PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION 1995 Postmodern Doubt and Philosophy of Education Nicholas C. Burbules University of Illinois at Ur ana!

C"a#$ai%n Atte#$ts to &"ara&teri'e an( assess t"e i#$ort of $ost#o(ern intelle&t)al tren(s for $"iloso$"y of e()&ation "ave often fo)n(ere( on t"e $oint of $rovi(in% an )n&ontroversial a&&o)nt of *"at $ost#o(ernis# is+ T"ere are several reasons for *"y t"is is so, I *ill s)%%est, an( a fail)re to a$$re&iate t"e )n)s)al relation $ost#o(ernis# "as to*ar( #o(ernis# "as le( ot" a(vo&ates an( &riti&s of $ost#o(ern vie*s to #iss i#$ortant, (ee$ insi%"ts t"at $ost#o(ernis# "as to offer, $arti&)larly in "el$in% )s to t"inane* a o)t e()&ation+ T"e first $ro le#, note( y ot"ers, is t"at .$ost#o(ernis#/ is not a s$e&ifi& t"eoreti&al $osition itself, )t an intelle&t)al tren( t"at &o#$rises several 0)ite (ifferent $"iloso$"i&al t"eories+ Poststr)&t)ralis# or (e&onstr)&tionis# is fre0)ently ta-en to e synony#o)s *it" $ost#o(ernis#, )t ot"er vie*s !! $"eno#enolo%y, &ertain strains of &riti&al t"eory, "er#ene)ti&s, so#e fe#inis#s, a -in( of neo! Aristotelianis#, neo$ra%#atis#, an( so!&alle( .$ost!analyti&/ $"iloso$"y !! are often la ele( .$ost#o(ern/ as *ell+ P"iloso$"ers an( t"eorists as (iverse as 1itt%enstein 2after tea&"in% -in(er%arten3, Fo)&a)lt, Hei(e%%er, Ci4o)s, Ha er#as, Niet's&"e, Hara*ay, Levinas, Davi(son, S$iva-, Derri(a, 5a(a#er, 6en"a i , 6)tler, 7orty, 8a&Intyre, P)tna#, 1est, Fraser, an( yes of &o)rse 9o"n De*ey, are all vario)sly &l)stere( *it"in t"is territory, alon% *it" #any ot"ers, an( it is $ointless 2an( &o)nter$ro()&tive3 to t"in- t"at t"ere is a set of &o##on t"eses t"at &an e e4tra&te( *"i&" tie t"eir (is$arate vie*s to%et"er, or a &o##on for# of ar%)#entation t"at t"ey all s"are+ 8oreover, #any of t"ese a)t"ors "ave een rel)&tant to (es&ri e t"eir o*n vie*s y t"e la el .$ost#o(ern,/ an( several e4$li&itly re:e&t it 2a fe*, of &o)rse, $re&e(e( t"e a$$ellation3+ None of t"e lea(in% fi%)res a ove, as far as I -no*, "as ever trie( to %ive a syno$ti& &"ara&teri'ation of .$ost#o(ernis#/ as a set of t"eses or &lai#s, (es$ite t"e fa&t t"at t"is is "o* it is fre0)ently s)##ari'e( y ot"ers; $ost#o(ernis# is sai( to e t"e re:e&tion of t"e Enli%"ten#ent< it is a o)t t"e inf)sion of $o*er into o)r t"eories of -no*le(%e, lan%)a%e, an( et"i&s< it is antirationalisti&< it offers a ra(i&al so&ial &onstr)&tivis#< it $rivile%es (ifferen&e over &o##onality< it is a o)t t"e (is&)rsive &onstit)tion of so&ial 2an( nat)ral3 reality< it stresses a (e&entere( vie* of t"e s) :e&t an( t"e f)n%i ility of i(entity< an( so on + Yet t"e a)t"ors a ove *o)l( ta-e very (ifferent stan&es on ea&" of t"ese &lai#s, an( several *o)l( fin( a fe* of t"e# 0)ite i'arre+ 1ell, t"en, #ay e *e #erely "ave a 1itt%ensteinian .fa#ily rese# lan&e/ o$eratin% "ere< $er"a$s t"ere is no sin%le set of t"eses t"at t"ey all "ol(, )t t"ey en&o#$ass a loosely relate( set of overla$$in% vie*s t"at are si#ilar if not i(enti&al+ T"is is a #ore a$$ealin% s)%%estion, )t I t"in- it too #isses t"e $oint; $ost#o(ernis# resists &"ara&teri'ation as a set of t"eses, an( it is not est seen si#$ly as a re:e&tion or ref)tation of all t"at is .#o(ern+/ Post#o(ernis# is a #)&" #ore s) tle an( $er$le4in% notion t"an it see#s, an( #any of its &o##entators, $ro an( &on, "ave 2in #y vie*3 #isse( *"at is #ost &o#$ellin% a o)t it+ T"e #ost 0)ote( &"ara&teri'ation of $ost#o(ernis#, $er"a$s, &o#es fro# 9ean!Fran=ois Lyotar(, t"o)%" it is rarely 0)ote( in f)ll; Simplifying to the extreme, I define postmodernism as incredulity toward metanarratives. Nearly everyone fo&)ses "ere on t"e i(ea of #etanarratives, o)r atte#$ts to offer %eneral an( en&o#$assin% a&&o)nts of tr)t", val)e, an( reality+ Post#o(ernis# see#s to e a o)t (enyin% t"e $ossi ility of t"ese, an( re:e&tin% as #onolit"i& an( "e%e#oni& t"e ones t"at 1estern tra(itions "ave

e# ra&e(+ 6)t t"e -ey ter# in t"is $"rase 2in translation, at least3 is .in&re()lity/ !! a fas&inatin% an( )ne4$e&te( *or(+ In&re()lity is not (enial or re:e&tion or ref)tation< it is an ina ility to elieve+ In t"is (ifferen&e, I t"in- *e see *"at is #ost (istin&tive an( $enetratin% in t"e $ost#o(ern insi%"t+ Lyotar( %oes on to say, .T"is in&re()lity is )n(o) te(ly a $ro()&t of $ro%ress in t"e s&ien&es; )t t"at $ro%ress in t)rn $res)$$oses it+/ Else*"ere "e says, .1"at t"en is $ost#o(ernis#> It is )n(o) te(ly $art of t"e #o(ern+ Everyt"in% t"at is re&eive( #)st e s)s$e&te(+/ 1"at *e are $resente( *it" "ere are t*o $)''les; *"at in&re()lity #eans as a $"iloso$"i&al stan&e, an( "o* it is t"at $ost#o(ernis# &an e seen as a #anifestation of an( an a# ivalent relation to #o(ernis#, not a .ref)tation/ of it+ For #e, t"e $assa%e t"at ro)%"t t"ese iss)es into &learer fo&)s &o#es fro# 5ayatri S$iva-, s$ea-in% s$e&ifi&ally a o)t (e&onstr)&tion, )t *it" i#$li&ations for $ost#o(ernis# %enerally; If I )n(erstan( (e&onstr)&tion, (e&onstr)&tion is not an e4$os)re of error, &ertainly not ot"er $eo$le?s error+ T"e &riti0)e of (e&onstr)&tion, t"e #ost serio)s &riti0)e in (e&onstr)&tion, is t"e &riti0)e of so#et"in% t"at is e4tre#ely )sef)l, so#et"in% *it"o)t *"i&" *e &annot (o anyt"in%+ No* *e "ave #ove( into a stran%e terrain; one t"at re$la&es notions s)&" as .(enial/ an( .ref)tation/ *it" notions s)&" as .(o) t@, .(is$la&e#ent@, .insta ility,/ an( .)n&ertainty+/ T"is s"ift intro()&es a (ifferent notion of .&riti0)e@+ Denial or ref)tation $la&e one o)tsi(e of t"e vie* ein% re:e&te(, eyon( an( a ove it+ 6)t *"at is o)r stan&e to e to*ar( *ays of t"in-in% t"at for )s are ne&essary, t"at *e (o not -no* "o* to live entirely *it"o)t !! )t in *"i&" an )ns"a-en &onfi(en&e is no lon%er $ossi le> Lan%)a%e, s&ien&e, et"i&s, reason, an( :)sti&e are feat)res of t"e #o(ern *orl( in *ays t"at a$$ear )navoi(a le; *"at *o)l( t"e alternatives e, really> 6)t t"e Enli%"ten#ent fait" t"at $arti&)lar for#s of t"ese eliefs an( $ra&ti&es &an %ain )niversal a&0)ies&en&e as t"e &orre&t ones, an( t"at t"ro)%" t"ese *ill &o#e t"e a#elioration of ")#an i%noran&e an( ot"er ills, is i#$ossi le to elieve any lon%er, for reasons t"at "ave e&o#e all too evi(ent in t"e so&ial an( "istori&al events of t"e #o(ern era+ 1e *"o are &reat)res of #o(ernity #)st &onfront a &risis of fait" in its notions of $ro%ress an( )niversal so&ial etter#ent+ It see#s, instea(, t"at *e "ave e4&"an%e( ol(er $ro le#s for ne*er ones, an( if o)r *ays of livin% are )n0)estiona ly etter no* in so#e *ays, t"ey are *orse in ot"ers+ A %oo( ill)stration for t"is $ro le# is t"e re&ent reali'ation t"at t"e *i(es$rea( )se of anti ioti&s "as res)lte( in t"e (evelo$#ent of ne* a&teria t"at are ever #ore resistant to t"e anti ioti&s *e "ave+ Ne* anti ioti&s to &o# at t"ose si#$ly res)lt in ne*ly evolve( an( #ore (ea(ly strains, so#e of *"i&" #ay event)ally resist all treat#ent+ T"en *e *ill really e in tro) le+ Does t"is #a-e t"e (evelo$#ent an( )se of anti ioti&s a a( or foolis" t"in%> No !! t"ey "ave save( &o)ntless lives an( li#ite( #)&" )nne&essary s)fferin%+ 6)t *ill inventin% #ore an( #ore anti ioti&s #a-e o)r *orl( etter an( etter in t"e f)t)re> T"ere is every reason to e )n&ertain a o)t t"is+ Hen&e, it is a #ista-e to t"in- t"at $ost#o(ernis# is a o)t t"e re:e&tion of #o(ernist &on&e$tions of lan%)a%e, s&ien&e, et"i&s, reason, an( :)sti&e+ T"in-in% t"at it is *o)l( re0)ire t"at *e as- for t"e ar%)#ents t"at *o)l( s)$$ort s)&" a re:e&tion, an( as- for an a&&o)nt of *"at one is %oin% to re$la&e t"e# *it"+ An(, as so#eone li-e #y frien( Harvey Sie%el *ill :)#$ )$ to assert, as soon as one offers so#et"in% t"at loo-s li-e &o)nter ar%)#ents, or tries to offer &riteria of a . etter/ alternative, "e or s"e is $ro#$tly &a)%"t )$ in a &ontra(i&tion, for t"ese are $re&isely t"e ty$es of t"in%s t"at are ein% (enie(+ Here is *"ere $ost#o(ernis# is a&t)ally #ore $rofo)n(, an( #ore (ist)r in%, I elieve, t"an any si#$le antirationalis# or relativis# 2alt"o)%" #any &)rrent a(vo&ates of antirationalis# or relativis# "ave $ro&lai#e( t"e#selves $ost#o(ern, *it" a &onfi(en&e an( (o%#atis# t"at see# )tterly ine4$li&a le %iven

t"e &ontent of *"at t"ey &lai# to stan( for3+ 6)t (o) t is not (enial, an( trans&en(ental ar%)#ents (o not *or- a%ainst $ositions t"at (on?t &lai# a s)$erior, (efinitive alternative+ 1"ere (oes t"is (o) t &o#e fro#, t"en> T"ere are at least t"ree so&ial &ir&)#stan&es t"at, li-e #y e4a#$le of anti ioti&s, s"o)l( #a-e )s (o) t *"et"er (oin% #ore an( #ore of *"at *e are (oin%, even *"en it #i%"t e a %oo( t"in%, *ill solve o)r $ro le#s, settle 0)estions of tr)t" or ri%"t an( *ron%, or #a-e $eo$le?s *ays of livin% etter+ T"e first of t"ese is a %ro*in% a*areness of t"e ra(i&al (iversity an( $otential in&o##ens)ra ility of t"e (ifferent &)lt)ral for#s of life t"at s)stain %ro)$s an( in(ivi()als+ In t"e &)rrent *orl(, #e(ia, #o ility, an( ne* for#s of &o##)ni&ation "ave ro)%"t t"ese (iverse &)lt)res into #)&" &loser $ro4i#ity *it" one anot"er+ No*, it is a #ista-e to ass)#e t"at in&o##ens)ra ility is t"e inevita le &onse0)en&e of s)&" (ifferen&e< )t s$ea-in% $ra&ti&ally $eo$le (o so#eti#es rea&" t"e li#it of t"eir a ility or *illin%ness to )n(erstan( one anot"er or to $)rs)e $otential a%ree#ent *it" one anot"er 2so#e $eo$le see# to rea&" t"is li#it very 0)i&-ly3+ In t"e fa&e of s)&" a reali'ation, an o$ti#is# t"at &ontin)e( &onversation &an e s)&&essf)l in )nitin% or re&on&ilin% (iverse $ers$e&tives an( val)es, an( t"e &onfi(en&e t"at *"en one is (oin% so one is not si#$ly ri(in% ro)%"s"o( over ot"er $eo$le?s favore( eliefs *it" one?s o*n, see#s a (an%ero)s arro%an&e+ A se&on( reali'ation is t"e )n(erstan(in% t"at &ertain (yna#i&s of asy##etri&al $o*er *"i&" (istort an( &o#$ro#ise even t"e est of ")#an intentions are in"erent to t"e instit)tional an( infor#al $atterns of life in *"i&" ")#ans are en%a%e(+ In t"e &)rrent *orl(, te&"ni&al syste#s of s)rveillan&e, #ani$)lation, an( &ontrol are in&reasin%ly *i(es$rea( an( s) tle+ 1e inevita ly $arti&i$ate in t"ese, &ons&io)sly or )n&ons&io)sly, nearly all t"e ti#e+ To #y *ay of t"in-in%, t"is (oes not &o##it one to t"e fa&ile assertion t"at .everyt"in% is $o*er,/ nor t"at *it"in t"ese $atterns of life t"ere are not si%nifi&ant t"in%s to say a o)t etter an( *orse *ays of ein% *it" an( treatin% one anot"er+ 6)t it s"o)l( sensiti'e )s to t"e $o*er (i#ensions of even a$$arently eni%n a&ts< to t"e li#its of %oo( intentions< to t"e (ee$ &)l$a ility *e all "ave *it"in a *orl( so&iety t"at i#$li&ates )s in a *e of &ontin%en&ies an( intera&tions *"ose &onse0)en&es are, to so#e (e%ree, al*ays "ar#f)l to so#eone< an( to t"e () io)s a(vent)re of see-in% a $at" to*ar( any )to$ia t"at $ro#ises a etter life for all+ A t"ir( reali'ation &on&erns lan%)a%e, an( t"e $arti&)lar *ay in *"i&" (is&o)rse !! lan%)a%e in )se !! &olors an( s"a$es o)r *ays of livin% an( ein% in t"e *orl(+ O)r $ra&ti&es of &o##)ni&ation, e4$lanation, :)stifi&ation, tr)t" tellin%, an( so on 2an( o)r a$$arently nonver al $ra&ti&es as *ell3 are al*ays $artly e4$ressions of t"e $arti&)lar lan%)a%e or lan%)a%es *e "ave+ 6)t e&a)se o)r lan%)a%es are (iverse, an( non!&on%r)ent, t"ere *ill al*ays e a li#it )$on any $arti&)lar (is&)rsive syste# as a stan($oint, in a $la&e an( ti#e, *it"in *"i&" one &an try to (es&ri e all #atters of tr)t", val)e, an( so fort"< s)&" #atters *ill al*ays e to so#e e4tent t"e e4$ressions of t"is lan%)a%e, an( t"is $la&e an( ti#e+ T"is reali'ation (oes not lea( to relativis#, ne&essarily< for t"ere is )s)ally a %oo( (eal of overla$ or intertranslati ility a#on% (ifferent (is&)rsive syste#s+ 6)t t"ere are also %a$s an( (is&ontin)ities+ Any t"eory of realis#, reason, or o :e&tivity #)st %ive &re(it to t"is $oint, I elieve+ T"ese t"ree reali'ations, *"i&" I a# s)%%estin% )n(erlie t"e $ost#o(ern in&re()lity to*ar( so#e of t"e $ro#ises 2or $res)#$tions3 of t"e Enli%"ten#ent, are not $resente( "ere as (efinitive &o)nter&lai#s or $roofs+ Des$ite "o* ot"ers #ay "ave *ritten a o)t t"e#, I (o not see t"e# as ne* totali'in% a&&o)nts of T"e 1ay T"in%s Are+ Ea&", for #e, is a (ist)r e( an( (ist)r in% s)s$i&ion, a loss of fait", really< if t"ey "ave any &onvin&in% for&e *it" yo), it is e&a)se yo) alrea(y s)s$e&t #)&" t"e sa#e t"in%+ T"e #any a)t"ors note( at t"e e%innin%, I elieve, ea&" s"ares t"ese -in(s of s)s$i&ions, to so#e (e%ree !! an( t"at is *"at #a-es t"e# $ost#o(ern+ If I a# on to so#et"in% *ort"*"ile, t"at $ost#o(ernis# s"o)l( e vie*e( as, at "eart, a -in( of (o) t an(

not a ne* alternative $osition or &l)ster of $ositions, t"en it is fair to as- *"at -in( of (o) t it is+ It is not a Cartesian (o) t; a (o) t *"i&" says t"at *"atever is not &lear an( &ertain #)st e re:e&te( 2a (o) t *"i&", for Des&artes, never rea&"e( all t"e *ay (o*n3+ Cartesian (o) t *as al*ays (o) t in t"e servi&e of see-in% &ertainty+ Here a%ain, *e ret)rn to t"e very (ifferent &onnotations of t"e ter# .in&re()lity,/ an ina ility to elieve !! an ina ility to elieve in #o(ernis# any #ore, or to elieve in it in 0)ite t"e sa#e &onfi(ent *ay+ 6)t *"at *e are in&re()lo)s to*ar( are o)r o*n $res)$$ositions an( $ro&e()res+ It is li-e layin% o)t a &ar$et in a s#all roo#< one is al*ays "avin% to lift )$ one foot to &reate a s$a&e to $)t (o*n t"e ot"er+ 1"at $erva(es t"e vario)s $ost#o(ernis#s, I a# s)%%estin%, is not a set of t"eses or $ositions, )t a &o##on #oo( or attit)(e+ T"is $ost#o(ern (o) t is of a *"olly (ifferent nat)re fro# Cartesian (o) t+ One t"in% t"at (ifferentiates vario)s $ost#o(ern t"eories is "o* t"ey &"ara&teri'e t"is (o) t+ 1it" a no( to Hay(en 1"ite, I *ill (es&ri e t"ese (ifferen&es in ter#s of t"ree narrative tro$es< t"ey are *ays of &o$in% *it" the paradox of doubting the very things one can hardly do without , or $ro le#ati'in% t"e very lan%)a%e an( voi&e *it" *"i&" one s$ea-s t"e *or(s of $ro le#ati'in% 2for 9a&0)es Derri(a, t"is so#eti#es ta-es t"e for# of eras)re; of &rossin% o)t t"e *or(s "e )ses to e4$ress &ertain i(eas, )t in also allo*in% t"e# to re#ain, as &rosse( o)t, in t"e te4t3+ T"ese tro$es &an e seen as *ays of #a-in% so#e*"at &o"erent an( liva le *"at re#ains a &onfli&te(, )nsta le o)tloo-, an o)tloo- of s)staine( tensions an( of (is!en&"ante( "o$es !! t"is is an aest"eti& &o"eren&e, not a lo%i&al one+ As styles of *ritin%, t"ese tro$es e4$ress in literary for# *"at is also a -in( of $"iloso$"i&al s) stan&e+ Finally, t"ese tro$es $rovi(e so#e &"allen%in% #o(els for e()&ation+ T"e first of t"ese is t"e ironi&+ Irony is one *ay to ta-e a&- *it" one "an( *"at *e %ive *it" t"e ot"er< one &an "ave eit"er, )t not ot"+ 8ilan A)n(era *rites, .Irony is irritatin% not si#$ly e&a)se it #o&-s or irritates )t e&a)se it (enies )s o)r &ertainty y )n#as-in% t"e *orl( as an a# i%)ity+/ In e4$an(in% on t"is i(ea, Alven Nei#an *rites, Ho* (oes t"e ironist e&o#e ironi&> In *"at (oes "er irony &onsist> First of all, t"e ironist is a*are t"at even as s"e (o) ts t"e vera&ity of "er final vo&a )lary, s"e is i##erse( *it"in it+ S"e re&o%ni'es t"at all (o) tin%, as *ell as all elievin% an( -no*in%, ta-es $la&e *it"in 0)ite restri&te( s$atial an( te#$oral $ara#eters+ S"e is a*are t"at ar%)#ent an( e4$lanation #)st &o#e to an en(, )t t"at t"e en( is not, as fo)n(ationalists "ave t"o)%"t, to e fo)n( in .7eality?s o*n lan%)a%e+/BSe&on(ly, t"e ironist re&o%ni'es t"at in t"in-in% an( s$ea-in% s"e #a-es assertions an( ar%)es, *it"in li#ite( &onte4ts, over *"at is tr)e an( false, over .*"at is t"e &ase+/BHer irony ste#s, t"en, fro# t"e fa&t t"at s"e an( ot"er ironists &annot ta-e s)&" e"avior literally or entirely serio)sly+ T"e (istin&tive style of ironi& *ritin% in t"e $ost#o(ern vein is of t*ists an( reversals, of feints an( see#in% &on&essions, *"i&" fa(e a*ay )$on &loser e4a#ination+ T"e %reatest ris- of irony, "o*ever, is to &olla$se into ni"ilis#; t"at in "is or "er (eta&"#ent an( tryin% to avoi( ein% seen as too &losely tie( to any one $osition, t"e ironist ta-es no $osition at all+ A se&on( narrative tro$e is t"e tra%i&+ Tra%e(y arises fro# a $aine( a*areness t"at t"e &ontraries *e e# ra&e are often e0)ally val)a le< t"at *"en *e &riti0)e o)r o*n $res)$$ositions t"e res)ltin% )n&ertainty is (iffi&)lt an( (ist)r in%< t"at *e (esire ot", )t &an settle for neit"er+ I "ave *ritten on t"is to$i& else*"ere; CTD"e iss)e of tra%e(y is not a si#$le one of o$ti#is# vers)s $essi#is#B+CTD"e .tra%i& sense/ refers to a lar%er a*areness of t"e i#$e(i#ents to s)&&ess, t"e $ros$e&ts for fail)re, an( t"e li#its to o)r effortB+To vie* e()&ation fro# t"e stan($oint of tra%e(y is to a an(on fo)n(ationalis# an( to elieve t"at (o) t an( )n&ertainty #a-e )s etter e()&ators !! in $art e&a)se t"ey ree#$"asi'e o)r (e$en(en&e on ea&" ot"er,

in&l)(in% o)r st)(ents, an( in $art e&a)se t"ey ins)late )s so#e*"at fro# false &lai#s for t"e val)e of *"at *e "ave to offer+ It #eans to fo&)s less on s$e&ifi& o)t&o#e stan(ar(s, an( #ore on &reatin% o$$ort)nities for (is&overy, (is&)ssion, an( (evelo$#ent in o)r tea&"in%B+8ost of all, it #eans to a(o$t a #)&" %reater #o(esty in o)r &lai#s of so&ial transfor#ation or refor# t"ro)%" e()&ational $ro&essesB+T"e tra%i& sense of e()&ation re0)ires )s to &ontin)e o)r efforts *it"o)t (e&eivin% o)rselves a o)t t"e &o#$li&ations an( &ontra(i&tions in"erent in t"e en(eavor+ T"e (istin&tive style of tra%i& *ritin% in t"e $ost#o(ern vein is of &onfli&te( *ants an( intentions, of antino#ies t"at stan( )nre&on&ile(, of loss an( even nostal%ia for a less (a)ntin% vie* of t"e *orl(+ T"e %reatest ris- of tra%e(y, "o*ever, is to fall into $essi#is#, to a an(on *"at 7i&"ar( 7orty &alls an .)n:)stifia le "o$e/ even in t"e fa&e of (isill)sion#ent+ A t"ir( narrative tro$e is t"e $aro(i&+ Paro(y treats t"e $ara(o4 (es&ri e( a ove *it" a *in- an( a s"r)%, ena&tin% a $ers$e&tive *"ile si#)ltaneo)sly la#$oonin% it< or $rovisionally e# ra&in% #)lti$le $ers$e&tives *it"o)t a&t)ally a(vo&atin% any of t"e#+ T"e $aro(ist t"rives on $ara(o4, an( sees in it an o$$ort)nity for ")#or an( for &riti&al &o##entary+ 1e see t"is love of $ara(o4 rilliantly e4$loite( in t"e novels of 9ose$" Heller+ In t"e *orl( of Cat&" EE, for e4a#$le, $eo$le are only allo*e( in to see t"e 8a:or after "e "as left t"e offi&e< t"e only $eo$le in #eetin%s *"o are allo*e( to as- 0)estions are t"ose *"o (o not "ave any 0)estions< an( $ilots *"o are &lever eno)%" to try to %et o)t of flyin% o# in% #issions y $reten(in% to e &ra'y en&o)nter .Cat&" EE/; .Yo)?re *astin% yo)r ti#e,/ Do& Danee-a *as for&e( to tell "i#+ Can?t yo) %ro)n( so#eone *"o?s &ra'y>/ O" s)re, I "ave to+ T"ere?s a r)le sayin% I "ave to %ro)n( anyone *"o?s &ra'y+/BC6)tD t"ere?s a &at&"+ Cat&" EE+ Anyone *"o *ants to %et o)t of &o# at ()ty isn?t really &ra'y+/ T"e (istin&tive style of $aro(i& *ritin% in t"e $ost#o(ern vein is of $lay!f)lness, *it" .$lay/ #eanin% ot" t"e $layin% of %a#es an( t"e $layin% of a $erfor#an&e+ T"e $aro(ist is an artf)l (o(%er, in"a itin% )t not in"a itin% t"e $osition "e or s"e see#s to "ol(+ T"e %reatest ris- of t"e $aro(ist, "o*ever, is to e&o#e t"e &yni&, to a(o$t any or all $ositions *it"o)t re%ar( to res$onsi ility or inte%rity+ T"ese t"ree narrative tro$es, *"i&" I a# #erely s-et&"in% "ere, are t"ree *ays in *"i&" a)t"ors &o$e *it" t"e $ara(o4 at t"e "eart of $ost#o(ern (o) t+ Ea&" e%ins *it" t"e e# ra&in% of a$$arently &ontra(i&tory or self!)n(er#inin% $ositions, )t t)rns t"at reali'ation into a lar%er vision of $ossi ility *it"in a &onfli&te(, )n&ertain *orl(+ As tro$es, t"ey $rovi(e a sense of #eanin% an( si%nifi&an&e in t"e fa&e of in&o#$ati le *ants or eliefs, ea&" *it" a (istin&tive style an( tone t"at *ill a$$eal to &ertain $ersonalities #ore t"an ot"ers+ I "ol( t"e tra%i& &losest to "eart, )t I &an "ar(ly ar%)e for it as t"e est or #ost .tr)e+/ All of t"ese tro$es 2an( $er"a$s ot"ers, as *ell3 "ave in &o##on t"e "ol(in% of &onfli&tin% stan(s in tension< of (o) tin% t"at *it" *"i&" *e are not a le to $art< of &riti0)in% t"e very lan%)a%e, $res)$$ositions, an( for#s of reason t"at ena le )s to offer &riti0)e at all< of "avin% $ositions, *it"o)t &lai#in% #ore for t"e# t"an &an e s)staine( in t"e fa&e of a s-e$ti&is# to*ar( all $ositions+ E()&ation see#s to e an en(eavor of an entirely (ifferent s$irit+ O)r tea&"in% an( learnin% a&tivities e4$ress an i#$li&it fait" in $ro%ress an( etter#ent+ Every tea&"in% an( learnin% a&t i#$lies a :)(%#ent t"at so#e t"in%s are #ore i#$ortant to learn t"an ot"ers+ A)t"ority, of one ty$e or anot"er, a$$ears to e an inevita le (i#ension of every e()&ational relation in *"i&" *e en&o)nter one anot"er, "o*ever #)&" *e #ay #istr)st $ositions of )ne0)al $o*er+ Des$ite t"e val)e one #i%"t $la&e )$on (iversity an( .(ifferen&e@, e()&ation is in"erently an a&tivity &ontainin% #o#ents of .nor#ali'ation,/ of rin%in% $eo$le to e&o#e #ore ali-e, at least in &ertain res$e&ts+ Yet, ea&" of t"ese (i#ensions of e()&ation !! of $ro%ress, of $rivile%e( -no*le(%e an( val)e, of a)t"ority, an( of nor#ali'ation !! is $rofo)n(ly &"allen%e( y t"e $ost#o(ern &riti0)e (es&ri e( $revio)sly+ T"e reali'ations a o)t #o(ernity (is&)sse( earlier, &on&ernin% ra(i&al (iversity, t"e ) i0)ito)s an( s) tle #anifestations $o*er &an ass)#e, an( t"e (is&)rsive &onstr)&tion of o)r )n(erstan(in%s an( val)es, t"ro* into (o) t t"e fra#e*or-s of :)stifi&ation, t"e

(istin&tions, t"e rationales t"at "ave allo*e( )s to #aintain t"e a&tivities of e()&ation as &learly le%iti#ate an( *ell!(ire&te(+ It see#s i#$ossi le 2it &ertainly feels i#$ossi le to #e3 to &ontin)e in s)&" en(eavors *it" a &lear sense of &onfi(en&e an( se&)rity t"at o)r %oo( intentions $rovi(e a %)arantee or &o)nter alan&e a%ainst t"e a )ses ea&" t"reatens+ Yet it see#s e0)ally )na&&e$ta le, an( self!(efeatin%, to a an(on all e()&ational efforts, or to &ontin)e t"e# only in a( fait" a o)t t"e $ro le#ati& nat)re of t"e ass)#$tions an( val)es )$on *"i&" o)r efforts (e$en(+ 8y 0)estions, t"en, are; 1"at s)stains a &o##it#ent to e()&ation in t"e fa&e of $ost#o(ern (o) t> Ho* (oes t"is &"an%e in &o##it#ent &"an%e also o)r &on&e$tion of e()&ation an( of t"e a&tivities t"at &onstit)te it> A f)ller e4$loration of t"ese 0)estions o)%"t to &onsi(er so#e of t"e $ossi le $ra&ti&es of tea&"in% an( learnin% in ea&" of t"ese t"ree #o(es or #oo(s; t"e ironi&, t"e tra%i&, an( t"e $aro(i&+ Here I &an only offer a %eneral overvie* of "o* t"e s$irit of $ost#o(ern (o) t &"allen%es so#e of o)r &onventional )n(erstan(in%s of an( a$$roa&"es to e()&ation+ E()&ation involves en%a%e#ent, a#on% $ersons an( et*een $ersons an( t"e #atters to e e4$lore(+ Yet, for t"is en%a%e#ent to avoi( (e$en(en&y t"ere #)st also e a &riti&al (istan&e+ Playin% *it" t"e tro$es of irony, tra%e(y, an( $aro(y are a#on% t"e *ays t"at *e &an avoi( ta-in% o)rselves as tea&"ers too serio)sly+ 1e &an a(o$t &ertain stan&es *it"o)t f)lly en(orsin% t"e#+ 1e &an 0)estion o)r a)t"ority, an( invite ot"ers to 0)estion it, even *it"in &onte4ts t"at arro%ate a)t"ority to )s *"et"er *e *is" it or not+ At a (ee$er level, *e &an a(o$t #et"o(s of in0)iry an( interro%ation )t also t)rn t"ese #et"o(s )$on t"e#selves, e4$lorin% t"eir )sef)lness an( t"e li#its of t"eir )sef)lness+ S)&" a stan&e allo*s for ot" a res$e&t an( a$$re&iation for $ers$e&tives an( a$$roa&"es t"at roa(en o)r )n(erstan(in%s, )t also a *ary s)s$i&ion of t"e ten(en&y for tea&"ers, te4ts, an( #et"o(s to e&o#e "y$ostasi'e(, entren&"e(+ E()&ation also involves $)r$osef)lness an( (ire&tion+ 6)t $)r$osef)lness &an e&o#e &o)nter$ro()&tive *"en, for t"e sa-e of a&"ievin% &ertain $)r$oses, ot"er e()&ational o$$ort)nities are s0)an(ere(+ T"e t*o! si(e(ness of $ost#o(ern (o) t resists easy teleolo%ies; *e "ave $)r$oses, )t &annot "ol( to t"e# slavis"ly !! in fa&t, *"en o)r $)r$oses are #)lti$le an( &onfli&te( it e&o#es i#$ossi le to e4$e&t t"e# all to e satisfie( f)lly+ Nor &an *e ass)#e t"at a sin%le $arti&i$ant?s $)r$oses in an e()&ational en&o)nter, even t"e tea&"er?s, &an a)to#ati&ally "ol( s*ay+ Irony, tra%e(y, an( $aro(y allo* for ta-in% s$e&ifi& &on&erns 0)ite serio)sly, *"ile also #aintainin% a (eta&"#ent fro# t"e# or t)rnin% t"e# into o :e&ts of 0)estion+ 1"at t"is allo*s for is an involve#ent in t"e e()&ational #atters at "an( *"ile re#ainin% o$en to t"e )ne4$e&te(, t"e tan%ential, even t"e &o)ntervailin% #o#ent t"at (isr)$ts one e()&ational $)r$ose for t"e sa-e of anot"er+ E()&ation also entails so#e &on&e$tion of (evelo$#ent or .%ro*t"+/ 6)t fro# t"e $ers$e&tive offere( "ere, s)&" (evelo$#ent &annot e seen as si#$ly linear an( )ni(ire&tional, nor as stea(y, nor as sta%e!%overne(, nor as re$resentin% )na# i%)o)s .$ro%ress+/ T"e -in(s of tea&"in% an( learnin% t"at ta-e serio)sly t"e a# ivalen&e of $ost#o(ern (o) t entail a "i%" toleran&e for (iffi&)lty, )n&ertainty, an( error+ Diffi&)lty, in t"is sense, is not si#$ly t"e &"allen%e of a $ro le# to e over&o#e, )t so#eti#es t"e lin%erin% (iffi&)lty of a $ro le# never f)lly solve(, a #ystery never f)lly )ntan%le(+ Un&ertainty is not only a transient state of $)''le#ent, )t an a&&e$tan&e of t"e $rovisional an( &ontin%ent in #)&" t"at *e elieve an( (o+ Error is not only t"e (ire&t s$)r to learnin% t"at Aarl Po$$er, a#on% ot"ers, &"eris"es 2#a-e a #ista-e, t"en try to &orre&t it3< it is a (i#ension of every learnin% #o#ent+ An error is not )s)ally a si#$le false"oo(, re$la&e( y t"e tr)t" !! it is #ore often an )na&&e$ta le version of an i(ea or val)e, t"oro)%"ly entan%le( *it" #any ot"er i(eas an( val)es t"at *e are not $re$are( to a an(on alto%et"er+ C"an%e, t"en, even in t"e fa&e of error, is "ar(er t"an $"iloso$"i&al a&&o)nts of learnin% often a&-no*le(%e+ Here (iffi&)lty, )n&ertainty, an( error &o#e to e seen fro# t"e $ost#o(ern vie*, not as fla*e( states to e over&o#e, )t as on%oin% &on(itions of t"e e()&ational $ro&ess itself !! in(ee(, as e()&ationally enefi&ial &on(itions, *"en t"ey &an serve as &orre&tives to &o#$la&en&y or arro%ant s)rety+ One #i%"t res$on( to t"ese &on(itions (ifferently, (e$en(in% on *"et"er one a(o$ts t"e ironi&, t"e tra%i&, or t"e $aro(i& attit)(e+

A stan(ar( tenet of tra(itional analyses of t"e &on&e$t of .e()&ation/ is t"at it ne&essarily i#$lies etter#ent< t"at it is &ontra(i&tory to say one *as e()&ate(, )t for t"e *orse+ I t"in- *e nee( a (ifferent *ay of t"in-in% a o)t e()&ation, as a literal (is!en&"ant#ent or (is!ill)sion#ent+ E()&ation (oes involve t"e %ain of ne* )n(erstan(in%s an( ne* insi%"ts, to e s)re, an( t"ese s"o)l( e &ele rate( *it" real $leas)re *"en t"ey &an e a&"ieve(+ 6)t *"en t"e &riti&al %a'e of $ost#o(ernis# is t)rne( also )$on itself, a$$arent %ains e&o#e #ore a# ivalent, s)&&esses a$$ear #ore $artial an( $rovisional+ 1e see losses as *ell !! in(ee(, *e see t"e inse$ara ility of .%ain/ in one sense an( .loss/ in anot"er !! so t"at if *e attain a -in( of etter#ent, it is not )nalloye(+ 8oreover, a far!rea&"in% $ost#o(ern (o) t &onfronts t"e re&o%nition t"at fro# t"e vanta%e $oint of so#e f)t)re reali'ation, t"e s)&&esses &ele rate( to(ay *ill &o#e to e seen as tra%i& errors, or la)%"a le ones, or as r)ef)l l)n(ers+ Is t"is a vie* of e()&ation ro )st eno)%" to %)i(e o)r a&tivities< is it o$ti#isti& eno)%" to #otivate )s in o)r tea&"in% an( learnin% efforts< is it ins$irin% eno)%" to s)stain )s> It *o)l( "ar(ly e &onsistent *it" t"is vie* to %ive s)&" 0)estions an )n0)alifie( ans*er+ 6)t, for #e, t"is is *"ere t"in%s stan(+ I t"in- t"at t"ere is a -in( of (ire&tion, $)r$ose, an( ins$iration "ere, if (ifferent fro# t"e -in(s *e #i%"t *is" for+ 6)t t"ere is a &orre&tive, too; a &orre&tive a%ainst arro%an&e, a%ainst &o#$la&en&y, a%ainst t"e &losin% off of &ertain 0)estions as settle( !! an( t"at is, after all, *"at any "onest a$$roa&" to e()&ation re0)ires+ 1+ T"is essay "as enefite( fro# t"e &o##ents an( s)%%estions of t"e P"iloso$"y of E()&ation Dis&)ssion 5ro)$ at t"e University of Illinois+ I *o)l( s$e&ifi&ally li-e to t"an- Felia 5re%orio), 8elissa Orlie, an( 7al$" Pa%e for (etaile( &o##ents on t"e #an)s&ri$t, an( for several )sef)l referen&es+ E+ See, for e4a#$le, 8a(an Sar)$, An Intro()&tory 5)i(e to Poststr)&t)ralis# an( Post#o(ernis# 2At"ens, 5eor%ia; University of 5eor%ia Press, 19G93, &"+ 5+ H+ 9ean!Fran=ois Lyotar(, T"e Post#o(ern Con(ition; A 7e$ort on Ano*le(%e 28innea$olis; University of 8innesota Press, 19GI3, 44iv+ Itali&s in ori%inal+ I+ I i(+ 5+ 9ean!Fran=ois Lyotar(, T"e Post#o(ern E4$laine( 28innea$olis; University of 8innesota Press, 199E3, 1E+ See also "is &o##ent t"at .$ost/ &annot #ean si#$ly &o#in% after an( s)r$assin% #o(ernis#, *"i&" *o)l( itself e a very .#o(ern/ notion 2JK3+ K+ 5ayatri C"a-ravorty S$iva-, .In a 1or(/ 2an intervie* *it" Ellen 7o#ney3 0)ote( in 9)(it" 6)tler, 6o(ies t"at 8atter; On t"e Dis&)rsive Li#its of .Se4/ 2Ne* Yor-; 7o)tle(%e, 199H3, EJ+ Else*"ere, 6)tler $rovi(es "er o*n for#)lation of t"is i(ea; .To (e&onstr)&t is not to ne%ate or to (is#iss, )t to &all into 0)estion an(, $er"a$s #ore i#$ortantly, to o$en )$ a ter#, li-e t"e s) :e&t, to a re)sa%e or re(e$loy#ent t"at $revio)sly "as not een a)t"ori'e(,/ in .Contin%ent fo)n(ations; Fe#inis# an( t"e 0)estion of LPost#o(ernis#,?/ in Fe#inists T"eori'e t"e Politi&al, e(+ 9)(it" 6)tler an( 9oan 1+ S&ott 2Ne* Yor-; 7o)tle(%e, 199E3, 15+ J+ See Ni&"olas C+ 6)r )les, .7easona le Do) t; To*ar( a Post#o(ern Defense of 7eason as an E()&ational Ai#,/ in Criti&al Conversations in P"iloso$"y of E()&ation; Fro# T"eory to Pra&ti&e an( 6a&- A%ain, e(+ 1en(y Ao"li 2Ne* Yor-, 7o)tle(%e, fort"&o#in%3+ G+ An even stron%er assertion alon% t"ese lines is in 6r)no Lato)r?s, 1e Have Never 6een 8o(ern 2Ca# ri(%e, 8ass+; Harvar( University Press, 199H3+ For Lato)r, t"e .&risis of #o(ernity/ is not t"at &ir&)#stan&es "ave &"an%e( *"i&" s)((enly t"ro* #o(ernist "o$es into (o) t, )t t"at in fa&t #o(ernis# *as al*ays so#e*"at self!(e&eive( a o)t its &a$a&ities to &arry t"ro)%" on its $ro#ises, an( "as only re&ently e&o#e a*are of it; .Post#o(ernis# is a sy#$to#, not a fres" sol)tion+ It lives )n(er t"e #o(ern Constit)tion, )t it no lon%er elieves in t"e %)arantees t"e Constit)tion offers/ 2IK3+ For Lato)r, t"e $ost#o(ern &riti0)e (oes not %o far eno)%", e&a)se it a&&e$ts an( (efines itself a%ainst t"e $ro le#ati& &ate%ory of t"e #o(ern; .8o(ernity "as never e%)nB+Hen&e t"e "int of t"e l)(i&ro)s t"at al*ays a&&o#$anies $ost#o(ern t"in-ers< t"ey &lai# to &o#e after a ti#e t"at "as not even starte(M/ 2IJ3+ Instea(, Lato)r *ants to a(vo&ate a .non#o(ernis#/ t"at interro%ates *it"in t"e #o(ern t"e al*ays $resent ."y ri(s/ an( o$$ositions t"at elie( its &ate%ories an( o)n(aries+ T"is $ers$e&tive, "e says, $reserves t"e insi%"ts of $ost#o(ernis# in t"e .ironi&/ sense, as I a# (es&ri in% it "ere 21HI3+

9+ See 1la( 5o('i&", .After*or(; 7ea(in% A%ainst Litera&y,/ in 9ean!Fran=ois Lyotar(, T"e Post#o(ern E4$laine( 28innea$olis; University of 8innesota Press, 199E3, 1E9!HN+ Also see 9o"n De*ey, T"e O)est for Certainty 2Ne* Yor-; Ca$ri&orn 6oo-s, 19E93+ 1N+ Hay(en 1"ite, 8eta"istory; T"e Histori&al I#a%ination in Nineteent" Cent)ry E)ro$e 26alti#ore; 9o"ns Ho$-ins University Press, 19JH3+ His tro$es are (ifferent fro# #ine; 7o#an&e, Co#e(y, Tra%e(y, an( Satire+ 11+ Of &o)rse, t"e stan(ar( te4t "ere is 7i&"ar( 7orty?s Contin%en&y, Irony, an( Soli(arity 2Ne* Yor-; Ca# ri(%e University Press, 19G93+ Ho*ever, it is not &lear to #e "o* &onsistently 7orty #aintains t"e tone of irony, es$e&ially *"en "e is (is&)ssin% $oliti&al #atters+ See also Alven Nei#an, .Pra%#atis# an( t"e Ironi& Tea&"er of Pirt)e,@ in T"e E()&ational Conversation; Closin% t"e 5a$, e(+ 9a#es 1+ 5arrison an( Ant"ony 5+ 7)(+, 9r+ 2Al any, N+Y+; SUNY Press3, K1!GH+ 1E+ 8ilan A)n(era, T"e Art of t"e Novel, 0)ote( in Alven Nei#an, .Ironi& S&"oolin%; So&rates, Pra%#atis#, an( t"e Hi%"er Learnin%,/ E()&ational T"eory I1 no+ I 219913; HJ1!GI+ 1H+ I i(+, HJI!J5+ 1I+ Ni&"olas C+ 6)r )les, .T"e Tra%i& Sense of E()&ation,/ Tea&"ers Colle%e 7e&or( 91, no+ I 2199N3; IJ1, IJG+ For a very t"o)%"tf)l re$ly to t"is vie*, see 7enQ Pin&ente Ar&illa, .Tra%i& A sol)tis# in E()&ation,/ E()&ational T"eory IE, no+ I 2199E3; IJH!G1+ 15+ 7i&"ar( 7orty, .8et"o(, So&ial S&ien&e, an( So&ial Ho$e,/ in Conse0)en&es of Pra%#atis# 28innea$olis; University of 8innesota Press, 19GE3, ENG+ 1K+ T"o)%" little "as een *ritten a o)t $aro(y in e()&ation, one oo-, 6+ Pa)l Ao#isar?s Nat)ral Tea&"in% En&o)nters 2P"ila(el$"ia, Penn+; ADC Enter$rises, 19JK3 "as een analy'e( y 7i&"ar( An%elo as a oo- of $aro(y, o)tlinin% in a (e&i(e(ly )nro#anti& *ay si4 (i#ensions of tea&"in%, s)&" as E4)(in%, 8ani$)latin%, an( Cre(o#ania+ Ao#isar?s strate%y is to i(entify $ara(i%#ati& instan&es of tea&"in% fro# ot"er &onte4ts an( to )se t"e# to satiri&ally &"ara&teri'e #ore fa#iliar, .ro#anti&/ i#a%es of tea&"in%+ 7i&"ar( An%elo, .8yt", E()&ational T"eory, an( t"e Fi%)rative I#a%ination,/ in P"iloso$"y of E()&ation 19JG, e(+ 5ary D+ Fenster#a&"er, 2C"a#$ai%n, Ill+; P"iloso$"y of E()&ation So&iety, 19J93, EEJ!HG+ 1J+ 9ose$" Heller, Cat&" EE 2Ne* Yor-; Si#on an( S&")ster, 19553, IN!I1+ 1G+ See also Nei#an, .E()&ation an( So#e Ty$es of Irony+/ 19+ I t"in- t"at t"ese refle&tions "ave (ifferent, t"o)%" re&i$ro&al, i#$li&ations for )s as tea&"ers or as st)(ents+ Here, for o vio)s reasons, #y $ri#ary &on&erns are *it" t"e si%nifi&an&e of t"ese refle&tions for tea&"ers+ EN+ See also Ni&"olas C+ 6)r )les, .A)t"ority an( t"e tra%i& (i#ension of tea&"in%,/ in T"e E()&ational Conversation; Closin% t"e 5a$, 9a#es 5arrison an( A+5+ 7)(, e(s+ 2Ne* Yor-; S+U+N+Y+ Press, 19953< an( Eli'a et" Ells*ort" @1"y DoesnRt T"is Feel E#$o*erin%> 1or-in% T"ro)%" t"e 7e$ressive 8yt"s of Criti&al Pe(a%o%y,@ Harvar( E()&ational 7evie* 59, no+ H 219G93; E9J!HEI+ 199K!ENN1 PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION SOCIETY ALL 7I5HTS 7ESE7PED