Culture of NIGERIA

ORIENTATION
Identification. Though there is archaeological evidence that societies have been living in Nigeria for more than twenty-five hundred years, the borders of modern Nigeria were not created until the British consolidated their colonial power over the area in 1914. The name Nigeria was suggested by British ournalist !lora "haw in the 1#9$s. "he referred to the area as Nigeria, after the Niger %iver, which dominates much of the country&s landscape. The word niger is 'atin for blac(. )ore than *+$ ethnic tribes call present-day Nigeria home. The three largest and most dominant ethnic groups are the ,ausa, -oruba, and .gbo /pronounced ee-bo0. 1ther smaller groups include the !ulani, . aw, 2anuri, .bibio, Tiv, and 3do. 4rior to their con5uest by 3uropeans, these ethnic groups had separate and independent histories. Their grouping together into a single entity (nown as Nigeria was a construct of their British coloni6ers. These various ethnic groups never considered themselves part of the same culture. This general lac( of Nigerian nationalism coupled with an ever-changing and often ethnically biased national leadership, have led to severe internal ethnic conflicts and a civil war. Today bloody confrontations between or among members of different ethnic groups continue. Location and Geography. Nigeria is in 7est 8frica, along the eastern coast of the 9ulf of 9uinea, and ust north of the e5uator. .t is bordered on the west by Benin, on the north by Niger and :had, and on the east by :ameroon. Nigeria covers an area of ;+<,<<9 s5uare miles /9*;,=<# s5uare (ilometers0, or about twice the si6e of :alifornia. Nigeria has three main environmental regions> savanna, tropical forests, and coastal wetlands. These environmental regions greatly affect the cultures of the people who live there. The dry, open grasslands of the savanna ma(e cereal farming and herding a way of life for the ,ausa and the !ulani. The wet tropical forests to the south are good for farming fruits and vegetables?main income producers for the -oruba, .gbo, and others in this area. The small ethnic groups living along the coast, such as the . aw and the 2alabari, are forced to (eep their villages small due to lac( of dry land. 'iving among cree(s, lagoons, and salt marshes ma(es fishing and the salt trade part of everyday life in the area. The Niger and Benue %ivers come together in the center of the country, creating a @-@ that splits Nigeria into three separate sections. .n general, this @-@ mar(s the boundaries of the three ma or ethnic groups, with the ,ausa in the north, the -oruba in the southwest, and the .gbo in the southeast. 4olitically, Nigeria is divided into thirty-siA states. The nation&s capital was moved from 'agos, the country&s largest city, to 8bu a on 1* Becember 1991. 8bu a is in a federal territory that is not part of any state. 7hile 8bu a is the official capital, its lac( of ade5uate infrastructure means that 'agos remains the financial, commercial, and diplomatic center of the country.

Demography. Nigeria has the largest population of any 8frican country. .n Culy *$$$, Nigeria&s population was estimated at more than 1*; million people. 8t about ;4+ people per s5uare mile, it is also the most densely populated country in 8frica. Nearly one in siA 8fricans is a Nigerian. Bespite the rampages of 8.B", Nigeria&s population continues to grow at about *.< percent each year. The Nigerian population is very young. Nearly 4+ percent of its people are under age fourteen. 7ith regard to ethnic brea(down, the ,ausa-!ulani ma(e up *9 percent of the population, followed by the -oruba with *1 percent, the .gbo with

Nigeria 1# percent, the . aw with 1$ percent, the 2anuri with 4 percent, the .bibio with ;.+ percent, and the Tiv with *.+ percent. )a or urban centers include 'agos, .bidan, 2aduna, 2ano, and 4ort ,arcourt. Linguistic Affiliations. 3nglish is the official language of Nigeria, used in all government interactions and in state-run schools. .n a country with more than *+$ individual tribal languages, 3nglish is the only language common to most people. Dnofficially, the country&s second language is ,ausa. .n northern Nigeria many people who are not ethnic ,ausas spea( both ,ausa and their own tribal language. ,ausa is the oldest (nown written language in 7est 8frica, dating bac( to before 1$$$ :.3.

The dominant indigenous languages of the south are -oruba and .gbo. 4rior to coloni6ation, these languages were the unifying languages of the southwest and southeast, respectively, regardless of ethnicity. ,owever, since the coming of the British and the introduction of mission schools in southern Nigeria, 3nglish has become the language common to most people in the area. Today those who are not ethnic -orubas or .gbos rarely spea( -oruba or .gbo. 4idgin, a miA of 8frican languages and 3nglish, also is common throughout southern Nigeria. .t basically uses 3nglish words miAed into -oruban or .gbo grammar structures. 4idgin originally evolved from the need for British sailors to find a way to communicate with local merchants. Today it is often used in ethnically miAed urban areas as a common form of communication among people who have not had formal education in 3nglish. Symbolism. Because there is little feeling of national unity among Nigeria&s people, there is little in terms of national symbolism. 7hat eAists was usually created or unveiled by the government as representative of the nation. The main national symbol is the country&s flag. The flag is divided vertically into three e5ual partsE the center section is white, flan(ed by two green sections. The green of the flag represents agriculture, while the white stands for unity and peace. 1ther national symbols include the national coat of arms, the national anthem, the National 4ledge /similar to the 4ledge of 8llegiance in the Dnited "tates0, and Nigeria&s national motto> 4eace and Dnity, "trength and 4rogress.

HISTORY AND ETHNIC RELATIONS

Emergence of the Nation. 3very ethnic group in Nigeria has its own stories of where its ancestors came from. These vary from tales of people descending from the s(y to stories of migration from far-off places. 8rchaeologists have found evidence of Neolithic humans who inhabited what is now Nigeria as far bac( as 1*,$$$ B.:.3. The histories of the people in northern and southern Nigeria prior to coloni6ation followed vastly different paths. The first recorded empire in present-day Nigeria was centered in the north at 2anem-Borno, near 'a(e :had. This empire came to power during the eighth century :.3. By the thirteenth century, many ,ausa states began to emerge in the region as well. Trans-"ahara trade with North 8fricans and 8rabs began to transform these northern societies greatly. .ncreased contact with the .slamic world led to the conversion of the 2anem-Borno 3mpire to .slam in the eleventh century. This led to a ripple effect of conversions throughout the north. .slam brought with it changes in law, education, and politics. The trans-"ahara trade also brought with it revolutions in wealth and class structure. 8s the centuries went on, strict .slamists, many of whom were poor !ulani, began to tire of increasing corruption, eAcessive taAation, and unfair treatment of the poor. .n 1#$4 the !ulani launched a ihad, or )uslim holy war, against the ,ausa states in an attempt to cleanse them of these non)uslim behaviors and to reintroduce proper .slamic ways. By 1#$= the last ,ausa state had fallen. The !ulani victors founded the "o(oto :aliphate, which grew to become the largest state in 7est 8frica until its con5uest by the British in 19$;. .n the south, the 1yo 3mpire grew to become the most powerful -oruban society during the siAteenth century. 8long the coast, the 3do people established the Benin 3mpire /not to be confused with the present-day country of Benin to the west0, which reached its height of power in the fifteenth and siAteenth centuries. 8s in the north, outsiders heavily influenced the societies of southern Nigeria. :ontact with 3uropeans began with the arrival of 4ortuguese ships in 14#<. The British, !rench, and Butch soon followed. "oon after their arrival, the trade in slaves replaced the original trade in goods. )any of the coastal communities began selling their neighbors, whom they had captured in wars and raids, to the 3uropeans in eAchange for things such as guns, metal, ewelry, and li5uor. The slave trade had ma or social conse5uences for the 8fricans. Fiolence and intertribal warfare increased as the search for slaves intensified. The increased wealth accompanying the slave trade began to change social structures in the area. 'eadership, which had been based on tradition and ritual, soon became based on wealth and economic power. 8fter more than ;+$ years of slave trading, the British decided that the slave trade was immoral and, in 1#$=, ordered it stopped. They began to force their newfound morality on the Nigerians. )any local leaders, however, continued to sell captives to illegal slave traders. This lead to confrontations with the British Navy, which too( on the responsibility of enforcing the slave embargo. .n 1#+1 the British attac(ed 'agos to try to stem the flow of slaves from the area. By

1#<1 the British government had anneAed the city and established its first official colony in Nigeria. 8s the nonslave trade began to flourish, so, too, did the Nigerian economy. 8 new economy based on raw materials, agricultural products, and locally manufactured goods saw the growth of a new class of Nigerian merchants. These merchants were heavily influenced by 7estern ways. )any soon became involved in politics, often critici6ing chiefs for (eeping to their traditional ways. 8 new divide within

Central Ibadan, the second-largest city. Nigeria is the most densely populated country in Africa. the local communities began to develop, in terms of both wealth and politics. Because being a successful merchant was based on production and merit, not on traditional community standing, many former slaves and lower-class people soon found that they could advance 5uic(ly up the social ladder. .t was not unusual to find a former slave transformed into the richest, most powerful man in the area. :hristian missionaries brought 7estern-style education to Nigeria as :hristianity 5uic(ly spread throughout the south. The mission schools created an educated 8frican elite who also sought increased contact with 3urope and a 7esterni6ation of Nigeria. .n 1##4, as 3uropean countries engaged in a race to consolidate their 8frican territories, the British 8rmy and local merchant militias set out to con5uer the 8fricans who refused to

recogni6e British rule. .n 1914, after s5uelching the last of the indigenous opposition, Britain officially established the :olony and 4rotectorate of Nigeria. National Identity. The spread of overt colonial control led to the first and only time that the ethnic groups in modern Nigeria came together under a commonly felt sense of national identity. The 8fricans began to see themselves not as ,ausas, .gbos, or -orubas, but as Nigerians in a common struggle against their colonial rulers. The nationalistic movement grew out of some of the moderni6ation the British had instituted in Nigeria. The educated elite became some of the most outspo(en proponents of an independent Nigeria. This elite had grown weary of the harsh racism it faced in business and administrative obs within the government. Both the elite and the uneducated also began to grow fearful of the increasing loss of traditional culture. They began movements to promote Nigerian foods, names, dress, languages, and religions. .ncreased urbani6ation and higher education brought large multiethnic groups together for the first time. 8s a result of this coming together, the Nigerians saw that they had more in common with each other than they had previously thought. This spar(ed unprecedented levels of interethnic teamwor(. Nigerian political movements, media outlets, and trade unions whose purpose was the advancement of all Nigerians, not specific ethnic groups, became commonplace. 8s calls for self-determination and a transfer of power into the hands of Nigerians grew, Britain began to divest more power into the regional governments. 8s a result of early colonial policies of divide and con5uer, the regional governments tended to be drawn along ethnic lines. 7ith this move to greater regional autonomy, the idea of a unified Nigeria became to crumble. %egionally and ethnically based political parties sprang up as ethnic groups began to wrangle for political influence. Ethnic Relations. Nigeria gained full independence from Britain on 1 1ctober 19<$. .mmediately following independence, vicious fighting between and among political parties created chaos within the fledgling democracy. 1n 1+ Canuary 19<< a group of army officers, most of whom were .gbo, staged a military coup, (illing many of the government ministers from the western and northern tribes. "iA months later, northern forces within the military staged a countercoup, (illing most of the .gbo leaders. 8nti-.gbo demonstrations bro(e out across the country, especially in the north. ,undreds of .gbos were (illed, while the rest fled to the southeast. 1n *< )ay 19<= the .gbo-dominated southeast declared it had bro(en away from Nigeria to form the independent %epublic of Biafra. This touched off a bloody civil war that lasted for three years. .n 19=$, on the brin( of widespread famine resulting from a Nigeria-imposed bloc(ade, Biafra was forced to surrender. Between five hundred thousand and two million Biafran civilians were (illed during the civil war, most dying from starvation, not combat. !ollowing the war, the military rulers encouraged a national reconciliation, urging Nigerians to once again become a unified people. 7hile this national reconciliation succeeded in reintegrating the Biafrans into Nigeria, it did not end the problems of ethnicity in the country. .n the years that

followed, Nigeria was continually threatened by disintegration due to ethnic fighting. These ethnic conflicts reached their height in the 199$s. 8fter decades of military rule, elections for a new civilian president were finally held on 1* Cune 199;. 8 wealthy -oruba )uslim named )oshood 8biola won the elections, beating the leading ,ausa candidate. 8biola won support not only from his own people but from many non--orubas as well, including many ,ausas. This mar(ed the first time since Nigeria&s independence that Nigerians bro(e from ethnically based voting practices. Two wee(s later, however, the military regime had the election results annulled and 8biola imprisoned. )any commanders in the ,ausa-dominated military feared losing control to a southerner. They played on the nation&s old ethnic distrusts, hoping that a divided nation would be easier to control. This soon created a new ethnic crisis. The neAt five years saw violent protests and mass migrations as ethnic groups again retreated to their traditional homelands. The sudden death of Nigeria&s last military dictator, 9eneral "uni 8bacha, on # Cune 199# opened the door for a transition bac( to civilian rule. Bespite age-old ethnic rivalries, many Nigerians again crossed ethnic lines when they entered the voting booth. 1n ** !ebruary 1999 1lusegun 1basan o, a -oruba who ironically lac(ed support from his own people, won the presidential election. 1basan o is seen as a nationalist who opposed ethnic divisions. ,owever, some northern leaders believe he favors his own ethnic group. Dnfortunately, violent ethnic fighting in Nigeria continues. .n 1ctober *$$$, clashes between ,ausas and supporters of the 1dua 4eople&s :ongress /14:0, a militant -oruba group, led to the deaths of nearly a hundred people in 'agos. )any also blame the 14: for spar(ing riots in 1999, which (illed more than a hundred others, most of them ,ausas.

URBANISM, ARCHITECTURE, AND THE USE OF SPACE

7ith the influA of oil revenue and foreigners, Nigerian cities have grown to resemble many 7estern urban centers. 'agos, for eAample, is a massive, overcrowded city filled with traffic ams, movie theaters, department stores, restaurants, and supermar(ets. Because most Nigerian cities grew out of much older towns, very little urban planning was used as the cities eApanded. "treets are laid out in a confusing and often ma6eli(e fashion, adding to the chaos for pedestrians and traffic. The influA of people into urban areas has put a strain on many services. 4ower cuts and disruptions of telephone service are not uncommon. Nigerian architecture is as diverse as its people. .n rural areas, houses often are designed to accommodate the environment in which the people live. The . o live in the Niger Belta region, where dry land is very scarce. To compensate for this, many . o homes are built on stilts over cree(s and swamps, with travel between them done by boat. The houses are made of wood and bamboo and topped with a roof made of fronds from raffia palms. The houses are very airy, to allow heat and the smo(e from coo(ing fires to escape easily. .gbo houses tend to be made of a bamboo frame held together with vines and mud and covered with banana leaves. They often blend into the surrounding forest and can be easily missed if you don&t (now where to loo(. )en and women traditionally live in separate houses. )uch of the architecture in the north is heavily influenced by )uslim culture. ,omes are typically geometric, mud-walled structures, often with )uslim mar(ings and decorations. The ,ausa build large, walled compounds housing several smaller huts. The entryway into the compound is via a large hut built into the wall of the compound. This is the hut of the father or head male figure in the compound.

FOOD AND ECONOMY

Food in Daily Life. 7estern influences, especially in urban centers, have transformed Nigerian eating habits in many ways. :ity dwellers are familiar with the canned, fro6en, and prepac(aged foods found in most 7estern-style supermar(ets. !oreign restaurants also are common in larger cities. ,owever, supermar(ets and restaurants often are too eApensive for the average NigerianE thus only the wealthy can afford to eat li(e 7esterners. )ost urban Nigerians seem to combine traditional cuisine with a little of 7estern-style foods and conveniences. %ural Nigerians tend to stic( more with traditional foods and preparation techni5ues. !ood in Nigeria is traditionally eaten by hand. ,owever, with the growing influence of 7estern culture, for(s and spoons are becoming more common, even in remote villages. 7hether people eat with their hand or a utensil, it is considered dirty and rude to eat using the left hand. 7hile the ingredients in traditional plates vary from region to region, most Nigerian cuisine tends to be based around a few staple foods accompanied by a stew. .n the south, crops such as corn, yams, and sweet potatoes form the base of the diet. These vegetables are often pounded into a thic(, stic(y dough or paste. This is often served with a palm oilbased stew made with

chic(en, beef, goat, tomatoes, o(ra, onions, bitter leaves, or whatever meats and vegetables might be on hand. !ruits such as papaya, pineapples, coconuts, oranges, mangoes, and bananas also are very common in the tropical south. .n the north, grains such as millet, sorghum, and corn are boiled into a porridge-li(e dish that forms the basis of the diet. This is served with an oilbased soup usually flavored with onions, o(ra, and tomatoes. "ometimes meat is included, though among the ,ausa it is often reserved for special occasions. Than(s to the !ulani cattle herders, fresh mil( and yogurt are common even though there may not be refrigeration. 8lcohol is very popular in the south but less so in the north, where there is a heavy .slamic influence. 4erhaps the most popular form of alcohol is palm wine, a tart alcoholic drin( that comes from palm trees. 4alm wine is often distilled further to ma(e a strong, ginli(e li5uor. Nigerian breweries also produce several (inds of beer and li5uor. Food ustoms at eremonial !ccasions. !ood plays a central role in the rituals of virtually all ethnic groups in Nigeria. "pecial ceremonies would not be complete without participants sharing in a meal. Normally it is considered rude not to invite guests to share in a meal when they visitE it is even more so if the visitors were invited to attend a special event such as a marriage or a naming ceremony. "asic Economy. Dntil the past few decades, Nigeria had been self-sufficient in producing enough food to feed the population. ,owever, as petroleum production and industry began to boom in Nigeria, much of the national resources were concentrated on the new industries at the eApense of agriculture.

Homes and market near the Lagos Lagoon. Nigerian cities have gro n to resemble estern urban centers. Nigeria, which had previously been a net eAporter of agricultural products, soon needed to import vast amounts of food it once was able to produce for itself. "ince the 19<$s, Nigeria&s economy has been based on oil production. 8s a leading member of the 1rgani6ation of 4etroleum 3Aporting :ountries /143:0, Nigeria has played a ma or role in influencing the price of oil on the world mar(et. The oil-rich economy led to a ma or economic boom for Nigeria during the 19=$s, transforming the poor 8frican country into the thirtieth richest country in the world. ,owever, falling oil prices, severe corruption, political instability, and economic mismanagement since then have left Nigeria no better off today than it was at independence. "ince the restoration of civilian rule in 1999, Nigeria has begun to ma(e strides in economic reform. 7hile hopes are high for a strong economic transformation, high unemployment, high inflation, and more than a third of the population living under the poverty line indicate it will be a long and difficult road. 1il production has had some long-lasting ethnic conse5uences as well. 7hile oil is Nigeria&s largest industry in terms of output and revenue, oil reserves are found only in the Niger Belta region and along the coast. The government has long ta(en the oil revenues and dispersed them throughout the country. .n this way, states not involved in oil production still get a share of the

profits. This has led to claims that the minority ethnic groups living in the delta are being cheated out of revenue that is rightfully theirs because the larger ethnic groups dominate politics. "ometimes this has led to large-scale violence. )ore than +$ percent of Nigeria&s population wor(s in the agriculture sector. )ost farmers engage in subsistence farming, producing only what they eat themselves or sell locally. Fery few agricultural products are produced for eAport. Land #enure and $roperty. 7hile the federal government has the legal right to allocate land as it sees fit, land tenure remains largely a local issue. )ost local governments follow traditional land tenure customs in their areas. !or eAample, in ,ausa society, title to land is not an absolute right. 7hile communities and officials will honor long-standing hereditary rights to areas of land traditionally claimed by a given family, misused or abandoned land may be reapportioned for better use. 'and also can be bought, sold, or rented. .n the west, the -oruban (ings historically held all the land in trust, and therefore also had a say in how it was used for the good of the community. This has given local governments in modern times a freer hand in settling land disputes. Traditionally, only men hold land, but as the wealth structure continues to change and develop in Nigeria, it would not be unheard of for a wealthy woman to purchase land for herself. %a&or Industries. 8side from petroleum and petroleum-based products, most of the goods produced in Nigeria are consumed within Nigeria. !or eAample, though the teAtile industry is very strong, nearly all the cloth produced in Nigeria goes to clothing the large Nigerian population. )a or agricultural products produced in Nigeria include cocoa, peanuts, palm oil, rice, millet, corn, cassava, yams, rubber, cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, timber, and fish. )a or commercial industries in Nigeria include coal, tin, teAtiles, footwear, fertili6er, printing, ceramics, and steel. #rade. 1il and petroleum-based products made up 9+ percent of Nigeria&s eAports in 199#. :ocoa and rubber are also produced for eAport. )a or eAport partners include the Dnited "tates, "pain, .ndia, !rance, and .taly. Nigeria is a large-scale importer, depending on other countries for things such as machinery, chemicals, transportation e5uipment, and manufactured goods. The country also must import large 5uantities of food and livestoc(. )a or import partners include the Dnited 2ingdom, the Dnited "tates, 9ermany, !rance, and the Netherlands.

SOCIAL STRATIFICATION
lasses and astes. The highest tier of Nigerian society is made up of wealthy politicians, businessmen, and the educated elite. These people, however, ma(e up only a tiny portion of the Nigerian population. )any Nigerians today suffer under great poverty. The lower classes tend have little chance of brea(ing from the vicious cycle of poverty. 4oor education, lac( of opportunities, ill health, corrupt politicians, and lac( of even small amounts of wealth for investment all wor( to (eep the lower classes in their place. .n some Nigerian ethnic groups there is also a form of caste system that treats certain members of society as pariahs. The criteria for determining who belongs to this lowest caste vary from area to area but can include being a member of a minority group, an inhabitant of a specific village, or a member of a specific family or clan. The .gbo call this lower-caste group 1su. )embers of the community will often discourage personal, romantic, and business contact with any member of the 1su group, regardless of an individual&s personal merits or characteristics. Because the 1su are designated as untouchable, they often lac( political representation, access to basic educational or business opportunities, and general social interaction. This (ind of caste system is also found among the -oruba and the .bibios. Symbols of Social Stratification. 7ealth is the main symbol of social stratification in modern Nigeria, especially in urban areas. 7hile in the past many ethnic groups held hereditary titles and traditional lineage important, money has become the new mar(er of power and social status. Today the members of the wealthy elite are easily identifiable by their fancy clothing and hairstyles and by their eApensive cars and 7estern-style homes. Those in the elite also tend to have a much better command of 3nglish, a reflection of the higher 5uality of education they have received.

A man places ske ers of meat in a circle around a fire. !ural Nigerians favor traditional foods and preparation techni"ues.

7ealth also can be important in mar(ing social boundaries in rural areas. .n many ethnic groups, those who have accumulated enough wealth can buy themselves local titles. !or eAample, among the .gbo, a man or a woman who has enough money may claim the title of #$o. !or women, one of the re5uirements to become an #$o is to have enough ivory, coral, and other ewelry for the ceremony. The weight of the ewelry can often eAceed fifty pounds. Both men and women who want to claim the title must also finance a feast for the entire community.

POLITICAL LIFE
Go'ernment. Nigeria is a republic, with the president acting as both head of state and head of government. Nigeria has had a long history of coups d%&tats, military rule, and dictatorship. ,owever, this pattern was bro(en on *9 )ay 1999 as Nigeria&s current president, 1lusegun 1basan o, too( office following popular elections. Dnder the current constitution, presidential elections are to be held every four years, with no president serving more than two terms in office. The Nigerian legislature consists of two houses> a "enate and a ,ouse of %epresentatives. 8ll legislators are elected to four-year terms. Nigeria&s udicial branch is headed by a "upreme :ourt, whose members were appointed by the 4rovisional %uling :ouncil, which ruled Nigeria during its recent transition to democracy. 8ll Nigerians over age eighteen are eligible to vote. Leadership and $olitical !fficials. 8 wealthy political elite dominates political life in Nigeria. The relationship between the political elite and ordinary Nigerians is not unli(e that between nobles and commoners. Nigerian leaders, whether as members of a military regime or one of Nigeria&s short-lived civilian governments, have a history of doing whatever it ta(es to stay in power and to hold on to the wealth that this power has given them. %ural Nigerians tend to accept this noble-peasant system of politics. 'ow levels of education and literacy mean that many people in rural areas are not fully aware of the political process or how to affect it. Their relative isolation from the rest of the country means that many do not even thin( of politics. There is a common feeling in many rural areas that the average person cannot affect the politics of the country, so there is no reason to try. Drban Nigerians tend to be much more vocal in their support of or opposition to their leaders. Drban problems of housing, unemployment, health care, sanitation, and traffic tend to mobili6e people into political action and public displays of dissatisfaction. 4olitical parties were outlawed under the 8bacha regime, and only came bac( into being after his death. 8s of the 1999 presidential elections, there were three main political parties in Nigeria> the 4eople&s Bemocratic 4arty /4B40, the 8ll 4eoples 4arty /8440, and the 8lliance for Bemocracy /8B0. The 4B4 is the party of 4resident 1basan o. .t grew out of support for opposition leaders who were imprisoned by the military government in the early 199$s. The 4B4 is widely believed to have received heavy financial assistance from the military during the 1999 elections. The 844 is led by politicians who had close ties to the 8bacha regime. The 8B is a party led by followers of the late )oshood 8biola, the -oruba politician who won the general election in 199;, only to be sent to prison by the military regime. Social $roblems and ontrol. 4erhaps Nigeria&s greatest social problem is the internal violence plaguing the nation. .nterethnic fighting throughout the country, religious rioting between )uslims and non-)uslims over the creation of "hari&a law /strict .slamic law0 in the northern states, and political confrontations between ethnic minorities and bac(ers of oil companies often spar( bloody confrontations that can last days or even months. 7hen violence of this type brea(s out, national and state police try to control it. ,owever, the police themselves are often accused of some of the worst violence. .n some instances, curfews and martial law have been imposed in specific areas to try to stem outbrea(s of unrest.

4overty and lac( of opportunity for many young people, especially in urban areas, have led to ma or crime. 'agos is considered one of the most dangerous cities in 7est 8frica due to its incredibly high crime rate. The police are charged with controlling crime, but their lac( of success often leads to vigilante ustice. .n some rural areas there are some more traditional ways of addressing social problems. .n many ethnic groups, such as the .gbo and the -oruba, men are organi6ed into secret societies. .nitiated members of these societies often dress in mas(s and palm leaves to mas5uerade as the physical embodiment of traditional spirits to help maintain social order. Through ritual dance, these men will give warnings about problems with an individual&s or community&s morality in a given situation. Because belief in witchcraft and evil spirits is high throughout Nigeria, this (ind of public accusation can instill fear in people and cause them to mend their ways. )embers of secret societies also can act as udges or intermediaries in disputes. %ilitary Acti'ity. Nigeria&s military consists of an army, a navy, an air force, and a police force. The minimum age for military service is eighteen. The Nigerian military is the largest and best-e5uipped military in 7est 8frica. 8s a member of the 3conomic :ommunity of 7est 8frican "tates /3:178"0, Nigeria is the ma or contributor to the organi6ation&s military branch, (nown as 3:1)19. Nigerian troops made up the vast ma ority of the 3:1)19 forces deployed to restore peace following civil wars in 'iberia, 9uinea-Bissau, and "ierra 'eone. 4ublic dissatisfaction with Nigeria&s participation in the "ierra 'eonean crisis was eAtremely high due to high casualty rates among the Nigerian soldiers. Nigeria pledged to pull out of "ierra 'eone in 1999, prompting the Dnited Nations to send in peace(eepers in an attempt stem the violence. 7hile the foreign forces in "ierra 'eone are now under the mandate of the Dnited Nations, Nigerian troops still ma(e up the ma ority of the peace(eepers. Nigeria has a long-running border dispute with :ameroon over the mineral-rich Ba(asi 4eninsula, and the two nations have engaged in a series of cross-boarder s(irmishes. Nigeria, :ameroon, Niger, and :had also have a long-running border dispute over territory in the 'a(e :had region, which also has led to some fighting across the borders.

SOCIAL WELFARE AND CHANGE PROGRAMS

"evere poverty, human rights violations, and corruption are some of the ma or social ills that have plagued Nigeria for decades. Because Nigeria is in the midst of ma or political change, however, there is great hope for social reform in the country. 4resident 1basan o&s administration has been focusing much of its efforts on changing the world&s image of Nigeria. )any foreign companies have been reluctant to invest in Nigeria for fear of political instability. 1basan o hopes that if Nigeria can pro ect the image of a stable nation, he can coaA foreign investors to come to Nigeria and help bolster the country&s failing economy. The 7orld Ban( and the .nternational )onetary !und /.)!0 are also wor(ing with Nigeria to develop economic policies that will revitali6e the nation&s economy. 1basan o also says that rooting out corruption in all levels of government is one of his top priorities.

A man sells patterned cloth at a market. Nigerians are e'pert dyers, eavers, and tailors. ,e signed the 8nti-:orruption 8ct in Cune *$$$, creating a special commission for investigating charges of corruption brought by ordinary Nigerians against government officials.

8ccording to 8mnesty .nternational&s *$$$ report, Nigeria&s new government continues to ma(e strides in improving human rights throughout the country, most notably in the release of political prisoners. ,owever, the detention of ournalists critical of the military and reports of police brutality continue to be problems. !oreign governments and watchdog organi6ations continue to press the Nigerian government for further human rights reforms.

GENDER ROLES AND STATUSES

Di'ision of Labor by Gender. .n general, labor is divided in Nigerian society along gender lines. Fery few women are active in the political and professional arenas. .n urban areas, increasing numbers of women are becoming involved in the professional wor(force, but they are greatly outnumbered by their male counterparts. 7omen who do manage to gain professional employment rarely ma(e it into the higher levels of management. ,owever, women in Nigeria still play significant roles in the economy, especially in rural areas. 7omen are often eApected to earn significant portions of the family income. 8s a rule, men have little obligation to provide for their wives or children. Therefore women have traditionally had to farm or sell homemade products in the local mar(et to ensure that they could feed and clothe their children. The division of labor along gender lines even eAists within industries. !or eAample, the (inds of crops that women cultivate differ from those that men cultivate. .n .gbo society, yams are seen as men&s crops, while beans and cassava are seen as women&s crops. #he Relati'e Status of (omen and %en. )odern Nigeria is a patriarchal society. )en are dominant over women in virtually all areas. 7hile Nigeria is a signatory to the international :onvention on 35uality for 7omen, it means little to the average Nigerian woman. 7omen still have fewer legal rights than men. 8ccording to Nigeria&s 4enal :ode, men have the right to beat their wives as long as they do not cause permanent physical in ury. 7ives are often seen as little more than possessions and are sub ect to the rule of their husbands. ,owever, women can eAercise influence in some areas. !or eAample, in most ethnic groups, mothers and sisters have great say in the lives of their sons and brothers, respectively. The blood relationship allows these women certain leeway and influence that a wife does not have.

MARRIAGE, FAMILY, AND KINSHIP

%arriage. There are three types of marriage in Nigeria today> religious marriage, civil marriage, and traditional marriage. 8 Nigerian couple may decide to ta(e part in one or all of these marriages. %eligious marriages, usually :hristian or )uslim, are conducted according to the norms of the respective religious teachings and ta(e place in a church or a mos5ue. :hristian males are allowed only one wife, while )uslim men can ta(e up to four wives. :ivil official weddings ta(e place in a government registry office. )en are allowed only one wife under a civil wedding, regardless of religion. Traditional marriages usually are held at the wife&s house and are performed according to the customs of the ethnic group involved. )ost ethnic groups traditionally allow more than one wife.

Bepending on whom you as(, polygamy has both advantages and disadvantages in Nigerian society. "ome Nigerians see polygamy as a divisive force in the family, often pitting one wife against another. 1thers see polygamy as a unifying factor, creating a built-in support system that allows wives to wor( as a team. 7hile 7estern ways of courtship and marriage are not unheard of, the power of traditional values and the strong influence of the family mean that traditional ways are usually followed, even in the cities and among the elite. 8ccording to old customs, women did not have much choice of whom they married, though the numbers of arranged marriages are declining. .t is also not uncommon for women to marry in their teens, often to a much older man. .n instances where there are already one or more wives, it is the first wife&s responsibility to loo( after the newest wife and help her integrate into the family. )any Nigerian ethnic groups follow the practice of offering a bride price for an intended wife. Dnli(e a dowry, in which the woman would bring something of material value to the marriage, a bride price is some form of compensation the husband must pay before he can marry a wife. 8 bride price can ta(e the form of money, cattle, wine, or other valuable goods paid to the woman&s family, but it also can ta(e a more subtle form. )en might contribute money to the education of an intended wife or help to establish her in a small-scale business or agricultural endeavor. This form of bride price is often incorporated as part of the wooing process. 7hile women who leave their husbands will be welcomed bac( into their families, they often need a ustification for brea(ing the marriage. .f the husband is seen as having treated his wife well, he can eApect to have the bride price repaid. Though customs vary from group to group, traditional weddings are often full of dancing and lively music. There is also lots of eAcitement and cultural displays. !or eAample, the -oruba have a practice in which the bride and two or three other women come out covered from head to toe in a white shroud. .t is the groom&s ob to identify his wife from among the shrouded women to show how well he (nows his wife. Bivorce is 5uite common in Nigeria. )arriage is more of a social contract made to ensure the continuation of family lines rather than a union based on love and emotional connections. .t is not uncommon for a husband and wife to live in separate homes and to be eAtremely independent of one another. .n most ethnic groups, either the man or the woman can end the marriage. .f the woman leaves her husband, she will often be ta(en as a second or third wife of another man. .f this is the case, the new husband is responsible for repaying the bride price to the former husband. :hildren of a divorced woman are normally accepted into the new family as well, without any problems. Domestic )nit. The ma ority of Nigerian families are very large by 7estern standards. )any Nigerian men ta(e more than one wife. .n some ethnic groups, the greater the number of children, the greater a man&s standing in the eyes of his peers. !amily units of ten or more are not uncommon. .n a polygamous family, each wife is responsible for feeding and caring for her own children, though the wives often help each other when needed. The wives also will ta(e turns feeding their

husband so that the cost of his food is spread e5ually between or among the wives. ,usbands are the authority figures in the household, and many are not used to their ideas or wishes being challenged. .n most Nigerian cultures, the father has his crops to tend to, while his wives will have their own obs, whether they be tending the family garden, processing palm oil, or selling vegetables in the local mar(et. :hildren may attend school. 7hen they return home, the older boys will help their father with his wor(, while the girls and younger boys will go to their mothers. Inheritance. !or many Nigerian ethnic groups, such as the ,ausa and the .gbo, inheritance is basically a male affair. Though women have a legal right to inheritance in Nigeria, they often receive nothing. This is a reflection of the forced economic independence many women live under. 7hile their husbands are alive, wives are often responsible for providing for themselves and their children. 'ittle changes economically after the death of the husband. 4roperty and wealth are usually passed on to sons, if they are old enough, or to other male relatives, such as brothers or uncles. !or the !ulani, if a man dies, his brother inherits his property and his wife. The wife usually returns to live with her family, but she may move in with her husband&s brother and become his wife. *in Groups. 7hile men dominate .gbo society, women play an important role in (inship. 8ll .gbos, men and women, have close ties to their mother&s clan, which usually lives in a different village. 7hen an .gbo dies, the body is usually sent bac( to his mother&s village to be buried with his mother&s (in. .f an .gbo is disgraced or cast out of his community, his mother&s (in will often ta(e him in. !or the ,ausa, however, there is not much of a sense of wide-ranging (inship. ,ausa society is based on the nuclear family. There is a sense of a larger eAtended family, including married siblings and their families, but there is little (inship beyond that. ,owever, the idea of blood being thic(er than water is very strong in ,ausa society. !or this reason, many ,ausas will try to stretch familial relationships to the broader idea of clan or tribe to diffuse tensions between or among neighbors.

SOCIALIZATION
Infant are. Newborns in Nigerian societies are regarded with pride. They represent a community&s and a family&s future and often are the main reason for many marriages. Throughout Nigeria, the bond between mother and child is very strong. Buring the first few years of a child&s life, the mother is never far away. Nigerian women place great importance on breast-feeding and the bond that it creates between mother and child. :hildren are often not weaned off their mother&s mil( until they are toddlers. :hildren who are too young to wal( or get around on their own are carried on their mother&s bac(s, secured by a broad cloth that is tied around the baby and fastened at the mother&s breasts.

7omen will often carry their children on their bac(s while they perform their daily chores or wor( in the fields. hild Rearing and Education. 7hen children reach the age of about four or five, they often are eApected to start performing a share of the household duties. 8s the children get older, their responsibilities grow. -oung men are eApected to help their fathers in the fields or tend the livestoc(. -oung women help with the coo(ing, fetch water, or do laundry. These tas(s help the children learn how to become productive members of their family and community. 8s children, many Nigerians learn that la6iness is not acceptableE everyone is eApected to contribute. 7hile children in most Nigerian societies have responsibilities, they also are allowed enough leeway to be children. -oungsters playing with homemade wooden dolls and truc(s, or groups of boys playing soccer are common sights in any Nigerian village. .n many Nigerian ethnic groups, the education of children is a community responsibility. !or eAample,

Nigerian people at a market. (ood plays a central role in the rituals of all ethnic groups in Nigeria. in the .gbo culture the training of children is the wor( of both men and women, within the family and outside it. Neighbors often loo( after youngsters while parents may be busy with other chores. .t is not strange to see a man disciplining a child who is not his own.

8ll Nigerian children are supposed to have access to a local elementary school. 7hile the government aims to provide universal education for both boys and girls, the number of girls in class is usually much lower than the number of boys. "ending every child in a family to school can often put a lot of strain on a family. The family will lose the child&s help around the house during school hours and will have to pay for uniforms and supplies. .f parents are forced to send one child to school over another, many will choose to educate boys before girls. +igher Education. ,istorically, Nigerians have been very interested in higher education. The lac( of universities providing 5uality education e5ual to that in Britain was a ma or component of the social reforms that led to Nigeria&s independence. Today there are forty-three universities in Nigeria. The ma ority of these are government-run, but the government has recently approved the creation of three private universities. 7hile Nigeria&s system of higher education is the largest in 8frica, the demand for higher education far eAceeds the capacity of the facilities. There simply are not enough institutions to accommodate the demand. .n 199# only thirty-five thousand students were accepted to Nigerian universities out of a pool of more than four hundred thousand applicants. Nigeria also has 1*+ technical training schools. The ma ority of these focus on polytechnic and agricultural training, with a few speciali6ing in areas such as petroleum sciences and health.

ETI

UETTE

8ge is greatly respected in Nigeria. .n an area where the average life eApectancy is not very high, those who live into their senior years are seen as having earned special rights of respect and admiration. This is true of both men and women. "ocially, greetings are of the utmost importance. 8 handsha(e and a long list of well wishes for a counterpart&s family and good health are eApected when meeting someone. This is often true even if you have seen that person a short time earlier. 7hether you are tal(ing to a ban( teller or visiting a friend, it is considered rude not to engage in a proper greeting before getting down to business. "ha(ing hands, eating, or passing things with the left hand are unacceptable. The left hand is reserved for personal toiletries and is considered dirty.

RELIGION
Religious "eliefs. .t is estimated that +$ percent of Nigerians are )uslim, 4$ percent are :hristian, and that the remaining 1$ percent practice various indigenous religions. 7hile )uslims can be found in all parts of Nigeria, their strongest footholds are among the ,ausa and the -oruba. .slam in Nigeria is similar to .slam throughout the world. .t is based on the teachings of the 4rophet )uhammad, which are outlined in the Gur&an. :hristianity is most prevalent in the south of Nigeria. The vast ma ority of .gbo are :hristians, as are many -orubas. The most popular forms of :hristianity in Nigeria include 8nglican, 4resbyterian, 8merican "outhern Baptist, and )ethodist. 8lso, there are large poc(ets of "eventh-Bay 8dventists and Cehovah&s 7itnesses. :onflict with the way some missionaries administered the churches during colonial times also created several brea(away 8frican-:hristian churches. )ost of these adhere to the doctrines of 7estern churches but have introduced 8frican music and tradition to their )asses. "ome have even eased :hristian restrictions on polygamy. %elations between :hristians and )uslims are tense in many areas. "ince late 1999, numerous clashes between the two have led to thousands of deaths. The northern city of 2aduna has been the flash point for many of these riots, as local leaders discussed whether to institute "hari&a law in the region. Bemonstrations by :hristians against the idea soon led to violent confrontations with )uslims. The debate over "hari&a law and the violence accompanying it continue in many of the northern states. 7hile .slam and :hristianity are the dominant religions in Nigeria, neither is completely free of influence from indigenous religions. )ost people who consider themselves good )uslims or good :hristians often also follow local religious practices. This ma(es up for perceived shortcomings in their religion. )ost indigenous religions are based on a form of ancestor worship in which family members who have passed into the spirit world can influence things in the world of the living. This miAing of traditional ways with .slam has led to groups such as the Bori cult, who use spirit possession as a way to understand why people are suffering in this life. The miAing of traditional ways with :hristianity has led to the development of the 8ladura :hurch. 8ladura priests follow basic :hristian doctrine but also use prophecy, healing, and charms to ward off witchcraft. )any Nigerians follow the teachings of purely indigenous religions. )ost of these religions share the idea that one supreme god created the earth and its people, but has left people to decide their own paths in life. !ollowers of the traditional -oruban religion believe that hundreds of spirits or minor gods have ta(en the place of the supreme god in influencing the daily lives of individuals. )any -oruban slaves who were ta(en to the :aribbean and the 8mericas brought this religion with them. There it was used as the basis of "anteria and voodoo. Because the vast ma ority of .gbos converted to :hristianity during colonialism, few practice the traditional .gbo religion, which is based on hundreds of gods, not a single creator.

A man sits in front of his farmhouse in )oro, Nigeria. )raditionally, only men o n land. Religious $ractitioners. 8ccording to )uslim and :hristian traditions, officials in these religions tend to be male. !or most indigenous religions, priests and priestesses are common. Traditional priests and priestesses get their power and influence from their ability to be possessed by their god or by their ability to tell the future or to heal. .n the .gbo religion men serve as priests to .gbo goddesses, and women serve as priestesses to .gbo gods. 7hile both men and women can ran( high in the -oruban religion, women usually are among the most respected of traditional priests. Rituals and +oly $laces. Because many of the indigenous religions are based on various spirits or minor gods, each with influence over a specific area of nature, many of the traditional rituals are based on paying homage to these gods and spirits. 'i(ewise, the area of control for a spirit also mar(s the places that are holy to that spirit. !or eAample, a tribe&s water spirit may have a specific pond or river designated as its holy place. The 2alabari, 1(ri(a, and .(werre tribes of the Niger Belta region all have festivals in honor of water spirits sacred to their peoples. The -oruba hold a twenty-day "hango festival each year to honor their god of thunder. )any .gbo consider it bad luc( to eat yams from the new harvest until after the annual -am !estival, a harvest celebration held in honor of the .gbo earth goddess 8ni. Death and the Afterlife. :hristian and )uslim Nigerians believe that following death, a person&s soul is released and udged by 9od before hopefully going on to ,eaven. )any traditional religions, especially those of the eastern tribes, believe in reincarnation. .n these tribes, people believe that the dead will come bac( as a member of his or her mother&s or sister&s family. )any in-depth ceremonies are necessary to prepare the body before burial. !or eAample, if the person was inflicted with some physical disability, steps would be ta(en to prevent it from being passed on to him in the neAt life. 8n infertile woman may have her abdomen cut open before burial or a blind man may have a salve made from special leaves placed over his eyes.

%egardless of religion, Nigerians bury their dead. This is customary among :hristians and )uslims, but it also is based on traditional beliefs that the body should be returned to the earth that sustained it during life. )uslims are buried so that their heads face the holy city of )ecca in "audi 8rabia. !or others, it is customary to bury a man with his head turned toward the east, so he can see the rising sun. 8 woman is buried facing west, so she will (now when the sun sets and when it is time to prepare dinner for her husband in the neAt life. 4eople also cover the body with blac( earth during burial because many believe that red earth will result in s(in blemishes in the neAt life. The ethnic groups in eastern Nigeria believe that the more music and dancing at a funeral, the better that person&s chances of a successful afterlife. The si6e of funerals depends on the social standing of the deceased. )en are eApected to set aside money that will be used to ensure they have a properly elaborate funeral. 7omen, children, and adolescents tend to have much less elaborate funerals.

MEDICINE AND HEALTH CARE

Nigerians, li(e people in many developing countries, suffer from widespread disease and a poor health care system. )alaria, ,.FH8.B", parasitic infections, and childhood diseases are rampant throughout the country. 7idespread poverty also contributes to the poor level of health care, as many people shy away from modern treatments that are too eApensive. :orruption at all levels of government ma(es it difficult for health care funding to tric(le down to the average Nigerian. Dnderfunding and neglect have left many clinics and hospitals in poor physical condition and without modern e5uipment. 4harmacies, both state-run and private, regularly run out of medicines. 4atients loo(ing for cheaper remedies often turn to blac(-mar(et vendors, who often sell eApired or counterfeit drugs. There also is a shortage of 5ualified medical personnel to ade5uately treat the whole population. .n *$$$, the estimated life eApectancy of Nigerian men and women was fifty-one years. The estimated infant mortality rate was over = percent, or about seventy-four infant deaths for every thousand live births. 8.B" has eAtracted a devastating toll on Nigeria. The 7orld ,ealth 1rgani6ation and DN8.B" estimated that *.= million Nigerian adults were living with 8.B" or ,.F in 1999. The vast ma ority of Nigerians who are ,.F-positive do not (now it. "ome 1.= million Nigerians had already died of the disease by the end of 1999. The primary mode of ,.F transmission in Nigeria is through heteroseAual intercourse. Both 7estern and traditional forms of medicine are popular in Nigeria. Traditional medicine, also (nown as *u*u, is common at the rural level. 4ractitioners of u u use a variety of plants and herbs in their cures. )ost families also have their own secret remedies for minor health problems. )any rural people do not trust 7estern-style medicine, preferring instead to use traditional ways. .n many instances the traditional medicine is very effective and produces fewer side

effects than modern drugs. )ost of modern medicine&s prescription drugs grew out of traditional herbal remedies. ,owever, there are conditions in which traditional medicine can do more harm than good. "ometimes this leads to conflict between the government-sponsored health care system and traditional ways. "ome organi6ations are now loo(ing at ways to combine the two in an attempt to coaA people bac( into health centers. The federal government is responsible for the training of health care wor(ers and running nationwide health campaigns such as those aimed at fighting 8.B", 9uinea worm infection, river blindness, and leprosy.

SECULAR CELEBRATIONS
Nigeria observes three secular national holidays and several officially recogni6ed )uslim and :hristian holidays when government, commerce, and ban(s are closed. The secular holidays are New -ear&s Bay /1 Canuary0, 7or(ers& Bay /1 )ay0, and National Bay /1 1ctober0. The :hristian holidays are :hristmas /*+ Becember0, 9ood !riday, and 3aster )onday. The )uslim holidays are 3id al-!itr /the last day of %amadan, the )uslim holy month of fasting0, Tabas(i, and 3id al-)oulid. 8side from :hristmas, the religious holidays fall on different days each year.

THE ARTS AND HUMANITIES

Support for the Arts. Nigerian art traditionally served a social or religious purpose and did not eAist for the sa(e of art per se. !or eAample, dance was used to teach or to fulfill some ritualistic goal. "culpture was used in blessings, in healing rituals, or to ward off bad luc(. 7ith increasing moderni6ation, however, Nigerian art is becoming less oriented to a particular purpose. .n some cases, Nigerians have abandoned whole forms of art because they no longer served a purpose. !or eAample, the elaborate tombstones once widely produced by the .bibio are becoming increasingly rare as 7estern-style cemeteries are replacing traditional burial grounds. The government has recogni6ed this decline in Nigerian art. .n an attempt to promote Nigerian nationalism through art, it has launched some programs, such as the 8ll-Nigeria !estival of 8rts, to

+omen engrave designs into yello calabash gourds. Nigerian art traditionally served a social or religious purpose. revitali6e the Nigerian art world. )any wealthy Nigerians loo(ing to recapture their roots, as well as 7estern tourists and collectors loo(ing for an 8frican art eAperience, are willing to spend money on Nigerian art. This has led to a slight revival of the art industry. Literature. Nigeria has a long and incredibly rich literary history. Nigerians are traditionally storytellers. )uch of precolonial history in Nigeria is the result of stories handed down from generation to generation. 7ith coloni6ation and the introduction of reading, writing, and the 3nglish language, Nigerian storytellers soon began sharing their talents with a worldwide audience. 4erhaps Nigeria&s most famous writer is 7ole "oyin(a, who won the 19#< Nobel 4ri6e for literature. ,is most famous wor(s include A ,ance of the (orests, )he - amp , ellers, and )he Lion and the .e el. 1ther famous Nigerian authors include :hinua 8chebe, whose )hings (all Apart is a favorite among 7estern schools as an eAample of the problems inflicted on 8frican societies during coloni6ation, and Ben 1(ri, whose novel )he (amished !oad won Britain&s 1991 Boo(er 4ri6e. Graphic Arts. Nigeria is famous for its sculpture. The bron6ewor( of the ancient cities of .fe and Benin can be found in museums all over the world. These areas in southern Nigeria still produce large amounts of bron6e castings. 7oodcarvings and terra-cotta sculptures also are popular. Nigerians are eApert dyers, weavers, and tailors. They produce massive 5uantities of beautiful, rich, and colorful teAtiles. ,owever, the ma ority of these are sold primarily for everyday wear and not as eAamples of art. $erformance Arts. Bance and music are perhaps the two most vibrant forms of Nigerian art. Nigerian music is dependent on strong rhythms supplied by countless drums and percussion instruments. ,ighlife is a type of music heavily influenced by 7estern culture. .t sounds li(e an 8fricani6ed version of 8merican big band or ballroom music. 8fro-beat combines 8frican rhythms and melodies with a66 and soul. 1ne of Nigeria&s best-(nown 8fro-beat artists, !ela 2uti, was heavily influenced by 8merican artists such as Cames Brown. 4alm wine music gets its

name from the palm wine saloons where it is traditionally heard. .ts fast-paced, fren6ied rhythms reflect the rambunctious nature of many palm wine bars. 4erhaps Nigeria&s most popular form of music is u u, which uses traditional drums and percussion instruments to bac( up vocals and complicated guitar wor(. 4opular u u artists include 2ing "unny 8de, 3bene6er 1bey, and "hina 4eters.

THE STATE OF THE PHYSICAL AND SOCIAL SCIENCES

7hile Nigeria&s system of higher education is better than most in 8frica, many of its best and brightest students go to universities in the Dnited "tates or 3urope in search of better facilities and academic support. These students often stay abroad, where there are more opportunities to pursue their talents and to benefit economically. This loss of sharp and influential minds has left the physical and social sciences in a poorer state than they need be. The few sciences that are thriving in Nigeria, such as geology and petroleum sciences, are often headed by non-Nigerians, brought in by foreign companies that have contracts to eAploit Nigeria&s natural resources.