The Defeat of the English Armada and the 16th-Century Spanish Naval Resurgence A !

ore Detailed "oo# at the Spanish Armada$ its %mmediate Results$ its "ong-Term Effects$ and its "esser-&no'n Aftermath
(unctured !yths and Surprising )acts 1589: The Drake and Norris Expedition to Portugal
(lease feel free to *uote from$ print$ and cite this essay as$ The Defeat of the English Armada and the 16th-Century Spanish Naval Resurgen e,+ ,y -es .lm$ /arvard .niversity personal 'e,site$ .R" http 00'''1people1fas1harvard1edu02ulm0history0sp3armada1htm$ 4 56671

!ntrodu tion" #ing $hilip of Spain and the T%enty &ears' (ar
Many historical texts relate the a!ous "panish #r!ada $attle o 1588, $et%een the "panish leet and its English counterpart, as a sort o isolated, signal !ilitary con rontation that radically and i!!ediately altered the ortunes o its t%o co!$atants& #s the story is o ten related, "pain, the great po%er in Europe prior to the engage!ent, reeled in the ace o a$'ect de eat, ceding control o the seas to the island nation to the north& (ou)*e pro$a$ly heard that England and northern Europe in general %ere no% ree to engage in un ettered exploration and coloni+e the ,estern -e!isphere and North #!erica in particular, a region %hich had hitherto $een a satellite o "pain and its sea aring neigh$or on the .$erian Peninsula, Portugal& "pain receded into political and !ilitary insigni icance, it is clai!ed, %hile England canni$ali+ed its Ne% ,orld E!pire and rose to pro!inence& (et this description o the "panish #r!ada encounter, %hich is distressingly co!!on, is also grossly inaccurate, and it ails entirely to depict the surprising a ter!ath o the na*al $attle/in %hich "pain %ould paradoxically rein orce its po%er on the high seas, not %itness its decline& "pain)s na*al resurgence %ould ha*e !assi*e ra!i ications that re*er$erate e*en today/ a ecting the !ap o the #!ericas, aug!enting the po%er o England)s Parlia!ent $y draining re*enues ro! the 0ro%n, e*en i!plicating .reland and its tor!ented history into the !ix& The "panish #r!ada clash %as not an isolated con lict, $ut !erely one $attle in a long, $itter %ar that e!$roiled not 'ust "pain and England, $ut all o ,estern Europe in the a!$itions o "pain)s 1ing Philip ..& This 234 (ears) ,ar5 stretched ro! the !id 1584s to 1647, and it %as nothing less than the irst %orld %ar: .ts $attles %ere %aged on the European land!ass and in the 'ungles o Pana!a and the 0ari$$ean, in the %ar! %aters o Europe)s #tlantic 0oast, nourished $y the 8ul "trea!, and in the cold $rine o the Paci ic *astness& .ndeed, the course o e*ents ollo%ing the "panish #r!ada is ascinating, and in !any %ays 9uite the contrary to %hat is con*entionally assu!ed and descri$ed& Perhaps

the single !ost crucial encounter o the %ar %as not the "panish #r!ada $attle itsel , $ut a lesser:kno%n clash $et%een "pain and England at sea and on land in 1589, the year ollo%ing "pain)s in*asion o England& .t %as in this year that an English Armada under the partial co!!and o that reno%ned pri*ateer, "ir ;rancis Drake, !ounted a $old a!phi$ious operation, !oti*ated $y a triple set o o$'ecti*es to $reak the po%er o the "panish cro%n& .t %as nearly success ul, $ut ulti!ately its de eat %as total and replete %ith drastic conse9uences& The outco!e o the 1589 $attle %ould ha*e !o!entous conse9uences or the history o settle!ent in the ,estern -e!isphere, or the $alance o po%er on the European 0ontinent, e*en or the !elancholy and tragic history o .reland& Most i!portantly, contrary to %hat is so o ten assu!ed, "pain %ould e!erge strengthened in the decade ollo%ing the #r!ada, %ith a orti ied na*y that %as inally capa$le o ending o $uccaneer attacks and relia$ly transporting precious !etals ro! the #!ericas& Eli+a$ethan England %ould $e on the losing end o !ost o the re!aining $attles %ith "pain, $oth on land and at sea, and %ould $e plunged into de$t and disarray, its colonial a!$itions th%arted and its resources sapped in a draining guerrilla %ar in .reland& England de initely did not rule the seas ollo%ing the #r!ada incident< "pain %ould control the %aters or !any decades !ore $e ore passing control to the Dutch, to $e ollo%ed $y a titanic clash $et%een England and ;rance or hege!ony o*er the sea routes in the 1=44s& The history o the #nglo:"panish ,ar o the late 1544s is ar !ore intricate than the headline history usually reported in regard to the #r!ada, yet *astly !ore intriguing as %ell& The hinge point o the con lict %as not the de eat o the "panish #r!ada in 1588, $ut the de$acle o the English one in 1589& 0entral to $oth incidents %as the still: ascinating igure o that legendary English sea!an, "ir ;rancis Drake, and a closer look at the 1589 Expedition to "pain and Portugal helps to urther illu!inate Drake)s character in all its extraordinary !ultidi!ensionality& The de eat o the English #r!ada in 1589, lesser: kno%n yet re!arka$ly signi icant e*ent in its conse9uences, is related here in this article&

The 16th Century and the )a *drop to the Anglo-Spanish Clash

The late 15th century had seen changes that shook the %orld& 0onstantinople, the capital o the >y+antine E!pire, had allen to the ?tto!an Turks in 175@, the capture o the ancient city heralding the de!ise o the Eastern hal o the old Ao!an E!pire, %hose ,estern hal had cru!$led nearly a !illenniu! $e ore& Bohannes 8uten$erg)s printing press %ould re*olutioni+e the glo$e, ena$ling the rapid trans!ission o in or!ation, encouraging the spread o education, and !id%i ing the e!ergence o the "cienti ic Ae*olution and the Enlighten!ent& #nd the Portuguese %ould initiate the European #ge o Exploration, !astering the na*igational nuances and ship$uilding techni9ues that %ould open Europe to the %orld& Portugal)s neigh$or, "pain, %ould 9uickly 'oin in the enterprise o exploration& .n 1793 an .talian sailor, kno%n to the #nglophone %orld as 0hristopher 0olu!$us, %ould disco*er a ne% %orld or his "panish sponsor, $ringing Europe into contact %ith the ancient ci*ili+ations o Mesoa!erica& ;e% e*ents in history ha*e had such an earth:shattering i!pact as those o the late 1744s, and the opening o t%o ne% continents to ,estern Europe %ould reshape the $alance o po%er in the ?ld ,orld& "pain and Portugal deri*ed enor!ous %ealth ro! their disco*eries in the or! o precious !etals and sla*es, along %ith ne% oodstu s that %ould rescue Europe ro! a

potential nutritional crisis as its population !ushroo!ed& Throughout the 16 th century, the sea routes o the #tlantic ?cean %ere dotted ro! one hori+on to the other %ith the characteristic sight o "panish treasure galleons transporting i!!ense hauls o gold and sil*er ro! the !ines o Mexico and Peru& .ne*ita$ly this inspired en*y in other ,est European nations %ith #tlantic coastlines, %ho co*eted "pain)s ne% ound a luence and its Ne% ,orld e!pire& The English had initiated their o%n #ge o Exploration our years a ter 0olu!$us)s *oyage, %ith England)s 1ing -enry C.. chartering an .talian sailor, 8io*anni 0a$oto/$etter kno%n as Bohn 0a$ot/to undertake his o%n expeditions to the Ne% ,orld& #lighting in Ne% oundland in 179=, 0a$ot clai!ed North #!erica or 1ing -enry, and his *oyages led to the esta$lish!ent o s!all ishing settle!ents o present:day 0anada and Ne% England& -o%e*er, the ,estern -e!isphere re!ained largely a +one o "panish in luence or !ost o the 1544s, until the .$erian country)s sno%$alling %ealth pro!pted !ore concerted actions $y ;rance and England to partake in the riches $y the !iddle o the century& ,hen Martin Duther posted his 95 Theses at the ,itten$erg 0hurch in 1519, the Protestant Ae or!ation %as co!!enced, and the co!!ercial ri*alry a!ong ,estern Europe)s po%ers %ould ac9uire a $itter religious tinge as 0atholics and Protestants *ied or oreign in luence& 16th century Europe eatured a hu!an epicenter in the to%ering personage o the Hapsburg -oly Ao!an E!peror 0harles C %ho, *ia a re!arka$le %e$ o dynastic links, reigned o*er a *ast land!ass extending ro! the Netherlands to the .talian pro*inces, ro! the 0entral European land!ass to "pain& .t %as 0harles C %ho presided o*er and consolidated the *ast real!s ac9uired or "pain $y 0on9uistadors like -ernando 0ortes and ;rancisco Pi+arro, and it %as he %ho irst directed his .!perial troops against the dispersing %a*e o the Protestant Ae or!ation in 8er!any& 0harles opined that his E!pire %as ar too *ast or one indi*idual to go*ern alone, so at his a$dication he split his real!, gi*ing his son, 1ing Philip .., control o*er his ,estern do!ains, chie ly "pain, the Netherlands, "ardinia, and parts o .taly& .n classic -aps$urg style, Philip %as enlisted to orge urther dynastic links $y !arrying England)s Princess and then Eueen Mary ., daughter o -enry C..., the po%er ul English !onarch %ho had ounded the national English na*y and %hose !arriage tri$ulations incited hi! to $reak %ith Ao!e and ound the Protestant 0hurch o England& Fpon her accession to the throne, Mary, an ardent 0atholic, sought unsuccess ully to roll $ack !any o the Protestant re or!s instituted $y her ather& "he disliked and e*en despised her Protestant hal :sister Eli+a$eth, i!prisoning the latter in the To%er o Dondon or a ti!e and apparently e*en threatening her %ith execution& G.t %as Philip, ironically, %ho interceded against this in a*or o Eli+a$eth, and e*en %hen their t%o countries entered into con lict later, Philip and Eli+a$eth !aintained an unusual degree o !utual respect&H .n 1558, Mary died childless and, in accordance %ith the ter!s o -enry C...)s %ill, Eli+a$eth %as selected as Queen Elizabeth I $y Parlia!ent& #t the ti!e o Eli+a$eth)s coronation, oddly enough, England and "pain %ere on relati*ely cordial ter!s and !ay ha*e e*en $een airly characteri+ed as allies& >oth had ri*alries %ith and %ere suspicious o the po%er o ;rance& -enry C... had %aged %ar %ith ;rance late in his reign, the latest eruption in hostilities $et%een the t%o ancient ri*als& Mary . and Eli+a$eth . also in*aded northern ;rance during the 1554s and early 1564s o*er the disputed region o 0alais& The ;rench %ere *ictorious in $oth cases, per!anently expelling the English ro! the European 0ontinent and urther aggra*ating the !utual en!ity $et%een the t%o countries& Philip, !ean%hile, had designs on the ;rench throne and a keen interest in suppressing the

Protestant -uguenot !o*e!ent head9uartered in northern ;rance, and he %as suspicious o ;rance)s intentions to%ard settle!ent in the #!ericas& #lthough a !arriage alliance $et%een the 0atholic Philip and the Protestant Eli+a$eth %as out o the 9uestion, the prior !atri!onial link $et%een Philip and Mary had assured a degree o co!!on interest $et%een "pain and England& "pain)s i!perial status and incredi$le %ealth %ere undou$tedly desired $y its neigh$ors, $ut there %as little hint o the $loody con lict that %ould e!$roil "pain and England later in the century& This changed, ho%e*er, %hen the English $roke into the sla*e trade in 1563&

+a%*ins, Dra*e, and the San -uan de .lua !n ident

The repugnant yet extre!ely pro ita$le $usiness o tra icking in $lack # rican sla*es had $een initiated $y the Portuguese in the 1744s, and $y the !id:1544s "pain had gained a !onopoly on the trade)s !ost lucrati*e side/selling the captured ,est # ricans to eager !ine ore!en and plantation operators in the #!ericas& "pain resented s!ugglers and 'ealously guarded its ad*antage in the sordid trade, $ut ine*ita$ly others sought a piece o the action %ith the English the!sel*es soon $eco!ing in*ol*ed& The irst English sla*e trader %as a $earded, salty, yet gentle!anly sailor na!ed Bohn -a%kins& # cousin o the reno%ned "ir ;rancis Drake and hi!sel an acco!plished !ariner, -a%kins had gained considera$le experience on the high seas %hen he $egan to *oyage along the ,est # rican coast in the early 1564s, %here he learned o the #tlantic sla*e !arkets and the extraordinary prosperity con erred upon the .$erian traders %ho ran and partook in the!& -a%kins undertook his irst sla*ing expedition in 1563, !aking a tidy pro it on his hu!an cargo %hich he pro!ptly reported to Eueen Eli+a$eth .& The Eueen %as initially disappro*ing o -a%kins) entrepreneurial undertakings, $ut dropped her opposition %hen -a%kins re*ealed the extent o his pro its and, in short order, hersel under%rote -a%kins) next t%o sla*ing expeditions Galong %ith highly placed !e!$ers o her Pri*y 0ouncilH, pro*iding ships and other !aterial assistance& Eli+a$eth)s decision has pro*oked !any 2%hat:i s5 a!ong historical o$ser*ers, since the support she so rapidly ga*e to -a%kins) sla*e:trading pro$a$ly entrenched England !ore deeply in the $loody enterprise ar !ore than i she had ad!onished hi! or it< hu!an tra icking, a ter all, no% had the i!pri!atur o a royal sanction to 'usti y it, !uting antisla*ery protests that %ere already springing up& Ne*ertheless, %e ha*e to re!e!$er that Eli+a$eth had inherited a relati*ely cash:strapped, inde$ted kingdo! ro! Eueen Mary, and in the context o the situation, she and the Pri*y 0ouncil pro$a$ly sensed an unexpected inancial %ind all that, or all its *ices, %as too good an opportunity to pass up& .n any case, the royal support or -a%kins) sla*e:trading encouraged hi! to continue it, so!ething that the "panish had noticed and did not appreciate& "pain had !aintained a *irtual !onopoly o*er the sla*e trade $y re9uiring !ariners ro! all nations to pass through "panish ports, "e*ille in particular, ro! %hich "panish authorities %ere a$le to o$tain a cut o the pro its gleaned $y the traders& .n the eyes o "panish o icials, -a%kins) direct sale to the ,est .ndies constituted s!uggling, and they %ere deter!ined to halt they percei*ed as the ship!ent o contra$and to the 0ari$$ean islands& ?n his third *oyage, in 156=, -a%kins led a 6:ship sla*e:trading leet %ith hi!sel and his cousin ;rancis Drake in personal co!!and o t%o o the ships& .n 1568, the *essels %ere co!pelled to %ater at "an Buan de Flua, near Ceracru+, Mexico, to o$tain supplies and

!aterials or repair& The "panish *iceroy, Martin Enri9ue+, sa% an opportunity to punish the s!ugglers and directed his o%n leet to $o!$ard the English< only -a%kins) and Drake)s ships, $oth da!aged, !anaged to escape the "panish noose& >eaten and seasick ro! a stor! they later encountered, the t%o !ariners e*entually arri*ed at port $ack in England, enraged $y %hat they sa% as appalling treachery on the part o the "paniards& Dike !any other English, ;rench, Dutch, and e*en "panish and Portuguese sailors, they %ould turn to piracy and $uccaneering, %hich they *ie%ed not as cri!inal acts $ut as the only !eans to respond to %hat they sa% as an oppressi*e policy $y the "panish cro%n to hoard the %ealth o #tlantic trade into its o%n co ers& More i!portantly, the "an Buan de Flua con rontation constituted a diplo!atic incident that %ould racture the hitherto a!ica$le relations $et%een "pain and England& .t is dou$t ul that 1ing Philip had any kind o personal role in his *iceroy)s interception o -a%kins) con*oy< 3:%ay radios and telegraphy %ere @ centuries a%ay ro! $eing in*ented, and na*al co!!anders there ore had considera$le autono!y in their actions& Ne*ertheless, Philip could not repri!and or incarcerate Enri9ue+ or !erely en orcing a stated "panish policy against contra$and, e*en i the *iceroy !ay ha*e $een a $it o*er+ealous in his duties& Dayered on top o the "an Buan de Flua incident %as a gradual crescendo o antipathy in England to%ard Philip)s +ealous 0atholic $elligerency& England had $een Protestant since -enry C...)s $reak %ith Ao!e/the king had so thoroughly de*astated the 0atholic 0hurch)s presence and its English assets that Eueen Mary)s interlude did little to restore a 0atholic po%er $ase, especially %ith regard to the aristocracy& Philip had earned a reputation as the 9uintessential -oly ,arrior or the 0hurch in its 0ounterre or!ation e orts, a role that he relished, and not only English citi+ens $ut also 0atholic .talians, ;rench, e*en Portuguese regarded his ardor and !achinations %ith trepidation& The Netherlands in particular $eca!e a lash point& "e*eral pro*inces in the northern Dutch Do%lands $egan to pu$licly espouse Protestantis! and ound a cle*er underground leader in the person o ,illia! the "ilent o ?range, %ho %aged a cra ty %ar o attrition and harass!ent in the 15=4s against the Netherlands) "panish o*erlords that Philip %as not a$le to suppress& English religious sy!pathy or Dutch Protestants %as coupled %ith considera$le dis!ay a$out the ad*erse e ects o "panish !ilitary actions on the *alua$le co!!ercial !arkets or English goods that had long existed in the Do% 0ountries& The Protestant -uguenots o ;rance also inspired sy!pathy across the English 0hannel, especially in the a ter!ath o the gratuitously $loody slaughter o 34,444 o the! $y ;rench 0atholics in the "t& >artholo!e%)s Day Massacre o 15=3& The "panish, or their part, took exception to %hat they *ie%ed as repression and disen ranchise!ent o English Gand e*entually .rishH 0atholics& -enry C... had executed !any clerics, shuttered !onasteries, and con iscated 0hurch property, sending nu!erous 0atholics into exile& England)s shi t to%ard Protestantis! had progressed too ar to $e re*ersed entirely, $ut !any "paniards $egan to see the!sel*es as at least the protectors o England)s 0atholic population, 'ust as so!e English cast the!sel*es as the de enders o Dutch, ;rench, and 8er!an Protestants on the 0ontinent& The religious stri e intensi ied %hen Pope Pius V shocked Eli+a$eth $y exco!!unicating her in 15=4 ro! the 0atholic 0hurch and a$sol*ing English 0atholics ro! recogni+ing her authority& Eli+a$eth had thereto ore sho%n little inclination to support 0ontinental Protestant re$els< like her ather, she %as an a$solutist !onarch %ho deeply resented challenges to the reign ro! %ithin, and she eared that support or 0ontinental re$els could re$ound across the 0hannel to $uttress si!ilar insurgencies in England and .reland& -o%e*er, the ponti )s $ull o exco!!unication changed !atters,

since it led her to identi y !ore %ith the Protestant !o*e!ent& "he ca!e to support the Dutch re$els and -uguenots, and she sponsored !easures against 0atholics %ithin the English real!, as !any %ere suspected o disloyalty or 9uestiona$le relia$ility& 0atholics co!plained o persecution, and !any departed England in exile& These !irror:i!age resent!ents/"panish $itterness at England)s treat!ent o its 0atholics, English sy!pathy or the plucky Dutch Protestants and the underdog ;rench -uguenots/ !elded %ith still:s!oldering resent!ent at "pain o*er "an Buan de Flua and co!!ercial co!petition to uel the conditions or con lict& The English, ;rench, and Dutch %ere also har$oring a!$itions to esta$lish their o%n colonies in the #!ericas< %hat is no% "t& #ugustine, ;lorida, %as originally a ;rench -uguenot settle!ent/;t& 0aroline/prior to $eing o*errun and crushed $y in*ading "panish orces& The English the!sel*es %ould undertake se*eral, ulti!ately unsuccess ul atte!pts to esta$lish a per!anent settle!ent in the 15=4s and 1584s to coloni+e North #!erica at Ne% oundland and %hat is no% the Middle #tlantic region GCirginiaH o the F&"& Their colonial a!$itions had $een er!enting e*er since Bohn 0a$ot had %hetted their appetites $y esta$lishing a ishing settle!ent at Ne% oundland and clai!ing the land or 1ing -enry C..& Thus the stage %as set or hostilities to erupt $et%een England and "pain, and ro! the 15=4s to 1585, the t%o nations %ould %age a lo%:grade con lict on the high seas in the or! o 9uasi:organi+ed pri*ateering !issions led $y "ir ;rancis Drake&

Sea Dogs, Deteriorating Relations, and the Spanish Armada

Drake and -a%kins %ere at the *anguard o the sporadic $ut da!aging $uccaneering attacks on "panish shipping and Ne% ,orld ports in the 15=4s, 'oining a !ultinational asse!$lage o pirates in raiding the gold: and sil*er:laden treasure leets that the "paniards regularly shuttled $et%een the !ines o Peru and the ports o >arcelona and 0adi+& Drake in particular spearheaded nu!erous expeditions against the 2per idious oes5 ro! "pain, striking deep into the heart o Ne% "pain %ith audacious raids into Pana!a and the ,est .ndies and nu!erous a!$ushes on the high seas& .n 15==:1584, Drake $eca!e only the second sea co!!ander Ga ter "pain)s Buan "e$astian del 0ano, a sur*i*or o ;erdinand Magellan)s expeditionH to circu!na*igate the glo$e, in the process laying a clai! to Ne% #l$ion G"panish 0ali orniaH that %as ne*er ollo%ed up $ut ser*ed as inspiration to uture generations o English !ariners& .n the next decade, Drake !ade a!ous raids into the 0ari$$ean and distinguished hi!sel especially against "panish de enses in -ispaniola in 1586, and in the ollo%ing year he e*en !anaged to $esiege the ene!y at the lion)s den itsel , arri*ing at 0adi+ to torch a portion o the "panish leet& -is operations %ere not al%ays success ul< !any English sailors perished ro! disease or %ere elled $y "panish gun ire in his o ensi*es, and or all the an are o the 158= 0adi+ raid, the "paniards had in act repulsed his attack, th%arting his !ain o$'ecti*e o a sack o the port city& (et Drake)s reputation as 2El Drache,5 the Dragon o the -igh "eas, %as at least partly deser*ed& -e %as an undou$tedly $ra*e and resource ul co!!ander, skilled $oth in the technical nuances o %ind:dri*en na*igation and capa$le o inspiring loyalty in his sailors, %hether $attle:hardened or untested& -e could i!pro*ise his %ay out o potential disasters and de!onstrated re!arka$le skill $oth at intelligence:gathering and contingency plans& To his credit, Drake %as also unusually !agnani!ous to%ard his ad*ersaries< in an o ten ruthless ti!e centuries $e ore the 8ene*a 0on*entions or other such standards, Drake

neither executed nor physically har!ed "panish soldiers that he had captured& ? ten, his only 2punish!ent5 %as to read "criptural passages to the capti*e and atte!pt to con*ert hi! to the Protestant cause& Drake in particular ca!e to personi y the relentless English 2sea dog,5 the prototypical pri*ateering pirate %ho led reelance operations against the "panish treasure leets and E!pire or the gain o his country& Bohn -a%kins, %hile less directly taking part in anti:"panish $uccaneering, nonetheless $olstered English sea aring pro%ess as Treasurer o the Na*y ro! 15==, in %hich capacity he !oderni+ed the English leet& The original thinker and crucial inno*ator o the 16th:century English na*y %as -enry C..., %ho e9uipped his !a'estic royal *essels %ith long:range guns that could $e ired !ore accurately and re9uently than the ordnance then co!!only in use& -a%kins urther i!ple!ented -enry)s inno*ations %hile i!pro*ing on the! su$stantially& #s the na*al treasurer, he co!petently !anaged the na*y)s inances %hile redesigning the leet to a*or s!aller, !ore !aneu*era$le *essels, endo%ing the! %ith a re!arka$le degree o sea%orthiness& -e directed !etallurgic oundries speci ically to%ard the task o ar!ing the English ships or long:range attack, e*en appropriating !erchant *essels ad ho or use in coastal de enses& -a%kins %as the astute !ind $ehind the rapid:reaction orce !odel or the English sailing leet, and he did a !ore than co!petent 'o$ o ensuring that the sailing ships %ere in proper condition or !eeting a po%er ul ene!y s9uadron in the %ar! %aters o the English 0hannel& -e also participated hands:on in the pre: itting and !ission planning or the deep:%ater *essels used $y Drake and his $uccaneering colleagues to harass "panish shipping& -a%kins) contri$utions to the English na*y %ere *alua$le in the run:up to the "panish #r!ada clash o 1588& The "paniards respected Drake and the other pri*ateers or their *alor and undou$ted sea aring skill, yet they %ere understanda$ly not altogether thrilled $y the econo!ic detri!ent and general inter erence in their shipping posed $y the sea dogs& The religious rhetoric on Protestant and 0atholic sides alike $eca!e !ore strident, and the English $egan to !ore openly support the Protestant Dutch Ae*olt against 0atholic "pain as the insurgents pro*ed their staying po%er& ;ollo%ing the assassination o ,illia! the "ilent in 1587, the ;rench !onarchy itsel i!ploded the next year, turning ;rance not only into a religious $attleground a!ong ri*al groups $ut a $eckoning $attle ield or oreign orces intent on i!posing their designs upon ;rench territory& The crisis on the 0ontinent pro*oked action in England, and hostilities $et%een the English and "panish erupted openly %hen, in 1585, the English dispatched =,444 soldiers under Ao$ert Dudley, the Earl o Deicester, to support the Dutch Protestant uprising& Deicester)s operations in 1585 acco!plished little against the pro essional ar!y o the "panish, $ut the gauntlet had no% $een o icially thro%n do%n< England and "pain %ere at %ar& The si!!ering religious tensions exploded into rage on the part o the "paniards %hen Eueen Eli+a$eth reluctantly authori+ed the $eheading o her archri*al, the 0atholic Mary Eueen o "cots, in 158=& Mary had $een i!prisoned or o*er a decade and $een i!plicated in se*eral assassination plots against Eli+a$eth, $ut she %as still *ie%ed $y so!e 0atholics as the right ul ruler and at least the sy!$olic protector o English 0atholics in the country& English inter erence in the Do% 0ountries and the una$ated depredations o the $uccaneers had already irritated the "panish, $ut Mary)s execution pro*ed to $e the last stra%& Philip $egan to organi+e an in*asion orce against the island nation& Ded $y the Duke o Medina "idonia, this Spanish Armada %ould $e dispatched in the 2Enterprise o England,5 to rende+*ous %ith a leet transporting the ar!y o Alessandro Farnese, the Duke of Parma, to%ard the shores o England& The plan su ered ro! the si!ple di iculty o

co!!unication $et%een the t%o "panish leets and Philip)s lack o a %ar!:%ater port in north%est Europe, yet the "paniards proceeded %ith their plan in 1588, three years ollo%ing the or!al co!!ence!ent o hostilities against the English nation&

The Repulse of the Spanish and the !nvasion of the English Armada
#s is %ell:kno%n, the "panish #r!ada ailed in its in*asion 9uest, a de$acle attri$uta$le pri!arily to so!e o the %orst "epte!$er stor!s %itnessed $y sea aring #tlantic !ariners during the entire $usy century o the 1544s& #ll in all, the #r!ada and the English leet largely ought each other to a stale!ate $e ore the "panish orces, led $y the Duke o Medina "idonia, decided to orsake the e ort or the ti!e $eing and sail around the tip o "cotland and .reland $ack to "pain& .t %as here that "panish sailors %ere tested in a $aptis! $y ire, %ith erocious ocean stor!s $attering their sails and challenging e*ery technical aculty in their stock o experience& "o!e "panish ships oundered or %ere ship%recked o the coast o .reland< $ut !ost !anaged to return, $attered yet intact, to the "panish ports, %hich had care ully prepared pro*isions and !edical acilities as %ell as co: opted the resources o near$y coastal to%ns to tend to %ounded soldiers and sailors and nurse the! $ack to health& The "panish re*ersal in 1588 %as not nearly as se*ere or da!aging as is o ten assu!ed, one o !any surprising acts that has $een con used in the re9uently:unexa!ined !ythology o the #r!ada con lict& .)*e dedicated a separate $rie article to dis!antling these nu!erous !yths and related the detailed story o the Spanish Armada/its !oti*ations, the circu!stances o the $attle itsel , and its repercussions/in the sa!e article& "ince this particular essay is ocused on the so:called English #r!ada that sailed against "pain and Portugal in 1589, the key take:ho!e !essage o the Spanish Armada is that its ailure to in*ade in 1588 did not represent a decisi*e "panish de eat, nor did it in itsel pose a serious challenge to "panish na*al po%er or 1ing Philip)s %ar ai!s G%hich %ere principally directed against the Netherlands, ;rance, and other theaters o co!$at on the European 0ontinentH& To truly in lict a decisi*e $lo% against "pain, England had to ollo% up the #r!ada)s repulse %ith an o ensi*e o its o%n, and thus it %as a little:kno%n encounter in 1589/the su$'ect o this article/that represented the pi*otal clash o the #nglo:"panish 2T%enty (ears) ,ar5 o 1585:1647& The outco!e o the 1589 $attle truly %ould $e o crucial i!portance to the un olding o %orld e*ents& The English, like the ;rench and Dutch, had looked upon "pain)s Ne% ,orld E!pire %ith a longing or their o%n& They did not accept "pain)s clai!s to the territories o 0entral and "outh #!erica, %here "panish !issionaries !ingled %ith the cultures o the great #+tec, Maya, and .nca ci*ili+ations and "panish galleons hauled countless tons o gold and sil*er& The #!erican continent and the 0ari$$ean %ould long $e disputed, and "pain)s ragile hold o these regions depended partly on entrenched de enses $ut, !ost i!portantly, on 1ing Philip)s or!ida$le #tlantic leet& The "panish ships guarded and $locked !any o the #tlantic sea lanes, not only denying access to "outh #!erica and the 0ari$$ean $ut rustrating settle!ent in North #!erica& #s the #r!ada li!ped $ack into port ollo%ing its $attering $y urious oceanic %eather, the English/Pri*y 0ouncil !e!$er "ir ;rancis ,alsingha! in particular/ sensed a rare and extraordinary opportunity& #lthough !ost o "pain)s ships had !anaged to return to .$erian ports, they %ould need re itting and repairs $e ore they could truly $e

sea%orthy again& English intelligence indicated that the "panish leet/%ith its hardy #tlantic nucleus/%as concentrated in "antander and "an "e$astian, in northern "pain on the >ay o >iscay& #s it %as $eing re itted, it %as also rendered re!arka$ly *ulnera$le to English attack and destruction $y la!es& #s A&>& ,ernha! noted Ip& 96J: 2The %hole re!aining na*y o "pain lay helpless in those t%o ports& There %ere not enough sailors to !an the!, not enough %ork!en to re it the! speedily, and their soldiers had dispersed to %inter 9uarters t%el*e leagues inland& ;or !onths the ships !ust lie there, po%erless to !o*e or to ight&5 # success ul strike against the stationary "panish s9uadrons %ould ha*e had history:!aking conse9uences& Depri*ed o the core o his #tlantic leet, Philip not only %ould ha*e $een i!paired in his capacity to %age %ar in Europe< he also %ould ha*e lost his capacity to e ecti*ely guard and secure his Ne% ,orld E!pire& The #!ericas %ould ha*e $een rapidly opened to co!petitors, and "pain)s o%n uncertain grip on its Ne% ,orld possessions %ould ha*e $een pried ree& #rgentina and Peru !ay ha*e $eco!e the irst colonies o the >ritish E!pire& "panish colonies in North #!erica %ould ha*e $een still$orn as the English and ;rench %ere inally ree to exploit their rustrated a!$itions in the 16th century& The "panish treasure galleons still lingered as a !outh:%atering pri+e, and a !a'or precious !etals transport %as !o*ing into .$erian %aters in 1589& Moreo*er, 1ing Philip)s grip on Portugal/%hich he had con9uered in 1584/%as in 9uestion, and a Portuguese pretender, Do! #ntonio, proclai!ed o*erlordship o the country in lieu o Philip hi!sel & Di*esting Philip o Portugal %ould ha*e %rested a%ay a *alua$le na*al resource or "pain and depri*ed it o ports, experienced sailors, and Ne% ,orld possessions& Thus it %as that ,alsingha!, Eli+a$eth, and England)s $est sea!en opted to launch an o ensi*e operation against the "panish in their o%n ho!e ports& Ti!e %as o the essence& The English %ould launch an in*asion o the .$erian Peninsula %ith a three: pronged series o ai!s: G1H To destroy the "panish leet then !oored and $eing re itted at "antander and "an "e$astian, the !ain o$'ecti*e o the !ission as outlined $y the Eueen and Pri*y 0ouncil< G3H to intercept the "panish sil*er leet entering ro! the ,estern -e!isphere and gain control o the #+ores .slands o Portugal, thus depri*ing the "panish king o the %ealth under%riting his European ca!paigns and ena$ling hi! to expand his na*y, %hile di*erting those riches to the North #tlantic< and G@H to expel the "panish ro! Portugal and replace Philip)s usurpers %ith Do! #ntonio, proclai!ing hi! the right ul ruler o the country& .t %ould $e led $y none other than "ir ;rancis Drake and "ir Bohn Norris, t%o na*al co!!anders o distinguished per or!ance and longstanding experience on the high seas& This !ilitary operation has $een recorded under se*eral na!es: 2the Expedition to Portugal,5 2the Drake:Norris Expedition Ga ter its t%o co!!andersH,5 2the 1589 Expedition,5 and so orth& >ut in the interest o that al%ays delicate art o elicitous $rand:na!ing, perhaps it is !ost use ul to regard this English in*asion orce or %hat it %as: the counterpoint and !irror i!age o its opposing predecessor the year $e ore, an English #r!ada as it %ere& Thus, an English #r!ada %as prepared in 1589 to ul ill the triple o$'ecti*es as outlined a$o*e&

The English Armada's /itful Assem0lage

#s noted in the acco!panying essay dispelling !any !yths a$out the Spanish Armada, the scattering o the "panish ships hardly translated into a triu!phant !o!ent or the long:su ering English sailors %ho had !anned the coastal de enses& # horri ic out$reak o in ectious disease/possi$ly typhus or plague/exploded into an epide!ic a!ong the English sea:$orne orces, clai!ing hundreds and perhaps thousands o li*es& The out$reak added $itter insult to the grie*ous in'ury that had long plagued the English !ilitary apparatus: The troops, or all their perse*erance and sacri ice, had largely not $een paid in !onths& .rate epithets %ere regularly directed against the Eueen, the Pri*y 0ouncil, and in particular poor ,illia! 0ecil, Dord >urghley, the Treasurer and Eueen Eli+a$eth)s !ost trusted ad*isor, %ho had ound hi!sel constantly hard:pressed to scrape together co!pensation or English troops and their 0ontinental Dutch and -uguenot allies& .t see!ed in uriatingly ironic that the oot soldiers, ha*ing endured !onths o disco! ort and physical agony to de end England)s shores, %ould $e 2re%arded5 or their e orts $y $eing orced into de$t $y a go*ern!ent that %as supposed to ha*e paid their soldiers) %ages& (et this rustrating state o a airs %as hardly unusual, and it %as e!$le!atic o the inancial trou$les that %ould plague the English %ar e ort against "pain and pose an especially acute challenge to the unding o the English #r!ada o 1589& Eueen Eli+a$eth had inherited a staggering de$t o close to K@,444,444 ro! her hal :sister Mary . upon her accession in 1558, $ut she and 0ecil had sho%n co!!enda$le iscal discipline in returning England to relati*e sol*ency o*er the next three decades& ?utside o a ailed operation to capture De -a*re and 0alais ro! the ;rench in the irst three years o her reign, Eli+a$eth largely re rained ro! the kinds o !oney:s9uandering !ilitary ad*entures in %hich her ather had too o ten indulged, and the Eueen and 0ouncil)s relati*e parsi!ony in the costs o the court helped to gradually $ring the Exche9uer $ack to a le*el o !anagea$le de$t, i not 9uite outright $alancing& The 0ro%n)s re*enues ro! the sla*e trade and its 2plausi$ly denied5 support o $uccaneering also helped to $uttress royal inco!e, $ut the !ost i!portant source o royal capital in lo%s ca!e %ith the $urgeoning %ool and textile trade carried on %ith the Do% 0ountries and the 8er!an -anseatic Deague& This inancial %ellspring %as i!portant enough that, alongside the Protestant sy!pathies %ith the Dutch insurgents, the English had a discerni$le inancial interest in pre*enting 1ing Philip)s garrisons in -olland ro! inter ering %ith the lucrati*e %ool trade/a urther potential spur to induce English inter*ention in the Netherlands& ,ar %ith "pain, ho%e*er, %ould present an exacting and inexora$le challenge to English inances ar a$o*e and $eyond %hat Eli+a$eth had encountered $e ore in her reign, and threaten to undo !uch o the patient $udget:'uggling that she and the Pri*y 0ouncil had undertaken in the pre*ious thirty years& The costs o the #r!ada de ense had nearly drained the Exche9uer o its last pence, and inancing an o ensi*e operation in 1589 %ould not $e a si!ple task& The costs o the expedition %ere %ell:'usti ied i 1ing Philip)s na*y could $e destroyed, and a success ul interception o the "panish sil*er leet !ight e*en ha*e ena$led the in*aders to turn a pro it ro! the %ar& -o%e*er, the not:insu$stantial expenses o asse!$ling the leet and airly re!unerating the sailors %ould pose an additional drag on the already strained English inances& The iscal challenge %ould $eco!e so se*ere that it, in !any respects, %ould $eco!e the do!inant o$stacle to the success o the !ission and, as %e shall see, it %ould greatly i!pact the !ilitary and strategic !issions o Drake and Norris on the ground %hen they reached "pain and Portugal&

0lose to 13,444 soldiers %ere needed or an ade9uate in*asion orce, so!e o the! English $ut a part o the contingent also co!prised o $attle:hardened Dutch *eterans and 8er!an !ercenaries& "ince the Dutch had a *ested interest alongside the English in a $lo% to 1ing Philip, Eli+a$eth naturally expected her 0ontinental allies to oot part o the $ill, $ut disputes o*er inancial outlays and troop co!!it!ents set the English and Dutch allies at loggerheads, %ith !any Dutch contingents resenting %hat they sa% as an o*erly de!anding stance on the part o Eli+a$eth and the Pri*y 0ouncil& .n any case, argu!ents o*er the speci ics o cost:sharing and troop pro*isions %ere at least partly s!oothed out $y a point o co!!on inancial interest a!ong all parties& The second o$'ecti*e in the triad o %ar ai!s/sei+ure o the "panish treasure leet and !aintenance o control in the #+ores islands/dangled a carrot $e ore potential participants in the operation in the or! o %ar $ooty, and it e*en helped to encourage urther in*est!ent ro! indi*iduals and groups %ith !ercenary ai!s to support the !ilitary operation& "uch 2'oint:stock co!panies5 %ould urnish *alua$le unds to purchase supplies and *ictuals or Drake and Norris)s attack orce< it %as as though in*estors had $een dra%n to pu!p capital into a !arket %hose co!panies %ere explicitly designed to a$scond %ith sil*er !ined $y the "paniards in their o%n e!pireL This inancing sche!e, cle*er as it %as in spreading the $urden o costs, also yet posed a tre!endous co!plication that %ould turn out to $e surprisingly trou$leso!e& "peci ically, there %as a latent con lict o %ar ai!s: ,ere the English in*aders and their Dutch and 8er!an allies seeking to $reak 1ing Philip)s #tlantic na*al po%er and expel hi! ro! Portugal, or %ere they trying to secure a pro it or the!sel*es $y sei+ing his treasure leetsM ;or understanda$le reasons, the political $ackers o the English #r!ada/Eueen Eli+a$eth and ,alsingha! in particular/*ie%ed the destruction o the "panish leet at "antander and "an "e$astian as $y ar the !ost critical %ar ai!& .t %as only success in this !ission that could possi$ly depri*e Philip o his a!ple !eans to %age %ar on the European 0ontinent, and it %as only $y destruction o the "panish #tlantic leet that "pain)s co*eted Ne% ,orld E!pire %ould $e opened to plundering and recoloni+ation $y the country)s hungry co!petitors in ,estern Europe& (et the !outh:%atering prospect o the capture o *ast Mediterranean "panish galleons, laden ro! $o% to stern %ith precious !etals and 'e%els, o$*iously ired the i!agination o the o ten indigent or !erchant:class sailors and s!all in*estors %ho %ere carrying out and $olstering the operation, and you can guess %hich %ar ai! they ound especially pressing& The practical result o this %as to instantly so% !utual distrust and suspicion in the !inds o Eli+a$eth and her co!!anders& "he suspected/pro$a$ly %ith so!e 'usti ication/that Drake, Norris, and their sailors did not share the sa!e !ission priorities as she and her Pri*y 0ouncil espoused, $eing !ore interested in plunder o the "panish treasure leets, a secondary o$'ecti*e in her !ind, than the pi*otal attacks against 1ing Philip)s na*al orces at "antander and "an "e$astian& Drake and Norris, or their part, chronically 9uestioned %hether they %ould $e ade9uately and pro!ptly supplied $y the Eueen in their endea*ors, and they see!ed to ha*e elt a rustrating sense that Eueen Eli+a$eth and the Pri*y 0ouncil did not ully co!prehend the logistical challenge o landing an attack orce in northern "pain only to dise!$ark, in short order, on another !ission to the #+ores and Portugal proper& This is %here the situation takes an especially ironic t%ist, one o se*eral that %ould send the 1589 Expedition to Portugal lunging in $i+arrely unexpected directions& The trials and tri$ulations o the "panish #r!ada ships upon the return *oyage to "pain %ound up, strangely enough, posing an acute challenge to the English in the context o the 1589

!ission& Medina "idonia)s "panish #r!ada leet %as supposed to arri*e at Dis$on, in Portugal, and at the pri!ary "panish ports o 0oruna and 0adi+& #s ,ernha! percepti*ely noticed Ipp& 95:96J, had the "paniards landed their ships %here they %ere supposed to, the political o$'ecti*es o Eli+a$eth and the Pri*y 0ouncil %ould ha*e do*etailed !ore easily %ith the !ore pecuniary aspirations o Drake, Norris, and their sailors: Fpon putting the "panish na*y to the torch in Dis$on and 0oruna, Drake and Norris could ha*e then easily taken ad*antage o a*ora$le geography to alight in Portugal to ul ill the third o$'ecti*e o expelling the "panish *iceroy and placing Do! #ntonio on the Portuguese throne& They could ha*e then proceeded o*erland ro! Dis$on and set o or the #+ores to snatch the co*eted treasure leet sailing in ro! the ,est .ndies& (et the unrelenting %inds o the #tlantic *oyage and the choppy seas had co!pelled Medina "idonia to land, unexpectedly, at "antander and "an "e$astian, so!ething that had disappointed the "paniards as !uch as it %ould *ex the English< re itting the ships at these sites %ould take longer and pose !ore o a logistical headache than i they had entered port at 0oruna or Dis$on& .n any case, Drake and Norris no% percei*ed a $ald con lict in their %ar ai!s& "antander and "an "e$astian $oth lay deep to the east on "pain)s northern ace ronting the >ay o >iscay, and pre*ailing %inds ro! the %est !eant that/a ter dropping anchor and $urning the "panish leet at those t%o ports/the English %ould ha*e to sail against the %ind and round the north%est edge o "pain to reach Dis$on and the co*eted position in the #+ores& E*en in the e*ent o per!issi*e %eather, the delay %ould likely ena$le the "paniards to !ount de enses in Portugal and possi$ly th%art interception o the treasure leet& Thus %hile the Eueen and Pri*y 0ouncil clearly e!phasi+ed the "antanderN"an "e$astian !ission irst and ore!ost, the sailors and their in*estors %ere inclined to de!ur pri*ately i not to the !onarch directly< they %ere !ore desirous o a strike at Portugal initially to a*oid letting the sil*er leet slip a%ay&

!nvasion
The English #r!ada %as asse!$led in Ply!outh $eginning in ;e$ruary o 1589, $ut unto%ard %inds, ailure to deli*er supplies, and personal in ighting postponed its departure, $uying crucial %eeks or 1ing Philip to re it his da!aged na*y, protect the inco!ing sil*er leet, and in*ite assistance ro! the -anseatic Deague and the >altic states& The prelude to the English #r!ada)s dise!$arkation %as replete %ith carping and !utual recri!inations o inco!petence and $linding sel :interest a!ong the !ission)s $ackers and participants& Eueen Eli+a$eth had $een gro%ing intensely aggra*ated $y the delays and the nagging sense that a rare opportunity to s!ash the ene!y %as gradually slipping a%ay, and she still did not ully trust the intentions o her co!!anders& ,ernha! notes Ip& 97J that she had assented to a contri$ution o K79,444, %ell a$o*e the K34,444 that %as supposed to represent her share& -er exasperation %as only urther exacer$ated %hen a $right, *alorous, yet i!petuous young courtier na!ed Ao$ert De*ereux, the Earl o Essex, stole a%ay on #pril 5 %ith his ship!ate Aoger ,illia!s on the S%iftsure on an i!pro!ptu, 9uixotic attack against Portugal/ urther aug!enting ears that the English #r!ada had a di erent destination in !ind ro! the shipyards o "antander and "an "e$astian& Essex %as the epito!e o the $old and erratically co!petent Ao!antic %arrior %ho had not yet learned that the $etter part o *alor %as discretion& -e contri$uted !easura$ly to !any English operations, $ut his early departure here added a urther layer o con usion to the

in*asion plans< Drake and Norris %ere he!!ed in $y %inds or another t%o %eeks $e ore they %ere inally a$le to dise!$ark and head or the .$erian Peninsula& ,hen Drake and Norris inally sighted the coast o their 9uarry, they %ere not any%here near "antander or "an "e$astian, as Eueen Eli+a$eth had hoped& They %ere not e*en in Dis$on& Perhaps acting on aulty intelligence, Drake had alighted in 0oruna, one o the !ain "panish ports %hich %as on the path to%ard Dis$on $ut al!ost deserted o "panish na*al targets aside ro! a e% hulks, s!all cra t, and one o the least sea%orthy o the "panish 2large ships&5 The !ission had already assu!ed a Monty Python:es9ue 9uality in so!e respects, co!plete %ith irritated $ickering a!ong co!!anders %ho %ere supposed to $e cooperating, soldiers drea!ing o ast !oney, and an i!petuous young courtier %ith *isions o !ilitary laurels departing or $attle t%o %eeks in ad*ance o the !ain orce& Drake)s landing party e ecti*ely sacked the lo%er city o 0oruna G%hich %as separated ro! the %alled upper cityH and captured or killed !any "panish soldiers, then !anaged to unco*er and appropriate large stashes o pro*isions or the!sel*es& .n yet another co!ically $i+arre t%ist in the in*asion, ho%e*er, the 0oruna soldiers also ound a cornucopia o %ine casks, %hich pro*ed to $e ar !ore deadly to the English than all the "panish cannon and artillery in the city& The English proceeded to drink the!sel*es into a stupor and $eco!e !ore plastered than an o ice party on casual ;riday)s happy hour< needless to say, they %ere not exactly in pri!e ighting condition to lay siege to the %alled upper city& #t this point, yet another still:inexplica$le ele!ent o the in*asion crept into the picture& Eueen Eli+a$eth had pro!ised Drake and Norris an a!ple supply o siege trains to attack and o*erco!e the de enses o the %alled cities that they kne% they %ould encounter in "pain and Portugal& >ut the Eueen ulti!ately ne*er deli*ered the artillery, a act that see!s to ha*e irritated Drake i!!ensely and %hich he used as a 'usti ication or his re usal, on se*eral occasions, to attack other%ise *ulnera$le ortresses& .n act, in the context o the pre*ious discussion, the Eueen)s actions !ay ha*e $een entirely consistent %ith her apprehensions< she %anted her generals to ocus on "antander and "an "e$astian $e ore !aking any atte!pt against Dis$on, and her re usal to supply the artillery !ay ha*e $een a su$tle hint that they had to co!plete the si!ple and !ost i!portant task/torching the "panish leet !oored in northern "pain/$e ore they %ould $e o ered the artillery or the ar !ore lucrati*e operations in the #+ores and Portugal& .n any case, the !isco!!unication on the artillery issue ha!pered Drake)s e orts and, co!$ined %ith the drunken state o the soldiers, th%arted an atte!pt at a siege o the upper city %hen a to%er collapsed on the $esieging soldiers and a e% o*erenthusiastic troops ruined a chance to $reach the %alls o the upper city& Isee ,ernha!, p& 114J The soldiers su ered light losses in 0oruna o*erall, $ut %hen they %ere su$se9uently !arched to Dis$on, the co!$ined toll o hango*ers ro! the %ine and an apparent out$reak o disease in the torrid .$erian spring colla$orated to di!inish their orces considera$ly& The English i!!ediately partook in so!e !inor 9uarrels %ith Dis$on)s de enders $e ore heading to the %alls o the "panish:held $astion in the city center& ?nce again, the English %ere sty!ied $y their lack o artillery< they had no siege trains and no !eans to $reach the %alls o their target& #rchduke #l$ert, Philip)s nephe%, %as go*ernor in Portugal and %ithdre% his orces %ithin the city %alls, perhaps cogni+ant o the in*aders) insur!ounta$le de iciencies in %eaponry and rankly !istrust ul o the loyalty o his conscripted Portuguese soldiers& Fna$le to $reach Dis$on, Norris %ithdre% to 0ascaes and po%%o%ed %ith Drake, and they $oth ruled out an a!phi$ious operation up the ri*er Tagus

to Dis$on o%ing to the earso!e !enace o the ri*er)s de ensi*e guns and, once again, the lack o artillery& The English #r!ada still had the prospect o intercepting the "panish treasure ship!ent in its collecti*e sights& (et 'ust as the "panish #r!ada had $een th%arted $y uncooperati*e %eather, so %ould its English counterpart $e rustrated $y the caprice o the local %inds, i to a less destructi*e degree than the stor!s that $attered Medina "idonia)s leet& 0apture o the "panish leet, as it %ould soon $e recogni+ed, %as indeed %ithin the real! o possi$ility or the attenuated English orces, $ut they %ere persistently scattered and da!aged $y unusually choppy seas that orced the! $eyond the locations or encountering the "panish treasure galleons, and %arships protecting the treasure leet urther da!aged and harassed the English ships so as to circu!*ent their atte!pts at engage!ent& Flti!ately, in Bune, the English leet li!ped $ack to Ply!outh ha*ing su ered hea*y casualties/perhaps !ore than 14,444 participants, the *ast !a'ority o its orce, %ere killed G!ostly $y diseaseH or deserted& "hipping losses %ere !uch less than those o the "panish #r!ada, $ut the co!$ined toll caused $y the soldiers) casualties and the na*al con rontations %as staggering& The English #r!ada had cost o*er K144,444/$y so!e !etrics, an e*en !ore su$stantial operation than the "panish #r!ada itsel & (et it had yielded paltry returns& #lthough so!e !inor "panish to%ns had $een sacked and a portion o Philip)s orces di*erted ro! the Netherlands, the treasure leet %as entirely !issed, the "paniards re!ained in control o Portugal, and !ost i!portantly, the "panish na*y in "antander and "an "e$astian/a sitting duck or a 9uartet o ad*ersaries %ith a torch and an escape route/re!ained intact& The de eat o the English #r!ada in 1589 pro*ed to $e a particularly $itter pill or the English $ecause o the !issed opportunity it represented& Eueen Eli+a$eth . recogni+ed all too acutely that her orces could ha*e so easily deli*ered a knockout punch against the "panish, $ut $ecause o !ission creep, internecine 9uarrels, and a string o s!all $lunders, the e ort ca!e up %anting&

Aftermath
The ailure to capture the treasure o the .ndies and the persistence o "panish rule in Portugal %ere undenia$ly in uriating, $ut $y ar the !ost signi icant outco!e o the English #r!ada)s de eat %as that 1ing Philip)s na*y had slipped the noose& 0ontrary to %hat is so o ten assu!ed, the "panish na*y after the #r!ada %as ar stronger than the one 0efore it, in large part $ecause that na*y escaped al!ost certain disaster in 1589 had Drake si!ply landed a s!all raiding party in "antander& #l!ost three ti!es as !uch gold and sil*er %ere transported relia$ly and e iciently $y "pain ro! the #!ericas in the 1594s than in any decade prior& The strength and reno%n o the 19 th:century >ritish .!perial Na*y can seduce and decei*e us into thinking that the English so!eho% had a natural a inity or ruling the %a*es, and the "panish #r!ada incident see!s an all:too con*enient !arker or this ascendancy& (et as %e)*e seen a$o*e, the English de initely did not rule the seas in the a ter!ath o the "panish #r!ada, in large part due to the ailure o its o%n #r!ada in 1589& The "paniards %ould re!ain the do!inant sea po%er %ell into the 1= th century, and %hen another nation assu!ed pree!inence on the oceans, it %ould $e the Dutch supplanting the! in the late 1644s, not the English& ?nly $y the !id:1=44s does England)s na*al pro%ess $egin to assu!e truly do!inant di!ensions, and e*en then it still had to !eet the persistent challenge o the ;rench& .ndeed, the Treaty o Paris in 1=6@,

%hich ended the ;rench and .ndian ,ar G"e*en (ears) ,arH %ith a decisi*e *ictory or the English, !ay $e considered to $e the !ost accurate date to !ark the rise o the English as the %orld)s ore!ost na*al po%er< it %as certainly not the case in 1589& 1ing Philip %ould thoroughly exploit the opportunity handed to hi! $y the ailure o the English #r!ada in 1589, re$uilding his leet and using it to great e ecti*eness& -e instituted a cle*er con*oy syste! %hich, as noted a$o*e, pro*ed re!arka$ly e ecti*e at protecting gold and sil*er ship!ents< Bohn -a%kins undertook se*eral $uccaneering expeditions %ith Martin ;ro$isher in 1589:94, $ut %ith little success against !uch stronger "panish de enses& The English did achie*e one partial success in 1596, against 0adi+, and e*en then it %as rendered $itters%eet $y the ailure to capture the "panish treasure leet in the !idst o a scorched:earth policy $y the de enders& ?ther%ise, the 1594s sa% a string o re*ersals or the English on land and at sea as Philip tightened the scre%s on his ad*ersaries& # lo%:grade na*al %ar ensued %ith "panish orces regularly repelling and o ten disa$ling English attackers on its transatlantic leets or stationary de enses in the 0ari$$ean and Datin #!erica& Those 9uintessential !ariners, Drake and -a%kins, %ould the!sel*es $e killed in a disastrous o ensi*e against the "panish at Puerto Aico and Pana!a in 1595, %hich pro*ed e*en !ore costly in troops and shipping or the English than the 1589 in*asion o "pain and Portugal& The 1595 operation %as designed to $e a strike directly at the heart o "pain)s Ne% ,orld E!pire, $ut the i!pro*ed, !ore agile "panish na*y and shre%d intelligence:gathering ena$led the "panish de enders to surprise and entrap the English, deli*ering the! one o the %orst na*al and land de eats the country %ould su er& ?ther operations, such as the 159= #+ores expedition led $y Essex, !et %ith !uch the sa!e lackluster result& E*en the English ho!eland did not pro*e i!!une to attack& Fncooperati*e %eather scattered three additional #r!adas sent $y 1ing Philip to launch a large:scale attack, $ut in 1595 a s!all "panish orce under Don 0arlos de #!es9uita, patrolling the %aters o the English 0hannel and short o %ater, %as $lo%n ashore near 0orn%all& The "paniards easily inti!idated or de eated local !ilitia resistance and set ire to !uch o 0orn%all, especially Pen+ance and surrounding locales, %hile plundering the ha!lets or %hate*er *ictuals and nautical aids they could ind& E*entually the English $egan to !uster a pro essional ar!y and su!!on na*al orces under Drake and -a%kins, and the "panish deca!ped and returned ho!e a ter holding Mass on English soil& >ut #!es9uita)s success ul operations %ere e!$le!atic o the !ilitary rustration that $e ell the English in the decade a ter the #r!ada& Perhaps the !ost i!portant/and tragic/i!!ediate ra!i ications o the English #r!ada)s de eat %ere in .reland& England had possessed a political and !ilitary relationship %ith .reland since Nor!an ti!es, %hen -enry .. launched an in*asion in the 13th century and esta$lished no!inal Nor!an rule that %as, o*er ti!e, restricted to a region around Du$lin, the so:called Pale Gsource o the 2>eyond the Pale5 idio! so a!iliar ro! e*eryday discourseH& The Nor!ans %ere e*entually assi!ilated and 8aelici+ed to $eco!e 2!ore .rish than the .rish the!sel*es5 and .reland stayed largely autono!ous& .n the early 1544s, ho%e*er, -enry C.. $egan to assert !ore direct control o*er the .rish lords and his son, -enry C..., ollo%ed $y proclai!ing hi!sel the king o .reland itsel & -enry %as too occupied %ith other !atters to tend to .reland too aggressi*ely, and it %as there ore Mary and Eli+a$eth %ho %ould assert hege!ony !ost directly o*er .reland& Mutual ani!osity had s%ollen up $et%een the Protestant English and 0atholic .rish, and royal policy to%ard the E!erald .sle %as !arked $y an appalling le*el o $rutality, condescension, and corruption e*en in the years $e ore the #r!ada, inspiring sporadic uprisings and

generali+ed tension during the 15=4s and 1584s& .n contrast to the co!parati*ely !ild treat!ent o 0atholics on England proper Grelati*e to the state o a airs on the 0ontinent, at leastH, those in .reland %ere dee!ed un%orthy o the dignity !erely to $e le t alone, and treated %ith $oth conte!pt and ar$itrary !alice $y English ad!inistrators& (et England !ay ha*e other%ise $een inclined to lea*e the .rish alone o*erall, i not or the conse9uences o the English #r!ada)s de eat& ,ith "pain)s na*y reconstructed and regrouping a ter 1589, .reland loo!ed strategically as a potential launching pad and port o co! ort or "panish 0atholic in*aders, and English actions to%ard the island country $eca!e !ore repressi*e and cruel in response& The .rish %ere angered and $egan to take up ar!s in earnest in the 1594s& The .rish re$ellion against English rule %as led $y the 8aelic lords o Flster, spearheaded initially $y Aed -ugh ?)Donnell $ut soon 'oined $y the clan o the ?)Neills, %hich had hitherto $een in alliance %ith the English& -ugh ?)Neill, the Earl o Tyrone, had $een steeped in the !ilitary tactics and or!ations used $y the English, and %ould in lict particularly se*ere de eats against his erst%hile allies %hen he took up the $anner o the 8aelic lords in 1597& .t %as in that year that the ?)Donnells %ould lead nati*e orces against English orts that had $een constructed and garrisoned to suppress the Flster lords< upon $esieging the orts, the .rish %ould utili+e cle*er guerrilla tactics to surround and a!$ush English supply lines, co!!encing the so:called Nine (ears) ,ar %ith .rish *ictory under ?)Donnell at the ;ord o the >iscuits in 1597& ?ther *ictories at "ligo, #r!agh, >lack%ater, and 0lonti$ret con ir!ed the surprising !ilitary co!petence o the .rish against superior English orces, and in 1598, ?)Neill s!ashed a pro essional English orce under the acco!plished general, "ir -enry >agenal, at (ello% ;ord& # dra!atic and o t: cited exa!ple o cunning %aged against a superior ar!y/?)Neill)s soldiers $rilliantly constructed ensconced trenches and earth%orks to trap the English in an a!$ush/(ello% ;ord %as the %orst de eat e*er su ered $y the English on .rish soil& ?)Neill %ould later harass and e*ade $attle %ith the Earl o Essex in 1599/the de$acle that %ould e ecti*ely end the young earl)s career/$e ore inally su ering de eat in a set:piece $attle against 0harles >lount, Dord Mount'oy, at 1insale in 1641& 1insale e ecti*ely $roke ?)Neill)s po%er as leader o a uni ied .rish national ront against the English, $ut the cra ty .rish lord once again eluded capture and continued guerrilla assaults against Mount'oy)s orces, rustrating their e orts to reesta$lish control& ;inally, in late 164@, 6 days ollo%ing the succession o the English throne ro! Eli+a$eth to 1ing Ba!es ., ?)Neill accepted a*ora$le ter!s and ceased his re$ellion, re!aining in his Flster ho!e un!olested& Ne*ertheless, he and the other 8aelic lords eared treachery and capture $y English garrisons, and our years later, in the so:called 2;light o the Earls,5 ?)Neill and his co!patriots deca!ped or 0atholic lands on the 0ontinent, e ecti*ely handing .reland o*er to English rule& 164=/the sa!e year as the Ba!esto%n "ettle!ent in North #!erica/is there ore !ourn ully recalled $y the .rish as the year %hen e ecti*e sel :rule %as orsaken to the English& The Nine (ears) ,ar had de*astating e ects or $oth sides& Much o .reland/the northern counties in particular/ su ered desolation and a hu!anitarian catastrophe that, or its ti!e, exceeded e*en the !ost %ar:ra*aged regions o Eastern Europe in ,,.. in scale& #s in the @4 (ears) ,ar in Europe, $attles and skir!ishes %ere %aged in ar!lands and churches, orts and !arkets alike& Mount'oy $urned crops in the countryside and destroyed !uch o .reland)s agricultural and econo!ic $ase to su$due nati*e opposition< the result %as a !an!ade a!ine that ri*aled the in a!ous Potato ;a!ine o the 1874s in

its e ects& Perhaps 1N@ o the population lost their li*es, and the co!$ined physical and psychological ruin %ould etch itsel on the collecti*e soul o the country or hundreds o years, co!!encing the tragic history that %ould continue e*en into the 31st century& The English, !ean%hile, had $een lured into a 9uag!ire re!iniscent in so!e %ays o #!erica)s Cietna! iasco, $ut e*en !ore se*ere in its conse9uences& .reland $eca!e England)s !ain $attleground a ter "pain)s rein orced na*y rustrated English $uccaneering and sea:$orne con*oy attacks, and tens o thousands o English soldiers %ould lose their li*es in the $e%ildering, al!ost stupe ying !orass o the .rish $ogs and orests, elled $y disease or the $ayonets and irear!s o their cle*er .rish opponents& #ll o England)s care ully:laid plans or .rish rule ca!e cru!$ling do%n, precipitating a oreign policy cala!ity that %ould alienate the .rish people and !ire the English in a hostile land or centuries& The %ar in .reland cost the English cro%n K3:@ !illion, an ulcer that %ould drain a%ay assets that had care ully $een accu!ulated or decades& Prior to the %ar against "pain in 1585, the shre%d inancial ste%ardship o the Eli+a$ethan court had nearly e aced the K@ !illion de$t le t in 1558 $y the pro ligacy o -enry C... and Mary ., and the Eueen)s care ul i!ple!entation o the #nglican co!pro!ise e ected $y her predecessors contri$uted enor!ously to sparing England ro! the de*astation o the sectarian religious %ars that trau!ati+ed the 0ontinent& >ut the grinding, unceasing operations against "pain and .reland %ould plunge England $ack into a de$t not !uch less than that le t $y Mary in 1558& 0ontrary to %hat is o ten assu!ed, the later years o the Eli+a$ethan period in the 1594s %ere not 'olly, heady ti!es %ith the country)s people glee ully en'oying their prosperity and !ilitary success< rather, they %ere !arked $y the $itter a tertaste o an unsuccess ul %ar, one that could ha*e $een so easily %on $y the English %ith a landing $y ;rancis Drake at "antander in 1589& The !ounting de$t o the oreign ca!paigns sapped the treasury and di*erted trade and co!!erce& This econo!ic ad*ersity 'oined in tande! %ith un ortunately:ti!ed crop ailures and droughts to precipitate %idespread destitution and !isery& "oldiers conscripted or the %ar e orts against .reland, "pain, and Philip ..)s 0ontinental allies %ent unpaid, and upon their return Gi they sur*i*ed/hundreds o thousands did notH, they aced o ten $leak econo!ic prospects& ,illia! "hakespeare, it should $e recogni+ed, %as a %artime play%right& -e %as not a 16th:century F"? !aestro< there is no e*idence that he %as o icially pressed into ser*ice $y the court& (et his plays, $oth in their characteri+ation and in their tone and su$stance, %ere directed at an exhausted, i!po*erished, o ten ear ul population that had endured the e ects o 34 years o %ar and the conco!itant redirection o a nation)s scarce resources& >oth England and "pain su ered together and, in an irony re9uently $orne o such situations, $egan to sy!pathi+e as only t%o ierce and unre!itting ene!ies can& ,hen Eli+a$eth passed the royal scepter onto Ba!es . in 164@, the king %as eager to inally !ake peace& ,hile he %as dispiritingly lacking in the charis!a, panache, and popularity o his Tudor predecessors, Ba!es lucidly grasped the ener*ation and rustration %rought $y the ongoing %ar& # ter negotiating a peace %ith the .rish lords, he signed the Treaty o Dondon in 1647, inally concluding the T%enty (ears) ,ar $et%een England and "pain& The ter!s, ironically, %ere si!ilar to those that Philip .. had sought prior to the "panish #r!ada in 1588, na!ely the cessation o English inter*ention on the 0ontinent and a renunciation o high seas $uccaneering/%hich, in any case, had $een deli*ering at $est di!inishing returns ollo%ing the "panish na*y)s re itting in 1589& "pain had achie*ed !any o its %ar ai!s $ut, like England, had nearly e!ptied its treasury in the process& .t had solidi ied its Ne% ,orld E!pire and !aintained ir! control o the seas, $ut its

position on the 0ontinent e*inced a !ixed result, in no s!all part due to English support o Philip ..)s opponents< the southern Dutch pro*inces G!uch o %hat is today >elgiu!H had re!ained 0atholic and, %ith the con*ersion o ;rance)s 1ing -enry .C to 0atholicis! G%hether piety or prag!atis! or so!e ad!ixture thereo , %e cannot $e certainH, a 0atholic !onarch re!ained on the ;rench throne& >ut the northern Dutch pro*inces had gained so!e autono!y, and Philip)s larger o$'ecti*e/placing his daughter, the .n anta .sa$ella 0lara Eugenia, in control o ;rance/had $een th%arted upon -enry)s con*ersion& .n any case, it %as the orti ication and !oderni+ation o "pain)s na*y and *ast o*erseas e!pire that %ould $e Philip)s !ost i!portant acco!plish!ent o the long %ar, not his $y+antine !achinations on the European 0ontinent, and this strengthening o "panish sea:$orne po%er %ould ha*e ar:reaching ra!i ications that can $e elt up to this day& .t is, in act, in the areas o coloni+ation and the po%er o the 0ro%n that the de eat o the 1589 Drake and Norris expedition %ould exert its !ost ar:reaching e ects&

A 1ore Assertive $arliament, and a $ostponed 2aun h into North Ameri a

#s noted a$o*e, the ailure o Drake to deli*er a oup de gra e at "antander in 1589 ena$led Philip .. to slip the noose, and co!pelled a continuation o the #nglo:"panish hostilities or another 15 years/e*entually spreading into .reland& This $loody, costly con lict depleted the English treasury and sent the nation deeply into de$t& #s the econo!ic historian Bohn 8uy has noted, the Eli+a$ethan Exche9uer %as pressed into extracting unds ro! %hate*er sources %ere readily a*aila$le to de ray the %ar)s incessantly !ounting costs, %hich included ship !oney, sale o high o ices, auctioning o 0ro%n lands/and turning to Parlia!ent& The sales o o ices and cro%n lands e ecti*ely re!o*ed the sa ety net ro! the "tuart Dynasty %hich succeeded the Tudors< i they !ounted their o%n de$ts, they had e%er recourses to turn to& ?ne o those %as Parlia!ent, and as the %ar dragged on in the 1594s, Parlia!ent $egan to assert itsel !ore une9ui*ocally& The English Parlia!ent had $een ounded $y the !edie*al English king, Ed%ard ., in the 1344s& ,hile it had a !easure o real po%er and exercised authority on so!e occasions/it %as Parlia!ent, a ter all, that ul illed the ter!s o -enry C...)s %ill in the succession o his children to the throne/the Parlia!ent %as still regarded as an instru!ent su$ordinate to the !onarch %ell into the Tudor period& ,hen the !onarch %as co!pelled to $eco!e a supplicant, ho%e*er, it %as perhaps ine*ita$le that the !e!$ers o the Parlia!ent $egan to *ie% the!sel*es as !ore integral to the English go*erning syste! than the king or 9ueen !ight $e other%ise inclined to ackno%ledge& Parlia!entarians %ere also !ore likely to $e religiously er*ent, and on se*eral occasions they entered into open con lict %ith Eli+a$eth in the 1594s& "tri e $et%een !onarch and Parlia!ent re!ained at a lo% e$$ into the 1=th century, $ut ha*ing sa*ored such a taste o inancial and/as a result /political po%er, Parlia!ent %as loath to relin9uish it %hen Ba!es . and his "cottish "tuart Dynasty took the reins o England in 164@& Ba!es had an un ortunate propensity to enhance his %ardro$e and royal trappings $eyond the $ounds o good sense and li!ited $udgets, plunging the 0ro%n e*en urther into de$t a$o*e that %hich it had inherited ro! Eli+a$eth& Ba!es $eca!e e*en !ore dependent upon Parlia!ent, %hich $egan to exert !ore and !ore genuine authority in running the country& ;inally, %hen Ba!es)s son, 0harles ., took po%er, a clash $et%een the a$solutis! o the "tuarts and the then:no*el po%er arrange!ents o a Parlia!entary $ody $eca!e ine*ita$le, cul!inating in the English

0i*il ,ars o the !id:1644s& ,ith that a!ous Gor in a!ous, depending on your dispositionH Parlia!entary general, ?li*er 0ro!%ell, *ictorious against 0harles)s po%er ul Aoyalist orces, history had experienced a turning point, since England %ould turn decisi*ely a%ay ro! the authoritarian !onarchical rule that %ould characteri+e the European 0ontinent/the precursor, o course, or the perceptions o rights and responsi$ilities that %ould gi*e rise to the #!erican Ae*olution in the 1==4s& # *ictory $y Drake in that 1589 $attle %ould ha*e still$orn Parlia!ent)s sno%$alling po%er< a ter all, %ith an early conclusion to the #nglo:"panish con lict a*ailed $y the e ecti*e destruction o Philip ..)s na*y, there %ould ha*e $een no need or the !assi*e outlays to continue the %ar in the 1594s against a de eated "pain, and no need to so aggressi*ely ear the security threat o a 0atholic .reland& .ndirectly, "panish *ictory in 1589 had precipitated the rapidly shi ting relationship $et%een !onarch and Parlia!ent that %ould pro*e so crucial or the history o England and its North #!erican colonies ro! the 1644s on%ard& "peaking o North #!erica, urther!ore, the English #r!ada)s de eat %ould change the course o history& #s noted a$o*e, had "pain)s na*y $een destroyed in its !ooring places in "antander and "an "e$astian in 1589, the country %ould ha*e possessed inade9uate de enses or its young, *ulnera$le Ne% ,orld E!pire, then disputed territory a!ong the Protestant nations Gand so!e 0atholic onesH in ,estern Europe %ho re used to honor the Treaty o Tordesillas in 1797, in %hich Pope #lexander C. e ecti*ely recogni+ed "panish hege!ony o*er the ,estern -e!isphere& England had already !ade o*ertures to%ard long:ter! North #!erican settle!ent& #t last ollo%ing up on the 0a$ot expedition o 179=, the English tepidly atte!pted colonies on the land!ass& .n 158@, "ir -u!phrey 8il$ert led an expedition to seek a North%est Passage through the icy #rctic %aters o 0anada to%ard 0hina, as %ell as to esta$lish a colony in Ne% oundland, %hich had $een hitherto explored and clai!ed or England $y 0a$ot and %here a s!all ishing co!!unity had planted itsel & 8il$ert urther explored the coast, charting and reconnoitering the inlets that dotted the Eastern 0anadian region, $ut he encountered pro$le!s %ith discipline a!ong his sailors and su ered in the harsh, un a!iliar seas& ?ne o his ships %as stranded inland and a s!all group o %ould:$e settlers lost, possi$ly killed $y the harsh cli!ate and con rontations %ith nati*e tri$es, and 8il$ert hi!sel %ould are little $etter& Depri*ed o !uch o his cre%, %hich had $een $eset $y scur*y and seasickness, 8il$ert)s ship The S3uirrel $eca!e caught in a erocious stor! and disappeared into the %a*es& -e had !ade a *aliant e ort, $ut had acco!plished little a$o*e the clai! already !ade $y 0a$ot nearly a century earlier& 8il$ert)s hal :$rother "ir ,alter Aaleigh, ho%e*er, %ould carry his relati*e)s drea! or%ard %ith greater planning and oresight, and %ould initially !eet %ith greater success& Aaleigh ounded the Aoanoke colony in 1585 in %hat is no% Cirginia, and in 1586, the irst English child $orn in the Ne% ,orld/Cirginia Dare/%ould $e christened& Aaleigh had achie*ed su$stantial progress o*er 8il$ert)s initial unsuccess ul atte!pt, $ut there %ere signs o danger at the outset& Many settlers %ere succu!$ing to exotic diseases o the ne% continent and the !erciless harshness o the ele!ents, and relations %ith the indigenous tri$es %ere ractious at $est& ?n se*eral occasions the Aoanoke colony re9uired resupply and rescue, and it had not yet reached the point o sel : sustenance& The Aoanoke coloni+ation e ort coincided al!ost precisely %ith the onset o hostilities against "pain, and *ictory against the "paniards %as desperately sought so as to ree up supply expeditions to the colony ollo%ing the #r!ada attack in 1588& ?nce again, a success $y Drake in 1589 against the helpless "panish leet %ould ha*e kneecapped England)s $itter ene!y and opened the sea lanes, perhaps ena$ling a rescue o the ledgling

colony& >ut the iasco in 0oruna and Portugal $y the Drake and Norris expedition o$*iated any such atte!pts in the Ne% ,orld, the settle!ent o %hich %as no% consigned to a lo%er priority& ,hen Bohn ,hite, the leader o the Aoanoke 0olony, inally !anaged to return to it in 1591, he ound to his dis!ay that the settle!ent had *anished, %ith that e*er: ascinating historical enig!a/the single %ord, Croatoan, car*ed on a tree/pro*iding only the slightest hint a$out its ate& Aecently, historians and !eteorologists ha*e !anaged to de!onstrate that an unusually harsh drought and %inter %ould ha*e %rought ha*oc on settler and nati*e alike in the region, crushing the colony)s hopes in the a$sence o supply ro! across the ocean& .t %ould not co!e< all ships had to $e ready against "pain& The de eat o the English Expedition to "pain and Portugal in 1589, there ore, contri$uted integrally to one o the !ore co!!only o$ser*ed ironies a$out the Tudor era: Despite their !ani est interest in e!ulating the .$erian countries $y starting their o%n colonies in the ,estern -e!isphere, %hich the "paniards had initiated in 1793, the Tudors %ere una$le to esta$lish a per!anent English settle!ent& 0learly, as de!onstrated $y the endea*ors o 8il$ert and Aaleigh a$o*e, this %as not or lack o e ort< rather, the continuing !ilitary strength and na*al !ight o "pain posed such an i!!inent threat that it co!peted %ith and th%arted English colonial a!$itions %hich %ere 'ust stirring in the 1584s& .ronically, English settle!ent and E!pire:$uilding in the #!ericans %ould $egin as a "tuart pro'ect, not a Tudor one, and once again %e can %itness the hand o the 1589 $attle in all this& -ad "pain $een depri*ed o its na*y and purloined o its treasure leet $y Drake and Norris, as it so nearly %as, the English %ould ha*e $een ree to continue their earnest pro'ect o North #!erican settle!ent/along %ith, o course, taking ad*antage o the spoils o %eakened "panish colonial de enses in the Ne% ,orld& .ndeed, the English !aintained a continuing interest in "pain)s colonies or centuries< possessions in the 0ari$$ean %ould change hands on !ultiple occasions, and e*en in the 19 th century, the English !ade a daring play/$old $ut ulti!ately unsuccess ul against the de enses o >uenos #ires/to take #rgentina& -istory %ould ha*e un olded 9uite di erently indeed in the e*ent o a Drake landing in "antander in 1589& "pain)s centuries:long hold on its co*eted Ne% ,orld E!pire, a ter all, hinged unda!entally on its capacity to protect it ro! co!petitors& ;urther!ore, the Spanish cultural sphere that is conventionally associated 'ith South and Central America and the Cari,,ean today$ 'as a direct product of Spain8s military capa,ilities9or lac# thereof9in forging a coherent naval and land-,ased defense for the vast landmasses of the -estern /emisphere& Ne%spapers and ne%s!aga+ines o our !odern day and age in 344@ and 3447 !ar*el at the rapid -ispanic de!ographic and cultural expansion in the Fnited "tates o*er the past t%o decades, $ut the roots o this pheno!enon date $ack to the latter decades o the 1544s& The -ispanic e lorescence o recent years is predo!inantly a product o i!!igration, o course, %ith strong econo!ic tugs pulling in %orkers and a!ilies ro! south o the $order& (et the ulture o these i!!igrants could ha*e easily $een ar di erent ro! %hat it is today& Most o these ne%co!ers are identi ied as 2Datino5 or 2-ispanic5 precisely $ecause o the co!!on thread o the "panish language and culture, and as %e)*e seen a$o*e, "pain)s cultural in luence on these regions could ha*e easily $een nipped in the $ud, %ith "panish *iceroys and !issionaries e*icted ro! !uch o %hat is no% Datin #!erica had there $een a slightly di erent result in 1589& Philip .. could not ha*e de ended "pain)s ledgling and spra%ling o*erseas e!pire in the a ter!ath o a na*y destroyed $y ;rancis Drake)s orces& E*en such -ispanic $astions o today like Puerto Aico and Pana!a %ere sites o anti:"panish operations $y Bohn -a%kins,

;rancis Drake, and other English na*al geniuses, and these tenuous colonies could ha*e $een pried loose in the e*ent o a !ori$und "pain in the 1594s& ?ne !ight counter, o course, that ;lorida, Texas, and 0ali ornia/places that had $een part o the "panish E!pire/are, a ter all, no% a part o the Gpredo!inantlyH English:speaking Fnited "tates& >ut this has a$solutely nothing to do %ith actions o the >ritish E!pire, !uch less the Tudors< all o these territories %ere ac9uired $y the F" a ter it itsel had pre*ailed in $attle against the >ritish in the #!erican Ae*olution o the late 1=44s& Moreo*er, precisely 0e ause of the longstanding association o these territories %ith the "panish E!pire, their la%s, custo!s, and traditions deri*e su$stantially ro! "panish precursors, in a !anner ar distinct ro!, say, Ne% England or the #!erican Mid%est, %hich lacked any such historical connection to Ne% "pain& Det)s take a closer look at this& There are a nu!$er o $asic discrepancies in the re*olutionary histories o the Fnited "tates and Datin #!erica& The earth:shaking re*olution o the or!er preceded those in the latter, and the #!erican go*ern!ent created in the late 1=44s di ered *astly ro! any other in the %orld& -o%e*er, another unda!ental di erence, o t:o*erlooked, is in the !anner $y %hich the land, resources, and i!perial clai!s o the !other country de*ol*ed onto the successor states that e!erged in the %ake o the re*olution& Cirtually all o %hat is no% 2Datin #!erica5 %as, at one point, under the control o the "panish 0ro%n Gor the Portuguese !onarchy, in the case o >ra+ilH& There ore, %hen the re*olutions led $y #gustin .tur$ide in Mexico and "i!on >oli*ar in "outh #!erica s%ept a%ay "pain)s control in the early 19th century, the ne% "panish:speaking countries si!ply inherited the territory that had $een part o the "panish E!pire itsel & The nati*e #!erican contri$utions %ere signi icant in each case, $ut as ar as the European co!ponent o the ne% nations) cultural a$ric, it %as o*er%hel!ingly deri*ed ro! the "panish rulers %ho had directly controlled the areas or centuries& The legal syste!s %ere direct descendants o "panish precursors, and the ad!inistration, custo!s, and institutions o the young states hailed directly ro! "pain& ,hile !any Datin #!erican countries engaged in $order %ars %ith each other during the 19th century, their rontiers !erely shi ted %ithin an enor!ous territorial span %hich had once $een designated on !aps as 2Ne% "pain&5 The situation in the Fnited "tates %as radically di erent& Nearly all o the territory %ithin the land!ass o the 2Fnited "tates o #!erica5 %as never under the ontrol of the )ritish Empire& ?nly the ?regon Territory/%hich no% co!prises !uch o the #!erican North%est/and, o course, the original 1@ colonies on the East 0oast %ere actually incorporated %ithin >ritain)s colonial real!& There ore, %hen the independence o the F" %as recogni+ed $y >ritain in the Treaty o Paris in 1=8@, the young nation inherited only that strip o land on the East 0oast o North #!erica, $ordering the #tlantic ?cean, ro! the >ritish& The *ast !a'ority o the territory that no% co!prises the F&"&#& %as ac9uired in the 19th century, after the Fnited "tates had $eco!e an independent nation %ith its o%n uni9ue culture and or! o go*ern!ent/in stark contrast %ith Datin #!erica& Moreo*er, and !ost i!portantly, the $ulk o F&"& territory rests on land that had $een part o the /ren h, Spanish, and Russian e!pires, not the >ritish& The unprecedentedly rapid expansion o the F&"& occurred chie ly through the Douisiana Purchase o 184@/$y %hich the country ac9uired pre*iously ;rench do!ains/and the Mexican ,ar o 1876:78, in %hich the Fnited "tates o$tained pre*iously "panish and, a ter the re*olution o 1831, Mexican land& ;lorida %as originally a "panish colony, and #laska %as a Aussian outpost until "ecretary o "tate ,illia! "e%ard negotiated its purchase in 186=&

.n practical ter!s, the result o all this is that, as ar as the European contri$ution to Fnited "tates la%s, history, ad!inistration, and culture G%hich o course is in addition to the undenia$le contri$utions o the nati*e #!ericansH, it is ar !ore heterogeneous than in Datin #!erica, especially %est o the Mississippi Ai*er& F&"& legal traditions o%e !uch to the custo!s o English co!!on la%, and on the East 0oast, the contri$ution o the co!!on la%/and its i!pact on e*erything ro! land grants to courthouse oaths/is clearly predo!inant& -o%e*er, as %e tra*el %est%ard to%ard the Paci ic, %e $egin to notice an increasing legacy o ;rench and "panish legal traditions in addition to the English co!!on la% and, o course, the uni9uely #!erican standards that e!erged ro! the ideas o the ;ounding ;athers in the late 1=44s& .n ;lorida, Texas, 0ali ornia, Ne% Mexico, #ri+ona, and !any other states, the la% codes still $ear strong %itness to their "panish heritage, and place na!es throughout the #!erican Mid%est and "outh%est lucidly e*oke the colonial histories o ;rance and "pain in the region& The architecture and physical layout o Ne% Mexico, #ri+ona, and 0ali ornia dra%s su$stantial inspiration ro! the "panish !issions that tra*ersed these areas or centuries& E*en the #!erican co%$oy culture and the rodeo trace their roots to the custo!s o Ne% "pain/speci ically, the va3ueros o northern Mexico, prior to the F&"& con9uest in 1878& .t is here that, once again, %e can ga+e in a$undance at the !o!entous i!pact o that little:kno%n $attle in 1589& -ad Drake alighted at his initial destination o "antander, and torched the unguarded "panish leet, then "pain)s operations in North #!erica %ould ha*e $een curtailed drastically, and a ne%ly:do!inant English na*y %ould ha*e $een a$le to orce ully assert the clai!s to the continent irst !ade $y Bohn 0a$ot or the English cro%n in 179=& Bust as the 0ari$$ean and "outh and 0entral #!erica %ould ha*e $een opened to English colonial a!$itions, the North #!erican land!ass ro! Mexico to the -udson >ay %ould ha*e $een laid $are to "pain)s co!petitors& "panish !issions and operations in north%estern Mexico and %hat is no% the F" "outh%est %ould ha*e $een still$orn< depri*ed o *iceroyal leadership and the inancial $acking o the "panish cro%n, the "panish settlers in these regions %ould ha*e $een o$liged to 9uit the!, and retrench to a ar s!aller, !ore de ensi$le Ne% "pain& .nstead, %ith the English #r!ada de eated in 1589, the !ore ni!$le, e icient "panish na*y %as a$le to !ore e ecti*ely deli*er supplies and co!!unicate %ith the colonies o its *ast possessions in the Ne% ,orld& "panish la%, custo!s, and language per!eated not only the E!pire)s heartland in central and "outh #!erica, $ut per!eated the rolling desert real!s o North #!erica or centuries& Drake hi!sel had staked a clai! to 0ali ornia during his a!ous circu!na*igation in the 15=4s, and he !ay ha*e $een a$le to reali+e that clai! %ith a success in 1589< instead, "pain rein orced the sea route control in the #tlantic and Paci ic that %as so essential to its do!inance in the ,estern -e!isphere, expanding into and consolidating the then:uncharted territory north o the 8ul o 0ali ornia& This territory de*ol*ed upon Mexico upon its independence ro! "pain in 1831, and despite the con9uest $y the Fnited "tates o hal o Mexico)s territory in the Mexican ,ar that concluded in 1878, the "panish colonial presence in the region le t a po%er ul cultural i!print that re!ains pronounced today& This, o course, is on top o "panish expansion into the Paci ic, in the Philippines and the nu!erous archipelagos %hich dot that *ast ocean& The next ti!e you encounter another ne%spaper article heralding the al!ost inexplica$ly ast rise o -ispanic culture and the rapid !o*e!ent o -ispanic peoples into the F", think $ack to the 1544s and recall that this cultural colossus, %ith a co!!on

!ooring in the culture o "pain, could ha*e easily $een cut do%n to si+e $y a e% changes in the execution o a $attle plan $y so!e deser*edly a!ous English soldiers in 1589& The expedition $y Drake and Norris in that year is pro$a$ly an e*ent you)*e ne*er encountered until no%, $ut the decisions !ade and $attles encountered $y that in*asion orce %ould exert a tre!endous i!pact on the un olding o e*ents $oth in Europe and the #!ericas& .ts e ects can $e seen e*ery day you stroll $y one o those see!ingly u$i9uitous 2"e ha$la espaOol5 signs in the %indo% o a local shop&

;or !ore in or!ation on the persistent !yths and allacies surrounding the "panish #r!ada $attle, read !y acco!panying article on es!s Spanish Armada Page: Top 14 1yths and 1uddles a0out the Spanish Armada& References and )urther Reading
>erleth, Aichard& The T%ilight 2ords" Eli5a0eth ! and the $lunder of !reland & Ao$erts Ainehard, Danha!, MD, 3443& 0arr, Aay!ond& Spain" A +istory6 ?x ord Fni*ersity Press, 3444& 0heyney, Ed%ard P& A history of England from the defeat of the Armada to the death of Eli5a0eth, %ith an a ount of English institutions during the later si7teenth and early seventeenth enturies6 P& "!ith, Ne% (ork, 1936& de 0ordP$a, Duis 0a$rera& +istoria de /elipe !!, Rey de Espa8a6 Bunta de 0astilla y DePn, Calladolid, 1998& 0u!!ins, Bohn& 2That Qgolden knight) Drake and his reputation&5 +istory Today& 0o*er story, Banuary 1996& ;alls, 0yril& Eli5a0eth's !rish (ars& Methuen, Dondon, 1954& ;ernande+:#r!esto, ;elipe& The Spanish Armada" The E7perien e of (ar in 19::6 ?x ord Fni*ersity Press, 1988& 8on+Rle+:#rnao 0onde:Du9ue, Mariano& Derrota y muerte de Sir /ran is Dra*e, a Coru8a 19:;-$orto0elo 19;6& Sunta de 8alicia, "er*icio 0entral de Pu$licaciPns, 0oruOa, "pain, 1995& 8uy, Bohn& Essay on the Tudor period, <7ford !llustrated +istory of )ritain, 1enneth ?& Morgan, Ed& ?x ord Fni*ersity Press, 199=& 1elsey, -arry& Sir /ran is Dra*e" The =ueen's $irate & (ale Fni*ersity Press, Ne% -a*en, 0onn&, 1998& 1elsey, -arry& Sir -ohn +a%*ins" =ueen Eli5a0eth's Slave Trader& (ale Fni*ersity Press, Ne% -a*en, 0onn&, 344@&

Dynch, Bohn& Spain, 1916-19;: " from nation state to %orld empire & >lack%ell Pu$lishers, ?x ord, 1993& Payne, "tanley& +istory of http"##libro$u%a$edu#pa&ne'#pa&ne'($htm Spain and $ortugal& ?nline:

Terrero, BosT& +istoria de Espa8a& A& "opena, >arcelona, "pain, 1988& Tho!as, -ugh& The Slave Trade" the story of the Atlanti slave trade, 1>>4-1:?4& "i!on U "chuster, Ne% (ork, 199=& ,ernha!, A>& After the Armada" Eli5a0ethan England and the Struggle for (estern Europe, 19::-19;96 0larendon Press, ?x ord, 1987& ,ernha!, A>, ed& The E7pedition of Sir -ohn Norris and Sir /ran is Dra*e to Spain and $ortugal, 19:;& Na*y Aecords "ociety, >rook ield, Ct&, 1988& ,ernha!, A>& The Return of the Armadas" the later years of the Eli5a0ethan %ar against Spain, 19;9-164@6 ?x ord Fni*ersity Press, 1997& ,hiting, Aoger& The Enterprise of England" Pu$lishing, 8loucester, F1 1988& ,es Fl! (lease feel free to *uote from$ print$ and cite this essay as$ The Defeat of the English Armada and the 16th-Century Spanish Naval Resurgen e,+ ,y -es .lm$ /arvard .niversity personal 'e,site$ .R" http 00'''1people1fas1harvard1edu02ulm0history0sp3armada1htm$ 4 56671 The Spanish Armada& #lan "utton

Fse ul links:
The "panish #r!ada 1588 site $y In)i%ta *edia/concise, easily reada$le, and in or!ation:rich su!!ary o the #r!ada plans and point:$y:point description, %ith nice, easily *isuali+a$le technical descriptions& "panish #r!ada article at ikipedia/the ree online encyclopedia is a colla$orati*e e ort o !any hands %orld%ide& .)! one o the contri$utors to the "panish #r!ada article, $ut there %ere !any $e ore !e, and this resource is so accurate and use ul in general that it deser*es !ention here& The Defeat of the Spanish Armada pages on the -istory>u site, Aick >ro%n)s outstanding resource or those seeking pri!ary docu!ents and old ne%spapers/an excellent aid or pro essional historians and history $u s alike& . %rote this series o pages

on the "panish #r!ada in an 2encyclopedia style5 to pro*ide a ready and use ul re erence or students and teachers seeking in or!ation on the $attle& The pages are split into articles co*ering the actors leading to the #r!ada, the con rontation itsel , and its a ter!ath, as %ell as su!!ary and conclusion sections or rapid consultation& The +, Histor& -earning Site "panish #r!ada page/%ithout dou$t one o the $est .)*e seen on the #r!ada encounter, detailed yet easy to ollo%& # particularly interesting aspect o this site is its de!onstration that the al%ays unpredicta$le %eather actor %asn)t as un a*ora$le to the "paniards as is o ten assu!ed& There %ere sudden shi ts in %inds that ena$led Medina "idonia)s leet to escape a catastrophic $eaching on the Dutch and ;rench shorelines, as %ell as to regroup and assu!e its tight de ensi*e or!ation&

.A/, to

es0s Histor& page

HOME