Airships

101: Rediscovering the Poten5al of Lighter-Than-Air (LTA)

John Melton Ron Hochstetler NASA Ames Research Center SAIC

John.Melton@nasa.gov (650) 604-1461

hochstetlerr@saic.com (703)516-3162

Agenda
Intro to NASA Ames Aeronau5cs Airship classica5ons LTA Theory LTA Revival Why Now? R&D Challenges LTA Game-Changers

hZp://www.nasa.gov/mul5media/videogallery/index.html?media_id=18992542

NASA Ames Airship Legacy

Airships were focus of much early NACA work (Munk, Zahm) ARC home of the Macon (1933-35) and various USN blimp squadrons un5l 1947 Approximately 50 research papers from the mid-1970s to mid-1980s were spawned by the energy crisis of 1973-1974 1970s research iden5ed three poten5al LTA roles:
Heavy-lig airship Short-haul commercial transport Long-endurance naval patrol

1979 AIAA LTA conference in Palo Alto 1980s studies conrmed poten5al role for LTA in liging heavy and oversized cargo 1980s research focused on quad-rotor + LTA concepts for heavy lig Minor involvement with Piasecki quad-rotor and Cyclocrane 1994 opera5ons research with Wes5nghouse used Ver5cal Mo5on Simulator

USS Macon on Mooring Mast near Hangar 1 MoeZ Field 1935

NASA Ames Federal Aireld

70 Years of If Innova5on nnova5on 70+ Years o

Tektites Pioneer ER-2 Apollo Re-Entry Shape Lunar Prospector

NASA Research Park

Blunt body Concept (H. Allen) Apollo Heat Shield Tests

Air Transportation System

Tiltrotor

Galileo

Nanotechnology

Worlds fastest operational supercomputer

2000
Viking Transonic Flow Apollo Guidance System Pioneer Venus Flight Research Flight Simulation Hypervelocity Free Flight Kuiper Observatory Swept-Back/wing Lifting body Arcjet Research Conical camber Computational Fluid Dynamics X-36 Astrobiology Human Centered Computing

1990

1950

1960

Life Sciences Research

80x120 Wind Tunnel

1970

1980

Ames Spacecrag and Aeronau5cs Exper5se

Inatable (Fabric) and Lightweight Structures
Advanced FEA tools: LS-DYNA, Abaqus, NASTRAN

Piloted Simula5on requiring Ver5cal Mo5on Sims

Helicopters, Moon landers Controls development for VTOL aircrag

Aerodynamics Design, Analysis, and Test

CFD tools: OVERFLOW, STAR-CCM+ Large wind tunnels, Supercomputers
LTA vehicles face many of the same engineering challenges that confront current NASA Ames aircraft AND spacecraft programs

Airships 101a

LTA Taxonomy and Theory

Aircrag Taxonomy
Aircraft Heavier-Than-Air (HTA) Lighter-Than-Air (LTA)

Fixed Wing (Airplanes)

Rotary Wing (Helicopters / Autogyros)

Unpowered

Powered and Steerable (Airships = Dirigibles)

Untethered Tethered (Balloons) (Aerostats)

Hybrid Powered Lift

Conventional Hybrid (Fully buoyant) (Semi-buoyant) Rigid Semi-rigid Non-rigid Rigid Semi-rigid Non-rigid

(V-22)

(JSF)

Airship Examples
Powered and Steerable (Airships = Dirigibles) Conventional Hybrid (Fully buoyant) (Semi-buoyant) Rigid Semi-rigid
Graf Zeppelin LZ-127

Back

hybrid-winged concept

AMS Skyship 600 Airship

Rigid Semi-rigid Non-rigid

Lockheed ADP P-791

Non-rigid

Design space for LTA is at least as large as HTA, but has only been randomly sampled with flight vehicles spaced over decades
Piasecki PA-97 Helistat Russian Lenticular Airship

LTA engineering is MUCH broader than the Hindenburg (LZ-129) and Goodyear Blimp

21st Century Airships Spherical Airship

BOEING SkyHook

Conven5onal and Hybrid Airships

Aerostatic lift (60-100%)-

generated by inert helium lift gas at all times

Conven5onal airships control heaviness by changing aerosta5c (buoyant) lig and ballast Hybrid airships combines aerosta5c (buoyant) lig with aerodynamic lig (wing-borne) and direct (propulsive) lig

Vectored thrust lift (up to 25%)-

take off and landing and zero airspeed operation

Aerodynamic lift (up to 40%)

generated by lifting body hull in cruise flight

LTA Theory
Liging force from displacement (Archimedes, 287-212 BC)
Useable Lig = Vol * (He - air) * g Wdead
Displacement Lift

Hydrogen (H2): 70 lbf per 1000 g3 ( 1.14 kg/m3 ) Helium (He): 65 lbf per 1000 g3 ( 1.06 kg/m3 or 93% of H2 )

Dead weight historically > 50% of displacement lig

Hindenburg (H2): 54%, 260K lbs Dead, 220K lbs Useable

Fuel, ballast, crew, consumables further reduce useable lig available for cargo Lig, Drag, Weight, and Thrust s5ll apply but apparent mass, buoyancy control, and ballast complicate design

Useable Lig and Size Comparisons

~220k lbs

3.3K lbs >500k lbs

Airships 101b Airships 101b

LTA Revival and Missions

Reviving the LTA Dream Why Now?

Commercial the Es
Environment, Emissions, Energy, and Economics New market opportuni5es New aerospace exports Endurance for scien5c and commercial missions

Na5onal Security
DoD transport and surveillance needs Homeland security Humanitarian airlig
There are numerous LTA missions besides tourism and advertising!

Environment, Emissions, and Energy

Low noise Pavement op5onal concrete not required Reduces port, freeway and railway conges5on Reduces cargo aircrag at airports, reducing ramp/ taxi delays and emissions U5liza5on of secondary airports and shallow ports Opera5ons at lower al5tudes reduce air trac conicts Large size and low speeds promote autonomous opera5ons
Airships have minimal infrastructure requirements and their low-altitude operations are inherently green

Environment, Emissions, and Energy

Safe, convenient, airborne playorm for the development and demonstra5on of green propulsion technologies: biodiesel, electric, solar technologies Emissions restric5ons:
will con5nue to 5ghten provide barriers to trade may supercede fuel costs are avia5ons biggest environmental challenge

Low al5tude opera5ons eliminate high-al5tude avia5on emission concerns Unlike 1973-74, emissions will become increasingly important regardless of short-term oil price trends. Airships can stimulate the development of low-power green aviation prototype propulsion systems

Environment, Emissions, and Energy

Drama5cally reduced power requirements
Power = D V = air S CD V3 = Fuel Flow/SFC

Uncertain future of oil prices and supply Energy independence is a na5onal goal Speed will likely become MUCH more expensive due to rising energy costs and emissions Strong arguments for LTA in 70s and 80s
NASA CR-2636, 1976 Cargo Transporta5on by Airships: A Systems Study NASA TM 86672, 1984 Missions and Vehicle Concepts for Modern, Propelled, Lighter-Than-Air Vehicles

Modern airships can be a component of GREEN aviation

C-130, C-17, B747-400 and Hindenburg

C-130 C-17 B747-400F Hindenburg Fuel + ballast (tons) 32 119 200 53+16 Cargo (tons) 22 85 124 43 Useful Lig (tons) 54 204 324 112 Range (miles) 2360 2785 5120 6840 Fuel/cargo-kmile 0.62 0.50 0.31 0.18 Power (hp) 4x4300 4x22000 4x1200 Speed (mph) 460 518 560 90 Data is VERY approximate and from mul6ple sources

LTA can be VERY compe55ve on fuel use If Hindenburg ballast is considered cargo, F/c-km = 0.13 Produc5vity comparisons must include speed dieren5al

Rela5ve Cargo Transport Fuel Eciency

Energy per Cargo ton-mile (Rela3ve to Rail)

C-5 C-17 747-400F Hindenburg Heavy Truck Rail Container Ship

0
1 0.4 4 15.2 36 42

48

10

20

30

40

50

Advanced cargo airships will be the only aircraft capable of approaching trucks in freight fuel efficiency

Economics
LTAs open trade and supply routes to regions lacking surface transporta5on infrastructures
Logging Mining Oil explora5on Arc5c/Africa/Asia and others

Satellite surrogate, WiFi/Broadband relays Short haul passenger transport/feeder New class of aerospace vehicles for export (aka, jobs!)
Airships can promote new markets for US exports and service environmentally sensitive and remote regions

Transport Airship Markets

Short distance movement of cargo, equipment, and supplies Direct delivery of materials, equipment, prefab structures, etcfor roadway, rail, port, bridge, and building construc5on projects
Reduces ground footprint and disrup5on to areas surrounding construc5on sites compared to conven5onal approach Permits just-in-5me movement of materials and supplies;. reduces on-site storage, shortens project schedules, and reduces project costs

Moving cargo where deep water port facili5es aren't available Long distance freight transport Transport between mul5-modal shipping centers (trucking terminals, etc.) Transport within transporta5on poor developing countries Transport into and out of remote or otherwise inaccessible regions

Ship Handling Facilities

Heavy Lift Helicopter

Drilling Rig Assembly

Canadian Ice Road

DoD Mobility Needs

Insert materials into cri5cal points that cant easily be reached Provide addi5onal deployment lig for current force Service Opera5onal Concepts + Network-Centric Opera5ons (NCO) Reduce number of moves required in the Area of Opera5ons Move new things in new ways (support to Seabasing concepts) US forces need advantage of adap5ve power projec5on Bypass choke points Deliver intact capabili5es at mul5ple entry points Maintain uninterrupted deployment momentum Move select air cargo forward from last secure area Minimize surface convoys Avoid IEDs and ambushes
Seabasing Overarching Concept

Army Surface Convoy

Vertical Ship Replenishment

2005 CAA Transport Airship Study

Heavy lig airships are feasible with current technologies up to around 90 tons Follow on development to larger sizes require 5med S&T investments 5 years and 8 years for two dis5nct development phases 12 years development to achieve conven5onal airship with 360 tons lig 18 years development to achieve hybrid airship with 450 tons lig Commercial market demand is strongest for project freight Ranges for commercial demand are 25 to 250, and 400 to 800 miles Ranges for military demand are 400 to 800 miles, and (1,000 to 3,000 miles) Recommended airships be commercially developed, for lease to DoD

ATG SkyCat-1000 Hybrid Airship Concept

CargoLifter CL-160 Aerial Crane Airship Concept

Major Project Freight Applica5ons

Oil and Gas Pipeline Construc3on In-land logis5cs (from main entry port) is 25% of construc5on costs 90% of cost is just moving heavy equipment, materials, and consumables up and down the project right of way For typical 52 pipeline, this is $100 -150 million per 1000 km of pipeline $100 to 120 billion in pipeline projects scheduled over next 10 15 yr Logis3cs Support to Canada Pipeline Right of Way University of Manitoba study shows interest in airships for shipping fuel Forecast for transport airships in Canada alone could range between 185 to 635 airships, of 50 metric tons lig

Canadian Diamond Mine

Canadian Ice Road Truck

Ver5cal Lig for Precision Posi5oning

MAGLEV Pylons and Rail Segments

Installing pre-fab windmills and geothermal genera5on equipment in op5mized loca5ons Electrical grid installa5ons Towers, transmission lines, switches, transformers, etc. High speed rail components

Supports regional movement of equipment which otherwise must be moved by conven5onal means Airship transport reduces handling steps, point-to-point distances, overall transport 5me, and overall expense Ver5cal lig airships can deliver and install temporary capital equipment to meet cyclical industrial produc5on demands Produc5on equipment and facili5es can be leased on as needed basis Reduces investment commitment and nancial risks Encourages industrial expansion, and economic growth

Generator Moving Through a Village

Crane Hois5ng Propeller onto Windmill

Outsized Freight and Load Exchange Handling

Internal winch in gondola can accommodate high point loads
Supports sling loads and palle5zed freight

Wide landing gear stance can handle outsized payloads

Extended xed landing gear provides ground clearance for large outsized items

Internal payload bays can be equipped for roll-on-roll-o load handling

Rotary airship with sling load

Airship with CONEX boxes

Roll-on-roll-o loading systems Payloads can aZach to at underside of gondola Handle standard CONEX boxes Accommodate specialized cargo Lightweight composite boxes allow more payload weight Roll on, roll o boxes can facilitate quick movement of wheeled loads

Airship with 20 g. diameter aircrag center body

Ini5al opera5ons can u5lize ballast exchange

Pre-loaded ballast bags can be winched or loaded into gondola structure

Facilitates quick payload/ballast load exchange in austere areas Ballast environmental issues minimized in short distance opera5ons within region

NASA Ames R&D needed to facilitate development of op5mal buoyancy control system

Opera5onal Concepts and Missions

Approximately 82% of Alaskan communi5es are not served by roads The Canadian North has only 48 cer5ed airports and 73 aerodromes How can a cargo airship opera5on best serve this community? Cargo only, or combina5on cargo and passengers (combie) Out and back ights from a central hub (with deadhead returns) Three way (triangle) ights between sites Two ships ying in opposite direc5ons between several sites What mix of cargos will be most ecient, useful, and protable? Diesel fuel, jet fuel, gasoline, kerosene Dry cargo in containers Outsized freight in sling loads Passengers

Why arent there more Cargo Airships?

Many cargo airships have been proposed but have failed to succeed or have yet to come to frui5on for various reasons
Inadequate program funding and resources Poor management prac5ces Shortage of designers and engineers with unique airship skills Insucient customer input on airship design and opera5on Unmanageable gap between airship capabili5es and customer expecta5ons Excessively short or unachievable development schedules Investor or customer impa5ence with airship development 5me and costs Reluctance by investors and customers toward staged development approach Schedule delay or increased costs due to unan5cipated technical obstacles Investors and customers impa5ence with airship technology R&D eorts to reduce future program risks Unfamiliarity by avia5on authori5es with factors governing airship design, opera5on, and promulga5on of appropriate regula5ons

What is the Right Size for a Cargo Airship?

The technology and engineering exper5se to design and develop large cargo airships is available today But what airship size and performance capabili5es are required?
Choose too large and its too costly in 5me and money to develop Choose too small and its economic u5liza5on is too limited for markets

What is the performance sweet spot for a successful cargo airship?

Cargo airship requirement considerations:
Cargo airships need the right mix of mature technologies and advanced technologies Payloads need to meet the freight shipment sizes preferred by customers Utilization rates must be high to maintain operational profitability The shorter the distances, or greater the speed, the greater the utilization Freight transport costs must be attractive compared to current alternatives Should accommodate current cargo shipping systems preferred by customers Have the capability of operating at well developed sites (airports) and austere sites Facilitate ease of operation and maintenance in remote areas MUST MAKE MONEY FOR ALL PARTCIPANTS!

Customer and User Inputs Needed

Alaska and Canada are the best ini3al markets for cargo airships Designers need user inputs to develop the right airship and opera3on Cargo types, sizes, and weights Priori5es for freight type, delivery loca5ons, and schedule Cri5cal cost points for freight and delivery loca5ons Specic cost factors that govern airship opera5ons Local cost and availability of airship fuel Manpower costs for experienced avia5on crews (ight and ground) Local weather and site info on proposed airship cargo delivery areas

Airships 101c

Research, Challenges, and Technology Game-Changers

LTA Research Opportuni5es

Incorpora5on into future airspace
U5liza5on of secondary airports Impacts of low-al5tude opera5ons

Lightweight structures (design, analysis, fabrica5on) Materials (engineered fabrics, composites) Controls and Dynamics, especially near ground Ground opera5ons Drag reduc5on, BLC, and synergis5c propulsion Thrust vector control Showplace for green power sources (solar, biodiesel, hydrogen, fuel cells, etc.) Localized weather predic5on

LTA Research Challenges

Few modern examples, dicult to predict ul5mate economic success Large lightweight structures are historically risky to build and y Compe55on with HTA and surface transport industry Hindenburg imagery, public confusion of He and H2 Speed and Size do maZer - must successfully match vehicles, cargo, and missions for economic success Weather and ground handling Conveying seriousness of emissions and environmental challenges Small number of LTA engineers LTA not included in aerospace engineering curriculum No exis5ng na5onal LTA culture (as compared to HTA) Exis5ng LTA infrastructure (hangars) in disrepair

LTA Engineering
Modern LTA can capitalize on advances in:
Materials and instrumenta5on Digital/op5cal electronics and computers Structural design, analysis, and tes5ng Aerodynamic design, analysis and tes5ng Digital control Fabrica5on and advanced manufacturing Weather predic5on and avoidance Propulsion system eciencies Systems engineering processes

LTA Game Changers

Elimina5ng Ballast: Buoyancy control via compression/cooling
Regula5ons governing brown/foreign water disposal Heaviness avoids the cargo/ballast matching required during ooading Availability of ballast materials in remote areas

Ground handling: Control systems, thrusters, micro-climate Emissions: Solar cells, biodiesel, fuel cells, ocean sailing En route weather informa5on and path op5miza5on Autonomous capabili5es Electrochromic paints Distributed, synergis5c propulsion reduce Preq by addi5onal 30% Materials: Engineered fabrics, composite structures Advanced structures and engineered materials Liging gases: H2, H2 encased in He, Hot Air, Steam Analysis and Design Tools: CFD, FEA, Controls

NASA Ames Airship Analysis

Structures - Design and Analysis - Testing and Instrumentation - Materials

Aerodynamics - Steady Loads Estimation - Performance -Gust and Fin loads

Flight Simulation - Handling Qualities - Controls Development - Mooring - Buoyancy Management - Vectored thrust Mission Analysis - Airspace Operations - Cargo Handling - Risk Analysis

Conclusions
- LTA remains one of the last unexploited avia5on fron5ers - LTA is the most environmentally responsible avia5on transport technology - LTA vehicles face numerous challenges, but today's technologies can provide the solu5ons - LTA vehicles oer signicant, game-changing capabili5es for major economic and social advances

Backup Slides

NASA Ames Airship Facili5es & Capabili5es

Three of the largest airship hangars in the world The largest low-speed wind tunnel in the world The largest Mo5on Simulator in the world Airship Ventures Zeppelin airship operates from MoeZ Field
Ames will use Zeppelin for valida5on of airship simula5on models, earth science

Hangars 2 & 3 Exterior Length: 1086 ft. ft., Width: 297 ft., Height: 183 ft.

Airship Ventures Zeppelin N 07 based at Moffett Field

Hangar 1 Exterior Length: 1,133 ft., Width: 308 ft., Height: 198 ft.

Worlds largest low-speed wind tunnel

Ames Technology Areas

BioTech/Bio-Medical

Nanotechnology

Aerospace and Aeronautics Small Satellite Systems

Integrated Systems Health Management (ISHM)

Robotics and Artificial Systems Engineering Materials Science Intelligence and Entry Systems and Design

Software and High-end Computing

Hangar 1

First occupied in 1933 as a LTA (Dirigible) Hangar Currently closed due to contamination with PCBs Removal of contaminated materials is the responsibility of the US Navy Re-skinning and improvements to allow future use in work

Current Airship Characteris5cs

Low ight al5tude Low noise emissions Low-vibra5on cabin Low opera5ng cost Low ground infrastructure requirements Simple ground handling with only three ground crew Precise hovering and extremely slow ight Long ight dura5on (up to 20 hours, depending on the payload) High safety standards due to rigid internal structure Payloads 1,300 lb 5,000 lbs High opera5onal safety for ight over densely populated areas High exibility in cabin layout support short mission conversion 5mes

Humanitarian and Emergency Response

VTOL capability with innite hover
Sta5on holding over urban canyons

Mobile hospital or communica5ons playorm Airborne surveillance and sensors Coastal and border patrol Disaster relief when surface infrastructure is nonexistent or severely compromised

Airships can become ambassadors for US good will and provide humanitarian disaster relief in areas inaccessible to virtually all other modes of transport

DoD Transport and Surveillance

Eliminate intermodal cargo transfers (Land-Rail- Sea-Land) Large payloads to remote areas lacking transporta5on infrastructures Sea-basing and oshore opera5ons Persistent ISR UAV SkyCarrier

LEMV, HiSen5nel, HALE-D (ISR); P-791

Payload Weight 2,500 lbs Payload Power 16 kilowatts Duration 3 weeks

Payload Weight -80 lbs Payload Power -50 Watts Duration -> 24 Hours Short Term (Fall 2009)

Payload Weight -80 lbs Payload Power -150 Watts Duration -> 14 Days Short Term (Summer 2010)

Lockheed ADP P-791

Back How Our Need for Speed overcame Those Magnicent Men in their Flying Machines

The Rise of Fixed Wing Aircrag

WWII 1958 (introduc5on of B-707)
Rapid development and unqualied success of the transport aircrag Introduc5on of the jet engine along with modern materials, aero, etc. Combined eciencies, high speeds, and regular schedules make stratospheric transonic opera5ons extremely produc5ve

Cheap petroleum

The Demise of the Zeppelin

Tragedy of the Hindenburg S5gma of Shenandoah, Akron, and Macon accidents overshadowed opera5onal success of USN WWII blimps

The Tragic Demise of the Hindenburg

LZ-129 35 of 97 died Was to be the 11th round trip 50 wealthy passengers on a mul5-day cruise, enjoying a pressurized smoking room Original design called for H2 sacks surrounded by He US was only He provider, FDR and Muni5ons Control Board decided to withhold Poli5cal power of state-owned airlines

ZMC-2 Tin Bubble Metalclad

1929 Detroit Aircrag Corp. 150 g long, 52.5 diameter 200,000 g3 52 cruise, 70 mph max 2 x 300 hp 0.01 Welded Aluminum 752 ights over 2,200 hours USN lost interest ager Akron/Macon losses

October, 1934
USS Macon: 4/33-2/35

Legacy of Airship Technology

In 1959 four ZPG-3W airships, were procured from Goodyear for Navy AEW missions. Construction plans exist and provide basis for updated models.
Performance Max speed: Cruising speed: Normal endurance at 35 knots: Ferry flight: at 30 knots & 500 ft. alt. (standard day) 75 knots 45 knots 70 hr. 156 hr. Design Specs Width: 85.51 ft. Length: 406.70 ft. Volume: 1,509,489 cu/ft. Static useful lift: 15,059 lbs Max power: 1,275 hp. Fuel Capacity: 4,375 gal.

LTA Infrastructure
Hangars
Can park outdoors, but likely need hangars for depot maintenance Only 11 large airship hangars in CONUSmost in some disrepair
3 at MoeZ Field, CA 3 at NAS Lakehurst, NJ 2 at former MCAS Tus5n, CA 1 in Tillamook, OR 1 in Akron, OH 1 at Weeksville, NC

LEMV-size vehicles generally compa5ble with C-5 size maintenance facili5es

Back

Missions and Vehicle Concepts for Modern, Propelled, Lighter- Than-Air Vehicles by Mark D. Ardema, Dec 1984, TM 86672 Lig/Weight: LTA cube-cube vs FW square-cube
Size increases favor larger airships compared to larger airplanes

Conclusions from 1984 LTA Survey Paper

Low speed control via propulsive forces is key to solving ground handling issues Several viable poten5al missions for LTA
Ocean and coastal patrol Heavy lig using a combina5on of LTA and rotors High al5tude surveillance Short haul passengers (20-200 miles) Long-range strategic airlig

Helium
From Greek word for sun, Helios
Discovered in 1868 by French astronomer Pierre Janssen when sun spectral lines did not match any known elements Second most abundant element in universe: two protons, two neutrons Product of decay of uranium and thorium ~5.2 ppm in atmosphere Not always enough to make it worth recovering (usually less than 7% of gas) Natural gas investments dwarf helium recovery costs In US, 0.3% Russia and Poland, 0.1% (Algeria, Canada, China, Qatar) Compress and cool methane into liquid, while Helium remains gas un5l 4.2 K Mostly supply-driven New plants in Algeria and Qatar have been slow to ramp up (16 plants worldwide) Problems at US reneries, new restric5ons on gas processing Pressuriza5on and purging (26%) Welding (shielding gas, 20%) Controlled atmospheres (13%) Leak detec5on (4%) Breathing mixtures (2%) Other (balloons, 7%)

Recovered as byproduct of natural gas processing in seven countries

Short supply over last few years due to several factors

Largest applica5on is MRI magnet refrigera5on and cryogenics (28%), U.S. used 70.4M m3 in 2007

Large reserves outside of U.S. (Eastern Siberia, Iran, Qatar)

Supply will likely improve as natural gas opera5ons increase Russia may be the major source in 30 years Predicted to be sold o by 2015 down to 2,900 tons

Strategic stockpile in Amarillo (609M m3)

Advanced helium recycling and capture, new MRI machines will help USGS predicts future total extractable He supply of 39 billion cubic meters worldwide, 8.2 in U.S. LZ-129 Hindenburg: 0.2M m3 $3.25 * 0.2M = $650000 Goodyear replaces 10-20K cu g per year of 170K-180K cu g per blimp

Helium
World Helium Production, Reserves and Reserve Base Data in millions of cubic meters of contained gaseous helium 2006 Production U.S. (from natural gas) 79 U.S. (from National Helium Reserve) 58 Algeria 15 Canada n/a China n/a Poland 3 Qatar 4.4 Russia 6.3 Other countries n/a WORLD TOTAL 166 2007 Production 80 58 20 n/a n/a 3 5.5 6.4 n/a 173 Reserves 3,400 -1,800 n/a n/a 26 n/a 1,700 n/a n/a Reserve Base 8,200 -8,300 2,000 1,100 280 10,000 6,700 2,800 39,000

Price: The Government price for crude helium was $2.12 per cubic meter ($58.75 per thousand cubic feet) in fiscal year (FY) 2007. The price for the Governmentowned helium is mandated by the Helium Privatization Act of 1996 (Public Law 104-273). The estimated price range for private industrys Grade-A gaseous helium was about $3.24 to $3.79 per cubic meter ($90 to $105 per thousand cubic feet), with some producers posting surcharges to this price. Source: Adapted from the 2008 United States Geological Survey Mineral Commodity Summary on Helium

Airship Transport Eciency

Specific resistance of single vehicles available in 1950. Diagonal is G-K limit line of vehicular performance. Adapted from original work by Gabrielli and von Karman [1], updating with modern SI units.