Online Communities of Practice as Agents of Change in Curriculum Development

Tim Cappelli and Alisdair Smithies University of Manchester, Manchester, UK Timothy.cappelli-2@manchester.ac.u Alisdair.smithies@manchester.ac.u

Abstract
This paper e!amines ho" an online community of practice of tutors can #e used to drive and en$ender chan$e in the comple! environment of under$raduate medical curriculum development. %arallels are dra"n #et"een the theories that underpin communities of practice and chan$e mana$ement and comparison made of the role of the community "ith that of individuals as drivers and a$ents of chan$e in curriculum practice. The paper is #ased on a case study "ithin the University of Manchester Medical School, "hich aimed to create an online system for hospital #ased tutors. A ma&or issue "ith such a $eo$raphically disparate $roup of practitioners is the a#ility of the University to mana$e and $ain feed#ac from the $roup, as "ell as en$a$e them in any meanin$ful colla#orative tas , such as curriculum revie". To resolve these issues, the pro&ect team created a social-net"or #ased application that allo"ed tutors to colla#oratively "or to$ether to revie" and update the medical curriculum. Throu$h the use of these technolo$ies, the community of tutors can share and adapt practices in medical education and improve $ood practice "ithin the emer$ent Community of %ractice. Throu$h a cyclic process of intervention and evaluation, the pro&ect team have captured the #ehaviour, activity and impact of the community as it emer$es and develops online, improvin$ the practices of those involved. 'o"ever, in order for any chan$es to the curriculum and to practice to #e adopted across the "ider community, the $roup needs to act as an a$ent of chan$e, catalysin$ and drivin$ chan$e throu$hout the "hole community. The research (uestion addressed #y this paper is to "hat e!tent an online community of practice can act as an a$ent of chan$e) *n analysin$ the data from the community of practice, this paper dra"s parallels #et"een these theories and the chan$e process catalysed #y the community.

Keywords: Curriculum +evelopment, Communities of %ractice, Chan$e mana$ement, chan$e a$ents Introduction
This paper arises from "or "ithin the University of Manchester Medical School to create an online system for hospital-#ased tutors involved in the delivery of the under$raduate medical curriculum. This provided a case study in "hich the evolution of a community of practice could #e analysed alon$side chan$es in practice. The tutors in this case are a mi! of doctors, consultants and other healthcare professionals "ho supervise ,th and -th year medical students on placement across the .orth /est of 0n$land. A ma&or issue for this disparate $roup of practitioners is the difficulty of the university to mana$e and $ain feed#ac from the $roup, as "ell as en$a$e them in any meanin$ful colla#oration. The tutors rarely $et involved in such tas s due to competin$ demands on their time and their $eo$raphical spread. 'o"ever, the contri#ution of teacher-practitioners to curriculum development and other activities is a valua#le asset to the a"ardin$ institution, and provides the additional #enefit of assurin$ commitment of the remote partner to pro$ramme outcomes. Medicine is a dynamic discipline "ith continual e!pansion in medical no"led$e and comple!ity of service or$anisation and patient mana$ement. The teacherpractitioners are #est placed to help develop the curriculum to reflect current practice and prevent 1curriculum drift2 34ones et al 25567. To resolve these issues, the pro&ect team developed a social-net"or #ased system that allo"s tutors to "or colla#oratively to revie" and update the medical curriculum. Usin$ /e# 2.5 technolo$ies inte$rated "ith some #espo e soft"are, the system provides a closed, secure environment for the community to

discuss and articulate their thou$hts on the curriculum and ho" it should #e improved. The intention "as that the system "ould help catalyse and support the development of the e!istin$ loose net"or of users into a fully functionin$ Community of %ractice "ith the inherent characteristics specified in the "or s of /en$er 368887. The study also aimed to esta#lish "hether the online $roup, once "or in$ to$ether and evolvin$ into a community, "ould act as an a$ent for chan$e across the "ider community. *f this occurs, the process of catalysin$ and drivin$ chan$e throu$hout the "hole community may #e analysed.

The problem of change in comple organisations

9oth the .ational 'ealth Service 3.'S7 and the 'i$her 0ducation 3'07 sector are ma&or employers in the UK, to$ether employin$ around 6.8 m people. 3Tempest 255-, .:;< 25587. 0ven thou$h #oth are made up of smaller, autonomous #odies such as %rimary Care Trusts or Universities, they share the pro#lem of #ein$ lar$e, comple! or$anisations "ith a stron$ prevailin$ culture. 0n$enderin$ and mana$in$ chan$e in either of these or$anisations is #oth comple! and unpredicta#le 39amford and +aniel 255-, Ke=ar 25567. The "or of this pro&ect straddles the t"o sectors, "ith the teacher-practitioners #ein$ employed #y and "or in$ out of .'S hospitals "hilst at the same time #ein$ directed #y and servicin$ the needs of the University. Chan$e in this comple! situation is accordin$ly more difficult to #rin$ a#out and understand. To support understandin$ of the chan$e process, several chan$e theories and models are #ein$ e!amined to inform the "or of the pro&ect in attemptin$ to predict or e!plain the chan$e that may occur. *n 255>, the pro&ect team completed a ma&or pro&ect for the UK '0 Academy called ?e-chan$e@ 3Cappelli 255>7 that aimed to enhance the (uality of e-learnin$ provision #y implementin$ and em#eddin$ chan$es in the practices of e-learnin$. The activities carried out in selected cases across the university "ere mapped and evaluated. This action-research #ased approach "as adapted for the current case reported here. The e-Chan$e pro&ect evaluated a ran$e of chan$e theories and found that no sin$le model could #e used to successfully plan or predict chan$e in the '0 environment 3Cappelli 255>7. The pro&ect initially too a teleolo$ical approach, attemptin$ to direct chan$e throu$h a esta#lishin$ and implementin$ a ne" set of practices, utilisin$ a 1chan$e team2 or ey individuals as the chan$e a$ents. 'o"ever, in each case, it #ecame clear that this directive approach "as unli ely to succeed, "ith staff (uestionin$ the need for chan$e andAor senior mana$ers un"illin$ to champion the chan$es. *n order to counter this, the pro&ect adopted methods from the political and cultural models of chan$e, see in$ to influence and persuade the ey staff "ithin the or$anisation. This proved to #e a more accepta#le approach and there "as consensus amon$st the sta eholders on its potential. e-Chan$e clearly demonstrated that no one model provides a complete and appropriate approach for implementin$ chan$e in '0. These findin$s are #ac ed up #y a ma&or report #y Ke=ar 325567 "ho ali$ns "or done on chan$e in '0 to the ma&or chan$e theories. She concludes ? it is not feasible to create a change model for every situation within higher education. @ 3Ke=ar 2556, p66,7 #ut concedes that the models that #est predict chan$e in '0 are the cultural and political models, since these emphasise the importance of cultural chan$e and political influence in an or$anisation. These models also reco$nise the comple!ity and fluidity of '0, rather than see it as a rational environment "here linear chan$e can #e predicted and implemented. %arallels can #e dra"n #et"een this vie" of chan$e in '0 and similar "or on chan$e in the .'S 3Mc+onald 255-, Massey and /illiams 255B7 "hich indicate that the comple!ity of the or$anisation necessitates an 1emer$ent2 approach to chan$e, usin$ a mi! of models 39amford and +aniel 255-7 "hilst the prevailin$ culture and political #ac $round ensure cultural and political models predominate. 'ence, althou$h no sin$le model can predict or e!plain chan$e "ithin the .'S or '0 environments, it is clear that in our evaluation of the role of communities in the process of chan$e, close attention should #e paid to the cultural and political chan$es en$endered #y the community and the possi#le conse(uences of this in catalysin$ chan$e.

The role of change agents

Most literature on or$anisational development identifies the chan$e a$ent as #ein$ essential to the success of chan$e 3Ctta"ay 68>D7. The concept and definition of a chan$e a$ent "as first articulated #y Eippitt, /atson and /estley 368->7 "ho sa" the a$ent very much as a person or #ody, "hich e!isted outside of the or$anisation. *n this and other papers of the period, chan$e a$ents "ere seen as professionals and e!perts in the field of #ehavioural sciencesF there to chan$e #ehaviours, attitudes and perceptions on #ehalf of the client or$anisation 3Ctta"ay 68>D7. Eater "or in the field of or$anisational chan$e ta es a #roader vie" of the chan$e a$ent, reco$nisin$ that an a$ent can #e ?any individual or $roup operatin$ to chan$e the status (uo@ 3Ctta"ay 68>DG pDB,7 and that chan$e a$ents can often #e una"are of their part in the chan$e process. This seems to #e particularly common in the "orlds of '0 and the .'S. As Atlay 3255B7 says of chan$e in '0, ?0very person is a chan$e a$ent. Chan$e is too important to leave to the e!perts.@ 3p6D87. Alon$side these ne"er definitions, the properties and activities of successful chan$e a$ents #e$in to #e defined, "ith Haltman and +uncan 368II7 concludin$ that effective chan$e a$ents need to stimulate pro#lem-solvin$ processes and foster colla#oration. 'aveloc and 'aveloc 368ID7 see four primary "ays in "hich the chan$e a$ent can act. These areG 6. 2. D. ,. As a Catalyst, proddin$ people to chan$eF As a Solution :iver, providin$ ideas on ho" chan$e should occurF As a %rocess 'elper, supportin$ the chan$e processF As a ;esource Ein er, helpin$ people find relevant resources and #rin$in$ people to$ether.

Eater definitions of chan$e a$ents, particularly those associated "ith the cultural and political models mentioned a#ove, emphasis the chan$e a$ent2s role in challen$in$ and influencin$ values, #eliefs and rituals 3Ke=ar 2556, Massay and /illiams 255B7. *n the cultural model of chan$e, for e!ample, desi$nated leaders or 1chan$e mana$ers2 are identified as those "ho can 1re-create aspects of the culture.23Ke=ar 2556G p-67. 'o"ever, these leaders are not al"ays desi$nated. /or #y Thompson, 0sta#roo s and +e$nar 3255B7 demonstrates similarities #et"een the perceived role of chan$e a$ents in healthcare and that of e!istin$ opinion leaders, facilitators and champions. They concluded that increasin$ the availa#ility of no"led$e "ill lead to #ehaviour chan$e in staff, and that in essence, each of the roles e!amined is a form of chan$e a$ent. Some chan$e pro&ects see to e!ploit this #y tar$etin$ such individuals as their 1champions2 of chan$e. A study #y Mc+onald 3255-7 sho"s ho" one .'S Trust deli#erately identified these ey 1influencers2 and put them throu$h a trainin$ pro$ramme aimed at 1empo"erment2 or 1selfresponsi#ility2. The #elief "as that once these influencers had accepted or #ou$ht-in to the idea of 1selfresponsi#ility, this culture "ould (uic ly spread. This model of chan$e a$ent had returned to the traditional Eippitt et al vie" of #ehavioural and #elief chan$e, althou$h here the a$ent "as no lon$er an outside specialist to #e employed #y the or$anisation, #ut rather an internal influencer to #e directed 3some mi$ht say manipulated7 #y the or$anisation. %olitical models of chan$e also emphasise the role of the chan$e a$ent as someone "ho influences #eliefs and values, #ut in this approach the processes of #ar$ainin$, persuasion, formation of ey relationships and net"or s are seen as the mechanism for chan$e 3Ke=ar 25567. Althou$h virtually all studies or models of chan$e accept the need for senior mana$ement support, most of these also accept that senior mana$ement directives are unsuccessful. 3Cappelli 255>, Ke=ar 2556, Atlay 255B7. *nstead, chan$e occurs throu$h the leaders or chan$e a$ents $eneratin$ a 1po"er-#ase2 #y developin$ relationships and net"or s "ith ey people "ho "ill facilitate chan$e 3Ke=ar 2556, Mc+onald 255-7. /hereas the cultural model is much more inclusive, reco$nisin$ the need for everyone to act as chan$e a$ent, the political model su$$ests that 1many people "ill choose to #e inactive in the process2 3Ke=ar 2556 p,D7 "ith chan$e 3in practice and in culture7 precipitated #y a fe" ey individuals.

Communities of Practice
Communities of %ractice, as a construct, emer$e from Eave and /en$er2s 368867 "or on Situated Eearnin$ Theory. Situated learnin$ is used to descri#e the transformation of identity of an individual as they enculturate into a $roup, adoptin$ and developin$ the "or in$ practices shared "ithin it. *t centres upon the concept that $ood practice is developed socially, throu$h dialo$ue and interaction "ith other practitioners "ho share a common set of values or #eliefs. /en$er et al 325527 define Communities of %ractice, as, groups of people who share a concern, a set of problems, or a passion about a topic, and who deepen their knowledge and expertise in this area by interacting on an ongoing basis. 3/en$er et al, 2552Gpp,7 The community in this case study are $eo$raphically disparate, #ut have in common their affiliation "ith the UniversityF a shared responsi#ility for curriculum delivery to under$raduates in the clinical "or place. Thus, the community of medical practitioners is centred around the domain of Medical 0ducation. The practice of teachin$ medical students has #een found to #e socially shared at a local level, "ith many teams, constellations of communities 3/en$er, 688>7 ma in$ up the "ider community. Collectively, this community e!ists as a relatively flat or$anisational structure not #ound to the formal hierarchy and duties of mem#ers2 .'S positions #ut to the University. The University identified the cultivation of a Communities of %ractice approach as a means of developin$ a common sense of identity, usin$ curriculum development to enhance no"led$e sharin$ and practice development across the re$ion. /en$er et al 32552Gpp6,7 identify some of the #enefits of community cultivation as to an or$anisation asG Connect local poc ets of e!pertise and isolated professionals +ia$nose and address recurrin$ #usiness pro#lems "hose root causes cross team #oundaries, Analyse the no"led$e-related sources of uneven performance across units performin$ similar tas s and "or to #rin$ everyone up to the hi$hest standard Ein and coordinate unconnected activities and initiatives addressin$ a similar no"led$e domain

These ali$ned closely "ith the University2s re(uirements to redevelop the curriculum, a Communities of %ractice approach havin$ the potential to $ro" a rich, proactive and mutually #eneficial no"led$esharin$ forum.

!uilding a community
The development of this community of medical tutors arose from a desire to stimulate this no"led$esharin$ forum. To do so, an online system called e-lla#orate "as constructed, allo"in$ the community mem#ers to "or in a secure, closed environment that they could access from any internet-ena#led computer. 0-lla#orate allo"s tutors to net"or "ith other tutors, #ut also provides a space for them to "or in themed $roups, to "hich mem#ers self-su#scri#e or are invited. *n the $roups, community mem#ers can share resources, revie" and edit documents, chat or contri#ute to a series of threaded discussions. Mem#ers of the community can find each other #y usin$ a num#er of search techni(ues #ased on their profile and then contact any other mem#er via email or #y leavin$ a messa$e on their 1$uest#oo 2. *n this "ay the tool provides a fully inte$rated environment for community communication and interaction. This is important for understandin$ ho" the community2s interaction is facilitatedF ho"ever, the focus of this paper is ho" the community of practice developed and its potential as a chan$e a$ent. The community of practice "as developed alon$side the development of the tool. The tool "as developed usin$ a ;apid Application +evelopment approach, "hich relies on user feed#ac to develop and refine the end product in short iterations. To carry out this development process, a core $roup of users "as chosen to represent the community. They "ere as ed not only to evaluate the initial versions of the

system, #ut also to define the purpose, role and value of the community. As the tool developed and #ecame more sta#le, it "as introduced to a "ider community and a series of interventions underta en to #oth en$a$e and #uild this "ider community into a cohesive community of practice, centred around the online environment. These interventions consisted of "or shops, net"or in$ events and $roup tas s and each "as follo"ed #y evaluation and analysis of the community2s vie"s, activity and #ehaviour, providin$ data for #oth the ne!t iteration of the tool and for su#se(uent interventions. This action-research #ased approach allo"ed identification of the values and activities of the community that characterise an emer$ent community of practice. The #ehaviour of those online and feed#ac from the "ider community sho"ed the principal value of the community to its mem#ers "as 1sharin$2F "hether sharin$ $ood practice or sharin$ resources, #ein$ a#le to e!chan$e information "as seen as the community2s ey #enefit. Sharin$ often too the form of sharin$ teachin$ resources, "ith mem#ers een to e!chan$e videos, ima$es or lesson plans, #ut it also included the e!chan$e of ideas on curriculum development. The record of online activity, and feed#ac from the community, sho"s that discussion and e!chan$e of ideas "as the principal online activity. The research also demonstrated that net"or in$ and moral support "ere valued #enefits of #ein$ part of the community. Mem#ers "ere een to net"or "ith relevant staff, #ased in other hospitals, "ho could provide information or support on particular issues. At the same time, the community "as very een to eep the online community 1closed2, restrictin$ this net"or in$ and su#se(uent discussions to a no"n and trusted $roup of professionals. This, "e #elieve, is connected "ith confidentiality, #ut also a#out sharin$ a set of values and #eliefs, e!pressed in feed#ac from the community. *f the community are confident that their discussions "ere contained "ithin this trusted community, they felt more a#le to e!press concerns or su$$est ideas for ne" "ays of "or in$. The su$$estion of ne" ideas "as a$ain seen as a ey #enefit of the community, particularly around the focus of curriculum development. <rom the activity and tas s that "ere carried out online, and from (uestionin$ the "ider community, it "ould appear that the mem#ers are een to su$$est ne" and novel approaches to ho" the curriculum should #e delivered and are not afraid to challen$e the status (uo. *n fact, "hen specifically as ed a#out their role in curriculum development, the ma&ority of the community felt it should #e in leadin$ curriculum development and providin$ innovation. These elements of sharin$ #est practice, discourse and net"or in$, com#ined "ith a shared set of values and a trusted community, sho" all the characteristics of an emer$ent community of practice. 'o"ever, "e #elieve that this same set of characteristics, com#ined "ith the desire to challen$e and su$$est ne" "ays of "or in$, ena#les the online community to #ecome an a$ent of chan$e, catalysin$ and implementin$ ne" practices in medical education across the "ider community.

The Community of Practice as a Change Agent

%olitical and Cultural models of chan$e provide us "ith definitions of chan$e a$ents that operate in the domain of values, #eliefs and attitudes. At the same time, the definition of a Community of %ractice provides us "ith a $roup that is #uilt on the foundations of values, #eliefs and attitudes. The (uestion is to "hat e!tent do these entities overlap and can the community of practice created in this case study act as an effective chan$e a$ent) The four primary roles of the chan$e a$ent as defined #y 'aveloc and 'aveloc 368ID7 provide a #road and "ell-used model of comparison from "hich to address the a#ove (uestion. These areG 1. Catalyst. This is the initial role of the chan$e a$ent and involves spar in$ chan$e #y (uestionin$ current practices and culture. 3'aveloc and 'aveloc 68ID7. This relates to the process of 1unfree=in$2 in Ee"in2s classical chan$e theory 3Ee"in 68,I7 and is a ey role in many chan$e a$ent models, particularly the cultural and political models that appear to dominate '0. Cur case study sho"ed that $iven the online environment of e-lla#orate, and the specific tas of revie"in$ the curriculum, tutors #e$an a discourse re$ardin$

curriculum content and ho" it2s delivered. *t is throu$h this discourse, that the values and #eliefs of the community #ecame no"n and articulated, and "ere found to often conflict "ith that of the or$anisation. The political model of chan$e predicts that chan$e occurs "hen conflict arises #et"een the #elief system of the or$anisation and that of its staff. 'o"ever, conflict "ith a sin$le individual2s values "ill not cause chan$eF actiona#le conflict can only arise if the consensus of the "hole community is no"n. 0vidence demonstrated that #y e!pressin$ dissatisfaction or su$$estin$ innovation, the online community of practice created in this study made such conflict apparent, not only to the or$anisation #ut also to the "ider community and that these discussions "ere ta en up #eyond the online environment. This, "e #elieve, is a clear indication of the role of the community in catalysin$ chan$e. 2. Solution Giver Cnce the need for chan$e has #een reco$nised, there is a need for a solutionF as 'aveloc and 'aveloc state, ?Many people "ho "ant to #rin$ a#out chan$e have definite ideas a#out "hat the chan$e should #eF they have solutions and they "ould li e to have others adopt those solutions@ 368IDG pB27. The community of practice provides an ideal forum throu$h "hich these solutions can #e $enerated. The online environment not only provides a vehicle for the articulation of such solutions, #ut also allo"s fello" mem#ers to comment and refine the solutions until consensus is reached. *t may #e thou$ht that solutions should #e provided #y the or$anisation. 'o"ever, such a directive approach #y the or$anisation is often set to fail. 9oth Ke=ar 325567 and Atlay 3255B7 ma e this pointF ? Any notion of a vision created by senior managers and then passed down is likely to be, at best, ignored. It may also fuel resentmenta recipe for failure@ 3Atlay 255B p6DB7. This raises the (uestion of "hether any solution that ori$inates from this community of practice is more li ely to #e adopted across the "ider community. There is early evidence from the case study that such solutions are initially adopted #y mem#ers of the online community ma in$ them, accordin$ to ;o$ers and Shoema er 368I67, innovators and early adopters, leadin$ the "ay for others to follo". /hether the rest of the community follo"s depends on ho" the online community of practice is vie"ed. A cultural model of chan$e states that the 1 primary motivator in the cultural model is legitimacy2 3Ke=ar 2556 p-57. The case study sho"ed that the community of practice provides this le$itimacy, "ith respondents statin$ ho" they sa" the community as 1trusted2. This trust is vital to chan$e 3Ke=ar 25567 and is #ased on the fact that the community of practice arises from the prevailin$ culture rather than challen$in$ it, and hence is a#le to validate or le$itimise any ne" practices. 3. Process Helper Cnce a solution has #een found or a$reed, the actions to #rin$ a#out actual chan$e need to occur. As discussed a#ove, the li elihood that these chan$es "ill #e adopted is $reater if the community of practice is seen as le$itimate and arisin$ from the prevailin$ culture. 'o"ever, the community can have a continued role in directin$ and supportin$ those ta in$ on the chan$e. This resonates "ith effective chan$e a$ents in the .'S "here offerin$ support is seen as a ey role in the chan$e process 3Massey and /illiams 255B7. A$ain, our study sho"s evidence of this, "ith support from collea$ues reported as a ma&or #enefit to the community. :ainin$ real support is dependant on #ein$ a#le to as the relevant person. The social net"or in$ element of e-lla#orate facilitates findin$ the ri$ht person and allo"s community mem#ers to as (uestions directly, either privately or pu#licly. This a#ility to net"or and see support is an important element of the e-lla#orate system. 3. Resource Linker The a#ility to #rin$ people to$ether and share resources is another ey feature of the e-lla#orate system and is seen as a ey #enefit to mem#ers of the community of practice. 'aveloc and 'aveloc 368ID7 see this a#ility to connect people and resources as an important, althou$h often overloo ed, chan$e role. This a#ility to smooth the process of chan$e for staff, #y ma in$ the #est use of availa#le resources and connectin$ to the appropriate people "as a$ain echoed in our study. The a#ility to share teachin$ resources and e!periences is somethin$ that "as hi$hly valued #y community mem#ers and seen as a ey motivation for #ein$ part of the $roup. Cf course these are not the only roles of a chan$e a$ent, and the political and cultural models are not the only models. 'o"ever, enou$h evidence "as $athered in this study to su$$est that an online community of practice can act effectively as an a$ent of chan$e in a comple! environment such as '0 and the .'S. This concept of communities of practice actin$ as chan$e a$ents is not ne". Co! 3255B7 su$$ested that

the 1communities of practice2 created at the Miami University 3and later else"here7 acted as chan$e a$ents to improve the (uality and scholarship of teachin$ and learnin$. 'o"ever, Co!2s study has limitations and conte!ts that differentiate it from the "or descri#ed here. <or e!ample, the communities of practice descri#ed #y Co! are 1Eearnin$ Communities2, a 1special type of community of practice2 3Co! 255BG p867, "hereas this study defined communities of practice in a more $eneric sense. *n addition, Co!2s communities meet re$ularly in a physical environment "hereas the community esta#lished in this study meets and "or s in an online environment and the technolo$y is pivotal to supportin$ their role as a chan$e a$ent. <inally, a ma&or difference lies in the process of chan$e and the role of the chan$e a$ent. /hereas Co! sees the communities as an immersive chan$e a$ent, creatin$ chan$e #y influencin$ the practices and #eliefs of its participants, this "or vie"s the online community as a #ody that influences and directs the practices and #eliefs of the "ider community of practitioners, even if they are not part of the online environment. 'ence, this study does not contradict or conflict "ith the "or of Co!, #ut rather #uilds and e!pands on his "or to su$$est a #roader concept of communities actin$ as a$ents of chan$e.

Conclusions
The case study presented in this paper provides stron$ evidence of the similarities that e!ist #et"een communities of practice and chan$e a$ents. 'o"ever, these similarities only point to the potential of communities to act as chan$e a$ents and in order to fulfil this potential, communities must e!ist in an ena#lin$ environment. The evidence from this case study also su$$ests that the online system e-lla#orate provides such an environment. Allo"in$ mem#ers to net"or , discuss and share in a trusted yet visi#le forum, provides an articulation of the community2s concerns and solutions. This, "e have demonstrated, can then provide the catalyst and support for chan$e in the "ider community. 'o"ever, political models of chan$e hi$hli$ht the need for chan$e a$ents to underta e #ar$ainin$ and ne$otiation "ith policy ma ers to ena#le chan$e 3Ke=ar 25567 and in this respect the community must also 1lo##y2 ey fi$ures "ithin the or$anisation. There is no evidence of such activity in this case study, althou$h feed#ac from the mem#ers sho"s they vie" this as a possi#le function of the community. This raises the (uestion of "ho determines the a$enda for chan$e. :iven the evidence of this study, an or$anisation may #e tempted to create an online community of practice to #rin$ a#out chan$e in a particular area of practice. 'o"ever, as "e have seen, a 1top-do"n2 vision rarely "or s and instead it is the community "ho realise the vision and #e$in to set the a$enda. <urther study into the motivation and drivers of communities may provide a mechanism for or$anisations to harness the potential of communities as chan$e a$ents and direct the chan$e in a manner that suits #oth community and or$anisation.

References Atlay, M 3255B7 ?Chan$e, cats and comple!ity science@, in 'unt, E, 9roma$e, A and Tom inson 9. he !ealities of "hange in #igher $ducation, ;outled$e, Eondon 9amford, +. and +aniel, S. 3255-7 ?A Case Study of Chan$e Mana$ement 0ffectiveness "ithin the .'S@, %ournal of "hange &anagement, Jol. -, .o. ,, +ecem#er 255-, ppD86-,5B Cappelli, T. 3255>7 ?The %athfinder 4ourneyG %ro&ect ;eport@, KonlineL, Manchester University, """.elrc.ac.u Ado"nloadAdocumentsAfinalreport.doc K66 <e# 2558L Co!, M 3255B7 ?%hases in the development of a chan$e modelG Communities of practice as chan$e a$ents in hi$her education@, in 'unt, E, 9roma$e, A and Tom inson 9. he !ealities of "hange in #igher $ducation, ;outled$e, Eondon 'aveloc , ;. and 'aveloc , M. 368ID7 raining for "hange AgentsF a guide to the design of training programs in education and other fields, Ann Ar#or, Michi$an 4ones ;, 'i$$s ;, de An$elis C and %rideau! +. 325567 ?Chan$in$ face of medical Curricula@, he 'ancet, Jol. D-I, 2556, ppB88-I5D Ke=ar A. 325567 (nderstanding and facilitating organisational change in the )*st "entury, AS'0-0;*C 'i$her 0ducation ;eport Jol. 2>, no. , Eave, 4. M /en$er, 0. 368867. +ituated 'earning, 'egitimate -eripheral -articipation . .e" Nor G Cam#rid$e U%. Ee"in, K. 368,I7 ?:roup +ecision and Social Chan$e@, !eadings in +ocial -sychology, ed. 'artley, 3.e" Nor G 'olt, ;inehart, and /inston7. Eippitt,;., /atson, 4. and /estley 9. 368->7, he .ynamics of -lanned "hange, 'arcourt, .e" Nor Massey, E. and /illiams, S 3255B7 ?*mplementin$ chan$eG the perspective of .'S chan$e a$ents@, 'eadership / 0rgani1ation .evelopment %ournal, Jol. 2I, .o. >, 255B, ppBBI-B>6 Mc+onald, ;. 3255-7 ?Shiftin$ the #alance of po"er) Culture chan$e and identity in an 0n$lish healthcare settin$@, %ournal of #ealth 0rganisation and &anagement, Jol. 68, .o. D, 255-, pp6>8-25D .ational :uidance ;esearch <orum 3.:;<7 325587 0ducation Sector *nformation KonlineL httpGAA""".$uidance-research.or$Afuture-trendsAeducationAinfo K8 <e# 2558L Ctta"ay, ;... 368>D7 ?The Chan$e A$entG A Ta!onomy in ;elation to the Chan$e %rocess@, #uman !elations, Jol. DB, .o. ,, 68>D, ppDB6-D82 ;o$ers, 0. and Shoema er, <. 368I67 "ommunication of Innovation, <ree %ress, .e" Nor Tempest, M. 3255-7 he future of the 2#+, O%E pu#lishin$, St Al#ans Thompson, :., 0sta#roo s, C., and +e$ner, E. 3255B7 ?Clarifyin$ the concepts in no"led$e transferG a literature revie"@, %ournal of Advanced 2ursing, Jol. -D, .o. B, 255B, ppB86-I56 /en$er, 0. and Mc+ermott, ;. and Snyder, /. 325527 "ultivating communities of practice, a guide to managing knowledge. Cam#rid$e, Mass.G 'arvard 9usiness School %ress. /en$er, 0. 368887 "ommunities of -ractice. 'earning, meaning and identity , Cam#rid$eG Cam#rid$e University %ress.

Haltman, : and +uncan, ;. 368II7 +trategies for -lanned "hange, /iley, .e" Nor