ASPECTS OF MIGILI MORPHOLOGY

IDOWU KINGSLEY OYESUNKANMI

A LONG ESSAY SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF LINGUISTICS AND NIGERIAN LANGUAGES, FACULTY OF ARTS, UNIVERSITY OF ILORIN. IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF A DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF ARTS B.A. HONS! LINGUISTICS.

MAY, "011.

CERTIFICATION
This project work titled Aspects of Migili Morphology, has been read and approved as meeting the requirement for the award of the egree,

!achelor of Arts "!# A# $%&'( of the epartment of )inguistics, *aculty of Arts, +niversity of ,lorin, &igeria#

####################### MRS. B. E AROKOYO Supervisor

################### DATE

######################## PROF. A. S. ABDUSSALAM Head of Department

################### DATE

#######################

####################

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E$TERNAL E$AMINER DEDICATION

DATE

, thankfully dedicate this long essay to the almighty -od, by whose infinite mercy , am alive# Also, , cannot but thank my parents Mr and Mrs ,dowu for the love and care which they have shown me through their support# May -od bless you and enlarge your coast#

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS All glory and honour be unto -od for if he had not been on my side, , would have been a reputable failure# My heartfelt gratitude goes to my amiable and understanding supervisor, Mrs Arokoyo# , pray your children will always find favour in -ods. and mans. sight# , am also thankful to my informant, Mr Ayuba , for his help# May -od be with you wherever you are# My deepest appreciation goes to my parents and siblings, for showing me the love and care that , deserve# Ajiboye, Tinuoye and %yedotun ,dowu, , love you all and will always do, till death do us part# , will be an ingrate if , do not appreciate the support and help of my friends %kun /ayne, &appy buoy, 0enny -ee1le , rey,!ayarnni, !lak,

Mayor, 2appa1, wale, 'leek Tee, my girlfriend !ukky, 'eyi, Teju, /unmi, $alimat, esola, 0anyin, -aniyat, !ukunmi, ipson, 0unle, 0olade, A#0,

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and all other important people that , cannot remember for one reason or another# , pray -od bless you all, till we meet again# )astly, , appreciate everyone whom no matter how small, has contributed to my reputable success# May -od remember you all in his garden of blessings#

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title 2age33333##33##333333333333333##i 4ertification33#33333333333333333333ii edication3333##333333333333333333#iii Acknowledgements3#333333333333333333iv Table of 4ontents3333#3333333333333333vi

CHAPTER 5#6 5#5# 5#7

ONE

-eneral ,ntroduction3333333333333333333#5 $istorical !ackground333333333333333333##7 'ocio 8 )inguistic 2rofile33333333333333333#9

5#7#5 %ccupation333333333333333333333339 5#7#7 *estival333333333333333333333333##:

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5#7#; <eligion333333333333333333333333#= 5#7#9 Marriage333333333333333333333333= 5#7#: Mode of ressing33333333333333333333##> 5#; 5#9 5#: 5#= -enetic 4lassification333333333333333333###? 'cope of 'tudy333333333333333333333##@ %rgani1ation of 'tudy333333333333333333###@ <esearch Methodology33333333333333333###56

CHAPTER 7#6 7#5 7#7 7#;

TWO

,ntroduction3333333333333333333333#5; )iterature <eview333333333333333333335; !asic 2honological 4oncepts333333333333333##59 'ound ,nventory33333333333333333333##5:

7#;#6 Migili Aowel 'ounds333333333333333333##5:

7#;#5 Migili 4onsonant 'ounds3333333333333333##5> 7#;#7 'ound istribution3333333333333333333##5@ 7#;#; 7#;#9 7#9 istribution of Migili Aowel 'ounds333333333333##5@ istribution of Migili 4onsonant 'ounds3333333333###75 Tone ,nventory3333333333333333333337:

7#9#6 Tone 4ombination3333333333333333333##7> 7#: 7#= 7#> 7#? 'yllable ,nventory3333333333333333333###7@ !asic Morphological 4oncepts33333333333333###;5 Morphemes3333333333333333333333##;7 Types of Morphemes333333333333333333##;;

7#?#6 *ree Morphemes33333333333333333333#;9 7#?#5 !ound Morphemes3333333333333333333##;= 7#@ 'tructural *unctions of Morphemes3333333333333;?

7#56 'tructural 2ositions of Morphemes3333333333333#;@

7#55 'yntactic *unctions of Morphemes3333333333333#96 7#57 )anguage Typologies333333333333333333##97 7#57#6 *usion )anguage333333333333333333###39; 7#57#6 Agglutinating )anguage3333333333333333###99 7#57#5 ,solating )anguage333333333333333333##99

CHAPTER ;#6 ;#5 ;#7 ;#7#5 ;#7#7 ;#; ;#;#5

THREE

,ntroduction3333333333333333333333 9: Morphemes3333333333333333333333##9: Types of Morphemes333333333333333333##9= *ree Morphemes33333333333333333339= !ound Morphemes3333333333333333339? *unctions of Morphemes333333333333333###:5 erivational *unction of Morphemes33333333333:7

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;#;#7

,nflectional *unction of Morphemes33333333333#:7

CHAPTER 9#6 9#5 9#5#5 9#5#7 9#5#; 9#5#9 9#5#:

FOUR

,ntroduction333333333333333333333:9 Morphological 2rocesses333333333333333###:9 AffiBation333333333333333333333##,:: !orrowing333333333333333333333##:> 4ompounding33333333333333333333#:? <eduplication33333333333333333333#:@ <efashioning33333333333333333333##=6

CHAPTER :#6 :#5

FIVE

,ntroduction333333333333333333333=5 'ummary3333333333333333333333=5

:#7 :#; :#9

%bservations33333333333333333333##=7 4onclusion333333333333333333333#=; <ecommendations##33333333333333333###=9 <eferences333333333333333333333#== CHAPTER ONE

1.0

GENERAL INTRODUCTION )anguage is the universal fabric that holds every individual of a

community together# An instrument, used by man for communication within his environment, without which there would be no meaningful relationship between the human world# )anguage can also be referred to as the medium through which ideas, thoughts, and other forms of human communication are eBpressed or carried out# ,n the metal compartment where all possible, meaningful and acceptable words are formed, there are certain rules that must be followed or certain conditions met before any word can be viewed as acceptable in any language# The branch of linguistics that studies the compatibility of such combinations and proposes the rules for their formation is called
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M%<2$%)%-C# The basic concept of this branch is the morpheme, the smallest meaningful unit in grammar which may constitute a word or part of a word# Dvery language has its own set of morphological rules which are strictly adhered to by members of its community# 'uch members , "&ative speakers( share a great deal of unconscious knowledge about their language which helps in the acquisition of their first language with little or no formal instructions# ,n connection to morphology, the Migili language has been duely investigated with a view to findingErevealing the aspects of its morphological set up# The Migili people are a tribal group found in

Agyaragu local government, )afia, &asarawa 'tate# The first chapter of this research centers on areas such as the historical background of the Migili people, their socioFcultural profile, occupation, religion, festival, mode of dressing, marriage, genetic classification# 'everal other aspects will be reviewed in the latter chapters of the project work#

1.1

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF MIGILI

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,n an interview with the town chief "G$D Migili( who is he traditional ruler and an autocrat, two major facts were revealed# %ne of them is the fact that the name of the language popularly known as Mijili is incorrect rather it is formally known as Migili# The second fact duely noted by him is that the Migili people are not part of the $ausa tribe as they have been mistakenly identified by many# The Migili tribe has a long history which dates back to the old 0wararafa 0ingdom in Taraba 'tate# The 0wararafa kingdom comprised of different ethnic groups such as Dggon, Algo, ,doma, and the -omai# Dach tribe took turns in occupying leadership positions of the kingdom and a heir was selected from the royal home of each ethic group# !ut things changed when it was time for Akuka, a Migili descendant who was neBt in line to ascend the throne # Akuka was plotted against hence he could not become the neBt leader# This sparked up a lot of negative reactions from the Migili people as well as some other tribes who viewed such an action as unjust, a way through which they were deprived because of their small population# Together with all members of the tribe, Akuka moved down to a place called

xiii

+kari where they settled down for a while and later moved to Agyaragu in )afia, &asarawa 'tate where they reside presently# Today, the Migili people are known as settlers in %bi, Agyaragu local government, )afia, &asarawa 'tate, &igeria# They can still be found in other places such as Minna, Abuja, 0ubadha in 0aduna, Guba e#t#c#The major population of about 5?,666 people constitute about @=H of %bi Agyaragu local government area# 1." SOCIO % CULTURAL PROFILE The Migili language is rich in both its social and cultural aspects# 'ome of these aspects are their festival, religion, marriage, occupation e#t#c 1.".1 OCCUPATION The Migili people are predominantly farmers# This occupation ranges from young to old, male and female# They produce a lot of crops but their major cash product is yam# Cams are produced for transportation to

different parts of the country and they also engage in inter 8 village sales with their neighbours who do not produce the types of crops that they do#

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Migili people also grow crop such as melon, beans, guinea corn, rice and millet# 1."." FESTIVAL There are two major festival celebrated by the Migili# These festivals are very important aspects of their culture as they eBpose their heritage and ancestral endowments# *irst is the farming season in which every farmer within the village premises is involved# uring this farming season, they

move from one indigenes farm to another in large groups cultivating, clearing and planting different types of crops for one another# After this has been done, a date is set to celebrate the harvest of these crops and this leads to the second festival which is the %du festival# The %du festival is celebrated village 8 wide in Miligi# This is a period of harvesting of crops, celebration of the harvest, eBchange of pleasantries and entertainment in the village square# uring the festival, the %du

masquerade which represents their ancestral values is dressed in a colourful attire with which it displays great dancing steps to the amusement and applause of the villagers#

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Another festival that is celebrated in the village is the demise of an elderly indigene# This is done with a type of dance called Abeni# 1.".& RELIGION !efore the arrival of the missionary, the Migili people were ardent traditionalists# They worshipped their ancestors some of which are %du and Aleku# They had separate seasons at which sacrifices were made and

worshipped them with dancing and entertainment# !ut things gradually began to change after the missionaries arrived thus most of them were converted to 4hristians, though a small population remain strictly traditional worshippers while some are Muslims# 1.".' MARRIAGE Marriage as an entity was approached from the early stages of childhood amongst the Migili people# !efore the Missionary arrived, intercultural marriage was forbidden amongst them with serious consequences or punishment allotted the violation of such law# Marriage between indigenes was formally approached, by the father of the suitor, who informs the mother of the admired girl of his intention# %nce an agreement has been

xvi

reached, the first payment is made to confirm the betrothal of the female child who continues to live with her parents until the due age has been reached# The male child "suitor( then pays his first installment of her dowry and engages in farming activities for his inFlaws once every year# !ut today the order of things have changed and marriage within and outside the tribe is now by choice hence enhancing interFcultural relationship# 1.".5 MODE OF DRESSING The Migili dressing mode displays their cultural heritage, though their dressing is quite similar to that of the $ausa# /omen wear short vests that eBpose their belly and long skirts that cover their legs, then they adorn their hands, forehead, lips and ankles with beads and bracelets# An interesting feature about their dressing is the plaiting of hair by both male and female indigenes# Though a bit of civili1ation has been introduced into their culture, hence influencing their dressing, a typical Migili indigene would still appear in colourful beads and bracelets#

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1.&

GENETIC CLASSIFICATION This is the arrangement of languages into their different categories

according to their relationship with other members of their category#

NIGER CONGO KORDOFANIAN

Mande

Atlantic Congo

Atlantic

Ijoid

Volta Congo

Kru

Kwa

North Volta Congo

enue Congo

A!"e river

#latoid antoid

De$oid

Edoid

Nu"oid

Ido%oid u!u%oid

Ig&oid

Cro''

(aro!oid

ere%ic Ea't

)outhern North

Adunic

Alu%ic

Nin*ic

+e't

,e'!wa

A-ongie

Koro

.-a%e

/iju (-a"

Irigwe

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Koro 0u&a 2a$i-a

Koro Ija

/ijilic Koro1Ma!a%ei

KORO MIGILI

!oro

Ada"ted $ro% Roger 345567

lench

1.'

SCOPE OF STUDY As earlier mentioned, the purpose of the research project is to closely and

carefully eBamine the Migili language and hence, eBpose its morphological aspects# ,nvestigation would be carried out on the various morphological processes attested by the language# Aarious steps, theories and methods would be used and considered in the analysis and eBemplification of the morphemes and their processes# Also, an accurate compilation of the

alphabet in the language has been carried out in order to justify the compilation of the data and its analysis thereof# 1.5 ORGANISATION OF THE STUDY This long essay has been divided into five different chapters, each containing certain aspect of the research work# !elow is a highlight of the chapters and their contentsI"i( 4hapter one deals with general introduction

xix

into the background of the study, the historical background and socio 8 cultural profileI "ii( 4hapter two deals with literature review on the chosen aspect of the

research workI "iii( 4hapter three deals with the presentation and analysis of data on the

chosen workI "iv( "v( 4hapter four centers on the processes involved in the branch of studyI 4hapter five deals with summary of the work done, observation, conclusion and recommendation of references#

1.6

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

,n the eBecution of this research, both the informant and introspective methodsEapproach have been adopted for data collection# Two native speakers have been approached, hence providing the researcher with complete and accurate data from the Migili language# Also, a

libraryEinternet research has been adopted, serving as a guide on some

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primary aspects of the research such as, the geographical location of the language and its speakers, its genetic classification, its population si1e e#t#c# !elow is a brief information about the two informants whose help was soughtI I()*+,-(. 1 "i( "ii( "c( "iv( N-,/J Ayuba %sibi $aruna A0/1 96 years old O2234-.5*(1 2ersonal assistant to the chairman, local government A64/2.1 ata collection "966 wordlist(

I()*+,-(. " "a( "b( "c( "d( N-,/1 r Ayuba Agwadu Audu "K2( A0/1 =7 years P*65.5*(1 Aillage chief A64/2.1 $istorical !ackground and socioFcultural profile#

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The ,badan four hundred "966( wordlist served as the basis for data analysis# ,n it comprises a list of words in Dnglish language for which equivalent meaning has been substituted in Migili language# A frame

technique has also been used in order to find out the use of words in into sentence conteBt# A series of sentences have also been translated from Dnglish language Migili#

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CHAPTER TWO ".0 INTRODUCTION The body of this entire chapter deals with literature review on the phonological and morphological aspects of the Migili language# Although the essay should be centered on the morphological aspect, there is need to eBamine the phonology as well, the reason being that the language "Migili( does not have a known written form, hence the need to get acquainted to it by taking a phonological approach# The second part of this chapter will revolve around the morphological aspect# This goes a long way in providing an inFdepth study of the word structure and word combination processes of the study language#

".1

LITERATURE REVIEW ,t is important to eBamine some earlier linguistic enquiries that have

been made in the Migili language# This is because the earlier works that
xxiii

have been done on the phonological and morphological aspects of the language may not be well documented and that is the major aim of this chapter# According to 'toffberg "5@>?J b(, the Migili language has &ine "@( phonemic vowels, seven ">( nasal vowels and twenty eight "7?( consonants# $e further eBplained that Migi,i also has three major register tones and numerous compleB glide tones# The reali1ation of morphemes in Migili language is based on different forms of phonological alternations# prefiBation, suffiBation or tone change# These alternations are either by

"."

BASIC PHONOLOGICAL CONCEPTS 2honology is only concerned with the study of sounds "vowels and

consonants( of a language# ,t is also the study of the systematic use of sounds to portray the orthography of a language# 2honology is the subFclass of linguistics that deals with the sound system of languages#/hereas

xxiv

phonetics is concerned with the physical production of sounds, acoustic transmission and perception of sounds, phonology simply describes the way that sounds function within a given language or across languages#

".&

SOUND INVENTORY This deals with the classification of the sounds in a language# Migili

uses a combination of both vowel and consonant sounds#

".&.0

MIGILI VOWEL SOUNDS Aowels are sounds that are produced without any form of obstruction

of air or stress in the vocal cards# There is always a free flow of air through the vocal cords in vowel production# There are four parameters used in describing vowel sounds# They includeI "i( "ii( 2osition of the soft palate, 'hape of the lips,

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"iii( "iv(

<aising of the tongue, Tongue height#

There are nine "@( phonemic vowels and seven nasal vowels in Migili language# The oral vowels areI i, e, , L, a, , o, , u# The nasal vowels areI M, eN, ,N O, ,N P, Q# 7#;#6# "a( iagram 'howing Migili %ral vowels# *ront high Mid high Mid low )ow , e o L a o 4entral !ack

xxvi

7#;#6 "b(

4hart 'howing Migili &asal Aowels *ront 4entral !ack N eN N o a N oN

high Mid high Mid low )ow

iN

".&.1

CONSONANT SOUNDS
According to Cusuf "5@@7J 5;( 4onsonant sounds are produced

with the obstruction of airflow, partially or totally at some point# ,n phonetic terms, most consonants are sounds in whose production, the airflow is obstructed or clogged at some point in the mouth, throat or larynB, at least sufficiently to cause audible friction#

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,n relation to the definition given, the Migili language has been found to have twenty eight consonants# The chart below will give a description of those consonants#

!ilabia

)abio dental

Alveolar

Alveo 2alatal Aelar )abio 2alatal Aelar c 7 j k T g kp gb Tm

-lottal

p m

t n f v s ts

1 d1

y S )

2losive &asal *ricative Affricate

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ApproBimant Aibrant )ateral

'toffberg "5@>?bJ =>( notes an eBample of the contrast between long and short ElE I ElUE to sell ElliVE wart hog Also there are instances of free variation between some of the consonantsI ElE and ErE ElE and EnE EsE and E'E E1E and EWE ".&." SOUND DISTRIBUTION 'ound distribution studies how sounds are combined and distributed in a language to make meaningful words# Any sound can occur in any position either initial, medial or final depending on the type of combination processes which the language permits#

".&.&

DISTRIBUTION OF MIGILI VOWEL SOUNDS

According to research, all Migili oral vowels can occur in either word initial, medial or final positions# $ere are a few eBamples to illustrate furtherI /5/ word initialF XUbeY Zspear. medialF Xd1id1iY Zbad. final F X[lUY Zforest. /3/ word initialFX\vaY Zdog. medialFXd1[runY Zbird. finalFXdumuY Zhe goat. /// word initialFX]j^Y Zno. medialFXUR_n`r`Y Zcloud. finalFXUswaleY Zplaiting of hair. /*/ word initialFXojiY Zthief.
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medialFXkokbY Zmasquerade. finalFXmcnOsoY Zbush meat. /8/ word initialFXdh^NY Zsatisfaction. medialFXip^gOY Zknowledge. finalFXdr^Y Zto be sitting. / / word initialFX kpaY e Zantelope. medialFXR nlaY e Zsleep. finalFXd1fr\nY Zbird. / -/ word initialFX[sgY Zbush. medialFXtbsgY Zuntie. finalFX kpa e Y Zantelope.

".&.' DISTRIBUTION OF MIGILI CONSONANT SOUND $ere are some eBamples of the distribution of Migili consonant sounds#
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/9/ word initialFXb`n^Y .to pull. medialFXUbbY Zfish.

/2/ word initialFXc^Y Zworship. medialFX[cansglgY Zfinger nail.

/:/ word initialFXdrUY Zto shake. medialFXkudunuY .rubbish heap.

/)/ word initialFXfl Ye Zwet. medialFXk\frY Zbark of tree.

/0/ initialFXg Ye Zcatch. medialFX[gloY Zsorghum.

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/09/ initialFXgb]thm[Y Zmessenger. medialFXkhgbOY Zthatch roof.

/;/ initialFXh[rY Zuntil. medialFXdh^Y Zsatisfaction.

/</ initialFXkhce Y Zhead. medialFXkhkQY Zbend down.

/<4/ medialFXikhkpl[Y Zstrength.

/=/ initialFXlUY Zto sell. mediaFXmhl[ Y Zbitterness.

/,/

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initialFXm r^Y e Zto learn. mediaFXgb]thmaY Zmessenger. finalFX mbOmY Zpalm wine.

/(/ initialFXjlaY Zsleep. medialFXngncY Zbecome fat. finalFXm[ nyranY Zmarry wife.

/6/ initialFXs^r^Y Zdeny. medialFXtbs Ye Zuntie. ERE initialFXR k e p[ e Y Zrice. medialFXghRoY Zstool.

/./ initialFXtaY Zchew. medialFXkUtaY Zskin.

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/.6/ initialFXtsiY Zharvest. medialFXitsiY Znest. />/ initialFXwusY Zlisten. medialFXjuwY Zhold.

/:?/ initialFXd1[runY Zbird. medialFXad1[Y Zchildren.

".'

TONE INVENTORY Tone is referred to as the use of pitch in language to distinguish

between leBical and grammatical meaning i#e, to inflect words# All verbal languages use pitch to eBpress emotional, ideological or other human features# Migili is a tonal language and it uses the three major types of tone eBtensively# The high tone is represented with a rising slant line "E(, the low tone is represented with a falling slant line "k(, while the mid tone is usually

xxxv

not marked in words# The Migili language also uses compleB glide tones such as lowFhigh "v(, high low "l( e t c# there are a few eBamples below to illustrate betterI "5( HIGH TONE form b` k[ k` gloss Zto come. Zthat he. Zto deny.

"7(

LOW TONE form bd kb ni gloss Zto choose. Zto eBceed. Zto bury.

";(

MID TONE b^ ka Zquestion participle. Zto guard.

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Zto write.

"9(

LOW@HIGH bm kn Ztwo. Zlike.

":(

HIGH@LOW form kpo kpa gloss Zgrow tall. Zbe short.

".'.0

TONE COMBINATION /ords can naturally possess the three major types of tone# This could

be the high, mid, or low tone# These three tones can be combined using monoFsyllabic, iFsyllabic or 2olyFsyllabic words# The compleB

combination of these tones also gives an output known as contour tones# A few eBamples of Migili tone combination are given belowI "5( HIGH@HIGH [s[ [w[ Zsorghum. Zfear.

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"7(

HIGH@LOW [sg Usb Zbush. Zday.

";(

LOW@LOW d\m\ Zgoat.

jiji Zto tickle.

"9(

LOW@HIGH liyU nimU Zprice. Zorange.

":(

HIGH@LOW@MID d1[r\n Un\ma Zbird. Zhunger.

"=(

LOW@HIGH@HIGH r\p_n_ Zpig.

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gb]thm[ Zmessenger.

The three major tones can be combined in several ways in any given language#

".5

SYLLABLE INVENTORY $yman "5@>:J5?@( defines syllable as a peak of prominence which is

usually associated with the occurrence of one vowel or syllabic sonorant# $e further eBplained that a closed syllable ends with a consonant while an open syllable ends with a vowel# Migili language eBhibits a high number of open syllables but a fair number of closed syllables# The reason is that, only the syllabic consonant EnE and EmE are allowed to end wordsEoccur in word final position thus

xxxix

limiting the number or use of closed syllables in the language# !elow are eBamples of monoFsyllabic, language# iFsyllabic and 2olyFsyllabic words in Migili

"i(

MonoFsyllabic words Xb Ye Zchoose.

cv
Xc^Y c v XgY
4A

Zworship. Zcatch.

"ii(

iFsyllabic words XmeEbOmY c cvc Xg\EsoY cv cv XkUEdiY cv cv XnEsUY c cv

Zpalm wine.

Zclose.

Zfeather.

.tear.

"iii(

2olyFsyllabic words XREkEpaY cv cv cv X0 ErcEk e Ye cv cv cv X [EvaEmEbuY Zharmattan. v cv c cv XnEnEsEnY c cv cv cv Z4ock. Z<ice .

".A

BASIC MORPHOLOGY CONCEPTS Morphology according to crystal "5@@6J77:( is the branch of

linguistics which studies the structure or forms of words primarily through the use of morphemes# )yons "5@>5J5?6F5?5( Morphology is the study of forms, the field of linguistics which studies word structure and word formation# The term morphology was ,ntroduced into the area of language in the 5@th century by a

xli

scholar called -eothe# The term was first applied by -eothe to biology as the study of Zforms. of living things# The Morpheme is the basic concept of the term morphology# Morphemes are the minimal unit of grammar, the unit of lower rank, out of which words, the unit of a higher rank are composed ")yons 5@>9J?5(# According to 'pencer "5@@5(, the domain of morphology in its study encompases the possible arrangement of morphemes to form words# $e further eBplains it as the relationship or reactions of several morphemes in the process of word formation#This can be ,llustrate thusI

Morphemes Morphology Arrangement ".7 MORPHEMES &ida "5@9=J=( defines morphemes as the minimal meaningful unit of which a language is composed and may be part of a word or constitute a
xlii

word independently# Dqually in the tradition of American structural linguistics established by )eonard !loomfield "5@@;(, a Morpheme is smallest unit of a language with meaning# Cusuf "5@?>I 5@??( described morphemes as building blocks of words in any language# $e defines morphemes as the minimal meaningful unit of grammatical analysis# *rom the definition above, we can deduce that morphemes are characteri1ed by certain features# *irst, a morpheme is seen as the smallest broken down unit of grammar which makes meaning# $ere are some eBamples of morphemes selected from different languages#

word %rU il_ dbru pyi Mhna d\m\ k re k V e

gloss lead house finish thief meat goat cock

language Coruba Coruba kahugu ,gala Migili Migili Migili

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".B

TYPES OF MORPHEMES There are basically two types of morphemes# These are the free and

bound Morphemes #The distinction between both types of morphemes is basically their nature and composition, structural position and structural functions# )eBical *ree Morphemes !ound *unctional erivational ,nflectional

".B.0

FREE MORPHEMES %yebade "5@@7J:?( defines a free morpheme as a morphological unit

which can eBist in isolation# ,t is a unit which is capable of standing or eBisting on its own without being attached to any other linguistic unit# ,t is independent in terms of meaning and form#

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*ree morphemes can occur as complete wordsI they are potential words "4ollinge 5@@6(# )et us consider the following eBamples of free morphemes in Migili language# W*+: [gatO b Utuma kUci kUta kUsU d1[ gwbra Ugaba ji mhna G=*66 food two vagina tree skin eye child open )ion sting flesh

Dach of the eBamples consist of only one morpheme that cannot be further broken down or subdivided into any meaningful parts# Dach has independent eBistence and meaning#
xlv

*ree morphemes fall into two categoriesI "i( "ii( The leBical category, The functional category# The leBical category consists of the set of ordinary nouns, adjectives, and verbs which carry the content or message in sentences# The leBical morphemes "open class of words(, are content words such as nouns, verbs and objectives# They belong to the open class because we add new leBical morphemes or affiBes to them# The other group of morphemes is called the functional morphemes# This set consists of mainly functional grammatical words in the language such as conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns# They are described as the closed class of words because we do not add any functional morphemes or affiBes to them# $ere are a few eBamplesI /ords Um^ Uw Ula iyi -loss , "singular( you "singular( we "plural( they "plural(

xlvi

".B.1

BOUND MORPHEMES +nlike free morphemes, bound morphemes cannot stand

independently# A bound morpheme is a type of morpheme that cannot occur in isolation but can only be recogni1ed when they are attached to other bound or free morphemes "%yebade, 5@@7J:@(# !ound morphemes do not constitute independent words, hence they are called affiBed# AffiBes could be inflectional or derivational in nature and are of three different typesI 2refiBes, 'uffiBes and ,nfiBes# 2refiBes are attached to words at the initial positions, suffiBes are added at word final positions while infiBes are attached in the word medial positions# DBamples of affiBes in Dnglish language includeI "i( !ook q q q q s s lead r !ooks r sheep r mislead

"ii( sheep "iii( mis "iv( is

qualify q ed r disqualified

DBamples of affiBes in Migili language includeI

xlvii

"i( [

1[ q d1[

Zchild. Zchildren.

"ii(

khpele [ q pele

Zstone. Zstones.

"iii(

d1[r\n a q d1[run

Zbird. Zbirds.

"iv(

-bolu i q gbolu kuku a q kh Zbone.

ZDlephant. ZDlephants.

"v(

Zbones.

The most commonly use form of affiB in Migili language is the 2refiB#

".C

STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONS OF MORPHEMES Morphemes perform certain roles in the process of word formation#

*ree morphemes perform the function of roots to which other free or bound morphemes are attached# *or eBample, the word Z,nternational., has a root

xlviii

word, Znation.# 'ome bound morphemes function as a form of negation while others may function as agentive markers, changing the syntactic class of a word# e#g engage r disengage r disengagement# ,t is possible to have more than one root in a word# *or instance, the word milkmaids has the morphemes, Zmilk. and Zmaid. to which the plural marker Zs. is added# The function of the root is not eBclusive to free morphemes alone as we may have a bound morphemes sometimes combining with free morphemes to form new words#

".10

STRUCTURAL POSITION OF MORPHEMES ,n the process of morpheme combination, ,t is important to

determineEacknowledge the positions of such combinable morphemes# Those which are added before, in between, or after a root are called affiBes# An affiB may occupy the structural position of a prefiB in which case, it occurs before the root word# ,t can also occupy the position of an infiB, occurring in between a word# An affiB may also function as a suffiB when it occurs after

xlix

the root word "!loomfield 5@;;(# )et us consider eBample from Dnglish languageJ "A( "i( "ii( "iii( i) is mis q q q legal courage understand

i)F, isF and misF are all prefiBes#

"!(

"i( -ood "ii( <egion "iii( correct

q q q

ness al ion

Fness, F al, F ion are all suffiBes# ".11 SYNTANTIC FUNCTIONS OF MORPHEMES A morpheme may perform a derivational or inflectional function# Morphemes performing derivational functions usually change the syntactic class of a word# *or eBampleI Aerb <ide Teach <ape &oun <ider Teacher <apist
l

&oun !oy Affection 2assion

Adjective !oy F ish Affection F ate 2assion Fate

A derivational function may also be assumed by prefiBes# This can be observed using eBamples in Coruba languageI Aerb <c Z to sound. -_ Z to cut. _ Zto wear. irc ]g_ ad_ &oun Z a sound. Z a segement. Za crown.

Migili morphemes also perform derivational functions through the use of suprafiB# A suprfiB is a types of affiBation that is represented by prosodic features such as tone, stress, intonation e#t#c# some eBamples areI

/ord s)a s)[ nU

-loss Zsleep. Zdifficulty. Zto eBtinquish.

ni

Zto bury.

Morphemes which perform an inflectional function only provide more syntactic information without changing the class of a word# 'ome eBamples are given in Migili belowI "i( [ pl q q b_r_ partner t t partner partners

"ii( [ pl

q q

d1[ child

t t

[d1[ children

"iii( i pl

q q

gbolu

lgbolu Dlephants

Dlephant t

".1"

LANGUAGE TYPOLOGIES )anguages are systematically grouped into structural components

based on phonology, grammar or vocabulary, rather than in terms of any real or assumed historical relationship "crystal, 5@?>(# The earliest typologies however were based on morphology# "crystal 5@?>J7@;( recogni1ed three

lii

main linguistic types based on the way a language constructs its words# They areI 5# 7# ;# *usion Agglutinative ,solating

".1".0

FUSION LANGUAGE Also known as inflecting or synthetic language, a fusion language is

one in which a word is made up of two or more morpheme that are not easily recogni1able# *usion languages show grammatical relation by changing the internal structure of words, using inflectional ending which eBpress several grammatical meanings at once# DBamples of such languages are )atin and -reek# ".1".1 AGGLUTINATING LANGUAGE ,n an agglutinating language, words are built up of a sequence of units, with each unit eBpressing a particular grammatical meaning in a clear one to one way "crystal 5@?>J7@9(# languages that attest this type of feature can have a single word being built up by man morphemes which can be easily
liii

separated into the meaning which each district morpheme eBpresses# DBamples are Dnglish and Turkish# ".1"." ISOLATING LANGUAGE ,n a predominantly insolating language, each word is made up of one morpheme which cannot be further broken down# -rammatical relationships are shown through the use of word order# ,n this type of language, there are inflections, i#e one word, one meaning# ,n 4hinese for eBample, verbs are not inflective for persons, number or tense neither are nouns inflected for number or gender# ,t is therefore difficult if not impossible to find prefiBes or suffiBes in an isolating language# !ased on the language typologies that have been identified above, one can therefore highlight the fact that Migili is both a fusion and agglutinating language#

liv

CHAPTER THREE &.0 INTRODUCTION According to crystal, "5@@6J77:(, morphology is the branch of linguistics which studies the structure or forms of words primarily through the use of morphemes# The morpheme is the basic concept of the study of rules guiding word formation# The basic aim of this chapter is to discuss more intimately, the morphemes, its type and its functions# This will be done using the Migili language in the following phases of the chapter# &.1 MORPHEMES

lv

)yons "5@@9J?5( defines morphemes as the minimal unit of grammatical analysis, the units of lowest rank, out of which words, units of higher ranks are composed# Also, %yebade "5@@7J?7( defines the morphemes as the minimal meaningful unit of grammatical analysis, which may constitute a word or part of a word# $ere are a few eBamples of morphemes in MigiliI &imi pa <a trV thtr Zorange. Zhit. Zplay. Zcook. Zlaugh.

&."

TYPES OF MORPHEMES Morphemes can be divided into two major types, these are the free

morphemes and the bound morphemes# &.".1 FREE MORPHEMES %yebade "5@@7J:?( defines a free morpheme as a morphological unit which can eBist in isolation# ,t is also known as the root of a word#

lvi

A free morphene is independent both in meaning and from# ,t cannot be subdivided into further meaningful parts# *ree morphemes fall into the categories, these are the leBical and functional morphemes "$udson, 7666(# The first category consists of ordinary nouns, adjectives and verbs, the category of words referred to as content words#

DBamples of these leBical morphemes in Migili language areJ /ords aVklod1i aVsoe beV driV d1id1i n n e e Meaning money bush came shake bad sweet
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The group of free morphemes is called functional morphemes function in the language such as conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns# /e do not add new functional morphemes to this class of words hence they are described as the close class of words# $ere are a few eBamples in Migili language#

/ords ieme ien in la ba

Meaning , $e $im /e They

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The set of words given as eBamples in both categories are indivisible# They posses individual meaning and can also act as root forms for the addition of other morphemes to produce new words# &."." BOUND MORPHEMES A bound morpheme according to Cusuf "5@@7J?;(, is a type of morpheme which does not occur in isolation but can only be recogni1ed when added to other free or bound morphemes# These morphemes have definite meaning but do not have independent eBistence# !ound morphemes are basically or three typesJ "i( !ound morphemes that occur before the root morphemes# These

are called prefiBes# "ii( infiBes# "iii( suffiBes# !ound morphemes that occur after the root morphemes# These are !ound morphemes that occur within the root morphemes# These are

lix

These three types of bound morphemes are called affiBes because they are attached as minor appendage to their partners as a way of modifying or adjusting the systematic content of the free morphemes# DBample of bound morphemes in Migili language are the plural formation prefiBes XaFY, XiFY, XmFY and XnFY which occur before root words# The prefiBes XaFY and XiFY occurEappear before velars and labials# $ere are a few eBamples showing the outlined prefiBesI "i( XaFY word d1[ gb_ kUdra kisi meaning child hunter[gb_ housefly aye [dra [lU plural [d1[

XlFY word d\m\ j` odV meaning goat witch horse plural Ud\m\ ij` idV
lx

uua gbolu

dog Dlephant

iva igbolu

XmFY

word

meaning

plural mUninyira mUny^ mhca mhsh[

&inyira wife jny gca sh[ person uncle husband

XnFY

word lhkV lhnwe rhge

meaning war voice mountain

plural jkV nwV jge

SUFFI$ES Aery few cases of suffiBation occur in Migili language nevertheless, some eBample of suffiBes are found belowI

word

meaning

plural

lxi

gbo gu

fall wash

gbvrv g\gra

&.&

FUNCTION OF MORPHEMES Morphemes combine to form words# <oot morphemes are the base

from which other words are derived# The root morphemes function as the stem when other morphemes are added to it "%yebade,5@@7(# Thus a root morpheme can be a stem and a stem can be a root# &ida "5@9=J@@( state that a morphemes can perform the following synthetic functionsJ

"i( "ii(

erivational function, ,nflectional function#

&.&.1

DERIVATIONAL FUNCTION A morpheme performing a derivational function usually changes the

syntactic class of the leBical item to which it is attached# Thus, when morphemes are combined and a new meaning is derived, the attached morpheme has performed a derivational function# Miligi morphemes do not perform derivational functions#
lxii

&.&."

INFLECTIONAL FUNCTION %yebade "5@@7J??( state inflectional morphemes only provide more

syntactic information without changing the word class# This function of morphemes gives additional information to the meaning of the root words# &umber, tense and gender are some of the inflectional functions of morphemes# DBamples of morphemes performing inflectional functions in Migili language are given belowJ

'ingular 1[ 1[rhn gb` gbolu kUgi kUnyU kUlU kUsU

-loss child bird hunter ^lephant feather tooth rope ^ye

2lural [d1[ ad1[rhn [gb` igbolu [ji [nyU [lU [sU

-loss children birds hunters ^lephants feathers teeth ropes eyes

lxiii

kUt[tr] lhnwo muekN muVnasN mhs\ wcO oyi

shoe voice corpse animal cat uncle thief

[t[tr] nww iekN iVnasN [mhs\ mhcO [yi

shoes voice corpses animals cats uncles thieves

CHAPTER FOUR '.0 INTRODUCTION ,n this chapter is a presentation and analysis of the basic morphological processes that eBist in Migili language# The analysis will review these morphological processes with copious data from the Migili language# '.1 MORPHOLOGICAL PROCESSES

lxiv

Morphological processes, otherwise known as word formation processes are ways or methods through which words are formed in a language "xuirk, et#al, 5@>7# %debunmi, 7665(# These processes includeI compounding, blending, clipping, reduplication, acronym, coinageEannounce formation, back formation, neologism and borrowing# Although not all these morphological processes are attested in Migili language, the major ones which were discovered would be discussed as followsJ

'.1.1

AFFI$ATION This is a morphological process by which bound morphemes are

added before within or after root Efree morphemes# ,n other words, it is the process of word formation either by prefiBation, infiBation or suffiBation "!loomifield, 5@@;(#Through this processes, leBical and grammatical information is added to the sense of the root# An affiB can be made up of a letter, two, three or more, depending on the structure of the language# The

lxv

most common types of affiBes are the prefiB and suffiB , while the most common in Migili are the prefiBes# DBamples of affiBes in Migili are given belowI PREFI$ES a q )_m\ Zpl. orange t al_mh

t oranges

a q d1[ Zpl. child

t [d1[ t children

U Zpl.

q d\m\ goat

t t

Ud\m\ goats

, Zpl.

q gbolu Dlephant

t t

igbolu Dlephants

n q lunwg Zpl. voice

t t

nwg voice

mh q

mrh

mhmrh
lxvi

Zpl.

mother

mothers

j Zpl.

rhgP mountain

t jgP t mountains

mh q sh[ Zpl. husband

t mhsh[ t husbands

SUFFI$ES -b fall q r^ q pl t gb^r^ t falls

-u

r^ pl

t g\gra twashes

wash q

'.1."

BORROWING This morphological process involves taking leBical items from one

language and introducing it into another# !orrowing can be defined as the introduction of single words or short idiomatic phrases from one language into another "-umper1, 5@?9(# !orrowed words are known as loan words
lxvii

which undergo changes in order to adapt to the phonological structure of the borrower language# )ike several other languages, Migili also borrows from neighbouring languages# These includeI

borrowed word )mu Marakanta gwOgwa kidUga , h V e !aga sbpry shkpa )afUa

source language $ausa $ausa "makaranta( $ausa $ausa "bindiga( $ausa &upe "bagado1hi( $ausa "salubu( $ausa"shinkafa( Arabic

gloss orange school head pad gun water leaf salutation soap rice peace

'.1.&

COMPOUNDING 4ompounding involves the combination of two or more free

morphemes# According to %yebade "5@@7J=7(, compounding is the putting

lxviii

together of different leBical items to form new words# eBamples of this in Migili language are given belowJ /ord 4ombination Cam q flour ntre f\l_ t t t t t t t t %utput Camflour f\l_ntrU drokishisha storyteller graveyard itsi1an blackboard khpitUtre

dro q kasha tell story

grave q yard U1an itsi

black q board titre q khpi '.1.' REDUPLICATION

<eduplication is the process of repetition of a word or a part of a word in order to generate a new word or meaning# <eduplicatives are forms which are either partially or fully copied from the root and added before or after the root "%laoye 7667J>>(# Cusuf "5@@7J?=( defines reduplication as a process that involves copying the whole or part of a root as prefiB or suffiB# There are two types of reduplicationI

lxix

Total <eduplicationJ This process involves copying the whole word from the root# DBamples ,n Migili are J word 0l Zbig flo slow <eduplicated form klkl strong floflo slowly

2artial reduplicationJ This process involves copying a part of the root word and repeating it either as a prefiB or suffiB# DBamples areI word xuick pla swim srwm day Usb <eduplication form xuickly papla float srwisrwm daily Usbsb

'.1.5

REFASHONING

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,n refashioning, a phrase or a word is named by its description# DBamples in Migili languageI E0pbtiE !oB EkpbtiE boB q q EtereE t EkpbtimatereE talk t radio

m[1[ t kpbtim[1[ image t television

CHAPTER FIVE 5.0 INTRODUCTION This chapter gives the summary and conclusion of previous ones# ,t also includes observations and recommendations based on the researchers findings# 5.1 SUMMARY
lxxi

This study started with an introductory chapter that gives information about the language of study "Migili(, investigating the historical background of the language, the speakers origin and settlement, their genetic classification, socioFcultural profile, scope and organi1ation of study, data collection and data analysis# ,n this essay, an attempt has been made to look into the morphology "study of word formation rules( in Migili language# The work started by giving definition of the term morphology, the concept of morphemes and how they combine in the language to form new words# The work comprehensively looks into the morpheme, its type and functions# The combination of morphemes as seen in this long essay, is mediated by the morphological processes which includes affiBation, borrowing, reduplication, compounding and refashioning# The work also covered some aspect of the Migili phonology looking into the sound inventory, tone inventory and syllable structure of the language# *inally, a detailed work was carried out on the morphological processes in the Migili language using Migili eBamples#

lxxii

5."

OBSERVATIONS At the end of the research, the following observations were made

and registered on word formation in Migili languageJ "a( ,t was observed that the language has more free morphemes than

bound morphemes, "b( "c( That bound morphemes perform only inflectional functions, 2refiBes and suffiBes are present in the language but are only used

to mark plural cases or as plural markers, "d( ,t was also discovered that the language sometimes uses the same

orthography form to represent words with entirely different meanings# eBampleJ drg r hare and drg r speak# 5.& CONCLUSION The focus of this study is to describe the word formation processes in Migili language# /e have achieved this through ample and copious data to illustrate how each of these processes is attested in Migili language#

lxxiii

This also proves the fact that the morphological processes of affiBation, compounding, borrowing, reduplication and refashioning are quiet present "though minimal( in the language# ,n this essay, twenty eight consonants, nine oral vowels and seven nasal vowels were discovered# 4onclusively as part of contrition to learning, this long essay would be a useful guideline and reference book for future researchers, teBtbook writers and teachers of Migili language#

5.'

RECOMMENDATIONS The researcher presents the following recommendations upon

completing this research workI "a( 2arents need to speak and teach their children the native language

so that they can achieve competence in their motherFtongue before they encounter a second language,

lxxiv

"b(

The national language policy should recogni1e Migili language as

a subject to be taught in areas largely populated by the Migili people, "c( &ative speakers of Migili language should be trained as teachers of

the language to encourage its development, "d( )inguists should make adequate research work on Migili language

so as to make materials such as dictionaries and teBtbooks available for students, teachers and other researchers to learn more about the language, "e( The government should make motherFtongue teachers available in

schools# 2rovisions should also be made for some subjects to be taught in the mother tongue of some regions as this will give students solid foundation on the knowledge of their mother tongues#

lxxv

REFERENCES Andrew, ' "5@@5( Morphological Theory# %Bford, +0, !lackwell 2ublishers )td# !amgbose, A "5@=;(# A Study of the Structure and Word Classes in the Grammar of Modern Yoruba# 2#$# Thesis, Didingburg# !loomfield, ) "5@;;( Language# &ew Cork, $enny $olds and co

lxxvi

4ollin &#D "ed#( "5@@6(# An Encyclopedia of language. )ondon and &ew CorkJ <utledge# 4rystal, !lackwell# 4rystal, "5@?>(# The Encyclopedia of Language. 4ambridge, 4ambridge "5@@6(# A ictionary of Linguistics and !honetics# )ondon,

+niversity 2ress# ouglas, p "5@?>(# The Worlds Ma"or Languages# )ondon !ritish )ibrary 4ataloguing# Dka, "5@@9(# Element of Grammar and Mechanics of the English

Language# %yoJ 'amuf "nig( ltd# -eorge, C "5@?:( The Study of Language. )ouisiana, 4ambridge +niversity 2ress# -reenberg K# h and 'pencer K "5@=>( West African language Monograph Ser#ices# 4ambridge +niversity 2ress# -umper1, K "5@?9(# iscourse Strategies$ Studies in %nternational Sociol

Linguistics# )ondon, 4ambridge +niversity 2ress#

$yman, ) "5@>:( !honology$ Theory and Analysis, &ew Cork $olt, <inehart and /inston# )yons, K "5@=?( %ntroduction to Theoretical Linguistics# )ondonJ 4ambridge +niversity 2ress# Matthews, 2#$ "5@>9( Morphology$ An %ntroduction to the Theory of Wor& Structure# 4ambridge, 4#A# 2# &ida, D "5@9@( Morphology$ The escription Analysis of Words # Ann

Arbor, The +niversity of Michigan 2ress# %yebade, *# % "5@@7( J Morphology in Cusuf %# "D ( 'iegel, "5@>@(# Topics in English Morphology# &ew Cork -arland#

Cusuf, % and *# %yebade "5@?@(J 'asic Grammar$ !honology( Morphology and Synta)# +niversity of ,lorin M# '#

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lxxx