used and the quantity of the mass being
Obtain a toy water rocket from a toy store.
expelled. Comparing the graph lines will lead
Try launching the rocket with only air and
students to Newton's Second Law of Motion.
then with water and air and observe how far
the rocket travels.

69
Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ
 Newton Car
1. Tie 6 string loops this size.

2. Fill up your film canister and

weigh it in grams. Record the
mass in the Newton Car
Report chart.

3. Set up your Newton Car as

shown in the picture. Slip the
rubber band through the
string loop. Stretch the
rubber band over the two
screws and pull the string

0c
back over the third

m
screw. Place the

6c
s
rod
orection

m
m
rods 6 ce ire
Pla this d 12
in
centimeters cm

apart. Use only one

18
cm

rubber band the first time.

4. Put on your eye protection!

5. Light the string and stand back. Record the distance the car traveled
on the chart.

6. Reset the car and rods. Make sure the rods are 6 centimeters apart!
Use two rubber bands. Record the distance the car travels.

7. Reset the car with three rubber bands. Record the distance it travels.

8. Refill the canister and record its new mass.

9. Test the car with the new canister and with 1, 2, and 3 rubber bands.
Record the distances the car moves each time.

10. Plot your results on the graph. Use one line for the first set of
measurements and a different line for the second set.
70
Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ
 Team
Newton Car Report Members:

Rubber Bands Distance Traveled

centimeters
MASS 1
centimeters
ggrram
ams
centimeters

Describe what happened when you tested the car with 1, 2, and 3 rubber
bands.

Rubber Bands Distance Traveled

centimeters
MASS 2
centimeters
ggram
ams
centimeters

Describe what happened when you tested the car with 1, 2, and 3 rubber
bands.

Write a short statement explaining the relationship between the amount

of mass in the canister, the number of rubber bands, and the distance
the car traveled.

71
71
Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ
 Centimeters
200 150 100 50 0

Sample Graph

Rubber bands
2

gms Mass 2 =
gms Mass 1 =

200
gms
gms

150
Mass 1 =
Mass 2 =

Centimeters
100
Test Results
Newton Car

50
0
3

Rubber bands

72
Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ
 Centimeters
200 150 100 50 0

Sample Graph

Rubber bands
2

gms Mass 2 =
gms Mass 1 =

200
gms
gms

150
Mass 1 =
Mass 2 =

Centimeters
100
Test Results
Newton Car

50
0
3

Rubber bands

72
Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ
 Educator Information

Balloon
Staging
Objective:
To demonstrate how rockets can achieve greater
altitudes by using the technology of staging.

Description:
This demonstration simulates a multistage rocket
launch by using two inflated balloons that slide along
a fishing line by the thrust produced from escaping
air.
Science Standards:
Physical Science - Position and motion of objects typical rocket, the stages are mounted one on
Science and Technology - Abilities of technological top of the other. The lowest stage is the
design largest and heaviest. In the Space Shuttle,
Science and Technology - Understanding about
science and technology the stages attach side by side. The solid
rocket boosters attach to the side of the
Science Process Skills: external tank. Also attached to the external
Observing tank is the Shuttle orbiter. When exhausted
Making Models the solid rocket boosters jettison. Later, the
Defining Operationally
orbiter discards the external tank as well.
Management:
Procedure:
The activity described below can be done by
1. Thread the fishing line through the two
students or used as a demonstration.
straws. Stretch the fishing line snugly
Younger students may have difficulty in
across a room and secure its ends. Make
coordinating the assembly steps to achieve a
sure the line is just high enough for people
successful launch. If you will use the activity
to pass safely underneath.
in several successive classes, consider
2. Cut the coffee cup in half so that the lip of
attaching the fishing line along one wall
the cup forms a continuous ring.
where there is not much traffic, so students
3. Stretch the balloons by pre-inflating them.
will not walk into the line.

Background Information:
Traveling into outer space takes enormous Materials and Tools:
amounts of energy. This activity is a simple • 2 Long party balloons
demonstration of rocket staging that Johann • Nylon monofilament fishing line (any weight)
Schmidlap first proposed in the 16th century. • 2 Plastic straws (milkshake size)
When a lower stage has exhausted its load of • Styrofoam coffee cup
• Masking tape
propellants, the entire stage drops away,
• Scissors
making the upper stages more efficient in • 2 Spring clothespins
reaching higher altitudes. In the

73
Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ
 Inflate the first balloon about three-fourths Assessment:
full of air and squeeze its nozzle tight. Pull Collect and display student designs for
the nozzle through the ring. Twist the multistage rockets. Ask each student to
nozzle and hold it shut with a spring explain their rocket to the class.
clothespin. Inflate the second balloon.
While doing so, make sure the front end of Extensions:
the second balloon extends through the • Encourage the students to try other
ring a short distance. As the second launch arrangements such as side-by-side
balloon inflates, it will press against the balloons and three stages.
nozzle of the first balloon and take over the • Can students fly a two stage balloon
clip's job of holding it shut. It may take a without the fishing line as a guide? How
bit of practice to achieve this. Clip the might the balloons be modified to make this
nozzle of the second balloon shut also. possible?
4. Take the balloons to one end of the fishing
line and tape each balloon to a straw with
masking tape. The balloons should point
parallel to the fishing line.
5. Remove the clip from the first balloon and
untwist the nozzle. Remove the nozzle
from the second balloon as well, but
continue holding it shut with your fingers.
6. If you wish, do a rocket countdown as you
release the balloon you are holding. The
escaping gas will propel both balloons
along the fishing line. When the first
balloon released runs out of air, it will
release the other balloon to continue the
trip.
7. Distribute design sheets and ask students
to design and describe their own
multistage rocket.

74
Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ
 Top View
Design Sheet
Design a rocket that has at
least two stages. In the
space below, describe what
each stage will do. Do not
forget to include a place for
payload and crew.

Description
Your Name:
Rocket Name:

Side View

75
75
Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ
 Educator Information

Rocket
Transportation
Objective:
To problem solve ways to lift a load using a balloon rocket.

Description:
Students construct a rocket out of a balloon and use it to
carry a paper clip payload.

Science Standards: Background Information:

Science as Inquiry
The mass of a rocket can make the
Physical Science - Position and motion of objects
Science and Technology - Abilities of technological difference between a successful flight and a
design rocket that just sits on the launch pad. As a
basic principle of rocket flight, a rocket will
Science Process Skills: leave the ground when the engine produces
Observing a thrust that is greater than the total mass of
Communicating
the vehicle.
Measuring
Collecting Data Large rockets, able to carry a spacecraft into
Inferring space, have serious weight problems. To
Predicting
Making Models
reach space and proper orbital velocities, a
Controlling Variables great deal of propellant is needed; therefore,
Defining Operationally the tanks, engines, and associated hardware
Investigating become larger. Up to a point, bigger rockets
fly farther than smaller rockets, but when they
Mathematics Standards: become too large their structures weigh them
Problem Solving
Communication
down too much.
Reasoning
Connections
Estimation Materials and Tools:
Measurement
• Large long balloons (Several per group)
• Fishing line
Management: • Straws
This activity works best with students working • Small paper cups
in teams of three or four. It will take • Paper clips
approximately one hour to complete. The • Tape
activity focuses on the scientific processes of • Clothes pins
experimentation. • Scales

76
Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ
A solution to the problem of giant rockets 6. After trying their rocket have students
weighing too much can be credited to the predict how much weight they can lift to
16th-century fireworks maker John the ceiling. Allow students to change their
Schmidlap. Schmidlap attached small design in any way that might increase the
rockets to the top of big ones. When the rockets lifting ability between each try (e.g.
large rockets exhausted their fuel supply the adding additional balloons, changing
rocket casing dropped behind and the locations of the payload bay, replacing the
remaining rocket fired. Much higher altitudes initial balloon as it loses some of its
can be achieved this way. elasticity enabling it to maintain the same
thrust, etc.)
This technique of building a rocket is called
staging. Thanks to staging, we can not only
reach outer space in the Space Shuttle, but Discussion:
also the Moon and other planets using 1. Compare what you have learned about
various spacecraft. balloons and rockets.

2. Why is the balloon forced along the string?

Procedure:
1. Attach a fishing line to the ceiling or as
high on the wall as possible. Try attaching Assessment:
a paper clip to a fishing line and hooking it Compare results from student launches.
on to the light or ceiling tile braces. Make Have students discuss design elements that
one drop with the fishing line to the floor or made their launch successful and ideas they
table top per group. Note: The line may think could be used to create an even more
be marked off in metric units with a marker successful heavy-lift launcher.
to aid students in determining the height
traveled. Extensions:
2. Blow up the balloon and hold it shut with a • Can you eliminate the paper cup from the
clothes pin. You will remove the clip rocket and have it still carry paper clips?
before launch.
3. Use the paper cup as a payload bay to • If each balloon costs one million dollars and
carry the weights. Attach the cup to the you need to lift 100 paper clips, how much
balloon using tape. Encourage students to money would you need to spend? Can you
think of creative locations to attach the cup think of a way to cut this cost?
to the balloon.
4. Attach the straw to the side of your rocket • Without attaching the paper cup as a pay-
using the tape. Be sure the straw runs load carrier, have the students measure the
lengthwise along the balloon. This will be distance the balloon travels along the string
your guide and attachment to your fishing in a horizontal, vertical, and 45 degree
line. angle using metric units. Discuss the
5. Thread the fishing line through the straws. differences.
Launch is now possible simply by
removing the clothes pin. NOTE: The
fishing line should be taut for the rocket to
travel successfully up the line, and the
clipped balloon nozzle must be untwisted
before release.

77
Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ
Rocket Rocket Team

Transportation
• Predict how much weight your rocket can lift to the ceiling
(2 small paperclips = approximately 1 gram)

Test Weight Lifted Results of Test

1
2
3
4

Based on your most successful launch:

•What was the maximum amount of weight you could lift to the ceiling?
Explain how you designed your rocket to lift the
maximum amount of weight.
Sketch Your Rocket

• What other ways could increase the lifting capacity of your rocket?

78
Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ
 Educator Information

le
ap
St
Altitude

A
r
ke

A
ac
Tr

A
de

le
ap
St
tu
l ti

A
t A
ke

A
Tracking
oc

90

0
R

St 80

A
ap
10
le 70 20
60 30
to

A
50 40
n gs
lo
be

A
er
ck
a
Tr

A
ed
tu
lti
St

A
ap

is
Th
le

90
Objective:
A

85

80
LAT
OR To estimate the altitude a rocket achieves during
CU E m 75

AL ck
et
SE
LIN
30 flight.
C ro d. 70
e e
th sur BA 15
DE

f 8
o e a
se m 5
IT U

4 65
no u
e yo 3
th le 1.
te ang
ALT

t a
Ro the
to
60

Description:
55

n o
r i ce
e he
th f t
50
In this activity, students construct simple altitude
be tan tion he tude
m is
nu d ca T al
e e lo e. e
th r th on sit th s.
ti
45
tracking devices for determining the altitude a
at o ti h u er
o k w f sta unc ll yo et
o
Lo ind king e la ill te t in
w ac th r w ke
m
40
rocket reaches in its flight.
tr om be oc
fr um e r
n f th 35
o
30
25

then input into the altitude tracker calculator and

20
0

15
10

the altitude is read. Roles are reversed so that

everyone gets to launch and to track. Depending
Science Standards: upon the number of launches held and whether or
Physical Science - Position and motion of objects not every student makes their own Altitude
Science and Technology - Abilities of technological
design Trackers and Altitude Calculators, the activity
Science and Technology - Understanding about should take about an hour or two. While waiting
science and technology to launch rockets or track them, students can
work on other projects.
Science Process Skills:
Observing Altitude tracking, as used in this activity, can be
Measuring used with the Paper Rockets (page 61), 3-2-1
Collecting Data
Pop! (page 53), and Bottle Rockets (page 91)
Interpreting Data
activities and with commercial model rockets.
Mathematics Standards: The Altitude Calculator is calibrated for 5, 15, and
Mathematics as Communication
Mathematics as Reasoning
Mathematical Connections Materials and Tools:
Estimation • Altitude tracker pattern
Number Sense and Numeration • Altitude calculator pattern
Geometry and Spatial Sense • Thread or lightweight string
Measurement • Small washer
Trigonometry • Brass paper fastener
• Scissors
Management: • Razor blade knife and cutting surface
Determining the altitude a rocket reaches in flight • Stapler
is a team activity. While one group of students • Meter stick
prepares and launches a rocket, a second group • Rocket and launcher
measures the altitude the rocket reaches by
estimating the angle of the rocket at its highest
point from the tracking station. The angle is

79
Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ
30 meter baselines. Use the 5-meter baseline for
Paper Rockets and 3-2-1 Pop! rockets. Use the
15-meter baseline for Project X-35, and use the
30-meter baseline for launching commercial
model rockets.
le

For practical reasons, the Altitude Calculator is ap

St

designed for angles in increments of 5 degrees.

A
er
Younger children, may have difficulty in obtaining

A
a ck
Tr
precise angle measurements with the Altitude

A
e
le

ud
ap
St
Tracker. For simplicity's sake, round

t
lti

A
A
et
measurements off to the nearest 5 degree

A
k
oc

90

0
R
increment and read the altitude reached directly 80

St

A
10

ap
le
70 20
60 30
from the Altitude Calculator. If desired, you can

to

A
50 40

gs
l on
determine altitudes for angles in between the

be

A
er
ck
a
increments by adding the altitudes above and

Tr

A
de
tu
lti
below the angle and dividing by 2. A more

St

A
ap

is
Th
le
precise method for determining altitudes appears

A
later in the procedures.
A
Completed Altitude Tracker Scope
A teacher aid or older student should cut out the
three windows in in the Altitude Calculator. A
sharp knife or razor and a cutting surface works
best for cutting out windows. The altitude tracker
is simple enough for everyone to make their own,
but they can also be shared. Students should
practice taking angle measurements and using
the calculator on objects of known height such as
a building or a flagpole before calculating rocket
altitude. Procedure:
Constructing the Altitude Tracker Scope
1. Copy the pattern for the altitude tracker on
Background Information:
heavy weight paper.
This activity makes use of simple trigonometry to
2. Cut out the pattern on the dark outside lines.
determine the altitude a rocket reaches in flight.
3. Curl (do not fold) the B edge of the pattern to
The basic assumption of the activity is that the
the back until it lines up with the A edge.
rocket travels straight up from the launch site. If
4. Staple the edges together where marked. If
the rocket flies away at an angle other than 90
done correctly, the As and Bs will be on the
degrees, the accuracy of the procedure
outside of the tracker.
diminishes. For example, if the rocket climbs
5. Punch a small hole through the apex of the
over a tracking station, where the angle is
protractor quadrant on the pattern.
measured, the altitude calculation will yield an
6. Slip a thread or lightweight string through the
answer higher than the actual altitude reached.
hole. Knot the thread or string on the back
On the other hand, if the rocket flies away from
side.
the station, the altitude measurement will be
6. Complete the tracker by hanging a small
lower than the actual value. Tracking accuracy
washer from the other end of the thread as
can be increased, by using more than one
tracking station to measure the rocket's altitude. shown in the diagram above.
Position a second or third station in different
directions from the first station. Averaging the
altitude measurements will reduce individual
error.
80
Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ
Procedure: Procedure:
Using the Altitude Tracker Constructing the Altitude Calculator
1. Set up a tracking station location a short 1. Copy the two patterns for the altitude calculator
distance away from the rocket launch site. onto heavy weight paper or glue the patterns
Depending upon the expected altitude of the on to light weight posterboard. Cut out the
patterns.
2. Place the top pattern on a cutting surface and
cut out the three windows.
3. Join the two patterns together where the center
marks are located. Use a brass paper fastener
to hold the pieces together. The pieces should
rotate smoothly.

Procedure:
Determining the Altitude
1. Use the Altitude Calculator to determine the
height the rocket reached. To do so, rotate the
inner wheel of the calculator so that the nose
? of the rocket pointer is aimed at the angle
measured in step 2 of the previous procedure.
2. Read the altitude of the rocket by looking in the
ple
Sta
window. If you use a 5-meter baseline, the
A
r
ke

A
ac

altitude the rocket reached will be in the

Tr

A
de

ple
tu

Sta
lti

A
tA
ke

A
oc

90

0
R

80
Sta

10
ple

70 20
60 30
to

50 40
gs
lon
be

A
er
ck
Tra

A
de

window beneath the 5. To achieve a more

itu
Alt
Sta

A
is
ple

Th
A
A

accurate measure, add the height of the

15 meters person holding the tracker to calculate altitude.
If the angle falls between two degree marks,
Baseline average the altitude numbers above and below
the marks.
rocket, the tracking station should be 5,
15, or 30 meters away. (Generally, a 5-
meter distance is sufficient for paper
90

85
rockets and antacid-power rockets. A

80
15-meter distance is sufficient for bottle OR
U LAT 75
rockets, and a 30-meter distance is LC NE m
et
30
I
sufficient for model rockets. A ck EL
C ro ed. S 70
e
th sur BA 15
DE

8
2. As a rocket launches, the person doing of a
e me 5
s 65
IT U

4
the tracking will follow the flight with the no u
e yo 3
th gle 1.
e
ALT

sighting tube on the tracker. The tracker t n

ta a 60
Ro the
should be held like a pistol and kept at to
55
the same level as the rocket when it is e he
th f t
launched. Continue to aim the tracker at i n eo
r c 50
be n n e de
the highest point the rocket reached in m ista tio h titu
nu e d loca e. Te al
e
th r th on sit th s. 45
the sky. Have a second student read k
at fo tati nch you eter
o o w s u ll m
the angle the thread or string makes Lo ind king e la ill te t in 40
w ac th r w ke
tr om be oc
with the quadrant protractor. Record fr um e r
n f th 35
the angle. o
30
25
20
0

15
5

10

81
Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ
Advanced Altitude Tracking: Have students demonstrate their proficiency with
1. A more advanced altitude tracking scope can altitude tracking by sighting on a fixed object of
be constructed by replacing the rolled sighting known height and comparing their results. If
tube with a fat milkshake straw. Use white employing two tracking stations, compare
glue to attach the straw along the 90 degree measurements from both stations.
line of the protractor. Extensions:
2. Once you determine the angle of the rocket, • Why should the height of the person holding
use the following equation to calculate altitude the tracker be added to the measurement of
of the rocket: the rocket's altitude?
• Curriculum guides for model rocketry
Altitude = tan x baseline (available from model rocket supply
companies) provide instructions for more
Use a calculator with trigonometry functions to
sophisticated rocket trcking measurements.
solve the problem or refer to the tangent table
These activities involve two-station tracking
on page 86. For example, if the measured
with altitude and compass direction
angle is 28 degrees and the baseline is
measurement and trigonometric functions.
15 meters, the altitude is 7.97 meters.
Altitude = tan 28o X 15 m
Altitude = 0.5317 x 15 m = 7.97 m

3. An additional improvement in accuracy can be

obtained by using two tracking stations.
Averaging the calculated altitude from the two
stations will achieve greater accuracy. See the
figure below.

Assessment:
m
36
e

Es
ud

tim
tit

at
Al

ed
ed

Al
at

tit
tim

ud
e
Es

30
m
Two Station Tracking
Use average of the two stations

o
51 o
45
ple
Sta
A
A
r
ke
ac

A
Tr
de

ple
A

Sta
tu
lti

0
tA

90 10
ke

80
Roc

20
A

Sta 70 30
ple 60 50 40
A
to
gs
lon
be

A
er
ck
Tra

A
de
titu

30 meters 30 meters
Al

Sta
is

ple
Th
A
A

Baseline Baseline

82
Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ
 B B B B B B B B B B B B
of rocket.
2. Read angle of string for highest altitude
1. Follow rocket by sighting through tube.

Rocket Sighting Instructions:

Rocket Altitude Tracker

Staple
Staple
Staple

Staple

This Altitude Tracker belongs to

A A A A A A A A A A A A
90
80
70
60
50

40
30
20
10 0

8383
Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ
 84
84
Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology

DE C A LC UL
IT U AT
LT OR
A
Rotate the nose of the rocket
to the angle you measured.

BASELINE
5 15 30 m

Look at the number in the

window for the distance of the
tracking station location
from the launch site. The
EG-2003-01-108-HQ

number will tell you the altitude

of the rocket in meters.
 90

85

80

75

70
343
65

170
EL

112

.4
171
HE

60

85.1

82
9
W

.3

55.
64

.2
57.2

41
4
CK

28.
.6
.2 52 55
32

18

.7
ULATOR - BA

13
.8 26
10 42.9
8.7
21.4 50
7.1
35.8
6 17.9

5 15 30 45

4.2
12.6
3.5 25.2
C

2.9 10.5 40
CAL

2. 21
3 8.7
1.8

7 17
.3
1.3

35
DE

0.9
0.4
0

14
5.5
TU

4
2.6

30
1.3
I

11
T

AL
8
5.3

25
2.6
0

20
15
10
5
0

85
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Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ
 Tangent Table
Degree Tan Degree Tan Degree Tan
0 0.0000
1 0.0174 31 0.6008 61 1.8040
2 0.0349 32 0.6248 62 1.8807
3 0.0524 33 0.6494 63 1.9626
4 0.0699 34 0.6745 64 2.0603
5 0.0874 35 0.7002 65 2.1445
6 0.1051 36 0.7265 66 2.2460
7 0.1227 37 0.7535 67 2.3558
8 0.1405 38 0.7812 68 2.4750
9 0.1583 39 0.8097 69 2.6050
10 0.1763 40 0.8390 70 2.7474
11 0.1943 41 0.8692 71 2.9042
12 0.2125 42 0.9004 72 3.0776
13 0.2308 43 0.9325 73 3.2708
14 0.2493 44 0.9656 74 3.4874
15 0.2679 45 1.0000 75 3.7320
16 0.2867 46 1.0355 76 4.0107
17 0.3057 47 1.0723 77 4.3314
18 0.3249 48 1.1106 78 4.7046
19 0.3443 49 1.1503 79 5.1445
20 0.3639 50 1.1917 80 5.6712
21 0.3838 51 1.2348 81 6.3137
22 0.4040 52 1.2799 82 7.1153
23 0.4244 53 1.3270 83 8.1443
24 0.4452 54 1.3763 84 9.5143
25 0.4663 55 1.4281 85 11.4300
26 0.4877 56 1.4825 86 14.3006
27 0.5095 57 1.5398 87 19.0811
28 0.5317 58 1.6003 88 28.6362
29 0.5543 59 1.6642 89 57.2899
30 0.5773 60 1.7320 90 ------------

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Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ
 Educator Information

Bottle Rocket
Launcher
Objective:
To construct a bottle rocket launcher for use with the Bottle
Rocket and Project X-35 activities.

Description:
Students construct a bottle launcher from "off-the-shelf"
hardware and wood using simple tools.
Science Standards:
Physical Science - Position and motion of objects Materials and Tools:
Science and Technology - Abilities of technological * 4 5-inch corner irons with 12 3/4 inch wood
design screws to fit
* 1 5-inch mounting plate
Science Process Skills: * 2 6-inch spikes
Measuring * 2 10-inch spikes or metal tent stakes
* 2 5-inch by 1/4 inch carriage bolts with six 1/4
Mathematics Standards: inch nuts
Mathematical Connections * 1 3-inch eyebolt with two nuts and washers
Measurement * 4 3/4-inch diameter washers to fit bolts
* 1 Number 3 rubber stopper with a single hole
* 1 Snap-in Tubeless Tire Valve (small 0.453
Management: inch hole, 2 inch long)
Consult the materials and tools list to * Wood board 12 by 18 by 3/4 inches
determine what you will need to construct a * 1 2-liter plastic bottle
single bottle rocket launcher. The launcher is * Electric drill and bits including a 3/8 inch bit
* Screw driver
simple and inexpensive to construct. Air * Pliers or open-end wrench to fit nuts
pressure is provided by means of a hand- * Vice
operated bicycle pump. The pump should * 12 feet of 1/4 inch cord
have a pressure gauge for accurate * Pencil
comparisons between launches. Most • Bicycle pump with pressure gauge
needed parts are available from hardware
stores. In addition you will need a tire valve
from an auto parts store and a rubber bottle a fellow teacher, or the parent of one of your
stopper from a school science experiment. students to help.
The most difficult task is to drill a 3/8 inch
hole in the mending plate called for in the If you have each student construct a bottle
materials list. Electric drills are a common rocket, having more than one launcher may
household tool. If you do not have access to be advisable. Because the rockets are
one, or do not wish to drill the holes in the projectiles, safely using more than one
metal mending plate, find someone who can launcher will require careful planning and
do the job for you. Ask a teacher or student possibly additional supervision. Please refer
in your school's industrial arts shop, to the launch safety instructions.

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Background Information: drilling and put on eye protection.
Like a balloon, air pressurizes the bottle Enlarge the holes at the opposite ends of
rocket. When released from the launch the plates, using a drill bit slightly larger
platform, air escapes the bottle, providing an than the holes to do this. The holes must
action force accompanied by an equal and be large enough to pass the carriage bolts
opposite reaction force (Newton's Third Law through them. (See Attachment of
of Motion). Increasing the pressure inside Mending Plate and Stopper diagram
the bottle rocket produces greater thrust below.)
since a large quantity of air inside the bottle 4. Lay the mending plate in the center of the
escapes with a higher acceleration (Newton's wood base and mark the centers of the
Second Law of Motion). Adding a small two outside holes that you enlarged. Drill
amount of water to the bottle increases the holes through the wood big enough to
action force. The water expels from the pass the carriage bolts through.
bottle before the air does, turning the bottle 5. Push and twist the tire stem into the hole
rocket into a bigger version of a water rocket you drilled in the center of the mounting
toy available in toy stores. plate. The fat end of the stopper should
rest on the plate.
Construction Instructions:
1. Prepare the rubber stopper by enlarging
the hole with a drill. Grip the stopper Bottle Hold Down
Neck Bar
lightly with a vice and gently enlarge the
hole with a 3/8 inch bit and electric drill.
The rubber will stretch during cutting,
making the finished hole somewhat less
Corner Iron
than 3/8 inches. Mending
Plate
2. Remove the stopper from the vice and
push the needle valve end of the tire stem Carrige
Bolt
through the stopper from the narrow end
to the wide end.
3. Prepare the mounting plate by drilling a
|3/8 inch hole through the center of the
plate. Hold the plate with a vice during Wood Base

Rubber Positioning Corner Irons

Tire Stem Stopper Carrige Bolt

6. Insert the carriage bolts through the wood

Nut
base from the bottom up. Place a hex nut
Washer over each bolt and tighten the nut so that
Mending
Nut
the bolt head pulls into the wood.
Plate
Attach Bicycle 7. Screw a second nut over each bolt and
Pump Here
spin it about half way down the bolt.
Place a washer over each nut and then
slip the mounting plate over the two bolts.
8. Press the neck of a 2-liter plastic bottle
over the stopper. You will be using the
Wood Base
bottle's wide neck lip for measuring in the
Attachment of Mending Plate and Stopper
next step.

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9. Set up two corner irons so they look like Launch Safety Instructions:
book ends. Insert a spike through the top 1. Select a grassy field that measures
hole of each iron. Slide the irons near the approximately 30 meters across. Place
bottle neck so that the spike rests the launcher in the center of the field and
immediately above the wide neck lip. The anchor it in place with the spikes or tent
spike will hold the bottle in place while stakes. (If it is a windy day, place the
you pump up the rocket. If the bottle is launcher closer to the side of the field
too low, adjust the nuts beneath the from which the wind is coming so that the
mounting plate on both sides to raise it. rocket will drift on to the field as it comes
10. Set up the other two corner irons as you down.)
did in the previous step. Place them on 2. Have each student or student group set
the opposite side of the bottle. When you up their rocket on the launch pad. Other
have the irons aligned so that the spikes students should stand back several
rest above and hold the bottle lip, mark meters. It will be easier to keep observers
the centers of the holes on the wood away by roping off the launch site.
base. For more precise screwing, drill 3. After the rocket is attached to the
small pilot holes for each screw and then launcher, the student pumping the rocket
screw the corner irons tightly to the base. should put on eye protection. The rocket
11. Install an eyebolt to the edge of the should be pumped no higher than about
opposite holes for the hold down spikes. 50 pounds of pressure per square inch.
Drill a hole and hold the bolt in place with 4. When pressurization is complete, all
washers and nuts on top and bottom. students should stand in back of the rope
12. Attach the launch "pull cord" to the head for the countdown.
end of each spike. Run the cord through 5. Before conducting the countdown, be sure
the eyebolt. the place where the rocket is expected to
13. Make final adjustments to the launcher by come down is clear of people. Launch the
attaching the pump to the tire stem and rocket when the recovery range is clear.
pumping up the bottle. Refer to the 6. Only permit the students launching the
launching instructions for safety notes. If rocket to retrieve it.
the air seeps out around the stopper, the
stopper is too loose. Use a pair of pliers Extensions:
or a wrench to raise each side of the Look up the following references for
mounting plate in turn to press the additional bottle rocket plans and other
stopper with slightly more force to the teaching strategies:
bottle neck. When satisfied with the
position, thread the remaining hex nuts Hawthorne, M. & Saunders, G. (1993), "Its
over the mounting plate and tighten them Launchtime!," Science and Children,
to hold the plate in position. v30n5, pp.17-19, 39.
14. Drill two holes through the wood base
along one side. The holes should be Rogis, J. (1991), "Soaring with Aviation
large enough to pass large spikes of Activities," Science Scope, v15n2,
metal tent stakes. When the launch pad pp.14-17.
is set up on a grassy field, the stakes will
hold the launcher in place when you yank Winemiller, J., Pedersen, J., & Bonnstetter,
the pull cord. The launcher is now R. (1991), "The Rocket Project,"
complete. (See page 90.) Science Scope, v15n2, pp.18-22.

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Hold Down
Spike

Launch Release
Cord

To Pump

Completed Launcher Ready for Firing.

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 Educator Information

Bottle Rocket
Objective:
To construct and launch a simple bottle rocket.

Description:
Working in teams, learners will construct a simple
Hot
Glue
bottle rocket from 2-liter soft drink bottles and other
materials.

Science Standards: Materials and Tools:

Physical Science - Position and motion of objects
Science and Technology - Abilities of technological • 2-liter plastic soft drink bottles
design • Low-temperature glue guns
• Poster board
Science Process Skills: • Tape
Measuring • Modeling clay
Making Models • Scissors
• Safety Glasses
• Decals
Mathematics Standards:
• Stickers
Mathematical Connections
• Marker pens
Measurement
• Launch pad from the Bottle Rocket Launcher
Geometry and Spatial Sense

Management:
This activity can stand alone or be bottles. Provide glue guns for each table or
incorporated in the activity Project X-35 that set up glue stations in various parts of the
follows. Having the learners work in teams room.
will reduce the amount of materials required.
Begin saving 2-liter bottles several weeks in Collect a variety of decorative materials
advance to have a sufficient supply for your before beginning this activity so students can
class. You will need to have at least one customize their rockets. When the rockets
bottle rocket launcher. Construct the are complete, test fly them. Refer to the
launcher described in the previous activity or Altitude Tracker activity starting on page 79
obtain one from a science or technology for information on determining how high the
education supply catalog. rockets fly. While one group of students
launches their rocket, have another group
The simplest way to construct the rockets is track the rocket and determine its altitude.
to use low-temperature electric glue guns that
are available from craft stores. High- When launching rockets, it is important for
temperature glue guns will melt the plastic the other students to stand back.

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Countdowns help everybody to know when the rockets fly, compare the altitude the
the rocket will lift off. In group discussion, rockets reach with their design and quality of
have your students create launch safety rules the construction.
that everybody must follow. Include how far
back observers should stand, how many Extensions:
people should prepare the rocket for launch, • Challenge rocket teams to invent a way to
who should retrieve the rocket, etc. attach a parachute to the rocket that will
deploy on the rocket’s way back down.
Background Information: • Parachutes for bottle rockets can be made
Bottle rockets are excellent devices for from a plastic bag and string. The nose
investigating Newton's Three Laws of Motion. cone is merely placed over the rocket and
The rocket will remain on the launch pad until parachute for launch. The cone needs to fit
an unbalanced force is exerted propelling the properly for launch or it will slip off. The
rocket upward (First Law). The amount of modeling clay in the cone will cause the
force depends upon how much air you cone to fall off, deploying the parachute or
pumped inside the rocket (Second Law). You paper helicopters, after the rocket tilts over
can increase the force further by adding a at the top of its flight.
small amount of water to the rocket. This • Extend the poster board tube above the
increases the mass the rocket expels by the rounded end of the bottle. This will make a
air pressure. Finally, the action force of the payload compartment for lofting various
air (and water) as it rushes out the nozzle items with the rocket. Payloads might
creates an equal and opposite reaction force include streamers or paper helicopters that
propelling the rocket upward (Third Law). will spill out when the rocket reaches the top
of its flight. Copy and distribute the page on
The fourth instruction on the Student Page how to make paper helicopters. Ask the
asks the students to press modeling clay into students to identify other possible payloads
the nose cone of the rocket. Placing 50 to for the rocket. If students suggest
100 grams of clay into the cone helps to launching small animals with their rockets,
stabilize the rocket by moving the center of discuss the purpose of flying animals and
mass farther from the center of pressure. For the possible dangers if they are actually
a complete explanation of how this works, flown.
see pages 21-22. • Conduct flight experiments by varying the
amount of air pressure and water to the
Procedures: rocket before launch. Have the students
Refer to the Student Page for procedures and develop experimental test procedures and
optional directions for making paper control for variables.
helicopters. See the extension section below • Conduct spectacular nighttime launches of
for details on how to use the helicopters. bottle rockets. Make the rockets visible in
flight by taping a small-size chemical light
Assessment: stick near the nose cone of each rocket.
Evaluate each bottle rocket on its quality of Light sticks are available at toy and
construction. Observe how well fins align camping stores and can be used for many
and attach to the bottle. Also observe how flights. This is an especially good activity
straight the nose cone is at the top of the for summer "space camp" programs.
rocket. If you choose to measure how high

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 Building A Bottle Rocket

1. Wrap and glue or tape

a tube of posterboard
around the bottle.

2. Cut out several fins of

any shape and glue
them to the tube.

3. Form a nosecone and

hold it together with
tape or glue.
H
ot
G
lu
e

4. Press a ball of
modeling clay into the
top of the nosecone.
5. Glue or tape nosecone
to upper end of bottle.
6. Decorate your rocket.

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 Paper Helicopter Plans

1. Cut on solid black lines. 2. Fold A and B

Fold on dashed lines. to middle.

3. Fold C up.

A B

4. Fold propeller blades

A B outward.

C
Paper Helicopter
Pattern
5. Test fly by dropping from
from over your head.
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 Educator Information

Project X-35
Objective:
To demonstrate rocketry principles through a
cooperative, problem solving simulation.
Project X-35

Description:
Teams simulate the development of a commercial
proposal to design, build, and launch a rocket.

Materials and Tools:

(All supplies need to be available per group)
• 2 liter soda bottles
Science Standards: • 1 liter soda bottles
Science as Inquiry • Film canisters
Physical Science - Position and motion of objects • Aluminium soda cans
Science and Technology - Abilities of technological • Scrap cardboard and poster board
design • Large cardboard panels
Science in Personal and Social Perspectives - • Duct Tape
Science and technology in local challenges • Electrical tape
• Glue sticks
Science Process Skills: • Low-temperature glue gun
Observing • Water
Communicating • Clay
Measuring • Plastic garbage bags
Collecting Data • Crepe paper
Inferring • String
Predicting • Paint
Making Models • Safety glasses
Interpreting Data • Bottle Rocket Launcher (See page 87.)
Controlling Variables • Altitude Calculator (See page 79.)
Defining Operationally
Investigating

Mathematics Standards: Management:

Mathematics as Problem Solving Prior to this project students should have the
Mathematics as Communication opportunity to design, construct, and launch a
Mathematical Connections bottle rocket evaluating various water
Estimation volumes and air pressures and calculating
Number Sense and Numeration
Whole Number Computation
the altitude traveled by these rockets. See
Geometry and Spatial Sense Bottle Rocket page 91 and Altitude Tracking
Measurement page 79.
Fractions and Decimals
Functions This project is designed to offer students an
opportunity to participate in an
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Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ
interdisciplinary approach to life skills. Background Information:
Students work in teams of threes. Each This project provides students with an
member has designated tasks for their exciting activity to discover practical
specific job title to help the team function demonstrations of force and motion in actual
effectively. These include: Project Manager, experiments while dealing with budgetary
Budget Director, and Design and Launch restraints and deadlines reflected in real life
Director. The student section provides situations.
badges and tasks.
The students should have a clear
understanding of rocket principles dealing
The project takes approximately two weeks to
complete and includes a daily schedule of with Newton's Laws of Motion found on page
tasks. Students may need additional time to 13 and Practical Rocketry found on page 18
complete daily tasks. before beginning this project.

Collect all building materials and copy all

Procedure:
reproducibles before beginning the activity.
Be sure to make several copies of the order Refer to the student sheets. The events for
forms and checks for each group. day 3 and day 6 call for teacher
demonstrations on how to make nose cones
Allow enough time on the first day for the and how to determine the center of mass and
students to read and discuss all sheets and the center of pressure.
determine how they apply to the project
schedule. Focus on the student score sheet
to allow a clear understanding of the criteria Assessment:
used for assessment of the project. Assessment will be based on documentation
of three designated areas: each group's
project journal, silhouette, and launch results.
See Student Score Sheet for details.

Pr
oje
ct
X-3
5

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Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ
 X -35
Request For
ct

Proposals
je
Pro

The United Space Aurhority (USA) is seeking competitive bids for a new advanced rocket
launch vehicle that will reduce the costs of launching payloads into Earth orbit. Interested
companies are invited to submit proposals to USA for designing and building a rocket that
will meet the following criteria.

The objectives of Project X-35 are:

a. Design and draw a bottle rocket plan to scale (1 square = 2 cm).

b. Develop a budget for the project and stay within the budget allowed.
c. Build a test rocket using the budget and plans developed by your team.
d. Identify rocket specifications and evaluate rocket stability by determining center of
mass and center of pressure and conducting a swing test.
e. Display fully illustrated rocket design in class. Include: dimensional information,
location of center of mass, center of pressure, and flight information such as time
aloft and altitude reached.
f. Successfully test launch rocket achieving maximum vertical distance and accuracy.
g. Successfully and accurately complete rocket journal.
h. Develop a cost analysis and demonstrate the most economically efficient launch.

Proposal Deadline:
Two (2) weeks

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 Project Schedule

Project X-35 Schedule Project X-35 Schedule Project X-35 Schedule

Day 1 Day 2 Day 3
• Form rocket companies. • Develop materials and
budget list. • Demonstration: nose cone
• Brainstorm ideas for design construction.
and budget. • Develop scale drawing.
• Issue materials and begin
• Sketch preliminary rocket construction.
design.

Project X-35 Schedule Project X-35 Schedule Project X-35 Schedule

Day 4 Day 5 Day 6
• Continue construction. • Complete construction. • Demonstration: Find center
of mass and center of
pressure.
• Introduce rocket silhouette
construction and begin
rocket analysis.

Project X-35 Schedule Project X-35 Schedule Project X-35 Schedule

Day 7 Day 8 Day 9
• Finish silhouette • Launch Day! • Complete post launch
construction and complete results, silhouette
prelaunch analysis. Hang documentation.
silhouette. • Prepare journal for
• Perform swing test. collection.
• Documentation and journal
due at beginning of class
tomorrow.

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Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ
 Project X-35 Checklist
Project Grading:
50% Documentation: See Project Journal below. Must be complete, neat,
accurate, and on time.

25% Proper display and documentation of rocket silhouette.

25% Launch data: Measurements, accuracy, and completeness.

Project Awards:
USA will award exploration contracts to the companies with the top three rockets designs
based on the above criteria. The awards are valued at:

First - $10,000,000
Second - $5,000,000
Third - $3,000,000

Project Journal: Check off items as you complete them.

1. Creative cover with member's names, date, project number, and company
name.

2. Certificate of Assumed Name (Name of your business).

3. Scale drawing of rocket plans. Clearly indicate scale. Label: Top, Side, and
End View.

4. Budget Projection.

5. Balance Sheet.

6. Canceled checks, staple or tape checks in ascending numerical order, four to a

sheet of paper.

7. Pre-Launch Analysis.

8. Rocket Launch Day Log.

9. Score Sheet (Part 3).

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 100

badges and glue them front and back to poster board. Cut out the slot and attach a string.
All team members assist with design, construction, launch, and paper work. Enlarge the
Each group member will be assigned specific tasks to help their team function successfully.
Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology

X-35 X-35 X-35

Badge Front

Budget Design and Project

Director Launch Manager
Director

$
7:00
7:30
8:00
8:30
9:00
930
10:00
10:30
11:00
1130
12:00
12:30
1:00

Badges
1:30
2:00
2:30
3:00
3:30
4:00
4:30
5:00

Oversees the project. Keeps

Badge Back

Keeps accurate account of money others on task. Only person who

and expenses and pays bills. Must can communicate with teacher.
sign all checks. Supervises design and • Arrange all canceled checks in
construction of rocket. Directs ascending numerical order.
• Arrange all canceled checks in others during launch. Make a neat copy of the team's
EG-2003-01-108-HQ

order and staple four to a sheet

of paper. Rocket Journal.
• Make a neat copy of the • Use appropriate labels as
• Check over budget projection Launch Day Log.
sheet. Be sure to show total necessary.
• Use appropriate labels as • Check over balance sheet. List
project cost estimates. necessary.
• Check over balance sheet. Be all materials used in rocket
• Arrange to have a creative construction.
sure columns are complete and cover made.
indicate a positive or negative • Complete silhouette
• Assist other team members as information and display
balance. needed.
• Complete part 3 of the score properly in room.
sheet. • Assist other team members as
• Assist other team members as needed.
needed.
 State of

Certificate of
Assumed
Name
All Information on this form is public information.
Please type or print legibly in black ink.

Project Number

1. State the exact assumed name under which the business is or will be conducted:

2. List the name and title of all persons conducting business under the above
assumed name:

Today's Date , 19 Class Hour

Filling Fee: a $25 fee must accompany this form.

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Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ
 Project X-35 Budget
Each team will be given a budget of $1,000,000. Use money wisely and keep accurate
records of all expenditures. Once your money runs out, you will operate in the "red" and this
will count against your team score. If you are broke at the time of launch, you will be unable to
purchase rocket fuel. You will then be forced to launch only with compressed air. You may
only purchase as much rocket fuel as you can afford at the time of launch.

All materials not purchased from listed subcontractors will be assessed an import duty tax,
20% of the market value. Materials not on the subcontractors list will be assessed an
Originality Tax of $5,000.00 per item.

A project delay penalty fee will be assessed for not working, lacking materials, etc. This
penalty fee could be as high as $300,000 per day.

Approved Subcontractor List

SubContractor Market Price

Bottle Engine Corporation
2 L bottle $200,000
1 L bottle $150,000
Aluminum Cans Ltd.
Can $ 50,000
International Paper Corporation
Cardboard - 1 sheet $ 25,000
Tagboard - 1 sheet $ 30,000
Manila Paper - 1 sheet $ 40,000
Silhouette Panel - 1 sheet $100,000
International Tape and Glue Company
Duct Tape - 50 cm segments $ 50,000
Electrical Tape - 100 cm segments $ 50,000
Glue Stick $ 20,000
Aqua Rocket Fuel Service
1 ml $ 300
Strings, Inc.
1m $ 5,000
Plastic Sheet Goods
1 bag $ 5,000
Common Earth Corporation
Modeling Clay - 100 g $ 5,000
NASA Launch Port Launch $100,000
NASA Consultation Question $1,000

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Project X-35 Order Form
Company Name:
Check No. Budget Director's Signature
Date Supply Company Name

Item Ordered Quantity Unit Cost Total Cost

. .

Project X-35 Order Form

Company Name:
Check No. Budget Director's Signature
Date Supply Company Name

Item Ordered Quantity Unit Cost Total Cost

. .

Project X-35 Order Form

Company Name:
Check No. Budget Director's Signature
Date Supply Company Name

Item Ordered Quantity Unit Cost Total Cost

. .

Project X-35 Order Form

Company Name:
Check No. Budget Director's Signature
Date Supply Company Name

Item Ordered Quantity Unit Cost Total Cost

. .

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 Project X-35 Budget Projection

Company Name
Record below all expenses your company expects to incur in the design,
construction, and launch of your rocket.
Item Supplier Quantity Unit Cost Total Cost

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

Projected Total Cost .

104
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Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ
 Keep This Stub For Your Records
Company Check No.
Name:

5
Check No.

X-3
Date , 19

Detach on Dashed Lines

Date , 19 Pay to the
order of $
To
Dollars
For
For Authorized Signature
Budget Director's
Amount $ Signature

Keep This Stub For Your Records

Company Check No.
Name:

5
Check No.

X-3
Date , 19
Detach on Dashed Lines

Date , 19 Pay to the

order of $
To
Dollars
For
For Authorized Signature

Budget Director's
Amount $ Signature

Keep This Stub For Your Records

Company Check No.
Name:
5
Check No.
X-3

Date , 19
Detach on Dashed Lines

Date , 19 Pay to the

order of $
To
Dollars
For
For Authorized Signature
Budget Director's
Amount $ Signature

Keep This Stub For Your Records

Company Check No.
Name:
5

Check No.
X-3

Date , 19
Detach on Dashed Lines

Date , 19 Pay to the

order of $
To
Dollars
For
For Authorized Signature
Budget Director's
Amount $ Signature

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 Project X-35 Balance Sheet

Company Name
Check No. Date To Amount Balance

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

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 Rocket Measurements
For Scale Drawing

Project No. ________________

Date______________________

Company Name_____________________________________________________

Use metric measurements to measure and record the data in the blanks below.
Be sure to accurately measure all objects that are constant (such as the bottles) and those
you will control (like the size and design of fins). If additional data lines are needed, use the
back of this sheet.
Object Length Width Diameter Circumference

Using graph paper draw a side, top, and bottom view of your rocket, to scale
(1 square = 2 cm), based on the measurements recorded above. Attach your drawings to
this paper.

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 Scale Drawing
1 square = 2 cm

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 Rocket Stability Determination
A rocket that flies straight through the air is said to be a stable rocket. A rocket that veers off
course or tumbles wildly is said to be an unstable rocket. The difference between the flight of a
stable and unstable rocket depends upon its design. All rockets have two distinct "centers."
The first is the center of mass. This is a point about which the rocket balances. If you could
place a ruler edge under this point, the rocket would balance horizontally like a seesaw. What
this means is that half of the mass of the rocket is on one side of the ruler edge and half is on
the other. Center of mass is important to a rocket's design because if a rocket is unstable, the
rocket will tumble about this center.

The other center in a rocket is the center of pressure. This is a point where half of the surface
area of a rocket is on one side and half is on the other. The center of pressure differs from
center of mass in that its location is not affected by the placement of payloads in the rocket.
This is just a point based on the surface of the rocket, not what is inside. During flight, the
pressure of air rushing past the rocket will balance half on one side of this point and half on the
other. You can determine the center of pressure by cutting out an exact silhouette of the
rocket from cardboard and balancing it on a ruler edge.

The positioning of the center of mass and the center of pressure on a rocket is critical to its
stability. The center of mass should be towards the rocket's nose and the center of pressure
should be towards the rocket's tail for the rocket to fly straight. That is because the lower end
of the rocket (starting with the center of mass and going downward) has more surface area
than the upper end (starting with the center of mass and going upward). When the rocket flies,
more air pressure exists on the lower end of the rocket than on the upper end. Air pressure
will keep the lower end down and the upper end up. If the center of mass and the center of
pressure are in the same place, neither end of the rocket will point upward. The rocket will be
unstable and tumble.

Stability Determination Instructions 4. Lay the cardboard silhouette you just cut
out on the ruler and balance it.
1. Tie a string loop around the middle of your 5. Draw a straight line
rocket. Tie a second string to the first so across the diagram of
that you can pick it up. Slide the string your rocket where the
loop to a position where the rocket ruler is. Mark the
balances. You may have to temporarily middle of this line with a
tape the nose cone in place to keep it from dot. This is the center
falling off. of pressure of the
2. Draw a straight line across the scale rocket.
diagram of the rocket you made earlier to
show where the ruler's position is. Mark
the middle of the line with a dot. This is
the rocket's center of mass.
3. Lay your rocket on a piece of cardboard.
Carefully trace the rocket on the cardboard
and cut it out.

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If your center of mass is in front of the center
of pressure, your rocket should be stable.
Proceed to the swing test. If the two centers
are next to or on top of each other, add more Scale Diagram
clay to the nosecone of the rocket. This will
move the center of mass forward. Repeat
steps 2 and 3 and then proceed to the swing
test.

Swing Test: Center of Mass

1. Tape the string loop you tied around your

rocket in the previous set of instructions so
that it does not slip.
2. While standing in an open place, slowly Center of Pressure
begin swinging your rocket in a circle. If
the rocket points in the direction you are
swinging it, the rocket is stable. If not, add
more clay to the rocket nose cone or
replace the rocket fins with larger ones.
Repeat the stability determination
instructions and then repeat the swing test.

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 Project X-35 Score Sheet

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Additional Extensions

• Construct models of historical rockets. Refer to the reference list

for picture books on rockets to use as information on the appearance
of various rockets. Use scrap materials for the models such as:
• Mailing tubes • Cardboard • Tubes from paper rolls • Spools
• Coffee creamer packages (that look like rocket engine nozzles)
• Egg-shaped hosiery packages (for nose cones) • Tape
• Styrofoam cones • Spheres • Cylinders • Glue

• Use rockets as a theme for artwork. Teach

perspective and vanishing points by choosing
unusual angles, such as a birds-eye view
for picturing rocket launches.
US
A
• Research the reasons why so
many different rockets have been
used for space exploration.
DISC
OVE
RY
• Design the next generation of
spaceships.

• Compare rockets in science

fiction with actual rockets.

• Follow up the rocket

activities in this guide with
construction and launch
of commercial model
rockets. Rocket kits and
engines can be
purchased from craft
and hobby stores and
directly from the manu- • Contact NASA Spacelink for information
facturer. Obtain additional about the history of rockets and NASA's
information about model family of rockets under the heading, "Space
rocketry by contacting the National Exploration Before the Space Shuttle."
Association of Rocketry, P.O. Box 177, See the resource section at the end of this
Altoona, WI 54720. guide for details.

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Glossary
Action - A force (push or pull) acting on an Motion - Movement of an object in relation to
object. See Reaction. its surroundings.
Active Controls - Devices on a rocket that move Movable Fins - Rocket fins that can move to
to control the rocket's direction in flight. stabilize a rocket's flight.
Attitude Control Rockets - Small rockets that Nose Cone - The cone-shaped front end of a
are used as active controls to change the rocket.
attitude (direction) a rocket or spacecraft is Nozzle - A bell-shaped opening at the lower
facing in outer space. end of a rocket through which a stream
Canards - Small movable fins located towards of hot gases is directed.
the nose cone of a rocket. Oxidizer - A chemical containing oxygen
Case - The body of a solid propellant rocket that compounds that permits rocket fuel to
holds the propellant. burn both in the atmosphere and in the
Center of Mass (CM) - The point in an object vacuum of space.
about which the object's mass is centered. Passive Controls - Stationary devices, such
Center of Pressure (CP) - The point in an object as fixed rocket fins, that stabilize a
about which the object's surface area is rocket in flight.
centered. Payload - The cargo (scientific instruments,
Chamber - A cavity inside a rocket where propel- satellites, spacecraft, etc.) carried by a
lants burn. rocket.
Combustion Chamber - See Chamber. Propellant - A mixture of fuel and oxidizer that
Drag - Friction forces in the atmosphere that burns to produce rocket thrust.
"drag" on a rocket to slow its flight. Pumps - Machinery that moves liquid fuel and
Escape Velocity - The velocity an object must oxidizer to the combustion chamber of
reach to escape the pull of Earth's gravity. a rocket.
Extravehicular Activity (EVA) - Spacewalking. Reaction - A movement in the opposite
Fins - Arrow-like wings at the lower end of a direction from the imposition of an
rocket that stabilize the rocket in flight. action. See Action.
Fuel - The chemical that combines with an Rest - The absence of movement of an object
oxidizer to burn and produce thrust. in relation to its surroundings.
Gimbaled Nozzles - Tiltable rocket nozzles used Regenerative Cooling - Using the low tem-
for active controls. perature of a liquid fuel to cool a rocket
Igniter - A device that ignites a rocket's nozzle.
engine(s). Solid Propellant - Rocket fuel and oxidizer in
Injectors - Showerhead-like devices that spray solid form.
fuel and oxidizer into the combustion Stages - Two or more rockets stacked on top
chamber of a liquid propellant rocket. of each other in order to reach higher
Insulation - A coating that protects the case and altitudes or have a greater payload
nozzle of a rocket from intense heat. capacity.
Liquid Propellant - Rocket propellants in liquid Throat - The narrow opening of a rocket
form. nozzle.
Mass - The amount of matter contained within an Unbalanced Force - A force that is not coun-
object. tered by another force in the opposite
Mass Fraction (MF) - The mass of propellants in direction.
a rocket divided by the rocket's total mass. Vernier Rockets - Small rockets that use their
Microgravity - An environment that imparts to an thrust to help direct a larger rocket in
object a net acceleration that is small flight.
compared with that produced by Earth at
its surface.

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NASA Educational Materials Information Summaries, National Aeronautics and
Space Administration, PMS-038, Kennedy Space
Center, FL.
NASA publishes a variety of educational resources Roland, A. (1985), A Spacefaring People:
suitable for classroom use. The following resources, Perspectives on Early Spaceflight, NASA Scientific
specifically relating to the topic of rocketry, are and Technical Information Branch, NASA SP-4405,
available from the NASA Teacher Resource Center Washington, DC.
Network. Refer to the next pages for details on how to
obtain these materials. Lithographs

Liftoff to Learning Educational Video Series HqL-367 Space Shuttle Columbia Returns from
That Relate to Rockets Space.
HqL-368 Space Shuttle Columbia Lifts Off Into Space.
Space Basics
Length: 20:55
Recommended Level: Middle School
Suggested Reading
Application: History, Physical Science
Space Basics explains space flight concepts such as These books can be used by children and adults to
how we get into orbit and why we float when orbiting learn more about rockets. Older books on the list
Earth. Includes a video resource guide. provide valuable historical information rockets and
information about rockets in science fiction. Newer
Newton in Space books provide up-to-date information about rockets
Length: 12:37 currently in use or being planned.
Recommended Level: Middle School
Application: Physical Science Asimov, I. (1988), Rockets, Probes, and Satellites,
Newton in Space demonstrates the difference between Gareth Stevens, Milwaukee.
weight and mass and illustrates Isaac Newton's three Barrett, N. (1990), The Picture World of Rockets and
laws of motion in the microgravity environment of Satellites, Franklin Watts Inc., New York.
Earth Orbit. Includes a video resource guide. Bolognese, D. (1982), Drawing Spaceships and Other
Spacecraft, Franklin Watts, Inc., New York.
Other Videos Branley, F. (1987), Rockets and Satellites, Thomas Y.
Crowell, New York.
Videotapes are available about Mercury, Gemini,
Butterfield, M. (1994), Look Inside Cross-Sections
Apollo, and Space Shuttle projects and missions.
Space, Dorling Kindersley, London.
Contact the Teacher Resource Center that serves your
Donnelly, J. (1989), Moonwalk, The First Trip to the
region for a list of available titles, or contact CORE
Moon, Random House, New York.
(See page 109.).
English, J. (1995), Transportation, Automobiles to
Publications Zeppelins, A Scholastic Kid's Encyclopedia,
Scholastic Inc., New York.
McAleer, N. (1988), Space Shuttle - The Renewed Fischel, E. & Ganeri, A. (1988), How To Draw
Promise, National Aeronautics and Space Spacecraft, EDC Publishing, Tulsa, Oklahoma.
Administration, PAM-521, Washington, DC. Furniss, T. (1988), Space Rocket, Gloucester,
NASA (1991), Countdown! NASA Launch Vehicles New York.
and Facilities, Information Summaries, National Gatland, K. (1976), Rockets and Space Travel, Silver
Aeronautics and Space Administration, PMS-018-B, Burdett, Morristown, New Jersey.
Kennedy Space Center, FL. Gatland, K. & Jeffris, D. (1977), Star Travel: Transport
NASA (1991), A Decade On Board America's Space and Technology Into The 21st Century, Usborn
Shuttle, National Aeronautics and Space Publishers, London.
Administration, NP-150, Washington, DC. Gurney, G. & Gurney, C. (1975), The Launch of
NASA (1987), The Early Years: Mercury to Apollo- Sputnik, October 4, 1957: The Space Age Begins,
Soyuz, Information Summaries, National Franklin Watts, Inc., New York.
Aeronautics and Space Administration, PMS-001-A, Malone, R. (1977), Rocketship: An Incredible Voyage
Kennedy Space Center, FL. Through Science Fiction and Science Fact, Harper
NASA (1991), Space Flight, The First 30 Years, & Row, New York.
National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Maurer, R. (1995), Rocket! How a Toy Launched the
NP-142, Washington, DC. Space Age, Crown Publishers, Inc., New York.
NASA (1992), Space Shuttle Mission Mullane, R. M. (1995), Liftoff, An Astronaut's Dream,
Summary, The First Decade: 1981-1990,

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Rockets: An Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology EG-2003-01-108-HQ
 Silver Burdett Press, Parsippany, NJ.
Neal, V., Lewis, C., & Winter, F. (1995), Smithsonian Commercial Software
Guides, Spaceflight, Macmillan, New York. (Adult
level reference) Physics of Model Rocketry
Parsons, A. (1992), What's Inside? Spacecraft, Flight: Aerodynamics of Model Rockets
Dorling Kindersley,m Inc., New York. In Search of Space - Introduction to Model Rocketry
Ordway, F. & Leibermann, R. (1992), Blueprint For The above programs are available for Apple II, Mac,
Space, Science Fiction To Science Fact, and IBM from Estes Industries, 1295 H. Street,
Smithsonian Instutition Press, Washington DC. Penrose, Colorado 81240
Quackenbush, R. (1978), The Boy Who Dreamed of
Rockets: How Robert Goddard Became The Father Electronic Resources
of the Space Age, Parents Magazine Press,
New York.
The following listing of Internet addresses will provide
Ride, S. & Okie, S. (1986), To Space & Back, Lee &
users with links to educational materials throughout the
Shepard Books, New York.
Shayler, D. (1994), Inside/Outside Space, Random World Wide Web (WWW) related to rocketry.
House, New York.
Shorto, R. (1992), How To Fly The Space Shuttle, NASA Resources
John Muir Publications, Santa Fe, NM. NASA SpaceLink
Vogt, G. (1987), An Album of Modern Spaceships, http://spacelink.nasa.gov
Franklin Watts, Inc., New York.
Vogt, G. (1989), Space Ships, Franklin Watts, Inc., NASA Home Page
New York. http://www.nasa.gov/
Winter, F. (1990), Rockets into Space, Harvard
University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts. (Adult Space Shuttle Information
level reference) http://spaceflight.nasa.gov

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 NASA RESOURCES FOR EDUCATORS

The Central Operation of Resources for Cleveland, OH 44135

Educators (CORE) was established for the Phone: 216-433-2017
national and international distribution of http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/PAO/html/
NASA-produced educational materials in edteachr.htm
multimedia format. Educators can obtain a
catalog and an order form by one of the CT, DE, DC, ME, MD, MA, NH, NJ, NY, PA,
following methods: RI, VT
NASA Educator Resource Laboratory
Mail: NASA Goddard Space Flight Center
CORE Mail Code 130.3
Lorain County Joint Vocational School Greenbelt, MD 20771-0001
15181 Route 58 South Phone: 301-286-8570
Oberlin, OH 44074-9799 http://www.gsfc.nasa.gov/vc/erc.htm
Phone: 440-775-1400
Fax: 440-775-1460 CO, KS, NE, NM, ND, OK, SD, TX
E-mail: nasaco@leeca.org Space Center Houston
http://core.nasa.gov NASA Educator Resource Center for
NASA Johnson Space Center
Educator Resource Center Network (ERCN) 1601 NASA Road One
To make additional information available to Houston, TX 77058
the education community, NASA has created Phone: 281-244-2129
the NASA Educator Resource Center (ERC) http://www.spacecenter.org/
network. Educators may preview, copy, or educator_resource.html
receive NASA materials at these sites.
Phone calls are welcome if you are unable to FL, GA, PR, VI
visit the ERC that serves your geographic NASA Educator Resource Center
area. A list of the centers and the regions NASA Kennedy Space Center
they serve includes the following: Mail Code ERC
Kennedy Space Center, FL 32899
AK, Northern CA, HI, ID, MT, NV, OR, UT, Phone: 321-867-4090
WA, WY http://www-pao.ksc.nasa.gov/kscpao/
NASA Educator Resource Center educate/edu.htm
NASA Ames Research Center
Mail Stop 253-2 KY, NC, SC, VA, WV
Moffett Field, CA 94035-1000 Virginia Air & Space Center
Phone: 650-604-3574 NASA Educator Resource Center for
http://amesnews.arc.nasa.gov/erc/ NASA Langley Research Center
erchome.html 600 Settlers Landing Road
Hampton, VA 23669-4033
IL, IN, MI, MN, OH, WI Phone: 757-727-0900 x757
NASA Educator Resource Center http://www.vasc.org/erc/
NASA Glenn Research Center
Mail Stop 8-1
21000 Brookpark Road

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AL, AR, IA, LA, MO, TN Regional Educator Resource Centers offer
U.S. Space and Rocket Center more educators access to NASA educational
NASA Educator Resource Center for materials. NASA has formed partnerships
NASA Marshall Space Flight Center with universities, museums, and other educa-
One Tranquility Base tion institutions to serve as regional ERCs in
Huntsville, AL 35807 many states. A complete list of regional
Phone: 256-544-5812 ERCs is available through CORE, or elec-
http://erc.msfc.nasa.gov tronically via NASA Spacelink at http://
spacelink.nasa.gov/ercn
MS
NASA Educator Resource Center NASA’s Education Home Page serves as
NASA Stennis Space Center the education portal for information regarding
Mail Stop 1200 educational programs and services offered by
Stennis Space Center, MS 39529-6000 NASA for the American education commu-
Phone: 228-688-3338 nity. This high-level directory of information
http://education.ssc.nasa.gov/erc/erc.htm provides specific details and points of contact
for all of NASA’s educational efforts, Field
CA Center offices, and points of presence within
NASA Educator Resource Center for each state. Visit this resource at
NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory http://education.nasa.gov
Village at Indian Hill
1460 East Holt Avenue, Suite 20 NASA Spacelink is one of NASA’s electronic
Pomona, CA 91767 resources specifically developed for the
Phone: 909-397-4420 education community. Spacelink serves as
http://learn.jpl.nasa.gov/resources/ an electronic library for NASA’s educational
resources_index.html and scientific resources, with hundreds of
subject areas arranged in a manner familiar
AZ and Southern CA to educators. Using Spacelink Search, edu-
NASA Educator Resource Center cators and students can easily find informa-
NASA Dryden Flight Research Center tion among NASA’s thousands of Internet
P.O. Box 273 M/S 4839 resources. Special events, missions, and
Edwards, CA 93523-0273 intriguing NASA Web sites are featured in
Phone: 661-276-5009 Spacelink’s “Hot Topics” and “Cool Picks”
http://www.dfrc.nasa.gov/trc/ERC/ areas. Spacelink may be accessed at
http://spacelink.nasa.gov
Eastern Shores of VA and MD
NASA Educator Resource Center for NASA Spacelink is the official home of elec-
GSFC/Wallops Flight Facility tronic versions of NASA’s educational prod-
Visitor Center Building J-17 ucts. A complete listing of NASA educational
Wallops Island, VA 23337 products can be found at
Phone: 757-824-2298 http://spacelink.nasa.gov/products
http://www.wff.nasa.gov/~WVC/ERC.htm
NASA Television (NTV) features Space
Station and Shuttle mission coverage, live

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special events, interactive educational live
shows, electronic field trips, aviation and
space news, and historical NASA footage.
Programming has a 3-hour block—Video
(News) File, NASA Gallery, and Education
File—beginning at noon Eastern and re-
peated four more times throughout the day.
Live feeds preempt regularly scheduled
programming.

Check the Internet for programs listings at

http://www.nasa.gov/ntv
For more information on NTV, contact
NASA TV
Code P-2
NASA Headquarters
Washington, DC 20546-0001
Phone: 202-358-3572

NTV Weekday Programming Schedules

(Eastern Times)
Video File NASA Gallery Education File
12–1 p.m. 1–2 p.m. 2–3 p.m.
3–4 p.m. 4–5 p.m. 5–6 p.m.
6–7 p.m. 7–8 p.m. 8–9 p.m.
9–10 p.m. 10–11 p.m. 11–12 p.m.
12–1 a.m. 1–2 a.m. 2–3 a.m.

How to Access Information on NASA’s

Education Program, Materials, and Ser-
vices (EP-2002-07-345-HQ) This brochure
serves as a guide to accessing a variety of
NASA materials and services for educators.
Copies are available through the ERC net-
work or electronically via NASA Spacelink.

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 NOTES

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 NOTES

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