Fall, 2007 Vol. 2, No.

74 Publication of the Northeast Organic Farming Association 1077-2294

Inside This Issue
Features
Organic Ag Position to Win in Farm Bill 11
Inside Organics: Global Climate Change 13
Bill McKibbens Keynote Speech 38
Supplement on
Climate Change
Indicators of Climate Change in NE 15
Climate Change: Crops and Livestock 18
Overview of Climate change Science 23
Climate change: Design for It 26
Soil Carbon & Nitrogen Management 28
Organic Ags Response to Climate Change 30
Mitigating Greenhouse Gases in Farming 34
Departments
Letters 2
Editorial 2
NOFA Exchange 4
News Notes 6
Book Reviews 43
NOFA Contact People 46
Calendar 47
NOFA Membership Information 47
photo by Jonathan von Ranson
Keynoter Bill McKibben addresses 2007 NOFA Summer Conference
(Text of McKibbons address is reprinted on page 38)
photo by Jack Kittredge
2007 NOFA Summer Conference banner hangs over tent on a beautiful summer weekend.
The logo was designed by Jocelyn Langer, and the banner painted by Mary Lou Conna.
by Jason Velazquez, NOFA/Mass
Communications Coordinator
The two women turned and saw each other at
almost exactly the same time.
Eeeeeeeeek! screamed the one with the scarf
and wiry salt and pepper hair.
Oh my Gahhhhh! shouted the slightly
younger woman with ski jacket-turned-barn
coat. But she didnt get to fnish because, like
magnets, the two of them hurled and crashed
into each other, locking in a fercely electric
bear hug.
And that was pretty much how I found the
whole weekend to be during the 33rd Annual
Summer Conference put on by the Northeast
Organic Farming Association old friends
from the far corners of NOFA running into each
other for the frst time in a year or two or more.
New friendships were wrought over discussions
about food, farming, and fuel prices. Old
friendships were re-energized by the buzz of
Sustainable Food,
Sustainable Communities:
33rd Annual NOFA Summer
Conference a Powerful
Demonstration of (Organically
Occurring) Bonds
activity and the pleasure of seeing so many
newcomers excited to learn all they could about
organic food in three short days.
By late afternoon, the cold drizzle had stopped
and there seemed to be a high-pressure system
forming directly over Hampshire College in
Amherst. This front may have been powered
(continued on page 35)
Th e Nat ur al Far me r F a l l , 2 0 0 7 2
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The Natural Farmer is the newspaper of the Northeast
Organic Farming Association (NOFA). In most chapters,
regular members receive a subscription as part of their
dues, and others may subscribe for $10 (in the US or
$18 outside the US). It is published four times a year at
411 Sheldon Rd., Barre, MA 01005. The editors are Jack
Kittredge and Julie Rawson, but most of the material is
either written by members or summarized by us from
information people send us.
Upcoming Issue Topics - We plan a year in advance so
that folks who want to write on a topic can have a lot of
lead time. The next 3 issues will be:
Winter 2007-08 Labor on Organic Farms
Spring 2008 Manure Management in Organic Ag
Summer 2008 Marketing on the Internet
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Interstate Council website is www.nofa.org.
ISSN 1077-2294
copyright 2007,
Northeast Organic Farming Association
The Natural Farmer
Needs You
This issue is devoted to confronting the reality
of climate change. As the two plant hardiness
zone maps above show, within a decade and a
half growing conditions in the United States have
changed signifcantly. We need to understand this
change, and the processes behind it, both as citizens
(so we can act intelligently to help shape policies
which can slow and ultimately reverse it) and as
farmers (so we can adopt strategies that will enable
us to continue to produce healthy food into an
Climate Change and
Organic Agriculture
uncertain future).
It is ftting that we not only focus the articles of our
special supplement on this topic, but that we also
reprint the keynote speech given by Bill McKibbon
at the 2007 NOFA Summer Conference. He spoke
passionately about the urgency of humanity coming
to terms with global warming if we are to have the
time and space to make any of the social changes
that the organic movement is incubating.
Dear Editor:

As an organic land care professional who has
struggled for 18 years against various invasive
plants, I was astonished to read that Jonathan Bates
and Eric Tonsmeier were growing autumn olive
(Eleagnus umbellata) in their Holyoke forest
fruit garden (TNF, Summer 2007). Their admission
that this plant is invasive gave the paragraph a
rather disingenuous quality; after all, the organic
movement is about earth stewardship, not helping
to proliferate plants that cause damage in particular
climate or ecosystem. Their apology that they
have so few shade-tolerant nitrogen-fxing plants
(and therefore just must retain the Eleagnus) just
doesnt cut it. Apparently they are unaware of the
diffculties of trying to eradicate autumn olive when
toxic herbicideswhich do work on this one, by the
wayare off-limits to organic gardeners. I dont
think the existence of autumn olive jelly (insipid,
the ones Ive tasted) justifes helping its spread by
bird-borne berries.

I think that deliberately growing this invasive pest
plant is irresponsible, and ultimately damaging to
the environmenthardly in keeping with the goals
of the organic movement. Read this website and
weep: http://www.umext.maine.edu/onlinepubs/
htmpubs/2525.htm

Barbara Schlein
Woodbridge, CT
Dear Barbara,
I received your letter to the editor of the Natural
Farmer and thought I would respond briefy to you.
I encourage us to have a phone conversation, or
meet in person to discuss our views. We might fnd
it more interesting and thought provoking then what
we can put in an email.
First, thank you for your letter. I appreciate much
of what you say and understand your frustrations.
Unfortunately I look at earth stewardship a little
differently then you do.
The invasive plant issue is very complex and can get
peoples blood boiling, so I wont get into my views
over email, I would be writing all night anyway.
But, I can tell you how our autumn olive tree came
to be.
Do you know the history of this plant? I was told
once that it was planted as a soil stabilizer when the
interstate highway system was built. It turned out to
work well, since it fxes nitrogen and has naturally
evolved to grow in disturbed landscapes (like old
felds). Then unbeknownst to the people planting it,
birds loved to eat the berries, and they still do, that s
why its everywhere.
In fact, this is how the tree ended up in our yard.
We didnt plant it on purpose. I actually considered
pulling it out when it was a seedling. But, I read this
really fascinating book and then decided to let it live
[If you are interested here is where you can fnd the
Letters to the
Editor
Th e Nat ur al Far me r F a l l , 2 0 0 7 3
book: http://dtheo.org/InvasionBiology.htm].
Then after three years of tremendous growth I found
it dead this spring. I have no idea why it died. Some
speculations are: it was in full shade under a 50 foot
tall Norway Maple; it got some kind of disease or
pest; the winter was too hard for it this year; the soil
is too dry; it got out competed? I learned a lot from
this tree in those three years and I am sad to see it
go. There arent any other autumn olives growing in
our garden and we dont plan on planting any.
So, I hope this story was interesting. If you would
like to talk more about autumn olives, or the
invasive plant issue in general give me a call. I have
lots of experience in the organic garden, landscape,
and food movements, and like to talk with other
passionate people. What are some of your stories?
Jonathan Bates
Hi Jack! I just fnished the Summer 2007 issue and
I really enjoyed it. Damn, now I want a couple of
acres with some sun and some shade so I can grow a
whole pile of minor fruit - especially paw paws!
Youve probably gotten a lot of answer to your
What is a Lenticel question, but in case no ones
replied, theres a pretty good defnition at http://
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenticel:
A lenticel is a spongy area present in the cork
surfaces of the stems, roots, and other parts of
vascular plants. These structures allow for the
exchange of gases between the internal tissues and
atmosphere to occur across the periderm, which
would otherwise prevent this exchange of gases.
Lenticel formation begins during the development
of the frst periderm. In the stem, they usually
appear below a stoma or group of stomata. Lenticels
are found as raised circular, oval, or elongated areas
on stems and roots. As stems and roots mature
lenticel development continues in the newly forming
periderm found at the bottom of cracks in the bark.
It should also be noted that lenticels can be present
on fruits such as apples and pears.
In relation to apples/pears, it seems to be those off-
color dots or patches on the skin of the fruit...but Id
have to look close at an apple to be sure.
Thanks - and keep up the good work! Theres a lot
of quality content in the TNF.
Paul Kittredge
Hi Paul,
Talk about a devoted son! Im not sure how
many people actually read the whole issue, down to
the book reviews, but Im impressed!
Thanks for the lenticel defnition. Yours is the
frst entry Ive received, actually. (But farmers are
pretty busy this time of year, I fgure.) Now I know
how to pick our pears at the right time, which has
been a constant mystery to me -- they dont soften
on the tree like peaches, plums, etc., and seem to
take forever to ripen in the root cellar even after
they fall off the trees by themselves. Ill watch for
the change in lenticel color!
Thanks for the kind words about the paper!
Jack
Jack,

Thank you for the copy of the Natural Farmer.
Its a well developed paper. I enjoyed reading your
book review on the book titled Genetic Roulette:
The documented Health Risks of Genetically
Engineered Food by Jeffery M. Smith. While on
the computer I found another book by Mr. Smith
titled, Seeds of Deception. Ill be going out to buy
these books at B&N.

As a side point in the article I wrote, I did not point
out that I do not use any chemicals in the beehive.
Since I wrote that article I have found out that I
have lost most of my bees in one out yard -- where I
started with 28 hives in October I had 4 left in April.

The only thing different at this location was that
a farming area with large acreage of Monsanto
Roundup Ready Corn has been planted there for the
past few years.

What I feel is happening is when the queen starts
laying eggs again in mid January on, the bees will
use the poor grade pollen collected from the corn
and once they reach the stage in their life to go and
forage and go out of the hive, they are unable to fnd
their way back, or they know they are doomed and
do not return to the hive. This weakens the hive,
which is unable to maintain the proper temperature,
and the small number of bees die or leave the hive.
The only evidence that remains is lots of stored
honey and small patches of capped brood, with very
few dead bees.

I have talked to other beekeepers who have been
experiencing the same thing. It seems that whenever
Honeybee colonies are located close to large
acreages of GM corn we seem to have our greatest
losses.

Thanks again,

Gus Skamarycz
Please help us thank these
Friends of Organic Farming
for their generous support!
Socially Responsible Investing
Douglas J. Calnan
Financial Consultant, Vice President-Investments
douglas.calnan@agedwards.com
(800) 543-8010 Norwell, MA
Member SIPC 2007 A.G. Edwards & Sons, Inc.
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Th e Nat ur al Far me r F a l l , 2 0 0 7 4
NOFA
Exchange
I am writing from South Africa and I am head
hunting for staff with organic farming experience
for the start-up Farmco. Those selected will work
in the African tropics, trailblazing the organic
revolution. In case you might know someone with
this experience, I will be very grateful if you send
him/her a note to let them know. I will then send
detailed specifcations if they are interested. There
are various positions on offer. Trymore Chamwada,
1748 Langeberg Street, Actonville, Benoni,
Johannesburg, Gauteng, South Africa, Tel. +27 84
750 9499
Equipment For Sale Six foot Rotary Mower
Deck - 3-pt. hitch w/Spreader attach. in exc cond
$400, Ford 9N Tractor in good cond. good rubber,
needs Tuneup $3,600 Ford Single-bottom Plow 3-
pt hitch in exc cond. $300 Disc Harrow 3-pt hitch,
in o.k. cond. $200. 25% Discount to NOFA member.
Available for inspection in Medfeld, MA. Call Bill
Tragakis after 6:00 p.m. 508-359-4246
Organic Farm For Rent In Groton, MA - 3
Bedroom, 2 Bath, passive solar house on 10 cleared
sunny acres available Sept 1, 2007 (9 rooms total
include kitchen, solarium, dining room, living room,
and two offces) Currently has several raised beds,
pond, stream, etc. Barn, poultry, large animals and
pasture possible. Solar heated barn and greenhouses
planned. Co-operative ventures with owner
encouraged. Terms fexible. Please email interest to:
bradbigelow@verizon.net
I have back copies of the Land Institute
Journal to give. I have about 24 published between
1998 and 2007. It has wonderful stories as well as
descriptions of the research. Jandorbun@yahoo.
com.
D Acres of NH is a non-proft, farm based service
organization that promotes SustainAbility through
practice, experimentation, workshops, tours, and
community outreach. In our tenth year, we are
celebrating the Northern Forest. On November 10

& 11 NESARE and D Acres are will host Mark
Fulford, presenting Soil Nutrition From a Plants
Eye Point of View. This two day workshop
is a whole picture, re-orientation for biological-
nutritional agriculture and is open to farmers,
extension, researchers, & the general public.
Admission is $75. Two organic lunches provided.
Overnight accommodations available. For more
information, or to register: 603.786.2366 info@
dacres.org www.dacres.org
Farm Manager sought for established organic CSA
in northwestern Vermont. Currently a 180 member
off-farm CSA, with PYO strawberries and Farmers
Market, we are looking to expand and relocate so
we can add on-farm CSA, beef cattle, laying
hens, orchards and more. Multiple year position
available (starting winter 07/08) for dedicated
individual. Experience in organic vegetable
production required. Carpentry, beef, poultry and
tractor/equipment experience a plus. Compensation
commensurate with experience. Year-round salaried
position with hours highly concentrated in growing
season with possible winter hiatus. Contact David
and Rachel at (802) 863-2199 or email us: davidz@
together.net.
Blow Your Own Horn!
Annie McCleary, Director, with George Lisi
Plant Spirit Communication
Nature Adventures ~ Herbs and Wild Edibles
Food as Medicine ~ Holistic Living Skills
Certication, Advanced and Winter Programs
802-453-6764 ~ anniemc@gmavt.net
Lincoln, Vermont ~ www.WisdomOfTheHerbsSchool.com
Wisdom of the Herbs School
Lawn Garden Farm
Best Performing All Natural Fertilizer in testing
at Iowa State University
Proven Results in New England
Soy Bean Based (no manure, no sludge)
Organic Fertilization Programs
Landscaper Retail Golf Course School Farm
Locate a Dealer Visit our Website www.pjcecological.com
Distributed by PJC & Company Rowley, MA 978-432-1019
PJC Ad 3/14/06 8:58 AM Page 1
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Horse Powered Family Farm Horse Powered Family Farm Horse Powered Family Farm Horse Powered Family Farm Horse Powered Family Farm
Small Classes & Home Grown Meals Small Classes & Home Grown Meals Small Classes & Home Grown Meals Small Classes & Home Grown Meals Small Classes & Home Grown Meals
Draft Horse Workshops Draft Horse Workshops Draft Horse Workshops Draft Horse Workshops Draft Horse Workshops
Horse Training
Draft Horses I & II
Women & Draft Horses
Farming with Draft Horses
Jay & Janet Bailey Family
www.fairwindsfarm.org
511 Upr Dummerston Rd.
Brattleboro, VT 05301
802-254-9067
Th e Nat ur al Far me r F a l l , 2 0 0 7 5
Live-In Caretaker needed immediately at the
Natick Community Organic Farm in Natick, MA.
One bedroom apartment on 22-acre working,
educational organic farm. Individual or couple
welcome to apply. Reduced rent in exchange for
weekend chores and night security. Must be able to
interact with the public, help with farm maintenance
and work with staff and board of directors. Send
cover letter and resume with references to NCOF,
117 Eliot Street, Natick, MA 01760 or email us at
ncorganic@verizon.net.
Landscapers - We have openings for Planting/
Construction Foreperson & Gardening Foreperson,
min 3 yrs exp. Organic landscaping company in
Fairfeld, CT offering F/T, year-round positions
w/ tons of benefts, respect, a healthy work
environment, good pay & interesting work. Start
immediately. Company president is a founding
member of the Organic Land Care (OLC) program,
developed frst standards to OLC, and teaches an
OLC course. Projects focus on wetland restoration,
lawn replacement, native plantings, etc. Resumes to
dina@healthwithnature.com or fax 203-382-0777.
We are looking to establish a long term relationship
for continued replenishment of approximately
200 + pullets every 6 months laying brown eggs.
We can pick them up anywhere so long as they are
organic. We have been using Golden Comets with
success, but are just about out of stock. We would
prefer to stay with this type but understand there
are many hybrid breeds that are recommended
layers. Pullets 12-18 weeks of age would be ideal.
We will take 10 to 300 of them (whatever you or
someone you may know has available) now. www.
pinelandfarms.org, New Gloucester, ME 04260
Awesome opportunity, ready to be certifed organic
43 acres for sale in Madison County, NY: 1/3 acre
mature blueberry plantation, young orchard, 5 acre
fenced/watered pasture, farmstand, machine shed,
2 ledgewood hi tunnels, 1 heated starter house,
barn w/ new roof + end walls, beautiful apt, root
cellars, workshop. 1300 sf new super effcient
timberframe house w/ bluestone foors + amazing
kitchen. $395,000 For photos and info, visit www.
greenrabbitfarm.com 315-893-7729 or rabbit7@
frontiernet.net
Organic Farm Land, 25 Acres, Dudley,
Massachusetts. No fertilizer or pesticides in nine
years, is available to an experienced farming
operation with a plan for success. Currently in hay.
Near year round streams. Half is tillable, some is
level. Half is pasture, 7 acres recently fenced with 4
strand barbed wire. Some fence lines need repairs.
Submit a proposal that addresses
your experience, your requirements, your
equipment, your resources and budget, your time
frame, compensation for land owner. Send your
proposal by postal mail to:
Jeanne Davis, 79 Healy Road, Dudley,
Massachusetts 01571 Or via email to: jeanne.
hiscox@gmail.com. Questions: 508-943-0809
Fall/Winter Farming Apprenticeship: Crabapple
Farm is looking for help through the winter, and
beyond, starting as soon as possible. Well be
doing some winter hoophouse production, forestry,
building projects, livestock chores, etc. Learn about
farming the other half of the year! Contact Tevis or
Rachel, 413-296-0310; crabapplefarm@verizon.net
Save Gaza is dedicated to community mobilization,
emergency humanitarian relief, and capacity
building. Were proud to announce gardening
projects initiating the promotion of agricultural
sustainability. Small-scale gardens tailored to
the available resources of Gaza will supply
basic nutritional needs for a family in the short
term, while laying the foundation for long term
poverty reduction. Even a minimal garden with
low maintenance once a week can sustain up
to 5 years worth of output. Organic gardening
will serve to overcome economic distress in
exchange for economic sustainability. For more
information please visit www.savegaza.org or http://
gazagardens.blogspot.com.
Shetland Sheep for Sale: We are retiring and need
to fnd good homes for our small fock of very
friendly, hand raised, Shetland sheep. Willing to
negotiate for the whole fock of 4 ewes, 4 lambs,
and beautiful (easy to handle) Moorit ram. Or will
sell individually. Also see ad for Livestock Guard
Dog. Willing to sell all as a package to the right
person. Call Fritz and Pat Vohr, 401-364-0050. Or
email patvohr@verizon.net
Livestock Guard Dog: Anatolian Shepherd,
proven. White neutered 5 y.o. male. Very friendly
to humans. Great with kids. Lives in barn with
sheep. Excellent health. Must be willing to
have professionally groomed 3X year. See our
ad Shetland Sheep for Sale. Willing to sell
individually or as a package. Call Fritz and Pat Vohr,
401-364-0050. Or email patvohr@verizon.net
Looking for Unused Hoophouse. Will dismantle
and take away to a loving home, and leave a
generous gift basket of home-made goodies (meat,
wine, eggs, fruits and veggies whatever is in
season). Not particular about size, will build ends to
suit as needed. Call Jack at 978-355-2853 or Email
Jack@mhof.net.
Rockpile farm in Westminster MA has decided to
give away free of charge a comfortable 25 Avion
travel trailer, vintage 1966. We have used this
trailer to house summer help on the farm for the last
10 or so years. The trailer has a stove, shower, hot
water, refrigerator etc. Three rooms, (living, bed and
bathroom). Looks like an Airstream. Call Dick or
Jacqui Marsh 978-874-0244
Th e Nat ur al Far me r F a l l , 2 0 0 7 6
compiled by Jack Kittredge
USDA to Allow 38 New Non-Organic Ingredients
in Products Labeled USDA Organic
After heavy lobbying from industry, the USDA
proposed in late May to allow 38 conventionally
grown ingredients in foods labeled as organic. One
of those ingredients, fsh oil, has never undergone
review, a violation of federal law. Regarding
another, the brewer Anheuser-Busch pressured
the USDA into allowing them to use hops grown
with pesticides and chemical fertilizers in their
Organic Wild Hop Lager beer. Although industry
was given the better part of two years to work with
the USDA in developing this proposal, the agency
only gave the public a brief 7-day comment period.
During that short time, over 8,000 respondents told
the USDA to back off on allowing non-organic
hops, factory-farmed animal intestines, tainted fsh
oil, and other problematic ingredients in organic
products.
source: http://www.organicconsumers.org/articles/
article_5225.cfm
NH State Law Makes Homemade Goods Safer,
Easier to Sell
Selling and buying homemade products that dont
require refrigeration will be easier and safer this
year thanks to a new, two-tiered state law that
regulates home production in most communities
across New Hampshire. The law affects sales of
products sold at farmers markets and farm stands.
The new regulation was designed to protect the
public from food-borne illnesses while encouraging
the development of small businesses, said Jack
Potter, a Sanbornton farmer who helped write the
law.
source: http://www.nashuatelegraph.com/
apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20070624/
BUSINESS/206240386/-1/news
FDA to Allow Irradiated Foods to be Sold
without Labeling
The Food and Drug Administration has
proposed new federal regulations that will allow
manufacturers and retailers to sell irradiated foods
without labeling them, as previously required
by law. Irradiation destroys essential vitamins
and nutrients, creates unique radiolytic chemical
compounds never before consumed by humans,
and generates carcinogenic byproducts such as
formaldehyde and benzene. Although irradiation,
except for spices, is banned in much of the world,
and prohibited globally in organic production,
U.S. corporate agribusiness and the meat industry
desperately want to be able to nuke foods in order
to reduce the deadly bacterial contamination that
is now routine in industrial agriculture and meat
production. Rather than clean up the nations flthy
slaughterhouses and feedlots, however, the FDA
has apparently decided, with the backing of the
nuclear power and weapons industry, to take away
consumers rights to know if their food has been
irradiated or not.
source: http://www.organicconsumers.org/rd/irrad-
label.cfm
Growers Can Make More Money By Going
Organic
Minnesota grain farmers could make more money
by switching from conventional to organic grain
crops, shows a four-year study announced at the
American Agricultural Economics Associations
annual meeting in Long Beach, Calif. The study, by
David W. Archer, an Agricultural Research Service
(ARS) economist, and Hillarius Kludze, an ARS
soil scientist, analyzed both economic risks and
transition effects of switching to organic farming.
source: http://www.gmwatch.org/archive2.
asp?arcid=8094
Law Would Allow Interstate Shipment of State-
Inspected Meat
Currently 28 states have state-inspected meat and
poultry processing plants. About 2,100 meat and
poultry establishments are inspected under state
programs and are required to enforce requirements
at least equal to those imposed under the Federal
Meat Inspection Act and the Poultry Products
Inspection Act. However, product produced under
state inspection is limited to intrastate commerce.
On June 27, Rep. Zach Space (OH) introduced H.R.
2876 which would allow interstate sales of state-
inspected meat and poultry. The bill would require
USDA to verify that state inspection programs are
indeed equal to the federal inspection program. If
USDA determines that an individual state plant
does not meet the equal to federal inspection
requirements, then that state plant would not be
eligible to ship meat and poultry in interstate
commerce.
source: Regional Farm & Food Project Summer
2007 News
cartoon from The Rams Horn
U.S. Farmers Plant Largest Corn Crop in 63
Years
U.S. farmers planted 92.9 million acres of corn
in 2007, exceeding last years planted area by 19
percent, according to the Acreage report released
by the U.S. Department of Agricultures National
Agricultural Statistics Service (NASS). The actual
planted acreage is the highest since 1944, when
farmers planted 95.5 million corn acres. Driven
by favorable prices, growing ethanol demand and
strong export sales, farmers in nearly all states
increased their corn acreage. They set state records
in Illinois, Indiana, Minnesota and North Dakota,
while Iowa continued to lead all states in total corn
News Notes
Th e Nat ur al Far me r F a l l , 2 0 0 7 7
acres. The increase in corn is offset mainly by fewer
acres of soybeans in the Corn Belt and Great Plains,
and fewer acres of cotton in the Delta and Southeast.
Nationwide, NASS estimates planted soybean area
at 64.1 million acres, down 15 percent from last
years record high. Area planted to cotton totals
11.1 million acres, marking a 28 percent drop from
2006 and the lowest level since 1989. The Acreage
report shows that the nations farmers continued to
embrace biotechnology. Corn growers planted 73
percent of their acres with biotech seed varieties, an
increase of 12 percent from 2006. Cotton farmers
planted 87 percent of their acres with biotech
varieties, up 4 percent from 2006, and soybean
producers planted 91 percent of their acres with
biotech seed, up 2 percent from 2006.
source: Regional Farm & Food Project Summer
2007 News
Eco-Impact of Food: Focus on Food Miles Is
Too Narrow
Researchers at the University of Wales Institute in
Cardiff have carried out a detailed analysis of the
ecological costs associated with food. They argue
that consumers need more information about the
environmental impact of the food they buy, but the
focus on food miles is missing the bigger picture
and may be counter-productive. Only around 2
percent of the environmental impact of food comes
from transporting it from farm to shop. The vast
majority of its ecological footprint comes from
food processing, storage, packaging and growing
conditions. So food grown locally could have a
considerably bigger footprint than food fown
halfway around the world.
Im a bit worried about the food miles
[debate] because it is educating the consumer in the
wrong way. It is such an insignifcant point, said
Ruth Fairchild at the University of Wales Institute
in Cardiff. A better system, she argues, would be
one that considers all environmental impacts from
farm to dinner plate. One option is ecological
footprint analysis, which takes into account the
amount of land needed to provide the resources
to produce food, both directly on the farm and
indirectly from the energy that goes into growing,
harvesting, processing, packaging and transporting
it. A foods impact is measured in global hectares,
the notional land area needed to produce it. But
she thinks that consumers are not yet ready for
ecological footprint labeling and the science behind
it is not yet watertight. The study is published in the
journal Sustainable Food Consumption.
source: The Guardian, June 4, 2007
Organic Fruit and Vegetables Really Are Better
for Your Heart
Organic fruit and vegetables may be better for the
heart and general health than eating conventionally
grown crops, new research has found. A ten-year
study comparing organic tomatoes with standard
produce found that they had almost double the
quantity of antioxidants called favonoids which
help to prevent high blood pressure and thus reduce
the likelihood of heart disease and strokes. Alyson
Mitchell, a food chemist, who led the research at the
University of California, believes that favonoids
can also help to stave off some forms of cancer
and dementia. She found that levels of quercetin
and kaempferol, both favonoids, were on average
79 and 97 per cent higher, respectively, in organic
tomatoes. Her fndings are due to be published
in full in the Journal of Agricultural and Food
Chemistry.
Dr Mitchell said that previously it had
been hard to make comparisons between organic
and conventionally grown produce because of
diffculties in comparing soil quality, irrigation
practices and the handling of harvested produce. But
for this study researchers used data from a long-term
project in which standardized farming techniques
were used to reveal trends in crop productivity. The
team believes that the different levels of favonoids
in tomatoes are due to the absence of fertilizers in
organic farming. Plants produce favonoids as a
defense mechanism; they are triggered by nutrient
defciency. Feeding a plant with too many nutrients,
such as inorganic nitrogen commonly found in
conventional fertilizer, curbs the development
of favonoids. The lower levels of favonoids in
conventional tomatoes were caused by over-
fertilization, the research team concluded.
Recent research in Europe found that
organic tomatoes contained more vitamin C, B-
carotene and favonoids than conventionally grown
tomatoes. Organic peaches and organic apple
pure were also found to have more antioxidants.
The Food Standards Agency has commissioned
a three-year study into the benefts of favonoids.
It said: There is accumulating evidence that
dietary favonoids ... may in large part explain the
cardiovascular disease benefts of increased fruit and
vegetable intake.
source: The Times UK, 05 July 2007
1km swim at North Pole highlights the effects of
climate change
Lewis Gordon Pugh, 37, swam for 18 minutes and
50 seconds in temperatures of -1.8C (28.7F), the
coldest waters a human has swum in. The London
lawyer said the swim was a triumph but it was a
tragedy that its possible to swim at the North Pole.
I hope my swim will inspire world leaders to take
climate change seriously.
He took the plunge at 0200 BST on Sunday, July 15,
and swam along a crack in the ice to the geographic
North Pole. Describing the moment he jumped
in, he said: The pain was immediate and felt like
my body was on fre. I was in excruciating pain
from beginning to end and I nearly quit on a few
occasions.
source: BBC News, July 15, 2007
Organic Farming Can Feed the World - Study
Organic farming can yield up to three times as much
food on individual farms in developing countries as
low-intensive methods on the same land, according
to new fndings which refute the long-standing
claim that organic farming methods cannot produce
enough food to feed the global population. My
hope is that we can fnally put a nail in the coffn of
the idea that you cant produce enough food through
organic agriculture, said Ivette Perfecto, professor
at University of Michigans School of Natural
Resources and Environment, and one of the studys
principal investigators.
source: http://www.gmwatch.org/archive2.
asp?arcid=8107
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Th e Nat ur al Far me r F a l l , 2 0 0 7 8
Organic Farming Combats Global Warming
According to data from the Rodale Institutes long-
running comparison of organic and conventional
cropping systems, converting the USs corn
and soybean acres to organic production would
sequester enough carbon to satisfy 73 percent of the
Kyoto targets for CO2 reduction in the US.
source: http://www.newfarm.org/depts/NFfeld_
trials/1003/carbonsequest.shtml
Organic Farming Beats No-Till
Organic farming can build up soil organic matter
better than conventional no-till farming, according
to a long-term study by US Agricultural Research
Service (ARS) scientists. Organic farming,
despite its emphasis on building organic matter,
was previously thought by some to endanger soil
because it relies on tillage and cultivation - instead
of herbicides - to kill weeds. But the ARS study
showed that organic farmings addition of organic
matter in manure and cover crops more than offset
losses from tillage. Rodale Institute yields for no-
till organic corn were 160 bushels to the acre as
opposed to 143 for tilled organic plots. Comparable
chisel-tilled non-organic plots yielded 113 bushels
per acre.
source: http://www.gmwatch.org/archive2.
asp?arcid=8094, Acres, USA, June, 2007
First Hemp Milk in North America
Manitoba Harvest has introduced Hemp Bliss, an
organic milk that is lactose, soy, nut and cholesterol-
free. It has 1200 milligrams of omega-3 fatty acids
and 5 grams of protein per serving.
source: Acres, USA, June, 2007
New Potato Resists Potato Beetles
MOFGA-certifed Wood Prairie Farm has
introduced a hybrid potato called King Harry,
developed by Cornell University. The early white
round spuds hairy leaves are said to repel Colorado
potato beetles, leaf hoppers and fea beetles.
source: Maine Organic Farmer and Gardener, June-
August, 2007
Whole Foods Markets Launches a Local
Producer Loan Program
Whole Foods Market is supporting local
communities and food producers through a new
initiative called the Local Producer Loan Program.
Annually, Whole Foods Market will make available
$10 million for low-interest loans to small, local
agricultural producers. The loan can be used to
address capital improvements such as a new truck,
oven or a greenhouse. Operating expenses such as
debt repayment are not eligible uses for the loan.
To qualify, producers must meet Whole Foods
Markets quality standards - and animal compassion
program if raising livestock - have a viable business
plan and adequate cash fow to service debt. More
information about their quality standards and animal
compassion program is available on the website
http://www.wholefoodsmarket.com/products/
unacceptablefoodingredients.html.
Priority for awarding a loan is given to current
vendors to Whole Foods Market. For additional
information, as well as an application, contact Susan
Phinney, Local Products Forager for the North
Atlantic Region of Whole Foods Market, at 617-
492-5500 ext. 3987 or by email at susan.phinney@
wholefoods.com.
source: Whole Foods Press Release, August 11,
2007
Searchable Biopesticide and Organic Pest
Management Database Launched
The Interregional Research Project No. 4, at New
Jerseys Rutgers University, has announced the
launch of its Biopesticide / Organic database.
The database, searchable by crop, pest, and state,
will assist growers of specialty crops including
fruits, vegetables, ornamentals and turf. Locate
the database at www.ir4.rutgers.edu/Biopesticides/
LabelDatabase/index.cfm. Once opened, the
database enables growers to input their crop, pest
and state and it responds by providing a list of EPA
registered product labels that ft their criteria. It
also supplies the manufacturer contact information
and other pertinent data. The database can limit the
search to organically approved pest management
products.
source: IR-4 press release, May 17, 2007
Organic Factory Dairy Shut Down
The Case Vander Eyk Jr. Dairy in Pixley, California,
10,000-cow feedlot dairy, was found to be operating
outside of the organic law and has had its certifcate
to produce organic milk suspended. The dairy
received a notice of suspension from its USDA-
accredited certifer, Quality Assurance International
(QAI), for serious questions surrounding record-
keeping -- such as assuring that cows are actually
managed organically (without antibiotics and
hormones), fed organically produced feed (without
toxic pesticides and herbicides), and are allowed to
graze rather than being confned in a feedlot.
Its excellent to see QAI fulflling their
responsibility under the organic law and protecting
the interest of farmers and consumers, said Lisa
McCrory, a certifcation expert with 13 years
of experience for Northeast Organic Farming
Association of Vermont. This is an example of
the system working as it was designedorganic
inspectors uncovering problems and protecting the
public by shutting down farmers or processors if
problems are discovered.
source: June 7, 2007 Cornucopia Institute press
release
MOFGA Executive Director Tested for Industrial
Pollution
Russell Libby, the Executive Director of the Maine
Organic Farmers and Gardeners Association
(MOFGA), was among 13 Maine citizens whose
hair, blood and urine were recently tested for 71
different industrial chemicals. The Alliance for a
Clean and Healthy Maine, of which MOFGA is an
active member, conducted the study. Researchers
found toxic industrial chemicals in every person
tested. On average, each participant had measurable
levels of 36 toxic chemicals in their bodies. The
chemicals found can cause learning disabilities,
cancer, birth defects, infertility and hormone
disruption. Details about the study are posted online
at the Alliance for a Clean and Healthy Maine
website: www.cleanandhealthyme.org. Among the
participants tested, Libby was tied for the most
chemicals detected (41 of the 71 that were tested).
source: June 12, 2007 MOFGA press release
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Th e Nat ur al Far me r F a l l , 2 0 0 7 9
Organic Milk Glut?
So many conventional dairies converted to organic
to qualify under the old 80-20 feed rule, which
expired June 9, that there is a glut of organic milk in
the once drastically-undersupplied market. Horizon
Organic Milk said the increase over last year was
between 20 and 25%. As a result it has had to drop
retail prices and its stock has suffered a 36% loss
in value since late March. Others estimate that the
supply will increase 40% this year, while demand
will rise 25%. Experts expect the current 25 million
gallon over-supply situation to be short term,
however, as fewer new farms will be making the
organic transition without the help of the 80-20 rule.
source: Organic Business News, June, 2007, The
Germinator, Summer, 2007
USDA Contemplates Pharma Crop Ban
Released in mid-July, the U.S. Department of
Agricultures (USDAs) long-awaited draft
environmental impact statement (EIS) on the
regulation of genetically engineered (GE) organisms
presents a ban on food crops as one option for
overseeing pharmaceutical (pharma) and industrial
crops. If the option is adopted by the USDA, it
will become the basis for pharma/industrial crop
regulation in the new GE crop rules expected in
2008. But that outcome is far from assured. The
EIS also presents a weaker option that the USDA
currently prefers over the ban. In the works since
2004, the comprehensive rule making including the
EIS is the most signifcant regulatory initiative on
GE crops to come out of the USDA in the last two
decades. The new rule making will establish the
USDAs regulation of GE crops for many years to
come.
source: Union of Concerned Scientists Digest,
August, 2007
Organic Sales Top $16.9 Billion
According to the Organic Trade Association, 2006
U.S. organic food sales reached $16.9 billion, a
22.1% increase over the previous year. Organic
accounts for only 3% of food and beverage sales in
the US.
source: Organic Business News, May, 2007
Mediterranean Diet May Lower Alzheimers
Risk
Heart disease occurs much less among inhabitants
of the Mediterranean island of Crete than among
U.S. citizens. Researchers attributed much of
the difference to a diet high in fruits, vegetables,
legumes, grains and olive oil, with more fsh than
red meat, and with a moderate amount of wine.
Researchers at Columbia University later found
that New Yorkers whose diets most resembled the
Mediterranean pattern had a 40% lower rate of
Alzheimers Disease than those whose diets least
resembled it. Other studies had varying results.
source: Maine Organic Farmer and Gardener, June-
August, 2007
Anti-NAIS lawsuit fled in Pennsylvania
A lawsuit has been fled against the Pennsylvania
Department of Agriculture for its attempts to force
a Mennonite farmer, James Landis, to submit to
having a federal identifcation number in order to
continue to do business, in violation of Landis
religious beliefs. Landis has raised ducks on his
Lebanon County farm for export in live bird markets
in New York for the past 20 years. In April Landis
received a letter from the Pennsylvania Department
of Agriculture requiring him to register for a federal
identifcation number. This federal number, or
premises identifcation number, is the frst step in
a program called the National Animal Identifcation
System, or NAIS. A copy of the complaint fled with
the Commonwealth Court of Pennsylvania in the
case Landis v. Wolff can be read at www.telladf.org/
UserDocs/LandisComplaint.pdf.
source: ADF press release, June 21, 2007
Rural Areas Lack Food
Food Deserts have been defned as areas where
residents must travel more than 10 miles to the
nearest supermarket. In the US, 418 counties meet
this condition, which often results in inadequate
fresh fruits and vegetables in the diet.
source: Growing for Market, June, 2007
New Jersey Gets Accredited
The state of New Jerseys Department of
Agriculture recently gained accreditation from
the USDA to offer organic certifcation services.
Previously NOFA-NJ offered the service, but now
will provide education, technical support, and
training for farmers. NJDA expects to have at least
52 certifed farms and about 18 food processors and
handlers this year.
source: Organic Business News, June, 2007
Th e Nat ur al Far me r F a l l , 2 0 0 7 10
Organic Meat Sales Growing
Organic meat sales jumped 32.6% in 2006, with
natural meat sales going up 18.2%. Organic
beer and wine sales increased 31.2%, with such
beverages in the natural category going up 17%.
Organic pet foods rose 31%, coffee and tea went up
23%, and nutrition bars 21%.
source: Organic Business News, June, 2007
Weston A. Price Foundation Launches Farm-to-
Consumer Legal Defense Fund
The FTCLDF, a non-proft foundation, will be an
advocate for both farmer and consumer rights on
issues such as:
- Sale of raw milk
- NAIS (National Animal Identifcation System)
- On-farm processing and sale of products
- Cow, herd or farm-share agreements
- Medical, educational or governmental interference
with the transport, purchase or consumption of raw
milk.
The FTCLDF has been modeled after other legal
defense associations. To learn more, visit http://ent.
groundspring.org/EmailNow/pub.php?module=URL
Tracker&cmd=track&j=153767339&u=1491872
or email info@farmtoconsumer.org.
source: Weston A. Price Foundation press release,
July 23, 2007
Organic Feed Shortage Looming?
Organic poultry and eggs are among the products
hardest hit by a growing shortage of organic feed.
We will run out of the 2006 crop before we get
the 2007 crop in, says Lynn Clarkson, president of
Clarkson Grain, one of the largest organic corn and
soybean suppliers. Less acreage is being planted to
organic corn because of the high prices commanded
by conventional corn for ethanol. It is far simpler
to put in conventional corn, spray it, and be done
with it than to plant and tend organic corn. Organic
Valley is experimenting with other grains like
wheat or barley for its growers, and incorporating
alfalfa and feld peas into the dairy diet. As a result
of higher feed costs, prices for organic eggs have
jumped 17% this summer to $3.10 to $3.25 a dozen,
and organic whole fryers have gone up 12% to
$2.79 a pound.
source: Organic Business News, July, 2007
Organic Price Index Online
The New Farm Organic Price Index (OPX) enables
buyers and sellers to plan their business strategies
for more than 70 products in 11 markets around
the country. Updated weekly, the OPX compares
organic and conventional prices using a variety of
data sources. Offered free with the support of the
USDAs Risk Management Agency, OPX is online
at www.newfarm.org/opx.
source: Organic Processing, July-September, 2007
Hannaford Certifed by QAI
Hannaford Bros. Company, which operates 159
supermarkets in the Northeast, has been certifed
as an organic retailer by Quality Assurance
International. The retailer now carries 160 organic
produce items, 150 organic dairy products, and 115
organic baby food items. Organic sales last year
increased more than 20%, the retailer, owned by
Delhaize Group of Brussels, Belgium, says.
source: Organic Business News, July, 2007
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Th e Nat ur al Far me r F a l l , 2 0 0 7 11
by Tracy Lerman, Zach Baker, and Mark Lipson,
Organic Farming Research
Foundation and Aimee Witteman, Sustainable Agriculture Coalition
Every fve or so years, as the Farm Bill is being reauthorized, organic farmers
and sustainable agriculture advocates have the opportunity to steer US
agricultural policy in a more favorable direction. With the 2002 Farm Bill set to
expire at the end of September, advocates and farmers have been working around
the clock to infuence the writing of the 2007 Farm Bill. Organizations such
as the Organic Farming Research Foundation and the Sustainable Agriculture
Coalition have led the organic community in fending off attacks on organic
programs and have also managed to make signifcant gains for organic and
sustainable agriculture in the House of Representatives version of the 2007
Farm Bill. Although some of these provisions are not as far-reaching or do not
achieve the level of funding that had been hoped, the 2007 Farm Bill debate
is far from over as the Senate has yet to introduce its version of the Farm Bill,
which advocates hope will be even better for organic and sustainable agriculture.
Nevertheless, through their efforts, organic and sustainable agriculture advocates
have positioned themselves to make signifcant gains for farmers and the
environment when all is said and done.
The 2007 Farm Bill process began in May of 2007 in the House of
Representatives. On July 27, 2007 after more than two months of debate
and numerous versions of the 2007 Farm Bill, the United States House of
Representatives passed their fnal version of the House Farm Bill (H.R. 2419,
the Food, Nutrition and Bioenergy Act of 2007) on a vote of 231-191. Due to
the engagement of farmers and organizations through every step of the debate,
HR 2419 includes many of the policy recommendations that OFRF and SAC
were jointly advocating for regarding organic agriculture, including increased
mandatory funding for organic research, increased funding for certifcation cost
share, a stand alone organic transitions program, and conservation program
integration.
Organic Research
Organic farming is a knowledge-intensive endeavor that relies on the
understanding and sharing of best management practices to succeed. Many
farmers believe lack of knowledge is the biggest limiting factor to the spread
of organic agriculture, yet funding for organic research has been limited. New
USDA data for FY 2007 shows about $28 million total current spending directly
on organic research and education by all USDA research agencies. This is about
1.5% of those agencies total budget; the 2006 market share for organics is at 3%
and projected to continue growing. As a result OFRF and SAC are advocating
for a fair share of the USDA research budget to be spent on organics. A fair share
of research dollars would at least match the percentage of the US food retail
market that organic represents. Three provisions were included in H.R. 2419 to
make progress in addressing this issue.
H.R. 2419 includes language that encourages the USDA Agricultural Research
Service to increase its expenditures on organic research to at least a fair share
based on organics U.S. market share. The language also directs fnancial
support to be given to the Alternative Farming Systems Information Center to
disseminate research results. The inclusion of this language, instigated by an
amendment offered by Steve Kagen (D-WI), provides the organic community
with an acknowledgment of the need for a fair share of research dollars and a
platform from which to advocate for more funding for organic research.
In addition, USDAs fagship competitive grants program for organic research
and education, the Organic Agriculture Research and Extension Initiative
(OREI), received a modest increase in mandatory funding from $3 million per
year (in the 2002 Farm Bill) to $5 million per year in mandatory funding, plus
$25 million in discretionary annual appropriations authority in HR 2419.
1
At
one point in the debate it was unclear that OREI would receive any mandatory
funding, so signifcant progress was made in securing the mandatory funding.
Even though the sum is considerably less than the $25 million per year for which
we are advocating, having some mandatory funding going into the Senate Farm
Bill process and the eventual Conference Committee provides great negotiating
power.
Finally, HR 2419 includes $3 million in mandatory funding for collection of
organic production and marketing data during the 5 year life of the bill.
Organic Certifcation Cost Share
The cost of organic certifcation for farmers can be highly burdensome with
annual certifcation costs ranging anywhere from $500 to $20,000. The National
Organic Certifcation Cost Share Program helps defray these costs by providing
fnancial assistance of up to 75% of certifcation costs for organic farmers with
payments not exceeding $750 per farm. Unfortunately, the $5 million given to
the program in the 2002 Farm Bill over the life of the bill was expended in late
2006. For this Farm Bill, OFRF and SAC are advocating for $25 million over
fve years in mandatory funding for the National Organic Certifcation Cost
Share Program. H.R. 2419 provides $22 million in mandatory funding for this
program over the life of the Farm Bill, which is still a very signifcant win. We
are hopeful that we can get the full $25 million in the Senate version.
Organic Farmers Positioned
to Win Big in 2007 Farm Bill
UPDATE on the 2007 Farm Bill
Submitted by Tracy Lerman, Zach Baker, and Mark Lipson, Organic Farming Research
Foundation
And Aimee Witteman, Sustainable Agriculture Coalition
SUMMARY of FINAL HOUSE ACTION)
ITEM PRIMARY GOAL FINAL HOUSE BILL
(H.R. 2419)
Organic
Agriculture
Research
Minimum $15 million/yr. in
mandatory funds for Organic
Agriculture Research Extension
Initiative (OREI); fair share of
USDA Ag Research towards
organic
$5 million/yr. in mandatory
funding; plus, up to $25 million/yr.
in discretionary funds for OREI;
language urging a fair share of
USDA ARS research budget for
organics
Organic
Certification Cost-
Share
$25 million mandatory funds over
five years, increase cap to $750.
$22 million over five years in
mandatory funding; cap increased
to $750. Additional $1
million/year split among 17 states
under the Ag Mgt. Assistance Act.
Risk Management
(Crop Insurance
Program)
Removal of 5% organic surcharge;
allow for payments based on
organic prices rather than
conventional prices.
Requirements for USDA process to
evaluate and alter Crop Ins.
policies. Plus language & some
funding for USDA data collection
on production risks.
Conservation
Programs
Integration
Full funding for CSP and cross-
qualification with organic status.
EQIP funding of Conservation
Innovation grants for outreach to
organic producers. New
crossover policies making CSP
more organic-friendly, but CSP
funding cut by $4 billion,
precluding new enrollments until
2013.
Organic Transition
Supports
Stand-alone program for supporting
transition: $50 million/yr.; 50%
financial assistance, 50% technical
assistance and business advising.
Priority for USDA real estate loans
& guarantees.
Stand-alone Organic Conversion
Assistance program created; at
least 50% of funding will be used
for technical and educational
assistance; discretionary funding of
$50 million over the life of the
farm bill.
Data Collection Expansion of 2002 Organic Data
Initiative.
$3 Million mandatory funding over
five years.
In addition, the Agriculture Management Assistance program, part of which
provides funds for certifcation cost sharing in 15 states traditionally
underserved by USDA risk management programs (including Maine,
Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New York, New Jersey, Rhode Island,
Pennsylvania, and Vermont) was renewed at 2002 funding levels, expanded
to include Virginia and Hawaii, and required to use at least 10% of the AMA
annual funds for certifcation cost sharing in the named states.
Organic Transition Support
Farmers transitioning to organic production incur large fnancial costs and in
most cases need technical and educational assistance to successfully implement
the new farming practices. A Farm Bill program to provide this type of
assistance has been non-existent. To address this need, OFRF and SAC are
advocating for a stand alone organic transition program that provides fnancial
assistance and technical and educational assistance to help farmers transition
to organic production systems. In one of the biggest wins so far, H.R. 2419
includes a new, stand-alone Organic Conversion, Technical, and Educational
Assistance program.
Created through an amendment by Rep. Kirsten Gillibrand (D-NY), the
Organic Conversion program will provide technical and fnancial assistance
to conventional farmers who are converting to organic practices. It is
authorized for $50 million over the life of the farm bill and includes cost
share and incentive payments for conservation measures as well as technical
and education assistance in business and marketing transition planning. Half
the funds are set aside for technical and education assistance, part of which
are authorized to fow to non-profts and consultants through cooperative
agreements with the Natural Resource Conservation Service (NRCS), which
administers USDA conservation programs. The maximum payment per farmer
per year is $10,000 and a provision is included to clarify that if the farmer does
not complete organic certifcation, USDA could ask for the money back. OFRF
and SAC plan to push for a similar organic conversion program in the Senate
Bill with annual mandatory funding we originally asked for. Having an organic
conversion program in the House Bill will make it easier to get one in the Senate
Bill and the Conference Committee.
Conservation Program Integration
Although organic farming provides signifcant conservation benefts, organic
farmers have not been given preference in applying for conservation programs
and have had trouble accessing conservation programs. SAC and OFRF are
advocating for better integration of conservation programs with organic farmers.
Provisions in H.R. 2419 make an important step in achieving this goal.
HR 2419 amends the Conservation Reserve Program (CRP), a program
that pays owners to keep land out of production, with a provision that will
facilitate the movement of CRP land from a retiring owner to a beginning or
socially disadvantaged farmers or rancher for sustainable grazing and crop
production. This provision also allows those farmer and ranchers to begin the
organic certifcation process one year before the CRP contract expires.
The EQIP program reauthorization in HR 2419 has a provision which
provides $20 million per year for Conservation Innovation grants, $5
million of which is to be used, for outreach for organic and specialty crop
producers. This revises the purposes of this grant program to promote better
1. Mandatory funding is funding that comes from 5-year Farm Bill funds and does
not have to be approved in the annual appropriations process. Discretionary funding is
funding that comes from the annual budget and is funded at the discretion of Congress
through the annual appropriations process.
Th e Nat ur al Far me r F a l l , 2 0 0 7 12
conservation outcomes for organic and specialty
crop production. EQIP program purposes are
also amended to include organic transition,

and this purpose is made eligible for cost-sharing
payments.
HR 2419 amends the Conservation Security
Program requiring USDA to consider the multiple
benefts of conservation-based farming systems,
such as organic production, resource-conserving
crop rotations, and managed rotational grazing,
when ranking applications. In addition, language
is included requiring USDA to allow producers to
coordinate and simultaneously certify eligibility
under CSP and the National Organic Program.
The signifcant gains for conservation program
integration on the House side are included in
the working draft of the Senate Farm Bill. This
new working lands program melds the ongoing
stewardship features of the Conservation Security
Program with the fnancial assistance component
of the Environmental Quality Incentives Program
(EQIP) and is called the Comprehensive
Stewardship Incentives Program (CSIP). While the
CSP and EQIP components of CSIP will maintain
separate identities and funding, the application is
streamlined and the program as a whole will be
available nationwide with continuous enrollment.
Melding the two programs into one will better
facilitate program delivery and make them less
susceptible to post-farm bill funding cuts. SAC and
OFRF will be backing the CSIP proposal in the
Senate version.
Programs supporting local, small scale farming
With the consumer demand for locally-grown,
organic produce and grass-fed meats outstripping
domestic supply, the need for programs to support
farmers in meeting this demand are vital. The
Sustainable Agriculture Coalition, of which Organic
Farming Research Foundation is a member, has
successfully advocated for numerous programs that
address this need and will continue to push for them
in the Senate version.
These policies include:
Beginning Farmers and Ranchers - H.R. 2419
increases funding for most components of a
package of public policies that support the next
generations entry into sustainable farming and
ranching livelihoods through training, technical
assistance, and access to credit and land.
New Local/Regional Food Infrastructure
Initiatives
o The Healthy Food Enterprise Loan Guarantee
Program is a proposed new provision under the
existing Business and Industry Guaranteed Loan
(B&I) Program that would provide guaranteed
loans for infrastructure projects to support the
aggregating, processing, and marketing of locally
or regionally produced agricultural products.
o The Healthy Food Urban Enterprise
Development Program provides grants for
feasibility studies for the establishment of
processing and distribution facilities. The
program would give special priority to projects
that support socially disadvantaged farmers and
ranchers, increase employment in underserved
communities, advance small and mid-sized
farms and ranch viability, and maintain sound
environmental and labor standards. Under the
program, small and mid-sized processors and
distributors, non-profts, and producer-owned
cooperatives, universities, and community
development organizations would be eligible for
planning grants of up to $250,000.
Value-Added Producer Grants The House
Farm Bill includes $30 million in mandatory
funding for VAPG, a program that provides
assistance to independent producers to pursue
market opportunities that will add value to their
agricultural operations and raise their incomes.
Also, new language is included in the House bill
that gives preference to projects that support small
and mid-sized farms and provides designated
funding for mid-tier value chain networks.
Farmers Marketing Assistance Program
Created as the Farmers Market Promotion
Program in the last farm bill and provided with
mandatory funding by the Senate, the program
was ultimately authorized in 2002 but never
funded. This time, the House farm bill not only
reauthorized the program, it provides it with $35
million in mandatory funding over fve years. The
House farm bill also renames the program and
clarifes the full range of direct marketing options
the program will support.
For more detailed information on these programs
visit the www.sustainableagriculturecoalition.org
Conclusion
The organic community and sustainable agriculture
community have made some important gains in the
Farm Bill process to date and is positioned to make
even more. Yet, it is too early for complacency
as a long and trying Farm Bill process lies ahead.
Organic advocates had to fend off attacks to
cut funding to certain organic programs, and
it is likely that they will have to do so again.
Unfortunately, one attack was not avoided, as a
clause was included in HR 2419 that prohibits
USDA from discriminating against the use of
specifc classes of pesticides in implementing
conservation programs such as EQIP or CSP. This
amendment could, in effect, prevent conservation
program managers from prioritizing integrated pest
management or organic practices to meet specifc
environmental goals. In addition, some policies
such as those regarding crop insurance for organic
farmers were not dealt with satisfactorily and need
to be rectifed in the Senate version.
Even so, the outlook for organic and sustainable
agriculture in the 2007 Farm Bill looks very
promising. Numerous wins in the House version
make it much more likely for the organic
community to achieve its goals. Organic
and sustainable agriculture have been highly
supported in this years Farm Bill and stand to
achieve historic support. Programs that organic
advocates havent asked for are being created,
such as a program to provide grants for the
creation of organic community gardens. A lot of
effort has been invested in elevating organic and
sustainable agriculture to the level it currently is
in the Farm Bill discourse, and this effort must
be kept up if organic agriculture is going to
prove victorious. Visit www.ofrf.org and www.
sustainableagriculturecoalition.org to get involved.
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by Roger Blobaum
Almost everyone seems to have heard about the
growing threat of global warming, but almost
no one seems to have heard about the important
contribution organic farmers are making to help
mitigate the damage.
Organic farmings mitigation contribution and
future potential, although well documented here
and elsewhere, is receiving little notice from either
policymakers or those putting together carbon
credit mechanisms that could provide a new source
of organic farming income. Attempts to have
organic farmers included in these new carbon credit
mechanisms have failed to make any headway so
far. A much more public, focused, and convincing
effort is needed so organic producers will be
rewarded in some way for all the credits they are
piling up.
Inside Organics Column
Organic Farming and Global
Climate Change:
Organic Farmings Contribution to Mitigating
the Impact of Global Warming, Although
Fully Documented, Gets Little Public Notice
Global warming mitigation approaches have gained
signifcant attention in many countries, especially
in Europe where governments acknowledge and
reward organic farmers for the many other public
benefts they provide. But even there, for now at
least, organic farmers are still on the outside looking
in as carbon credit mechanisms are demonstrated.
Potential carbon trade developers getting organized
in developing countries may be more inclusive. It
is reported, for example, that one potential carbon
credit project involves an organic produce initiative
in South Africa.
Nearly all countries, unlike our own, are
implementing the Kyoto Protocol, an international
agreement among industrialized nations to reduce
greenhouse gas emissions. This has given them
a head start in developing mechanisms for selling
carbon credits on world trading markets. Buyers
of the credits are industrial entities that need to
offset excess gas emissions to avoid government
penalties.

Although the European carbon trading system was
started in 2005, it has had little success involving
agriculture and even less success involving
organic farming. A climate exchange established
in Chicago in 2003 provides a mechanism for
buying and selling carbon credit contracts in this
country. Both the Iowa Farm Bureau and the North
Dakota Farmers Union have pooled conventional
acres enrolled in these contracts. The credits are
worth roughly $2 an acre for no-till land and $3
for pasture. If these contracts become well enough
established to be traded internationally, it is assumed
the amount paid for credits would increase.
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Rodale Trials Document Organic Benefts

The most signifcant documentation of the public
benefts of organic here in the U.S. are the long-term
feld trials conducted by the Rodale Institute. The
results of these trials, frst announced in 2003, show
that organic systems use one-third less fossil fuel
energy than conventional systems, with much of the
savings coming from avoiding synthesized
nitrogen fertilizer and pesticides made from natural
gas and other fossil fuel inputs.
Similar results came in the mid-1970s from a
Washington University energy research project
involving farms in fve Midwest states.
The Rodale Institute trials also show that organic
systems, which use cover crops and compost and
legume-based rotations to build up organic matter
levels in the soil, help mitigate global warming
by sequestering 15-28 percent more carbon than
land farmed with conventional methods. The
trials, started in 1981, involve side-by-side 12-acre
experiments comparing conventional, legume based
organic and manure based organic systems.
Research conducted in Europe and elsewhere shows
organic systems also help mitigate the adverse
impacts of global warming by reducing carbon
dioxide emissions by half or more. Converting
the 160 million acres of corn and soybeans in the
U.S. to organic production would sequester enough
carbon to satisfy 73 percent of the Kyoto targets
for CO2 reduction and more than wipe out U.S.
agricultures massive emission problem, the Rodale
Institutes announcement said.
Organic farmings potential contribution to global
warming mitigation has received little notice
here from policymakers or, surprisingly, from the
organic sector itself. It is seldom mentioned in
testimony and other efforts to increase support for
organic farming in the farm bill. An exception is
the Organic Center, an organization that focuses
on documenting health and nutrition advantages of
organic food and the many environmental and other
benefts organic farmers provide to the public.
In discussing the positive impact of growing the
organic sector to 10 percent by 2010, the Organic
Center states this increase would fght climate
change by capturing an additional 6.5 billion pounds
of carbon in soil on organic farms. This, the center
concluded, is equivalent to taking 2 million cars,
each averaging 12,000 miles a year, off the road.
This increase, it added, also would save 2.9 billion
barrels of imported oil annually.
Organic Farming Potential Cited in Global
Meetings
The potential of organic farming for global
warming mitigation was a leading topic at the
International Conference on Organic Agriculture
and Food Security sponsored by the UNs Food and
Agriculture Organization in May. A series of reports
showed how organic farming offers signifcant
climate change mitigation benefts through reduced
consumption of fossil fuels for energy, reduced
emissions of carbon dioxide and methane and
nitrous oxide, considerably reduced vulnerability
of soils to erosion and the sequestration of carbon
under organic management.
Although organic farming performance could be
enhanced by more research on problems related
to lower yields in some cases, and to soil erosion
related to tillage, a report by researchers from a
Swiss research institute and the World Wildlife Fund
concludes that organic agriculture is so far the most
promising approach for mitigation and adaptation to
climate change.
Not everyone likes the idea of allowing the worst
industrial polluters to buy their way out of trouble
with regulators by participating in cap and trade
schemes. But carbon credit mechanisms dont
necessarily have to involve power plants and
other major polluters. These mechanisms also can
provide ways for ordinary citizens to buy credits for
carbon free travel, for example, or other carbon
neutral purposes.
Carbon Free Travel Offered Online
Current examples include carbon credit mechanisms
offered to travelers who book airline, hotel, rental
car and other travel with online travel agencies.
Travelocity, for example, makes this online offer:
Offset your trips carbon emissions. Effectively
offset the negative environmental impact of your
entire trip here. Go without guilt. Go zero! Offset
prices, ranging from $10 to $40, are added to the
cost of the trip.
While air travel is considered a contributor to
the carbon dioxide emissions that lead to global
warming, now theres something you can do to
offset the negative environmental impact of your
travel: by contributing to the Conservation Funds
Go Zero Program, the message continues. Go
Zero Travel is the frst program of its kind in the
nation.
So what happens to that $10 or more added to the
cost of travel purchased online through Travelocity?
Each donation facilitates the planting of native
trees, which absorb and reduce the amount of carbon
dioxide in the atmosphere, the agency notes. New
forests planted with the help of donations like yours
will be planted in permanently protected lands
across the U.S. and managed by the nations leading
public agencies.
This is a positive consumer-friendly way to offset
travel carbon with tree planting. But why not allow
travelers to direct some of this mitigation money to
organic farms as well? The Conservation Fund does
make a passing reference to conventional no-till as
another possible carbon offset possibility but does
not mention organic farms.
Much more needs to be done to educate the
Conservation Fund, general farm organizations, and
carbon credit plan innovators about the signifcant
carbon sequestration and energy saving practices of
organic farms. It should be possible for zero carbon
consumers, who already support organic farmers by
buying organic food, to participate in mechanisms
that would pass funds through to organic farmers or
those in transition.
These mechanisms require an organization like the
Farm Bureau or the Farmers Union to assemble
land for contracts and a fnancial agent like the
Conservation Fund or the climate exchange to
handle the process of verifying emissions reductions
and the carbon sequestration realized, and then
collecting and dispensing funds. The potential for
putting together a group of organic farmers and
providing verifcation should be explored. Organic
farm plans, annual inspection, and certifcation
would appear to make it easier for organic farms to
meet verifcation requirements.
The global warming benefts also should be stressed
in public statements and testimony requesting
more funding for organic research and education
from state and federal sources. Global warming
benefts were stressed by organic farmer Atina
Diffey of Gardens of Eagan last February in urging
the Minnesota House Agriculture Appropriations
Committee to support University of Minnesota
organic research and education funding, organic
certifcation cost sharing, and alternative livestock
research and outreach funding.
While conventional farming typically depletes soil
organic matter, organic farming builds it through the
use of compost and cover crops . . .more than 1,000
pounds of captured carbon per acre-foot per year,
she testifed. Or one 320-acre organic farm taking
the carbon from 117 cars out of the air. And thats
not even counting the reductions in CO2 emissions
represented by the organic systems lower energy
requirements.
Organic farmer Steve Gilman of Ruckytucks Farm
in New York State, policy director of the Northeast
Organic Farming Association (NOFA), also wants
more public attention given to global warming
mitigation benefts of organic farming. He suggests
the time has come for the larger organic community
to get behind proposals to reward organic farmers
fnancially for what they do to mitigate the impact
of global warming.
Connecting organic farming to carbon credits
through sequestering carbon and saving energy
and reducing emissions would provide a steady
unsubsidized income stream that would directly
beneft organic producers, helping them grow
their operations and their numbers to meet the
growing unflled demand of the organic industry,
he suggested in discussing his vision of the future.
This sea change in the agricultural system will be
even more profound when conventional farmers
have to buy carbon credits to offset their own
unsustainable practices.
Originally published in the July-August issue of
the Organic Broadcaster, a publication of the
Midwest Organic and Sustainable Education
Service, MOSES, PO Box 339, Spring Valley, WI
54767. 715-772-3153. www.mosesorganic.org. All
rights reserved. Roger Blobaum is an agricultural
consultant providing professional services to
organic and sustainable agriculture organizations
and institutions. Comments on this analysis can be
directed to Roger Blobaum at RJBlobaum@cs.com
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Special Supplement on
Climate Change and
Organic Agriculture
Cameron Wake
Research Associate Professor
Climate Change Research Center, EOS
University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH
E-mail: cameron.wake@unh.edu
Introduction:
Climate changes. It always has and always will.
What is unique in modern times is that human
activities are now a signifcant factor causing our
climate to change. This is evident in the recent rapid
rise of heat trapping gases (that originate primarily
from our burning of coal, oil, and natural gas) in
the atmosphere, and in the recent increase in global
temperatures in the lower atmosphere and in the
surface ocean (more information on global climate
change is provided by the Fourth Assessment Report
of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change:
http://www.ipcc.ch/).

To assess how climate in the Northeastern U.S.
has changed over the past 100 years, a variety of
instrumental and observational data sets have been
assembled and analyzed. Despite the considerable
variability in weather in the Northeast US, all of the
climate change indicators reveal that our region has
been warming over the last century, and that this
rate of warming has increased over the last thirty-
fve years.

For more information on these and other indicators
you can download the entire Indicators Report from
the Clean Air Cool Planet website (http://www.
cleanair-coolplanet.org). In addition, a recent report
from the Union of Concerned Scientists investigates
how our climate might change in the next 100 years
depending on the choices we make over the next
decade concerning our emissions of heat trapping
gases. The entire report is available online at: http://
www.climatechoices.org/. The main conclusion of
the report is that our climate future is literally in our
hands.
Average Annual and Seasonal Temperature
Temperature is one of most frequently used
indicators of climate change and has been recorded
at numerous stations in the Northeast United
States since 1899. Changes in temperature affect
numerous aspects of our daily lives and our
regions economy, including recreation, tourism,
transportation, agriculture, emergency management,
health, and fuel consumption for heating and
Indicators of Climate Change in the
Northeast over the past 100 years
cooling. Temperature is the determinant factor in
the length of the growing season, it infuences the
amount of winter snowfall and the comfort of a
summer afternoon. The National Oceanographic and
Atmospheric Administrations National Climatic
Data Center (NCDC) has maintained temperature
records from various stations across the country. In
the Northeast there are 56 stations that have been
continuously operating since 1899, providing the
best record of temperature variations for the region.

Annual average temperature for the Northeast
(New England, New York State, and New Jersey)
shows considerable variability on annual and
longer time scales. There is also a long-term trend
towards warmer temperatures: the Northeasts
average annual temperature has increased by about
1.8
o
F from 1899 to 2000. Over the last 30 years,
annual average temperatures have increased 1.4
o
F.
Even more striking is the 4.4
o
F increase in winter
temperatures over the last 31 years (1970-2000).
Length of Growing Season
Length of the growing season is defned as the
number of days between the last frost of spring
and the frst frost of winter. This roughly marks the
period during which plants, especially agricultural
crops, grow most successfully. While freezing
temperatures affect all commercial, agricultural,
industrial, recreational, and ecological systems,
the human system most sensitive to changes in
the length of the growing season is agriculture.
In addition, the length of the growing season is
a defning characteristic of different ecosystems.
Growing season length is an event-driven
phenomenon. The growing season is solely
dependent on specifc cold weather events, rather
than monthly or annual averages.

Summary of a wide variety of indicators or climate change in the Northeast U.S. Note that
every indicator shows the region has been warming for the last 101 years (1900 2000). The
rate of warming has also increased over the last three decades.
Th e Nat ur al Far me r F a l l , 2 0 0 7 16
There are seven stations in New England that have
been collecting daily temperature data since at least
1900. These stations represent the best available
instrumental record of growing season for this
region going back a century. The length of the
growing season in the Northeast has considerable
year-to-year variability (Figure 1). However, despite
this variability, a long-term increase of 8 days in the
length of the growing season is apparent. There is
asignifcant spatial variability, however, with some
locations experiencing considerably longer growing
seasons.
Spring Bloom Dates for Lilacs, Apples, and
Grapes
Phenology is the study of seasonal biological events
in the animal and plant world as infuenced by
the environment. Plants are particularly useful to
scientists as weather instruments and indicators of
climate change because their phenological responses
are based on a complex integration of temperature,
sunshine, rainfall, and humidity that is diffcult to
match by simple analysis of weather records.
Changes in spring bloom date from 1965 to 2001
have been analyzed using a unique data set derived
from genetically identical lilac plants (Syringa
chinensis, clone Red Rothomagensis) monitored
at 72 locations within the Northeastern U.S. In
addition to the unique, geographically dispersed
lilac data set, an evaluation was done of trends
in bloom date of apples (Empire and similar
varieties) and grape (variety Concord) collected at
a few sites in New York State during approximately
the same time period.

During the period 1965 to 2001, lilac bloom dates
advanced about 1 day per decade in the northeastern
U.S. The genetic similarity of the plants at all sites
makes this a highly unique and powerful analysis.
Analysis of the more geographically limited
apple and grape data sets suggests a slightly more
rapid advance in spring bloom, about 2 days per
decade.. A recent analysis of historical apple yields
in the New York State region found that warmer
temperatures from January 1 to bud break period
was correlated with lower, not higher yields. Much
more detailed information on the impact of climate
change on farming is available on the website http://
www.climateandfarming.org/.
Lake Ice-In and Ice-Out Dates
Observations of lake ice are tangible, readily
available and technically feasible indicators of local
climate conditions. Ice-out and ice-in have been
recorded at 28 lakes in the Northeast US for many
years. Used for local commerce and transportation,
lakes have been important to people living in the
region for centuries. When frozen, lakes are used for
ice fshing, cross-country skiing, sled-dog racing,
and snowmobiling, all of which are important for
the Northeasts tourism economy. However, the
spring break-up of the lakes is also an important
event, when boaters and ferry masters put their
boats in the water to begin the warm season.
Average ice-out dates for lakes across the regions
have been occurring earlier in recent decades. In
general, lakes farther from the ocean and at higher
elevations show smaller decreases in the length of
ice cover. Overall, ice-out dates were 9 days and 16
days earlier between 1950 and 2000 in the northern/
mountainous and southern regions of New England
respectively.

The date Lake Champlain, VT, was frst frozen over
(ice-in) has also changed over the past 150 years.
Today it freezes over 8 days later than it did in the
second half of the 1800s. But the most remarkable
part of the record is the occurrence of years in
which the lake did not freeze over all winter. Over
the 186 year record, the lake has not frozen over in
31 winters, and almost half of them occurred since
1970
Figure 1. Average growing season anomaly at 7 stations in the Northeast, defned by the
number of days between the last frost (minimum daily temperature below 32oF) and the
frst of the fall, 1900-2001. In the graph, zero represents 192 days, the average time between
frosts. Years below the line experienced shorter than average seasons, while years above the
line experienced longer. Overall there has been an increase in eight days in the length of the
growing season at these seven stations.


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Th e Nat ur al Far me r F a l l , 2 0 0 7 17
Precipitation
Ecological systems depend on precipitation for
hydration and human communities depend on the
replenishment of underground water sources and
water for growing crops. In addition, precipitation is
important for tourism.

Precipitation in the Northeast has increased by an
average of 3.3 inches per year (8 percent) over the
past century. There was a signifcant increase in
precipitation following the drought that affected the
region in the early 1960s. That drought impacted
regional agriculture, water quality and quantity,
forest health, and human health. By 1965, that
drought reached critical levels and resulted in
widespread forest fres, crop failures, fsh kills,
water shortages, harmful algal blooms, and heat-
related deaths. Following the 1960s drought,
precipitation has increased. Of the ten years with the
most precipitation over the past century, eight have
occurred since 1970.
Extreme Precipitation Events
The number of precipitation events that resulted in
more than two inches of rain (or water equivalent
if the storm results in snowfall) during a 48-hour
period is counted for each year for six stations over
the past 100 years.

Every station investigated reveals an increase in
extreme precipitation events during the 1980s
and 1990s, as compared with the early 1900s.
Storrs, CT, which has data available back to 1888,
averaged about three intense storms each year prior
to 1970. From 1970-2000, Storrs has averaged
5.5 extreme precipitation events per year. The fve
other stations investigated all show an increase in
extreme precipitation events in recent decades and
are consistent with increases experienced in most of
the country. Note this analysis does not include the
large precipitation events the region has experienced
in 2006 and 2007.
Snowfall
Total winter snowfall is an important indicator
of winter weather. For those living in the Northeast,
snow is an important factor of everyday winter life.
Snow in New England is of vital importance to the
tourism industry and also represents a key aspect of
New England culture. Many regions rely heavily on
income from skiers, snowboarders and snowmobilers
during the winter season, while snow removal
represents a signifcant expense for municipalities
and state governments across the region.

Over the past 30 years, stations in northern New
York and northern New England have experienced
signifcant decreases in snowfall, with several
locations showing a decrease of 40 or more inches
per winter. Overall, the southern portions of the
region have experienced a decrease in snowfall,
although the decrease is not as large when compared
to northern regions.
Days with Snow on Ground
Like total snowfall, total days with snow on
the ground are an important indicator of winter
weather. Satellite records indicate that snow cover
extent in the Northern Hemisphere has decreased
by about 10% since 1966 and is strongly related
to increases in temperature. Unfortunately, few
meteorological stations have been recording the
presence of snow on the ground more than 30-40
years. As a result, this indicator is only available
back to 1970. Snowfall in the Northeast is extremely
variable, with some stations receiving only a few
inches of snow and others receiving more than 100
inches every year. Thus the number of days with
snow on ground will also be variable across the
region. The data from stations in the Northeast are
generally consistent with the hemispheric trend
and reveal a decrease in the number of days with
snow on ground. When averaged, the Northeast
stations indicate that there were, on average, 16
fewer days with snow on ground in 2001 compared
to 1970. However, there are several large areas
that do not have snow depth data (such as most of
Maine, Massachusetts, and Connecticut). Some
stations, such as Durham, NH, and Fredonia, NY,
are experiencing almost a month of fewer days,
on average, with snow each year. These trends
are consistent with the measured increases in
temperature over this time period.
Conclusion
Weather in the Northeastern United States is
arguably among the most variable in the world. This
variability on time scales from hours to years is the
result of several factors that relate to the physical
geographical setting of the region, including our
latitude, topography, and coastal orientation.
Despite this variability, the indicators of the
Northeasts changing climate presented in this report
provide a coherent set of evidence of a region that is
warming, especially over the last thirty years. This
evidence comes from a wide range of environments
the atmosphere, the biosphere, the oceans, and
snow and ice. Additional research is required to
better understand our changing climate, and to
determine why it is changing. There are additional
indicators that will be collected in the coming years
that report not only on changes in the regions
climate, but also the impact those changes are
having on the regions environment, economy, and
quality of life. However, the remarkably consistent
signal of a warming trend across the region cannot
and should not be ignored. We now have our canary
in the coal mine. The decisions we make today and
over the next decade regarding our emissions of heat
trapping gases will determine the climate that our
children and grandchildren inherit.
e-mail: moodoovt@sover.net
Th e Nat ur al Far me r F a l l , 2 0 0 7 18
by David W. Wolfe
Professor, Department of Horticulture
Cornell University, Ithaca NY 14853
(dww5@cornell.edu)
In case you havent noticed, climate change is
already upon us. What can really bring it home
to many farmers and gardeners is to compare the
familiar 1990 USDA Plant Hardiness Zone map
with the 2006 revision recently released by the
Arbor Day Foundation (www.arborday.org). It
is reprinted here on page 2. The new map shows
considerable zone creep northward as minimum
winter temperatures have increased in just the past
15 years.
Here in the Northeastern U.S. we have experienced
about 0.5 degrees Fahrenheit (F) increase in average
annual temperature per decade since 1970. When
we break it down by seasons, winters are warming
the most in our area -- 1.3 F per decade from 1970
to 2000. Recent climate trends for the Northeast
also include fewer snow cover days, longer growing
season, more summer days with temperatures above
90 F, and more fooding events due to more of our
rain coming in heavy rainfall events (more than 2
inches in 48 hours).
It is true that the Earths climate has always been
changing, even before there were humans on the
planet. But seldom has it been warmer than it is
today, and seldom has the pace of change been
this fast. To puts things into perspective, 12,000
years ago the Earth was 11 F cooler than it is
today, and much of the Northeastern U.S. was
under a glacial ice sheet several feet thick. Now,
the latest climate model projections for this region
(see: www.climatechoices.org) indicate we must
brace ourselves for an additional 6 12 F warming
within just the next 80 years or so assuming a
business as usual scenario of fossil fuel use and
greenhouse gas emissions.
It is not just the thermometer record from weather
stations telling us the climate is changing. We
have considerable evidence that the living world is
responding. I and several collaborators examined
historical records for lilacs, grapes and apples
in the Northeast and documented an advance in
spring bloom date of 4 to 8 days since the 1960s.
In just the past few years, Cornell Integrated Pest
Management (IPM) specialists have found they
must begin monitoring for certain crop insects
several weeks earlier than they used to. With a trend
for warmer winters there is a very real concern of
increased pressure from marginally over-wintering
crop pests and invasive weeds. Throughout the
Northern Hemisphere other researchers have
reported indicators of change such as earlier spring
arrival of migrating birds, and northward and
upward expansion of habitat range for birds, insects,
and mammals.
Key questions regarding agriculture and climate
change are:
How will current crops and livestock respond?
How will it affect weed, insect, and disease pests?
Can the carbon dioxide (CO
2
) fertilization effect
compensate for negative climate change effects?
How can farmers adapt, and what will it cost
them?
What can farmers do to reduce reliance on fossil
fuels and mitigate greenhouse gas emissions?
Temperature Change and Northeast Crops
For farmers in the Northeast, the frst thought
that often comes to mind with respect to global
warming is longer growing seasons and
opportunities to experiment with new crops and
markets. The recent impacts assessment for our
Climate Change:
How Will It Affect Crops, Livestock,
and Farming in the Northeast?
region (available at www.climatechoices.org)
acknowledges these potential opportunities, but
also provides a sobering picture of our future
that includes new invasive weed and insect pests,
an increase in summer heat stress for crops and
livestock, and serious challenges with water
management.
The fact is that the fnancial well-being of most farm
families is currently structured around crops and
particular varieties adapted to our current relatively
cool climate. For example, many agricultural shrubs
(e.g., blueberry, cranberry), fruit trees (e.g., apples,
grapes), and winter cereal grains (e.g., winter
wheat) require a prolonged winter chilling period
to develop fowers and fruits the following spring.
The chilling requirement for many of our most
common apple varieties, and for native grapes like
Concord, is over 1000 cumulative hours (over 40
days) at temperatures below about 45 F. Blueberries
require between 700 1200 hours. Warmer winters
that do not meet these requirements, and/or more
erratic winter temperatures that cause premature
leaf-out or bloom (and subsequent frost damage),
will have negative consequences for yield of these
perennial crops, whether or not spring and summer
temperatures are optimum for their growth. Fruit
crop specialist Alan Lakso at Cornells Geneva
Experiment station has already documented a trend
for lower apple yields in years with warmer winters.
Climate projections for the Northeast indicate
that by end of the century much of New York and
southern parts of New England would no longer
meet a 1000 hour or greater chilling requirement
with a business as usual greenhouse gas emissions
scenario.
Maple syrup production depends on our regions
unique combination of freezing nights combined
with warm days to trigger the fow of sweet sap
in spring. Syrup producers are already reporting
that warmer and more erratic winters are making it
more diffcult to determine the best time to tap, and
reducing the amount of high quality syrup produced.
The center of the maple syrup production has been
migrating northward into Canada in recent years,
arguably due at least in part to climate change.
Cool season-adapted vegetable crops, such
as potatoes and cabbage, will likely be more
challenging to grow in a warming climate, requiring
farmers to experiment with new planting dates
and new varieties. Although corn is generally
considered a warm-adapted crop, sweet corn
benefts from our current relatively cool summers
that lead to a slow kernel ripening process and
outstanding eating quality that is well known among
consumers and wholesale buyers. If warming trends
continue, it is not that we could not grow crops like
sweet corn, potatoes or cabbage, but our competitive
edge in the marketplace associated with superior
quality may be lost unless new varieties adapted to
the new climate are developed.
On the positive side, climate change could create
new opportunities for farmers with enough capital
to take risks on new crops. For example, the rapid
expansion and success of the European wine grape
(Vitis vinifera) industry in upstate New York during
the past 30 years may in part be attributed to less
severe winters. These European varieties do not
have the long winter chill requirement of native
grapes, and suffer vine and root damage when
winter temperatures dip below -12 F. Thus, the
success of this industry may in part be attributed to
the fact that the frequency of extreme winter cold
has diminished.
A longer summer growing season will tend to
beneft those attempting to grow watermelon,
tomatoes, peppers, peaches, and other crops that are
currently constrained by our cool climate. However,
fruit quality of even a warm season-adapted crop
such as tomato can be negatively affected by
temperatures exceeding 90 F at critical growth
stages. Climate projections indicate this will be a
common problem during Northeast summers by
the end of the century if we follow the business as
graphic from Union of Concerned Scientists, www.climatechoices.org
Climate projections for average temperature in the Northeast
Th e Nat ur al Far me r F a l l , 2 0 0 7 19
usual greenhouse gas emissions pathway.
More Drought and Flooding Projected for the
Northeast
We are already observing an increase in the
frequency of high-rainfall events, and if this trend
continues as projected by the climate models, we
will be facing more frequent feld fooding. In
addition to possible crop losses due to lack of
oxygen for roots and disease problems associated
with wet conditions, excessive rain at the wrong
time increases soil erosion and compaction, and can
delay spring planting or fall harvest. In response to
farmer requests for information, at Cornell we began
feld experiments this summer to compare different
vegetable crops for their ability to recover from
early-, mid-, and late-season fooding events.
Somewhat surprisingly, our region is also projected
to have an increase in the frequency of late-summer
short-term drought. The reason for this is that
warmer temperatures will increase the demand
for water by crops, but rainfall is not projected to
increase (if anything, it may decrease slightly in
late summer). These two factors, combined with
more of the rainfall arriving in short heavy-downfall
events, leads to water defcits. Many crops in the
Northeast, particularly grain and silage crops, are
not irrigated, so what climate change brings in terms
of summer rainfall will be critical. Even many
farms growing high value horticultural crops do
not currently have enough irrigation equipment to
meet the needs of all of their acreage during drought
periods.
Weeds, Insects and Pathogens
Crop plants in agroecosystems do not grow in
isolation. Weeds, and benefcial and harmful
insects, microbes, and other organisms in the
environment will also be responding to changes in
climate. As warmer climate zones drift northward
the potential habitat range for many species will
also drift northward. The spread of plant pathogens
will beneft in those years when wetter conditions
prevail, and be constrained in drought years.
Historically, cold winter temperatures in the
Northeast have protected our forests, gardens,
and farms from large populations of weeds and
insect pests that are a severe problem in more
southern areas. One example is kudzu, an invasive
weed that is notorious in the Southeastern U.S.,
but is constrained in its northward expansion
by winters that dip below -4 F. In our recent
impacts assessment (www.climatechoices.org), we
show that under a business as usual emissions
scenario, the potential range of kudzu will march
photo by Ian Merwin, Cornell University
A recent analysis of New York historical records documented that apples are blooming about
8 days earlier today than they were in the 1960s. The same study documented an advance
of 4 and 6 days in spring bloom for lilacs and grapes, respectively. Historical records for
apple in western New York also reveal that yields are lower in warmer winter years. Many
common apple varieties require more than 40 days of winter chilling (temperatures
below about 45 F) for maximum fowering and fruiting the following summer. Warmer
winters that do not meet these requirements, or more erratic winter temperatures that cause
premature leaf-out or bloom, will have negative consequences for yield of apples, as well as
other perennial fruit crops grown in the Northeast.
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Th e Nat ur al Far me r F a l l , 2 0 0 7 20
northward through the Northeast over the coming
decades, reaching the southern half of Maine, New
Hampshire, and Vermont by the end of the century.
Corn earworm and the fea beetle are examples of
marginally over-wintering insect pests that will
become more common problems in the Northeast
as winters continue to warm. Recently, Cornell
Integrated Pest Management (IPM) specialists have
found they must begin monitoring for corn earworm
much earlier in the spring (with pheromone traps),
and population numbers are getting bigger. The fea
beetle not only does some direct damage to young
plants, it is also a vector, or carrier, for a serious
bacterial disease of corn known as Stewarts Wilt.
In warm winter years the fea beetle populations
in spring are much bigger and more of a threat
to farmers and gardeners. In our recent impacts
assessment we used a well-tested IPM fea-beetle
model and showed that the range with frequent
severe fea beetle/Stewarts Wilt pressure will
expand throughout the Northeast by end of century,
assuming a business as usual emissions scenario.
Organic farmers will be challenged to keep track
of these new weed and pest pressures as they arise,
and be creative in seeking new non-chemical means
of control. It is not well understood how natural or
managed biological control of pests will be affected
by climate change in some cases antagonistic
organisms may out-compete pests while in others
the pest may be favored.
Conventional farmers will attempt to adapt with
increased application of herbicides and pesticides,
but of course this has potential economic, food
safety, and environmental costs. Also, chemical
means may not be as effective for weed control in
a future high-CO
2
world. Lewis Ziska at the USDA
in Beltsville, MD has found that many weeds are
much more diffcult to control with herbicides at
atmospheric CO
2
levels we anticipate will occur
in the coming decades (see Weeds fact sheet at:
www.climateandfarming.org).
The CO
2
Fertilization Effect on Crops and Weeds
Carbon dioxide, in addition to being a greenhouse
gas, is also the gas that plants take up in the
process of photosynthesis to produce sugars and
grow. Therefore, the exponential rate of increase
in atmospheric CO
2
could have a direct benefcial
effect on Earths plant life. The magnitude of the
CO
2
fertilization effect varies tremendously
among plant species and from variety to variety.
Plants with the so-called C-3 photosynthetic
pathway, which includes most Northeast crop
species (with the notable exception of corn) and
many weed species, can show productivity increases
of 10 to 20 percent or more when grown at twice
current CO
2
levels (expected to occur within this
century) and at optimum environmental conditions.
In general, plants that are able to easily expand
their growth capacity, such as plants with an
indeterminate growth habit, respond most positively
to a CO
2
doubling.
Unfortunately, many of our most invasive and
noxious weeds show two to three times the growth
stimulation from higher CO
2
than the crop plants
they compete with (see Weeds fact sheet at www.
climateandfarming.org). Also, some studies have
observed increased damage from leaf-feeding
insects on plants grown at higher CO
2
levels.
In some cases this latter phenomenon has been
attributed to higher leaf sugar content of high-CO
2

leaves, and in other cases it appears that lower
protein content of high-CO
2
leaves causes insects to
eat more tissue to meet their protein quotient.
photo by Larry Chase, Cornell University
In the hot summer of 2005, many New York dairy farmers reported 8-20 percent reductions
in milk production and increased costs for cooling. More summers with frequent heat stress
are projected for the Northeast, which will eventually require investments to improve cooling
capacity of dairy barns.
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Th e Nat ur al Far me r F a l l , 2 0 0 7 21
It is important to note that CO
2
benefts on plants
can become negligible at low or high temperatures,
on shallow soils restricting root growth, or when
water, nutrients or other factors limit growth. In
general, high CO
2
cannot compensate for negative
effects from other environmental stresses. For
example, multi-year feld and greenhouse studies
conducted at Ithaca, NY showed signifcant yield
increases for both potatoes and beans at twice
current CO
2
levels when daytime maximum
temperatures did not exceed 80 F, but when
maximum temperatures were allowed to reach 95
F during tuber or pod formation, there was no yield
beneft from higher CO
2
(see Crops Overview
fact sheet at www.climateandfarming.org for more
information and references).

Dairy and Livestock
Climate change could positively or negatively affect
the availability and price of crops used for animal
feed, thus indirectly affecting the livestock and dairy
industries. Climate change will have more direct
effects on these industries by affecting the intensity
and frequency of summer heat stress. Heat stress
in dairy cattle can have a long-term effect (weeks
to months) on both milk production and birthing
rates. Dairy cows like it cool, with the temperature
optimum for maximum milk production at
temperatures between 40 and 75 F (see Livestock
fact sheet at www.climateandfarming.org for more
information). High humidity makes it worse.
During the unusually warm summer of 2005,
Cornell animal scientist Larry Chase, estimated
that many New York dairy herds suffered milk
production declines of 5 to 15 pounds per cow per
day (8 to 20 percent decrease of normal production).
In our recent analysis of climate change impacts
on the Northeast we used a well-tested dairy
thermal heat index model, and projected 10 to
20 percent declines in milk production for much
of Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and the southern
half of New York, Massachusetts, and Connecticut
by the end of the century with the business as
usual greenhouse gas emissions scenario (www.
climatechoices.org).
Can Farmers Adapt to Climate Change?
It is generally assumed that farmers will adapt to
climate change, with production areas for specifc
crops shifting as needed. Hopefully, farmers in
the Northeast will be able to take advantage of
new opportunities and minimize negative effects
associated with climate change. It is important to
recognize, however, that adaptation in the midst
of climate uncertainty will not be cost- or risk-
free. Below is a brief description of some farmer
adaptation strategies:
Change planting, harvest dates [cost- 0 to
low]: An effective, low-cost option. The
major risk is that this will put farmers into a
different market window with lower prices.
Change varieties grown [cost- 0 to
moderate]: Usually a no or low cost option,
although in some cases seed for new
varieties is more expensive, or new varieties
require investments in new planting
equipment, or require adjustment in a wide
range of cultural practices. In some cases,
there may not be a suitable new variety
Graphic from Temperate Zone Pomology. p. 386. Westwood MN. 1988.
Winter Chill (< 45 F) Hour Requirements
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available. This would be a very expensive
option for those growing perennial crops
such as blueberries, apples or other tree fruit
crops.
Modify weed and pest control strategies
[cost-low to moderate]: Climate change
will almost certainly increase weed, insect,
and disease pressure for most farmers, and
some of the weeds and pests will be new
invasives. For organic farmers, careful
tracking of weed and pest populations,
and creative biological and crop rotation
approaches to stay one step ahead of new
weed and pest complexes, will be even
more essential than they are today. The frst
line of defense for conventional farmers
will be to increase herbicide and pesticide
applications, but these may be less effective,
or labels for new chemical control options
may lag behind the needs. Increased
use of chemical controls will also have
environmental as well as economic costs.
Change crop species or livestock produced
[cost- low to high]: Could bring new
profts, but also a risky option because there
are no guarantees that there will be the
necessary infrastructure and a market for the
new crops or livestock products.
New irrigation or drainage systems [cost-
moderate to high]: It is likely that climate
change will require both expanded irrigation
capacity and better drainage. These
adaptations can be expensive, and it could
be a risky guessing game as to where and
when to make these capital investments.
Improved cooling capacity of livestock
facilities [cost-low to high]: Low cost
measures include: reduce overcrowding,
minimize time in hot holding areas,
maximize shade, and provide plenty of
water. Feeding during cooler parts of the
day, and increasing the proportion of easily
digestible feeds is recommended. Moderate
cost measures include: improved ventilation
and fan systems; improved insulation;
installation for misters or sprinklers for
cooling. Higher cost measures include
new building design and construction
and installation of thermostat controlled
air conditioning systems. Some of the
increased costs for cooling in summer could
be compensated for by reduced heating
requirements in winter.
Farmers as Part of the Solution- Mitigation
Climate change may be an incentive for farmers to
take advantage of some win-win opportunities,
that beneft both the farmer and the environment.
Many of these involve less work, not more work, for
the farmer. Below are some ways toward becoming
part of the solution:
Improve energy conservation: This
involves obvious steps such as reducing
unnecessary tractor driving, using fuel-
effcient vehicles, keeping engines well-
tuned, replacing lights and appliances with
more energy-effcient versions, improving
building insulation, etc.
Renewable energy sources: Some farmers
in the Northeast are already leading the
way toward becoming carbon neutral by
growing and producing their own fuel, such
as corn pellets for heating greenhouses,
soybeans for biodiesel production to fuel
farm vehicles. Exploring the use of solar
energy and wind turbines to subsidize farm
energy needs are other examples. Some
farmers are entering the energy market
place for proft by producing biofuels or
other renewable energy for off-farm sales.
Increase soil carbon sequestration: When
crop residues decompose much of the
carbon in them becomes part of the soil
organic matter pool. Reduced tillage,
maximizing year-round vegetation cover
and other techniques to increase soil organic
matter is something farmers should be
doing anyway to improve soil health and
yields. This also serves to sequester carbon
in the soil that otherwise would be in the
atmosphere as CO
2
gas.
Improve nitrogen fertilizer use effciency:
Many farmers, gardeners, and home
owners are surprised to learn that one of
the biggest culprits when it comes to
greenhouse gas emissions is sloppy use of
nitrogen fertilizers. Nitrous oxide (N
2
O),
a potent greenhouse gas (300 times more
warming potential than CO
2
), is released
in soils as nitrogen fertilizers are degraded
by soil microbes. This is true for organic
nitrogen sources such as manure as well
as synthetic nitrogen fertilizers, so both
organic and conventional farmers need to
be as effcient as possible in use of fertilizer.
On top of the nitrous oxide emissions
during soil degradation, synthetic nitrogen
fertilizers are also very energy intensive
to manufacture (the process often involves
temperatures exceeding 700 F), so the use
of these greatly adds to greenhouse gas
emissions.
Recycle and reduce use of disposable
products: The recycling effort in the U.S.
is already a great success story. Now we
need to re-double those efforts, considering
not only the issue of waste management,
but also the reduction in greenhouse gas
emissions associated with recycling and
minimizing our use of disposable products.
It takes more fossil fuel energy to build
a product from scratch than to start with
recycled materials. Every time we throw
something away, it means more energy
spent creating its replacement, and also
energy spent in transporting waste to a
waste facility.
Concluding Remarks
A longer growing season may allow farmers
to experiment with new crops, but farmers in
the Northeast will face increasing uncertainty
and risk as they attempt to adapt to the effects
of climate change. Along with some potential
new opportunities, unabated greenhouse gas
emissions and climate change will bring with
it new and aggressive weed, insect and disease
pests, reduced yields of some cool season-adapted
crops that currently dominate the agriculture
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economy, reductions in dairy milk production
due to summer heat stress, and more challenging
water management. One concern is that small
family farms may lack the capital to make strategic
adaptations in some cases.
Our recent assessment revealed that many of the
most negative trends projected for agriculture
could be reduced in magnitude and geographic
extent under a lower emissions scenario, which
assumes regional and global mobilization in the
near term toward less fossil fuel intensive industries
and more resource-effcient technologies (www.
climatechoices.org).
There are many ways for farmers to be part of the
solution, often while doing less work and increasing
profts at the same time. Examples include reducing
the use of fossil fuels and nitrogen fertilizers,
increasing energy effciency and use of renewable
energy sources, and reducing tillage to increase soil
carbon sequestration.
Relevant Websites
Recent climate projections for the Northeast and
impacts assessment: www.climatechoices.org
Basic fact sheets relevant to farms and gardens:
www.climateandfarming.org
UN Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change:
www.ipcc.ch
National Phenology Network USA: http://www.
uwm.edu/Dept/Geography/npn/
US Climate Change Science Pgm: http://www.
climatescience.gov
by Art DeGaetano
Earths climate system
The Earths climate system is composed of a
number of interacting components. The main driver
is the sun whose energy is by far the main source
of heat for Earth. The sun does not heat the Earths
atmosphere directly but rather its energy passes
through the atmosphere and heats the surface of
Earth. The surface then heats the atmosphere from
below. If the Earth did not lose heat to space, it
would continue to heat up as energy is supplied
from the sun. To maintain a fairly constant
temperature the Earth must lose as much heat to
space as it gains. Clouds, along with naturally
occurring carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, prevent
some of this heat from escaping and thus warm the
Earth. Without these components in the atmosphere
the temperature of the globe would be about 60F
colder than it is today. Besides blocking the loss
of heat from Earth to outer space, clouds can also
refecting sunlight back to space. This refected
energy is unavailable to heat the Earth.

All of the components of the climate system
interact. For example, during ice ages, the growth of
ice sheets is triggered by a reduction in the amount
of energy reaching the Earth from the sun. As the ice
sheets grow, forest and soil covered surfaces, which
General Overview of
Climate Change Science
normally absorb (and therefore are warmed by)
solar energy, are replaced by ice. Ice refects most
of the suns energy making it unavailable to warm
the surface. Therefore the growth of the ice sheets
contributes to further cooling of the planet. This
is known as a positive feedback, since the cooling
due to the reduction in solar energy is enhanced by
the ice sheet. The same positive feedback results
from global warming, as the extent of the ice
sheets diminishes, more soil and potentially forest
is exposed. These surfaces absorb more heat than
the ice covered areas and hence the warming is
enhanced.

Natural forces that affect the climate system
Ice ages are just one example of how the Earths
climate varies through time. Other variations can be
caused by:

Natural fuctuations in the suns intensity. The
amount of energy emitted by the sun is not constant.
Changes in its intensity are typically small (a few
tenths of a percent), but can infuence temperatures
on Earth if they occur over an extended period of
time.

Volcanic eruptions. Violent volcanic eruptions like
Mt. Pinatubo in 1991 inject sulfur dioxide into
the upper atmosphere. This compound is highly
refective to sunlight. Thus its presence in the
upper atmosphere prevents a portion of the suns
energy from reaching the Earth. Once in the upper
atmosphere, these compounds can exist for several
years following the eruption.
Shorter-term cycles like El Nino. The oceans and
atmosphere work together to infuence climate.
Natural oscillations in ocean currents, the location
of the warmest or coldest ocean temperatures, etc.
can infuence atmospheric circulation patterns. El
Nino is an example. In this case the pool of warm
water that usually resides in the western tropical
Pacifc Ocean migrates east. This changes the
atmospheric circulation pattern in the tropics which
infuences global weather patterns.

Human factors affecting the climate system
Increase in greenhouse gases. Carbon dioxide
and water vapor are both natural components of
the Earths atmosphere. These gases, along with
methane, nitrous oxide and ozone are termed
greenhouse gases (GHGs) because of their ability
of absorb some of the energy that the Earth emits to
space and reradiate it back to the surface.

Prior to industrialization, the Earths atmosphere
contained about 280 parts per million of carbon
dioxide (280 CO
2
molecules for every 1,000,000
molecules in the atmosphere). This carbon dioxide
was maintained in the atmosphere via volcanic and
biological activity.

What causes these increases?
Fossil fuel burning releases about 6 billion tons of
carbon each year into the atmosphere.
T
H
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C
O
OPER
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V
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C
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IC
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Th e Nat ur al Far me r F a l l , 2 0 0 7 24
Methane from agriculture, livestock, landflls and
industry has increased by 133%.
Nitrous oxide from agriculture and industry has
increased by 15%.
Changes in land use and land cover release 1
billion tons of carbon annually plus other gases.

Land use changes include deforestation and
urbanization. Deforestation infuences the climate
in two ways. 1) Trees are sinks for atmospheric
carbon dioxide. They remove CO
2
from the air and
store it as vegetative matter. Fewer trees mean less
CO
2
is pulled from the atmosphere. If the trees
are subsequently burned, the CO
2
is added back to
the atmosphere. 2) Removal of the trees changes
the character of the land surface; this changes the
amount of solar energy that is absorbed by the
surface, evaporation, etc. Urbanization is similar to
deforestation. Urban areas tend to absorb and hold
more heat than vegetated surfaces. Thus cities are
typically warmer than rural environments.

Recent Climate Change
When the concentration of greenhouse gases is
increased (and everything else in the climate system,
like the amount of clouds, is held constant) less of
the Earths energy escapes to space. As a result the
temperature of the Earth must rise.
Temperature. Over the last 100 years, instrumental
records indicate that the average
temperature of the Earth has risen by nearly 1F
(0.5C). The increases are most pronounced in polar
regions of the Northern Hemisphere. In Alaska,
temperatures have risen about 2.8F (1.5C) over
the last century. Across the globe, the increase in
temperature tends to be largest in winter, but still
signifcant during the other seasons. Night time
temperatures have risen faster than values observed
during the day. U.S. temperatures have risen by
0.9F over the past 100 years. Within the past 25
years, U.S. temperatures increased 1.6F.

Precipitation. Although average precipitation across
the globe has not changed dramatically, a change
in the character of precipitation has been observed
in many parts of the world. The observed trends
suggest a shift from more frequent moderate rainfall
events to more infrequent heavy rainfall events.
Since the period of time between rainfall events
increases, drought may become more prevalent.
But since the rain events that do occur can be
quite heavy, the increased risk of fooding is also
a concern. Clearly this change in the character of
precipitation has implications for water resource and
irrigation decisions.

Predictions
CO
2
Levels. In order to project future climate
conditions, scientists must predict what the
world will look like politically, economically and
environmentally in 100 years. Given the uncertainty
in such predictions, scientists have developed
a range of scenarios of future greenhouse gas
emissions. These range from a fossil-fuel intense
society that undergoes rapid economic growth and
experiences a modest increase in population. In this
case atmospheric CO
2
levels increase to four times
their pre-industrial values by 2100. A business-
as-usual scenario...continuing the present trend
in greenhouse gas emissions ... leads to a similar
increase in CO
2
levels by 2100.
More environmentally-friendly scenarios, with
reductions in fossil fuel usage, also lead to
increases in atmospheric CO
2
concentration. This
results from the lifetime of CO
2
in the atmosphere
(about 100 years). Thus todays CO
2
emissions
are not removed from the atmosphere until 2106.
Even the most environmentally friendly emission
scenarios lead to an increase in atmospheric CO
2

concentration over the next 100 years, to about
double pre- industrial levels.

Temperature. Many climate models exist. They all
rely on the same physics, but differ in the ways in
which variables like clouds are parameterized. The
art of climate modeling is how processes that can
not be well represented by the physics of the models
are accounted for. All models experience the same
increase in greenhouse gas concentration. They all
show a warming by 2100. The only difference is the
magnitude of the warming. Here model warming
estimates range from 1.5 to 5.0C by 2100.
Signifcance. At frst glance a degree or two or even
fve degrees of global warming does not seem
like a big deal. However when averaged over the
globe, this change is quite substantial. From the
height of an ice age to the intervening interglacial
period (like today) the globes temperature changes
by about six degrees. The more modest climate
model projections are that by 2100, increase global
temperature will be about a third of that associated
with the ice age cycle. Keep in mind that for ice
ages, this six-degree change occurs over 100,000
years. We expect to see a 2-3 degree change over
100 years!
Precipitation. Precipitation changes will vary
geographically by 2100. Some locations (primarily
The Earths Climate System
Th e Nat ur al Far me r F a l l , 2 0 0 7 25
2.
2. Earth absorbs
sunlight and
Radiates it as
heat
3. GHG redirect some
heat back to Earth
4. Remaining heat
lost to space
in subtropics) will show decreases in precipitation.
Large areas of the middle latitudes and tropics will
see increases in precipitation.

Summary
Over the last century the concentration of
greenhouse gases in the Earths atmosphere has
increased markedly. CO
2
levels in the atmosphere
have not been this high for hundreds of thousands
of years. In isolation this change must result in
a warming of the Earths temperature. Over this
same time period climate observations indicate
that the global temperature has increased by about
1F. Although changes in average precipitation
have been small (on the order of 1-2%), rain gauge
records show that the character of precipitation
events has changed. Heavy rainfall events have
become more frequent over the last half century.

It is unlikely that the emission of carbon dioxide
into the Earths atmosphere will slow in the near
future. In fact, most projections indicate increased
carbon dioxide emissions into the middle to late
part of the 21st century. This continued increase will
likely lead to additional increases in temperature,
with most models projecting rises of between 1.5
and 5C. Although the exact magnitude of changes
in precipitation are uncertain, there is reason to
believe that precipitation events will become more
variable, leading to increases in both the frequency
of foods and droughts.

Art DeGaetano is Associate Professor at the
Department of Earth and Atmospheric Science,
Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853
Alone, Greenhouse Gases Act as a Blanket
photo from David Wolfes website
Researchers at Cornell Unifersity study effects of climate changes increased temperature and CO
2
on soil ecology, nutrient cycling,
nitrogen fxation and use, photosynthesis, plant-water relations, and ecosystem stress to model future regional and global food production.
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by Ben Falk, M.A.L.D.
This article provides a brief overview of land-use
challenges posed by the increasing severity of cli-
mate changes on Earth. Two landscape-level strate-
gies are explored here: Microclimate development
and high biodiversity food systems. The article is of
particular relevance to architects, builders, farmers
and those who work with land.
Context
Change Is
The Earth orbits the Sun at distances that vary by
3,000,000 miles. Volcanoes explode, ice felds melt,
sea vents open and close, gasses continually ex-
change between rock and plants, ocean and atmo-
sphere. Plants and animals adjust to these dynamic
conditions by migrating across land and sea, follow-
ing their preferred conditions and adapting when
they are not available. Our planets climate is never
constant nor has it ever been.
Human use of climate-altering technologies is
only one factor in Earths climate stability. Much
larger patterns, geological and galactic in nature
constantly force the climate of the earth to change,
even without human manipulation. Climates change
its what they do. Accurately engaging the issue
of global climate change requires an understanding
that the Earths climate has never done anything but
change. With this in mind we move forward know-
ing that if human life is to continue on Earth, it will
be adaptive and always plan for change.
Good design is design for change. Good design
must be structurally diverse and not depend on any
single element for its overall success. Good design
harnesses the forces of evolution and includes both
the built and biological environment. This article
briefy overviews strategies for developing biologi-
cally adaptive, intentional ecosystems (permacul-
tures) and climate-buffering landscapes (microcli-
mates) in which humans can build homes, produce
food, and live well.
Climates Change: Design For It
Challenges
Design for Change
From ice-core samples that trace earths climate
millions of years to recent computer models of cur-
rent patterns, evidence reveals that climate change
is occurring more rapidly today than in thousands of
years. Research indicates that the climate has been
unusually stable for the past 10,000 and even more
so for the past 100 years. Todays climate change
challenge is clear: Design and develop a cultural
landscape (built and biological) that will be stable
within a wide range of conditions. What specifc
challenges should we design for? These include:
longer droughts, hotter summers, colder winters,
higher winds, increased pest success, heavier precip-
itation, earlier and later frosts, and other irregulari-
ties (which have always tested humanitys ability to
thrive and survive on this planet).
Specifc Climate Challenges
High performance landscapes and buildings are
designed to meet the following characteristics of
Earths changing climate. Many of these challenges
are already occurring in the New England:
Precipitation via disastrous forms (e.g. high vol-
umes of rain, snow, hail)
Increasing likelihood of soil erosion by fooding
Increasing heating and cooling needs
Increasing severity and probability of high wind
events
Increasing overall success of pests
Decreasing infuence of pollinators
Increasing likelihood of drought conditions
Increasing likelihood of annual crop failure due to
spring fooding
Increasing water demand
Increasing extremes of aridity and humidity
Decreasing water table heights
Increasing sea levels
Increasing probability of early fowering and
fruit-set, and consequent crop failure from frost
damage
Increasing failure of perennial crops due to re-
duced snowpack on the ground surface
Strategies
Neither predominant agricultural models nor
common housing and transportation systems are
designed to withstand signifcant climate changes.
These human systems will either adapt to chang-
ing conditions, or suffer increasing system failure.
Land developments that intentionally adapts to these
changes employ the following components among
others:
1. Microclimate development including wind-
breaks, snow-retaining hedgerows, thermal mass via
water and stone, and sun-trapping vegetated and/or
built arcs. These systems provide a buffer against
regional climatic stresses by localizing climate at
the site level.
2. High biodiversity of crop species from neigh-
boring warmer and colder climate zones (U.S.D.A.
hardiness zones +/- 2 zones). Such polycultural
diversity supports the resilience of the farm system
at the species level, and the adaptability of crop
genetics at the varietal level. This genetic complex-
ity helps revive the loss of crop diversity caused by
monoculture in the 20th century while adding to the
abundance of foods we have to choose from.
Microclimate Development
A microclimate is any discrete area within a larger
area of differing climate. They usually occur close
to the surface of a material, commonly earth, a
building faade or vegetation. They occur in a
nested manner at all scales and over various peri-
ods of time. Microclimates exist unintentionally
in nature, but good design creates microclimates
intentionally. Microclimates occur over space and
time. They are dynamic phenomena emerging and
disappearing within a site - not a static feature of a
site. They are a process, not a thing. Since cold is a
limiting factor (along with light) in producing food
and sustainably inhabiting the New England land-
scape, developing warm microclimates is the prior-
ity. Cooling strategies, however, will likely become
increasingly important, especially in southern New
England, if conditions continue to warm.
Optimized microclimates can result in the follow-
ing:
Lower active energy needs for buildings: less fuel,
less cost, less pollution. Example: Passive solar
house within a passive solar landscape.
Longer growing seasons relative to the surround-
ing environment. Example: Climate-designed
garden spaces that stay frost free for weeks longer in
the spring and fall than adjacent areas.
Higher yields from plants and animals better
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0701 Growing & Using Herbs Kathy Morris
0702 Perennial Vegetables Eric Toensmeier
0703 Keynote Talk Bill McKibben
0704 Getting the Most from a Woodlot Bill MacKentley
0705 Grass-Fed Beef Carolyn & John Wheeler
0706 Intro to Hay & Haying Dominic Palumbo
0707 Growing Root Crops Liz Henderson
0708 Organic Beekeeping Ross Conrad
0709 Small Scale Grain Raising Bi-sek Hsiao
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Th e Nat ur al Far me r F a l l , 2 0 0 7 27
growing conditions. Examples: Warmer environ-
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domestic animals in the hot summer; Wind sheltered
spaces for animals and buildings.
More enjoyable, lower stress and healthier human
habitats. Longer outdoor living season; more fresh
air; more contact with water, plants, living systems;
and greater physical activity and mental stimulation.
Example: Outdoor living spaces optimized to be
cool in the summer, warm in the winter.
Microclimate Development Strategies
The frst step in crafting benefcial microclimates
is proper site selection. Some landscape features
cannot be changed at all or only to a small extent.
These usually include: relative location to sur-
rounding landscape (elevation, topography, etc.),
aspect, slope, groundwater table, bedrock exposure,
etc. Only when selecting a site can these primary
features be considered and selected for and against.
It is helpful to map the various climates on a site
to understand where optimal locations are for all
developments. See Figure 1 for an example of mi-
croclimate site analysis that aids in this process.
The second step in localizing your climate is site
design. Once a site has been chosen a handful of
strategies, planned for and implemented carefully,
can optimize the existing climate of the site to more
fully meet the needs of the sites inhabitants. Please
refer to fgure 1 and 2 for clarifcations of the con-
cepts written below.
Figure 2.
Figure 1.
Th e Nat ur al Far me r F a l l , 2 0 0 7 28
Design of warm microclimates checklist:
1. Face-southerly
a. South southwest = warmest
b.Consider orographic (elevational) weather ef-
fects
2. Slope/Vertical Space Harvesting: See Figure
2 for an example of a vertical space-harvesting
garden layout
a. The further poleward the steeper the slope
should be to capture the most solar energy
3. Bowl solar arc/sun trap
a. Utilize energy-harvesting forms
4. Minimize radiative losses provide cover
a. Nighttime losses of heat are the most diffcult to
avoid
5. Wind-shelter:
a. Buffer and defect, create eddies, preserve and
enhance hedgerows
b.Still air = key for human comfort in cold cli-
mate
6. High-mass
a. Stone and water are the primary heat-retaining
materials
7. High absorption (low albedo)
a. Utilize color effectively
8. Time your microclimate
a. Design for a particular time of day and year,
usually whenever limiting factors are most pres-
ent
Examples of microclimate-creating features of a
place are: hills, felds, trees, cliffs/stone, gullies,
ridges, groundwater, ponds, lakes, roads, walls,
lawns, roofs, courtyards. Employing such features
in the development of climate-protected spaces is
more effective than attempting to create new micro-
climates from scratch.
High Biodiversity
Of primary importance for increased food security
and regional sustainability is developing diverse
and fexible food crops. Climate changes can deliver
periods punctuated by both extreme heat and cold
within the same year. The following strategies high-
light the benefts of high biodiversity polycultural
food systems.

Many Crops
Early and late frosts, intensifying drought, heat and
cold, and other stresses (see the above list) select
against certain crops. A broad range of species with
different fowering cues and hardiness capabilities is
insurance against poor fruit-sets, pollination failure
and other problems due to capricious weather. Ge-
netic diversity in species and variety is fundamental
to a resilient ecological system.
New Crops
Developing innovative new cross breeds also helps
to ensure resiliency of food systems. For example,
crossing a sweet cherry (Prunus avium) that crossed
with a Nanking cherry (Prunus tomentosa) can
create a next-generation cross that fowers like the
Nanking cherry (late, thus avoiding the killing late
spring frosts) but has the larger, sweeter, and more
marketable cherry.
Cold Hardy Crops
Some apples and native plums can withstand 45
degrees F. or colder (depending on rootstock). Other
plants share equal hardiness like Swiss stone pine,
cornelian cherry, Siberian sea berry, Korean nut
pine, and maralroot. Propagation and distribution
of cold hardy species will assist in providing food
security to the Earths colder climates.
Warm Hardy Crops
Rapidly warming trends could outpace the agility
of current agricultural systems. In a world of rapid
climate change a durable farming system would
plan for temperatures up to 10-15 degrees warmer
or colder. Imagine Zone 4 becoming just 10-15 de-
grees warmer (an average low of -10 F): A diversity
of bamboos, palms and bananas could be grown.
The most luscious of peaches, nectarines, goji ber-
ries, Japanese raisin trees, ume plum trees (source of
umeboshi, a fermented food in Japanese cuisine and
medicine) could potentially also be grown.
Outcomes
Planning for change, instead of resisting it, has the
power to turn problems into solutions. We can end-
lessly debate the causes of global climate change or
we can design for it. Why not view the inevitable
changes of Earths global climate as a call to action
and as a challenge to increase biological diversity
and ecological resiliency? We can face this chal-
lenge squarely and allow it to focus our minds, com-
munities, and our creative abilities on the develop-
ment of better techniques for living on this planet.
by John M. Duxbury, Professor of Soil Science,
Cornell University, Ithaca, NY jmd17@cornell.edu

Carbon Sequestration Principles
Soils have a fnite capacity to sequester organic
carbon (OC) that is determined by soil texture
and aggregation. SOC levels increase with silt +
clay content and the maximum level is achieved
when soils are most highly aggregated, i.e. when
they are not tilled. Tillage breaks aggregates and
exposes SOC to biological decomposition. Loss
of SOC is proportional to the intensity of tillage.
Soils therefore have both a potential maximum and
potential minimum SOC content.
Most agricultural soils, e.g. feld M of the
Jones farm, are somewhere between their
potential maximum and minimum SOC
content and the difference between the
current value and the maximum represents
the carbon sequestration potential when no-
tillage (NT) is adopted.
The gain of SOC following adoption of NT is slow
and it will take many years (20-30 in NE USA) for
most soils to reach their maximum SOC level. Soils
in the USA gain an average of about 350 lb C /acre/
year under NT, depending on texture and residue
input levels. The gain of SOC is greatest shortly
after adoption of NT and declines with time until the
maximum level is reached. Without adopting NT,
residue inputs have a smaller, but measurable effect
on SOC content. A typical gain in SOC of 0.25 % is
usually seen with organic production practices using
green manuring.
There are two key requirements for long-term
Soil Carbon Sequestration and Nitrogen
Management for Greenhouse Gas Mitigation
successful no-tillage: surface soil cover to protect
the soil surface from dispersion and sealing from
rain, and controlled traffc patterns to keep soil
compaction to defned wheel tracks. Surface cover
usually requires mulching with crop residues but
continuous plant cover, including winter cover
crops may also be an option. Controlled traffc
is easier where bed and furrow systems are uses.
Over time, no-tillage typically leads to a much
improved soil structure and tilth (except in sandy
soils where structure is not an issue), large increases
in earthworm and other arthropod populations, and a
more porous soil. In long-term experiments, visible
increases in soil surface elevation can be seen in no-
tillage plots compared to conventional tillage plots.

Th e Nat ur al Far me r F a l l , 2 0 0 7 29
Carbon Sequestration and Greenhouse Gas
Budget for Maize
The carbon balances for a switch from conventional
till (CT) to no-till (NT) agriculture for grain
production in the USA has been evaluated by West
and Marland (2002). For maize, the net C beneft
is 301 lb C ac
-1
yr
-1
.

However, a change to NT also
alters fuxes of N
2
O and CH
4
, two other important
greenhouse gases, which also need to be included
in the calculation. Adding these changes to the C
budget alters the picture substantially. An additional
fertilizer N input of 38 lb N ac
-1
is used on NT corn,
which adds 67 lb of carbon equivalents (Cequiv) ac
-1
of greenhouse gases to the atmosphere. A switch to
NT agriculture is estimated to add an additional 196
lb C equiv ac
-1
in emissions of N
2
O from soil (Smith
et al., 2002). The combined offsets reduce the C
beneft of changing to NT corn to 32 lb Cequiv ac
-1
yr
-1
. A similar calculation reduces the C beneft
for NT soybeans from 330 to 138 lb Cequiv ac
-1
yr
-1
. It should be noted that the value assigned to
N
2
O emissions associated with the change to NT is
uncertain and additional research is needed to better
defne this number. A fuller discussion of this topic
is given in Duxbury, 2005.
Questions about the net greenhouse gas beneft of
NT agriculture together with verifcation diffculties
are likely to prevent soil carbon sequestration from
becoming a tradable commodity. Nevertheless,
increasing SOC has direct benefts for soil health
and agricultural sustainability. Indirect effects
of improved soil health on input use and GHG
emissions in crop production have not been fully
evaluated but are likely to be positive.
No-tillage and Organic Production Systems
Complete no-tillage presents challenges with weed
control and N placement for organic production
methods. Weeds can be controlled manually and by
using mulch with smaller scale operations, typically
with vegetable crops, but this may be impractical
with large-scale agronomic crop production.
Shallow roto-tilling, say to 1-2 inches may help
with weed control, but will reduce C sequestration
levels. Similarly, zone or strip-tillage can also help
with placement of concentrated fertilizer sources
into soil, although this would be diffcult with solid
manure or compost. Liquid manures can be injected
into soil.
Improved Nitrogen Use Effciency
Improving N use effciency (defned as % recovery
of applied N by a crop) and reducing N fertilizer
inputs in crop production is an important goal
given the energy and greenhouse gas costs of
fertilizer N manufacture and the potency of N
2
O as
a greenhouse gas (310 x that of CO
2
). The basic
management goal is to reduce N losses from the
soil plant system, especially those by denitrifcation
which is a major source of N
2
O emissions from
soil. Key parts of improving N effciency are to
avoid excessive N applications and to synchronize
N supply with crop demand. The latter is more
easily achieved when nitrogen is supplied from
fertilizer than from organic N sources, where release
is controlled by biological mineralization processes.
In general, release of N from organic N sources
continues beyond the period of crop production
and can contribute to leaching losses and off-site
pollution problems, including additional generation
of N
2
O. Research has also shown that emissions of
N
2
O from cropland are higher when manure is used
as the N source (Duxbury et al., 1982)
The principles of sound fertilizer N management
are well understood. These are:
time N applications to the period of maximum
crop demand
incorporate N into soil to avoid volatilization of
ammonia from urea fertilizer and animal manures
use mixtures of nitrate (NO
3
-
) and ammonium
(NH
4
+
) N sources to provide rapidly and more
slowly assimilated N forms, including mixtures of
inorganic and organic N sources
consider ways to recycle N (in plant biomass)
mineralized from organic sources that is not
used by the main crop or if drought (or any other
production problem) reduces crop yield and N
recovery
A major diffculty in N management is predicting
weather; this leads to both over and under
fertilization. Recent research has focused on real
time N management. The pre-sidedress soil N
test is available for maize production and simple
models using current season weather to adjust N
fertilization rate are being developed.
Summary
C sequestration in soil requires a change to no-
tillage
Annual C sequestration rates average 350 lb ac
-1
yr
-1
Soil C sequestration benefts of no-tillage are
largely offset by increased emissions of N
2
O and
CH
4
Nitrogen management should focus on reducing
losses of N from the system as these can lead to
additional generation of N
2
O
The basic principles of sound N management are
well known and need to be promoted within the
context of reducing greenhouse gas emissions as
well as increasing proftability
Organic N sources lead to higher N
2
O emissions
than inorganic fertilizer N
References
Duxbury, J.M. 2005. Reducing greenhouse
warming potential by carbon sequestration in soils:
opportunites, limits and tradeoffs. In R. Lal et al.,
Climate Change and Global Food Security, p. 435-
450, Taylor and Francis, Boca Raton.
Duxbury, J.M., D.R. Bouldin, R.Terry and R.L.Tate.
1982. Emissions of nitrous oxide from soils.
Nature, 298:462-464.
Kramer, K.J., H.C. Moll and S. Nonhebel. 1999.
Total greenhouse gas emissions related to the Dutch
cropping system. Agric., Ecosyst. and Environ.
72:9-16.
Smith, K.A., F. Conen, B.C. Ball, A. Leip, and S.
Russo. 2002. Emissions of non-CO
2
greenhouse
gases from agricultural land, and the implications
for carbon trading. In J. van-Ham et al.(eds) Non-
CO
2
greenhouse gases: scientifc understanding,
control options and policy aspects. Proc. 3
rd

International Symposium, Maastricht, Netherlands
21-23 Jan 2002. Millpress Science Publishers,
Rotterdam, Netherlands.
West, T.O. and G. Marland. 2002. A synthesis
of carbon sequestration, carbon emissions, and
net carbon fux in agriculture: comparing tillage
practices in the United States. Agric. Ecosyst. and
Environ. 91:217-232.
Th e Nat ur al Far me r F a l l , 2 0 0 7 30
by Paul Hepperly, Ph.D.
One of the most
powerful tools in
fghting global warming
is sequestering
atmospheric carbon.
Data suggests a new
worldwide urgency
for the transition from
chemical to organic
agriculture
Organic farming may be one of the most powerful
tools in the fght against global warming. Findings
from The Rodale Institutes Farming Systems
Trial (FST), which began in 1981 as the longest
running agronomic experiment designed to compare
organic and conventional cropping systems, show
that organic/regenerative agriculture systems reduce
carbon dioxide, a major greenhouse gas. This data
positions organic farming as a major player in
efforts to slow climate change from increases in
runaway greenhouse gases.
Besides being a signifcant underutilized carbon
sink, organic systems use about one-third less
fossil fuel energy than that used in the conventional
corn/soybean cropping systems. According to
studies of the FST in collaboration with David
Pimentel, Ph.D. of Cornell University, this translates
to less greenhouse gases emissions as farmers
shift to organic production. The ability of organic
agriculture to be both a signifcant carbon sink and
to be less dependent on fossil fuel inputs has long-
term implications for global agriculture and its role
in air quality policies and programs. The Rodale
Institute drew these conclusions in a white paper
that was released in 2003.
Organic shows dramatic increases in carbon
sequestration. Since 1981, data from the FST
has revealed that soil under organic agriculture
management can accumulate about 1,000 pounds
of carbon per acre foot of soil each year (1,123 kg/
ha/ yr metric). This accumulation is equal to about
3,500 pounds of carbon dioxide per acre taken from
the air and sequestered into soil organic matter.
When multiplied over the 160 million acres of corn
and soybeans grown nationally, a potential for 580
billion pounds of excess carbon dioxide per year can
be sequestered when farmers transition to organic
grain systems.
Since the release of this data in 2003, there are
new more dramatic fndings. Figure 1 shows
a more complete assessment of greenhouse
gas sequestration in our long-term trial. In our
comparison of soil in organic and conventional
systems, we found greater levels of soil carbon in
organic systems to a depth of two feet, about 60 cm.
Conventional no till (or no tillage where plowing is
replaced by herbicides) soil carbon increases in just
the frst few inches and this effect is extinguished
at 3 to 6 inches (5 to 10 cm) or before this level,
according to published results from several authors
doing long term trials. Organic no till is typically
incorporated into organic agriculture production as
a supplementary practice to cover cropping, rotation
and organic amendment or fertilization.
Our take home message is: (i) non till is great, (ii)
cover crops are greater, and (iii) combined practices
offer the best overall management systems but
need greater verifcation for their interaction. The
data demonstrates that organic farming methods
increase stored carbon and retain other nutrients
and organically improved soils better hold these
nutrients in place for uptake by plants. In the
process, organic methods reduce nitrate and other
nutrient runoff into streams and water aquifers.
These fndings can be benefcial to all farmers
by helping them to increase crop yields while
decreasing energy, fuel and irrigation costs.
The 1995 Kyoto Protocol references the potential
of soil to sequester carbon without emphasizing its
capacity nor the importance of organic agriculture
management for this purpose. Since then,
researchers have moved forward strongly with
investigations to support agricultures real potential
to sequester carbon. The Rodale Institutes farm
manager, Jeff Moyer, has invented and developed an
innovative planter and roller for use in an organic no
till system. (See at www. newfarm.org and Google
No Till Plus.)
In 2003, The Rodale Institutes fndings show that
organic grain production systems increase soil
carbon 15% to 28%. Moreover, soil nitrogen in the
organic systems increases 8% to 15%. Our 2006
deep profle carbon readings on soils receiving
compost raises the carbon bar to 40% improvement.
The conventional system shows no signifcant
increases in either soil carbon or nitrogen in the
same time period. Soil carbon and nitrogen are
major determinants of soil productivity.
Why the increase in soil carbon in organic systems?
Why does the soil carbon level increase in organic
systems but not in conventional systems when crop
biomass is so similar? We believe the answer lies in
the different decay rates of soil organic matter under
different management systems. In the conventional
system the application of soluble nitrogen fertilizers
stimulates more rapid and complete decay of
organic matter, sending carbon into the atmosphere
instead of retaining it in the soil as the organic
systems do.
Additionally, soil microbial activity, specifcally
the work of mychorrhiza fungi, plays an important
role in helping conserve and slow down the decay
of organic matter. Collaborative studies in our FST
with the United States Department of Agriculture
(USDA) Research Service (ARS) researchers, led
by David Douds, Ph.D., show that mychorriza fungi
are more prevalent in the FST organic systems.
These fungi work to conserve organic matter by
aggregating organic matter with clay and minerals.
In soil aggregates, carbon is more resistant to
degradation than in free form and therefore more
likely to be conserved. Support for this work comes
from USDA researchers at the Eastern Regional
Research Center and Sustainable Agriculture
Research Laboratory in Wyndmoor, Pennsylvania
and Beltsville, Maryland. Their fndings
demonstrate that mychorrizal fungi produce a potent
glue-like substance called glomalin that is crucial
for maximizing soil aggregation. We believe that
glomalin is an important component for carbon soil
retention and encourage increased investigation of
this mechanism in carbon sequestration. In addition,
in organic production systems, increased mycorrhiza
fungal activity allows plants to increase their access
The Organic Farming
Response to
Climate Change
Th e Nat ur al Far me r F a l l , 2 0 0 7 31
to soil resources, thereby stimulating plants to
increase their nutrient uptake, water absorption, and
their ability to suppress certain plant pathogens.
Research shows 12% of the carbon captured in
photosynthesis can be shunted to soil mycorrhizae.
Synthetic chemical fertilizers and pesticides inhibit
mycorrhizae and turn off a key mechanism by which
plants naturally feed the soil through their support
of benefcial fungi.
Increasing soil organic matter for the soils carbon
bank is a principle goal of organic agriculture.
Organic agriculture relies on the carbon bank and
stimulated soil microbial communities to increase
soil fertility, improve plant health, and support
competitive crop yields. This approach utilizes the
natural carbon cycle to reduce the use of purchased
synthetic inputs, increase energy resource effciency,
improve economic returns for farmers, and reduce
toxic effects of fertilizers and pesticides on human
health and the environment.
Former U.S. Secretary of Agriculture, Ann
Veneman, put it this way: The technologies and
practices that reduce greenhouse gases emissions
and increase carbon sequestration also address
conservation objectives, such as improving water
and air quality and enhancing wildlife habitat.
This is good for the environment and good for
agriculture.
Background and impact
In 1938, G. Callendar published fndings suggesting
that the burning of fossil fuels, such as coal, oil
and natural gases, would likely increase world
temperatures. Since 1958, continuous carbon
dioxide measurements on Mount Mauna Loa in
Hawaii confrm that carbon dioxide is increasing
in the atmosphere at a rate of about 1.3 parts per
million (ppm) per year. Atmospheric scientists
believe that although several other gases contribute
to the greenhouse effect in the Earths atmosphere,
carbon dioxide is responsible for over 80% of
potential warming. NASA scientist James Hansen,
Ph.D. tracked temperature changes in relation to
past carbon dioxide levels and he correlated the 25%
increase in carbon dioxide over the last 100 years
with a 0.7 C warming of the atmosphere. A number
of models have predicted that at current rates of
carbon dioxide emission the Earth will warm 2.5 C
in the next 100 years.
According to climatic change models, agriculture
could be seriously affected by global warming.
It is estimated that 20% of potential food crop
production is lost each year due to unfavorable
weather patterns (drought, food, severe heat and
cold, strong storms, etc.). The deterioration of
weather patterns in North America could have
devastating effects on world supplies of basic food
grains such as wheat and corn. Climate change
modelers predict that higher temperatures will
generate more extreme weather events, such as
severe droughts and torrential rains. A shift of 1 to
2 C in summer temperatures at pollination season
can cause a loss of pollen viability, resulting in
male sterility of many plant species such as oats and
tomatoes.
As global temperatures rise, the glaciers and polar
icecaps will melt, leading to major island and
coastal-fooding. About 50% of the United States
population lives within 50 miles of a coastline.
As coastlines move inland, uncontrolled carbon
dioxide levels will directly affect coastal dwellers.
If greenhouse gases continue to increase in the next
several hundred years, the rise of global temperature
is estimated at 7 C, or almost 15 F, and the sea
level would rise over 2 meters, or in excess of 6
feet.
Soil organic matter is the key to sequestration
Agricultural and forest carbon sequestration will
reduce the dangers that carbon dioxide currently
presents to our atmosphere and world climatic
patterns. These benefts will complement energy
conservation and emission control efforts.
Normal seasonal carbon dioxide fuctuations in
the atmosphere demonstrate that plant growth
governs major amounts of carbon dioxide, enough
to change atmospheric concentration by up to 10
ppm. By increasing plant production, we can reduce
carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere.
Carbon dioxide levels are minimized in summer
when vegetation is lush, and maximized in winter
when plants die or go dormant. The fuctuation
of carbon dioxide from season to season is about
7 times greater than the yearly average increase
in atmospheric carbon from fossil fuel burning
and deforestation (1.3 ppm). Plants serve as sinks
for atmospheric carbon dioxide. Carbon stored in
vegetation, soil, or the ocean, which is not readily
released as carbon dioxide, is said to be sequestered.
To balance the global carbon budget, we need to
increase carbon sequestration and reduce carbon
emissions. While carbon can cycle in and out of soil
or biomass material, there are methods for building
up what are called soil humic substances (also
known as organic matter) that can remain as stable
carbon compounds for thousands of years.
Before forests and grasslands were converted to
feld agriculture, soil organic matter generally
composed 6 to 10% of the soil mass, well over
the 1 to 3% levels typical of todays agricultural
feld systems. The conversion of natural grasslands
and forests around the globe works to elevate
atmospheric carbon dioxide levels signifcantly.
Building soil organic matter by better nurturing of
our forest and agricultural lands can capture this
excess atmospheric carbon dioxide, and preserve
more natural landscapes.
Soil, agriculture, and forests are essential natural
resources for sequestering runaway greenhouse
gases, helping to derail drastic climate changes. The
amount of carbon in forests (610 gigatons) is about
85% of the amount in the atmosphere.
Less energy use and consistent yields
With the Institutes organic no till system, we have
shown that diesel fuel needs can be reduced by
about 75%, as trips through the feld are reduced
from 9 to 2. We have shown that high consistent
yields are possible for corn, soybean, and pumpkins
without chemical inputs.
In addition to capturing more carbon as soil organic
matter, organic agricultural production methods
also emit less greenhouse gases through more
effcient use of fuels. Energy analysis of the FST
by Dr. Pimentel show that organic systems use only
63% of the energy input used by the conventional
corn and soybean production system. Dr. David
Th e Nat ur al Far me r F a l l , 2 0 0 7 32
Pimentels fndings show that the biggest energy
input, by far, in the conventional corn and soybean
system is nitrogen fertilizer for corn, followed by
herbicides for both corn and soybean production.
In our organic approach, winter annual legumes
provide the nitrogen naturally at a small fraction
of the chemical cost in all its facets -economically,
environmentally and to our health.
Organic systems are economically viable
Organic farming also makes economic sense. In
addition to reducing input costs, economic analysis
by James Hanson, Ph.D. of the University of
Maryland has shown that organic systems in the
FST are competitive in returns with conventional
corn and soybean farming, even without organic
price premiums. Numerous studies point to long
term organic corn yield surpassing conventional
ones. Perhaps just as important, all our yields have
exceeded the country conventional farmer average.
International and state response
Calls for an African Green Revolution based on
conventional farming methods will only make
matters worse. We are losing ground as the Sahara
Desert continues to expand southward because
of misdirected land management and it is time to
shift the chemical paradigm. In Zimbabwe, the
droughts that cause famine are clearly associated
with El Nino effects. Unfortunately, problems which
are rooted in the soil are now being attributed to
lack of synthetic fertilizer, insuffcient genetically
modifed food crop varieties, and lack of pesticide
availability. The call for a Green Revolution must
be rooted in the soil and not in false hopes and
promises based on magical potions with their proven
history of health and environmental destruction. We
can, and indeed we must, do better.
However, in Europe, scientist consultant groups
from Netherlands and Germany have reviewed
our fndings and use them to incorporate organic
farming targets as a part of their greenhouse gas
targets for their roadmap and strategies. In addition,
we have been actively involved with Pennsylvania,
New Mexico, and Northeast Regional Greenhouse
Gas Working Groups. We intend to be at the table
to have a positive impact on agriculture and food
policies in relation to greenhouse gas issues. This is
particularly important because business as usual will
not resolve the challenges we have ahead of us.
Conclusion

The presence of sequestered carbon in FST organic
feld trials is an indicator of healthy soil that has an
abundance of carbonaceous matter, in particular the
organic material humus. It is humus that enables
healthy soils to retain water during periods of
drought. Each pound or kilogram of dry soil organic
matter can absorb 20 times its weight in water. It
is humus that retains mobile nutrients found in
soils such as phosphates and nitrates, that would
otherwise be lost as runoff to streams and aquifers.
These trials illustrate that economic beneft as
well as environmental protection can and should
work together hand in hand. The economic
benefts are realized by farmers and landowners
who see reduced costs for fertilizer, energy and
fuels requirement, irrigation needs, and increased
crop yields and quality at the same time. It is also
economically benefcial to the agricultural business
economy, and an environmental beneft to all
of us, that specifc soil management and tillage
practices can help to sequester or retain carbon
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in the soil carbon that would otherwise be lost
to the atmosphere as a component of the growing
greenhouse gas menace.
In conclusion, organic farming can reduce the
output of carbon dioxide by 37-50%, reduce costs
for the farmer, and increase our planets ability to
positively absorb and utilize greenhouse gases.
These methods maximize benefts for the individual
farmer as well as for society as a whole. It is a
winning strategy with multiple benefts and low
comparative risk. These proven approaches mitigate
current environmental damages and promote a
cleaner and safer world for future generations.
Creating incentives and taking action
While credits for no till farming are now fully
established, to elevate the response to climate
change we must extend those credits to organic
practices, including cover cropping, compost
addition, rotation and other methods. There is a
continuing need to develop verifed methods and
real time estimation of sequestration rates. We
believe that this can be achieved by utilizing a
combination of process and performance-based
standards as a way of confrming and conferring
greenhouse gas credits.
Each and every one of us needs to look ourselves in
the mirror and ask, How can I contribute to easing
the burden of our collective planetary debt? In
terms of the food system, it can start with consumers
consciously eating local organic, producing their
own food wherever possible, and even reducing
feedlot beef consumption. As individuals, let us start
this journey to the future by dedicating ourselves
to doing the small things we can do. Then, as a
collective, let us work together to do the rest of the
job. We can and we must.
Paul Hepperly, Ph.D., the New Farm research and
training manager at the The Rodale Institute in
Kutztown, Pennsylvania, is an expert in the feld of
carbon sequestration in organic systems. He grew
up on a family farm in Illinois and holds Ph.D. and
M.Sc. degrees in plant pathology and crop sciences
from the University of Illinois at Champaign-
Urbana.
References:
Bolin, B., E. Degens, S. Kempe, and P. Ketner.
1979. The Global Carbon Cycle. Wiley, New
York. Chen, Y., and Y. Avimelech. 1986. The
Role of Organic Matter in Modern Agriculture.
Martinus Nijhoff Publishing, The Hague. Douds,
David D. Jr, R. R. Janke, and S. E. Peters. 1993.
VAM fungus spore populations and colonization
of roots of maize and soybean under conventional
and low input sustainable agriculture. Agriculture,
Ecosystems, and Environment 43: 325-335. Douds,
David D. Jr., and P. D. Millner. 1999. Biodiversity
of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in agroecosystems.
Agriculture, Ecosystems, and Environment 74:77-
93. Drinkwater, L., P. Wagoner, and M. Sarrantonio.
1998. Legume-based cropping systems have
reduced carbon and nitrogen losses. Nature 396:262-
265. Nebel, Bernard J., and Richard T. Wright.
1996. Chapter 16. Major Climatic Changes in The
Way The World Works. Environmental Science Fifth
Edition. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle Rive, New
Jersey. Paul, E. A., and F. E. Clark.1989. Chapter
6 Carbon Cycling and Soil Organic Matter in Soil
Microbiology and Biochemistry. Academic Press,
New York. Puget, P., and L. Drinkwater. 2001. Short
term dynamics of root and shoot-derived carbon for
a leguminous green manure. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J.
65:771-779. Rillig, M., and S. F. Wright. 2002. The
role of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and glomalin
in soil aggregation. Plant and Soil 234:325-333.
Rillig, M., S. F. Wright, K. Nichols, W. Schen, and
M. Torn. 2001. Large contribution of arbuscular
mycorrhizal fungi to carbon pools in tropical
forest soils. Plant and Soil 233:167-177. Sanchez,
P., M. P. Gichuru, and L. B. Katz. 1982. Organic
matter in major soils of the tropical and temperate
regions. Proc. Int. Soc. Soil Sci. Cong. 1:99-114.
Sedjo, Roger A. Brent Sohngen and Pamela Jagger.
1998. RFF Climate Issue Brief #12. Stevenson, F.
1982. Humus Chemistry: Genesis, Composition,
and Reactions. Wiley Interscience, New York.
Stevenson, F. 1985. Cycles of Soil Carbon,
Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Sulfur and Micronutrients.
John Wiley and Sons, New York. Wander, M., S.
Traina, B. Stinner, and S. Peters. 1994. Organic and
conventional management effects on biologically
active soil organic matter pools. Soil Sci. Soc. Am.
J. 58: 1130-1139. Wright, S. F., and R. Anderson.
2000. Aggregate stability and glomalin in alternative
crop rotation for the central plants. Biology and
Fertility of Soil 31:249-253.
Answering The Critics
Upon the release of our original fndings, a
challenge immediately arose from Rattan Lal, Ph.D.
in Ohio and Goro Uehara, Ph.D. in Hawaii (see
Lewerenz, 2004). These scientists suggested that
our estimates for carbon sequestration were too
high, based on their personal research experience
on conventional no till and reports in the literature
showing conventional no till practice might
sequester in soil a maximum of only about 200 to
500 pounds of carbon per year. Conventional no till
emphasizes tillage elimination. It does not, however,
generally use live cover crops between cash crops.
Under the organic farming systems, however, tillage
is commonly used but live cover crops are normally
established as the key biological drivers of the
organic system. These drivers are what account for
the 2 to 4 times greater carbon sequestration than
that determined in conventional no till without cover
crops as practiced by the critics. In conventional no
till the ground can be covered with dead decaying
crop residue for 4 to 8 months, while in organic
farming cover crops provide live growing plants
on the ground virtually all year long. Veenstra,
Ph.D. and co-workers (2006) at the University of
California have reported on an experiment in the
San Joaquin Valley that evaluated the levels of
tillage vs. no tillage and cover cropping vs. without
in cotton and tomato cropping systems. This work
confrmed our 1,000 pounds of carbon per year soil
sequestration level that we obtained under their
very different California environment. Moreover, it
also confrmed that tillage was of less importance
compared to cover crop use in terms of improving
soil and increasing carbon sequestration.Now
in its 27th season, The Rodale Institute Farming
Systems Trial is the longest running comparison
of conventional corn and soybean row crop farming
to organic production systems of corn and soybean.
Figure 1: Linear regression of soil carbon rise with
time in both organic treatments; while, no increase
is found in the conventional system. Notice the
difference in the richness of the soil at 1% (left)
and 5% (right) carbon. In addition to capturing less
carbon in soil, conventional agricultural production
methods also emit greater greenhouse gases and
require the hazardous use of chemical fertilizers and
pesticides.
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Th e Nat ur al Far me r F a l l , 2 0 0 7 34
by Jenifer Wightman
Cornell University
Ithaca, NY 14853
How much does agriculture contribute to
the total greenhouse gas emissions? Globally,
agriculture is responsible for 20% of the greenhouse
gas emissions. In the United States, the national
average from agriculture is 8%. In the case study
below, NY dairy contributes about 2% of the states
greenhouse gas emissions.
What are the greenhouse gases from agriculture?
Most of the global emissions come from the
combustion of fossil fuels releasing carbon dioxide
(CO
2
), a greenhouse gas, to the atmosphere.
Agricultural emissions come from other greenhouse
gases, namely methane (CH
4
) and nitrous oxide
(N
2
O) in addition to CO
2
. While CH
4
and N
2
O
emissions are far less in quantity in the atmosphere,
they have a much more potent impact on the
climate.

In an effort to make greenhouse gas accounting
simpler, the different gases were given weighted
values according to their potency as a greenhouse
gas. This potency of a gas is referred to as a Global
Warming Potential (GWP) and their common unit is
referred to as a carbon dioxide equivalent or CO
2
e.
As you can see below, two common agricultural
gases, methane and nitrous oxide are 23 and 310
times more potent than carbon dioxide.

Different gases have different Global Warming
Potential (GWP): The potency of a greenhouse
gas is referred to as its global warming potential.
The common unit is referred to as a carbon dioxide
equivalent or CO
2
e.

carbon dioxide (CO
2
) = 1 CO
2
e
methane (CH
4
) = 23 CO
2
e
nitrous oxide (N
2
O) = 298 CO
2
e

To convert tons of methane to CO
2
e, simply
multiply by 23.

In the NY Dairy case study below, the impact
of methane and nitrous oxide emissions from
agricultural practices far outweigh on-farm carbon
dioxide emissions from fossil fuel combustion.

NY Dairy Case Study: Identifying the source of
greenhouse gas emissions on farm.
Dairy is the biggest agricultural industry in NY
State. In an effort to identify how agriculture could
mitigate its own emissions, an analysis of climate
change gas emissions from the NY dairy herd was
completed. In the chart below, an inventory of
energy use and greenhouse gases was compiled
for the 700,000 milking dairy herd plus young
replacement stock in NY State using predominantly
1997 data. The production and transport of imported
feed (soybeans, corn grain) was charged to the
NY greenhouse gas budget. We calculated the
energy required for production of inputs in British
Thermal Units (BTU) and we calculated the GHG
emissions in CO
2
equivalents (CO
2
e) from CO
2
, CH
4

and N
2
O (unpublished results).
Cropping Growing the crops necessary for dairy
farming accounted for 76% of the total system
energy use. However, cropping contributes only
34% of the dairy farm greenhouse gases. If you are
a crop farmer, youll see right away that nitrogen
production is the single greatest energy consumer
and greenhouse gas generator. In considering only
the greenhouse gases associated with the cropping
system, nitrogen contributes nearly 60% of the
greenhouse gas emissions with feld machinery
Climate Change and Agriculture:
Promoting Practical and Proftable Responses
A fact Sheet on Production and Mitigation of
Greenhouse Gases in Agriculture
coming in second contributing 20% from fuel
combustion.

Whole dairy system Combining the crops with
the dairy, nitrogen emissions still contribute
signifcantly with 20% of the total greenhouse gas
emissions. However, when we add in dairy, the
majority of the greenhouse gases are coming from
enteric methane production followed by methane
and nitrous oxide emissions from manure handling.
It should be noted that different manure handling
systems produce different amounts of greenhouse
gas emissions, lagoons being the biggest producer
of greenhouse gases and daily spread generating the
least amount.

Nitrogen, Manure Management and Enteric
Methane emissions are the major sources of GHGs.
The much greater global warming potential (GWP)
from methane and nitrous oxide account for 75% of
the overall farm accounting of GHG emissions as
measured in CO
2
equivalents.

Nitrogen Nitrogen is a signifcant source of GHG
for two main reasons.
1) Producing commercial nitrogen is a very energy
intensive process
2) After nitrogen is applied to the feld, either
as synthetic fertilizer or as manure, a certain
percentage of it is volatilized off the feld as N
2
O at
the time of application, this is referred to as direct
emissions. Indirect N
2
O emissions are a fraction of
the nitrogen that has leached through the ecosystem
to another site. Limiting N in a cows diet (and
therefore manure) and conserving synthetic N
applied to felds reduce N
2
O emissions from
agriculture.

Enteric methane The gut of the cow is full of
bacteria that produce methane. About 6% of the
energy source of the cow is released as methane gas
from the cow. Optimizing the diet not only improves
the effciency of the cow but also reduces the
methane emissions.

Manure management, methane According to data
from the US EPA, 20% of NY dairy manure was
stored as liquid/slurry (lagoon) in 1992. This
produced 16,067 metric tons of methane (CH
4
)
and accounted for 47% of NY state dairy manure
methane emissions. To compare, daily spread
which accounts for 70% of dairy manure handling,
produced 14,058 metric tons of methane and
accounted for 41% of the dairy manure methane
emissions. Different manure management strategies
address different environmental problems. See
nitrogen section above for manure N emissions.
Unlike society at large, which contributes most of
the anthropogenic greenhouse gases in the form of
CO
2
from the combustion of fossil fuels, this study
shows that 75% of emissions from NY Dairy is
coming from CH
4
(53%) and N
2
O (22%) and the
remaining 25% is from energy- based CO
2
.

~2% of NYs GHGs come from agriculture; ~90%
come from fossil fuel combusted for energy.
Mitigate farm GHG? Or displace fossil fuels with
carbon neutral biofuels?

What can farmers and landowners do to mitigate
their own emissions?
When it is all said and done, reducing nitrogen
and energy use is the greatest way to save money
and also mitigate climate change. Improving dairy
cow diet will also improve methane and nitrous
oxide emissions. Capturing and destroying methane
created in manure lagoons would also reduce
emissions. However, the greatest opportunity may
be to farm for biofuels and displace the emissions
from fossil fuel used by other sectors of society.

Summary
NY dairy contributes 6.5 Million Metric Tons of
CO
2
e to the atmosphere:
53% comes from CH
4
, 22% from N
2
O and 25%
from CO
2
.
NY dairy accounts for ~2% of NY State
Greenhouse Gas emissions.
To mitigate emissions from farm activities:
Reduce nitrogen use
Avoid anaerobic conditions for manure storage
unless you can capture/destroy the CH
4

Reduce energy demand and increase energy
effciency
Regulate dairy diet to reduce N released in the
manure, and reduce enteric CH
4

To mitigate emissions created off farm (90% of NY
emissions come from burning fossil fuels):
Crop biomass to displace fossil fuels used by
society at large
Manage woodlots for maximum forest growth and
carbon sequestration and biomass fuel
Th e Nat ur al Far me r F a l l , 2 0 0 7 35
(continued from page 1)
by the electro-organic bonds between some
potently optimistic people. Under the big tent, staff
members and volunteers worked with enthusiasm
to ensure that the steady fow of attendees had what
they needed to enjoy and educate themselves the
weekend of August 10 through the 12th.
When Bill McKibben gave his keynote address
around eight oclock Friday night, he told all
assembled in a very full Crown Center that the
source of hope against some very possible gloom
and doom was the strength of the bonds within our
communities. To a more cynical crowd, the address
might have seemed like a trite pep talk. To the
Summer Conference attendees, his words rang true
and the gymnasium thundered with approval every
few minutes. You could almost count the space
between the applauseone-one-thousand, two-one-
thousand, three-one-thousand
The sharing of information and knowledge is, of
course, a primary reason the conference is held
every year. So many workshops and events were
occurring simultaneously that a person would be
hard-pressed to decide how to spend his or her
time. Presenters held sessions on everything from
bio-diesel to maple sugar. Families came with the
sensible strategy of splitting up and attending as
many workshops as they could individually, then
briefng each other at the end-of-day rendezvous.
Childrens workshops that were both fun and
educational seemed to make the whirlwind weekend
easier on the kids.
Interestingly, although the workshops were led by
presenters, the information didnt just fow in one
direction. In Sheep Breeds for Wool (And More!),
Jill Horton Lyons and her husband Jim made a point
of asking attendees about their experiences raising
sheep. The class was mixed, with about half the
people new to sheep raising. Soon, it became clear
as we passed around samples of Dorset, Icelandic,
Cormo, and other wool, that all our combined
knowledge was fowing on currents of engagement.
As the workshop ended, people continued their
conversations on sheep and wool out into the hall.
They exchanged contact information. Fibers of
community were strengthened.
The NOFA Summer Conference community will
undergo a slight change after this year. After
18 years the events location is to move from
Hampshire College down the road to the University
of Massachusetts, Amherst.
Hampshire Colleges Farm Center Manager, Leslie
Cox, said Hampshire College is having a problem
that a lot of businesses would like to have--too
many customers.
Cox explained the administrative diffculties of
over-enrollment. Colleges and universities typically
experience a predictable loss of students due to
accepted, incoming freshman who decided not to
attend. Students who attended classes one year
also choose not to continue at the same institution
the next fall. Like airlines estimating how to book
fights to ensure no empty seats, colleges have to do
their best to assure that classes have as few empty
desks as possible.
Ten to twenty percent of the students that you
think arent going to show up in the fall are actually
coming, Cox said.
Offcials from UMass, Amherst were at the
conference Friday morning, already fnalizing plans
for the transfer of the conference to their campus
next year. New communities will undoubtedly be
formed, new bonds forged that will reinforce the
ones woven over more than a decade and a half.
Other partnerships have also given NOFA a chance
to expand its presence beyond the sphere of farmers
over the years. Whole Foods Market, Stonyfeld
Farm, Newmans Own, Greenfelds Market, and the
First Pioneer Farm Credit AgEnhancement Program
were all sponsors of this year conference. Though
I kept my eyes open for a chance to interview Paul
Newman, Im not sure he was able to make it.
Dan Felton, a Local Forager for Whole Foods,
was on hand, however, to explain his companys
connection to NOFA. He explained that Whole
Foods Market is proud to be involved with the
organization beyond being a food and fnancial
sponsor.
Its what were all about, said Felton. Our core
values include giving back to the communities we
serve and promoting a sustainable lifestyle so that
we can all exist.
He said that their customers tend to want to educate
themselves about food, not just shop for it.
They want to know how what theyre buying
hurts or helps the environment. They want to know
how we can keep what our grandparents had,
Felton explained, noting that many consumers are
becoming aware that only two generations ago the
business of food was very different on both sides of
the plate. About organic food, Felton described the
increasing demand from shoppers.
Oh, the demand for less fake food is growing.
When [our customers] buy a box of cereal, they
want to know that its JUST a box of cereal, he
said.
As a forager, Felton hunts down food products
grown or produced locally that Whole Foods can
carry. If the farm or vendor can meet the companys
quality and packaging requirements, it doesnt
matter if the vendor can only supply enough food
for one or two stores.
Local farmers can be seasonal, one store suppliers.
We defnitely want to talk to them, Felton said. Just
to make sure he was on the up-and-up, on my way
home from that day of the conference, I stopped by
the Whole Foods on Route 9 in Hadley. I wanted
to make sure that I really could fnd local produce
among fruit and veggies originating from California,
Florida, and the southern hemisphere. Although
not as much was available as I would have liked to
see (perhaps owing to it being just the beginning
of August), I did pick up some peaches grown in
Deerfeld. Other items like locally-produced cheeses
were also on display. Ill be watching to see what
they do with their local foraging initiative.
Of course, this is just the sort of thing that is good
news to people who sat in at the Food Sovereignty
and Food Democracy workshop that took place
on Sunday afternoon. Led by Brian Tokar, director
of the Biotechnology Project at Vermonts Institute
for Social Ecology and Bob St. Peter, director of
the Good Life Center in Maine, the session focused
on the micro. Again, optimism seemed to food the
Adele Simmons Auditorium as the white-board
list of obstacles to local control of food morphed
into a discussion of point-by-point strategies for
harvesting the strength of community.
Despite some obvious threats to local control of
food, including the consolidation of the majority
of the world food supply into just a handful of
multinational corporations, rising oil prices, and the
control of the genetic destiny of seeds, headway is
being made on some fronts. College and university
students, it turns out, are forming alliances with
photo by Jack Kittredge
photo by Adele Smith-Penniman
Th e Nat ur al Far me r F a l l , 2 0 0 7 36
local farmers and distributors to demand that more
of the meals served in the cafeterias are prepared
with ingredients that originate closer to campus.
Ben Grosscup, the National Animal Identifcation
System Response Coordinator for NOFA/Mass
highlighted some of the stories of towns that have
passed resolutions against genetically modifed
foods, as well as against the NAIS program.
These victories are victories of sustainability--the
theme of this years Summer Conference. They are
precisely the type of encouraging news that Bill
McKibben discussed in his address. Quoting from
a wealth of sources and information on organic and
local food production versus industrialized, far-fung
food manufacturing, McKibben described a shift in
worldview that is occurring in the public as a whole.
Citing statistics that show local farmers markets
to be the fastest growing sector of the retail food
industry, he joked that Wal-Mart is sure to be
looking over their shoulder. He tempered his
humor with heartfelt praise for NOFA members.
Many people in this room, he said, are among
my real heroes in the world. Youve built something
powerful and something precious over the last few
decades.
He continued, saying that the good news is that,
Youre winning. Its hard for people who start out
on the fringe of things to sense when theyve moved
into the mainstream and when theyve begun, in
fact, to defne the future, but thats where you all
are and where we are now, in some ways, all of a
sudden.
McKibben predicts that the age of a return to local
food production is at hand.
Our short experiment with something very odd and
different is coming to an end, and its coming to an
end very quickly. Part of the reason he said, is
that you guys have been doing an amazing job, and
part of the reason has very little to do with you. The
system of industrial agriculture that weve built in
this country, carried to its logical extension, turns
out to be a bizarre disaster.
If the charge of social energy is rewired to a new
circuit in next years new home for the 34th Annual
NOFA Summer Conference, I sense that this tightly
bonded community of organic producers and
consumers will have even more solutions.
Hazel Henderson, our beamed-in Saturday
keynoter, showed in her talk and Q & A period
afterward why she is a renowned futurist. Her sharp
critique of how corporate and political forces try to
control us, and her positive belief that the human
spirit will prevail, (as well as her unsolicited words
of praise for this humble rag ed.) revealed her
intelligence and thoughtful approach to the admiring
audience.
and from the Conference Co-Coordinator, Julie
Rawson:
The numbers were higher than they have been
since 1998 and Wendell Berry - 1406 to be exact.
Internally, it was a surprise to us to invite Bill
McKibben, a local hero but relatively unknown
person in the larger world, and see that over the
year, due to his incredible work on climate change,
he became a real national hero. Bills fame and the
explosion of organic and local were major factors in
the large turnout this year.

It will be hard to say goodbye to our relationship
with Hampshire. Jack and I and all of the conference
committee members from all of those years
have such fond memories of working with the
Hampshire staff and being on our own campus
for the weekend. I do believe, however, that this
new relationship with UMass will open new
opportunities for the conference to grow (we were
getting too big for Hampshire). As organic goes
mainstream, it is curious that we are moving to a
mainstream university to house our conference.
The folks at UMass have been extremely gracious
with us, acquiescing to all of our off-beat requests.
I know that many of you are concerned that we will
be swallowed up there. We will be working quite
closely with the staff to centralize all of our events,
workshops, camping dorms, dining, exhibits, as
photo by Jack Kittredge
photo by Jack Mastrianni
photo by Ben Goldberg
Th e Nat ur al Far me r F a l l , 2 0 0 7 37
down-to-earth advice for
gardening with cosmic rhythms
Now published and distributed by
Camphill Village Kimberton Hills
40 pages, 9" x 12" $14.95
<www.stellanatura.com>
<info@stellanatura.com>
Stella Natura
PO Box 783, Kimberton PA 19442
(610)469-9686
For each calendar sold, $4.00 goes to
support the work of Camphill Village
snugly as possible so we can still feel the sense of
community while we are there.

Do you want to serve on the NOFA Summer
Conference committee? We meet 6 times per year,
and members receive free registration and housing
and two meals. We have several paid jobs opening
up for this season. Ads/exhibits/sponsors, to be
consolidated with food donations, will pay around
$3300. This is a crucial fundraising job for the
conference that takes a person who likes to solicit
and to talk to folks. The graphics job is open also, a
50 hour job ($550) that takes responsibility for our
signage, banners and clothing sales, logo design,
etc. The childrens conference coordinator job is
also open with a 120 hour position that manages
the kids all weekend, gathers workshop leaders and
coordinates the teachers. Contact me at (978) 355-
2853 or julie@nofamass.org if you are interested
in applying for one of these positions. Our frst
meeting will be on Sunday, October 28 from noon to
5 pm at UMass in Amherst.

Many thanks to the workshop presenters, the
exhibitors, advertisers, and sponsors, the hard
working top notch staff and all the participants who
make the NOFA Summer Conference an integral
part of our lives each year. It is truly an honor to
work with all of you to put on this event.
photo by Jack Kittredge
photo by Jack Kittredge
photo by Jack Mastrianni
: :| || || | 1 1 h h? ?? ?H H
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| | www.uIeeyoouoau.co
30--

Th e Nat ur al Far me r F a l l , 2 0 0 7 38
by Bill McKibben
transcribed by Marianne Radke, Julie Rawson,
Becca Buell, and Jack Kittredge
Thank you, thank you all, its great fun to
be here, but the main purpose of after dinner
speech is to give oneself time to digest before
the dancing begins. I wont be insulted if you
nap a little bit, during this talk. But its a great
honor and a great pleasure for me to get to be
here.
As I was driving down today I was just kind of
thinking about all of the images over the years
that NOFA and organic farming in this part of
the world conjure up in my mind, and all the
good friends and all the good times from the
all local Berkeley College dining hall at Yale
to good times up in Unity, Maine, to the food
project outside Boston, to all our old and dear
friends at Sam and Elizabeth Smiths Caretaker
farm, to long evenings in the Grange Halls
in northern NY, to all the glories of Organic
Vermont where I hang out at the moment.
I was thinking just about last week being
camped with a bunch of kids who Ill tell
you about in a while at Nesenkeag Farm, in
Litchfeld, New Hampshire, talking with Eero
Ruutila, the farmer there. He was talking about
being a NOFA Certifer at the very beginning of
all this long ago. All of those people and many
people in this room are among my real heroes in
the world. Youve built something powerful and
something precious over the last few decades,
which leads me to the frst thing that I want to
say tonight.
Im starting tonight with the very good news
-- which is that youre winning. Its hard for
people who start out on the fringe of things to
sense when theyve moved into the main stream
and when theyve begun. in fact, to defne the
future. But thats where yall are, or we all are
now in some ways, all of a sudden.
I shared a stage earlier this year with my
greatest of all writing heroes and old friend,
Wendell Berry. We were down in Kentucky, and
one of the things that I got to say to him was
what a pleasure it was for me that he had lived
long enough to see the sort of things that he
had begun talking about thirty and forty years
ago become not the kind of distant dream or a
possibility or a theoretical idea but something
that is defning what the future is going to look
like.
We have hit nadir with our food system and
now we are on the upswing. Yall are no longer
on the defensive, whether you know it or not,
youre on the offensive. And change is coming
your way and reacting to you and following
your lead. Now, this is still the beginning of
that trend and so some of the evidence for it is
mostly anecdotal. You can tell because every
time you pick up a magazine in this country,
a food magazine or a lifestyle magazine or
anything, all of the articles all of a sudden
are about local food. And about new ways of
eating and about new ways of thinking. You
can tell because, when I was talking on the
NOFA 2007 Summer
Conference Keynote
phone not long ago with my friend Jack Lazer
of Butterworks Farm up in northern Vermont,
one of the great farmers in all of New England,
he said that his only problem at the moment
was that there were so many localvores now
in Vermont. Word had gotten out that he made
forty or ffty gallons of sunfower oil and they
were sort of beating down his door, demanding
that he sell them a gallon of local cooking oil.
But its not just anecdotal. The numbers are
starting to show the same thing. If you look
at the places where this movement is strong,
and where it sunk its frst roots, in the last
agricultural census in the state of Oregon, the
number of farms doubled. Its been a long time
since anyplace in this country has the total
number of farms going steadily up instead of
steadily down.
In Vermont were still losing dairy farms
because commodity dairy is a pretty hard
business to make a go of. But in Chittenden
County, Vermont, around our biggest city,
last year the total number of farms grew 19
percent. Its not all people who are making
a full time living off of it, but its all people
serving that local market, and theres way more
demand. There was an article in the Burlington
Free Press a month or two ago saying that
the number of people wanting CSA shares
who couldnt get them was at least 5 or 6 or 7
hundred families. You know theres lots and lots
of room for that to grow.
Farmers Markets are the fastest growing part of
the food economy in America. Sales are up 12
to 15% a year. Its growing a hell of a lot faster
than Wal-Mart is growing. (Audience laughs)
We havent quite caught up to Wal-Mart, but
theyre looking over their shoulder!
One way you can tell that youre winning is that
the other side is starting to get scared. There
was an Op-Ed piece in the New York Times
three days ago where someone from the New
Zealand Lamb Industry was trying very hard to
argue that it made more sense in terms of fuel
use to be shipping lamb from New Zealand,
than growing it locally. They were comparing
it, interestingly enough, to the kind of industrial
lamb that you can grow in this country. When
they did the calculation that way -- the worst
possible way you can in this country -- then it
might well work, but of course thats not the
comparison people are making anymore. People
are starting to understand that lamb can come
from their neighbors, and that all food can come
from the people around us the way that it has
for all of American history until ffty years ago
and for all of human history until ffty years ago
and for eighty percent of the people who live on
this planet now.
Our short experiment with something very
odd and different is coming to an end. And its
coming to an end quickly. Part of the reason
its coming to an end is that you guys have
been doing an amazing job, and part of the
reason has very little to do with you. Which
is that the other side, the system of industrial
agriculture that we built in this country, carried
to its logical extent, turns out be a bizarre
disaster. (Laughter). Were only now beginning
to realize that because, you know, whatever
you do seems normal, and that seemed normal
to America for a while. But were beginning to
really understand what the cost of that is.
I got to share the stage earlier this year with
Michael Pollan, whos another old friend of
mine and who has been doing this work for a
long time. Journalistically, he was saying, all
of a sudden, hes no longer having to explain
to his editors what it is that hes talking about.
People had begun to really catch on, begun to
catch onto the idea that industrial agriculture
has ruined rural communities, that it has caused
unbelievable environmental damage, which I
will get back to. And that it has left us a nation
of puffy people.
Demographers say that the life expectancy
in America, in the next couple of years, may
actually begin to fall, for the frst time in
this century, because we have become so
unbelievably unhealthy on the diet that we eat.
One in three people born in New York City
this year will develop type 2 diabetes in the
course of their lives. Its the new normal in the
industrial food system that we have developed.
In fact, that industrial food system provides a
pretty good picture of itself in the animals that
it grazes. Just like the swine that it raises -- two
and a half million at a time in huge corporate
farms -- its extremely productive, but its
increasingly unable even to move about.
Theres a sense in which industrial agriculture is
being revealed all of a sudden to be something
like the old Soviet Union -- rotten from within,
entirely dependent upon subsides from the
centralized element, and kind of waiting for
a shove to collapse. A shove which has been
coming from a lot of different directions --
probably most importantly from the fact that it
can no longer rely on the absolutely cheap input
of fossil fuel very much further into the future.
Now it wont come down in a day, its a pretty
big and pretty powerful model. If the Soviet
Union had nuclear weapons, this system has
lobbyists. Theyll be able to delay its fall. This
years Farm bill was not all that exciting or
interesting. It will cushion for a while longer the
sort of current way of doing business. But this
fall farm bill activists were actually looking at
it and commenting on it, taking action on it and
beginning to really think about and challenge
it, and it wont be long before even the central
government of this country is beginning to
catch up to this message and beginning to spur
this transition.
Its happening and its happening fast. And one
of the best pieces of news is, because of this
sense of movement toward local, real, food,
were now seeing that idea start to spread to
other spheres and spread pretty quickly. The
idea, the possibility of localizing large parts
of our economy becomes more real and more
possible with each passing day. Not just in
food, look at spheres such as energy. Just in
the same way that were used to thinking of
Th e Nat ur al Far me r F a l l , 2 0 0 7 39
Cargill or Archer Daniels Midland, as our kind
of calorie brokers in this country, so are we
used to thinking of Exxon Mobile and Peabody
Coal as our BTU or our electron brokers. But
were beginning very fast, and with all kinds of
interesting legislation and policy shift and good
local work, to fgure out how we might begin to
build the equivalent of Farmers Markets and
CSAs in energy, too.
I have solar panels on my roof on my house
in Vermont but Im not off the grid. Im very
determinately on the grid. I want to be my
own little utility on a sunny day like it was in
Vermont today. I want to be fring electrons
down the grid. I love to watch my meter spin
the wrong way, to know that my neighbor is
keeping his beer cold off the sunlight falling on
my roof. And if you think about that system
for all the same reasons that we do with food,
forget its environmental impacts which I will
return to, because its a good way to deploy
environmentally benign technology, but its
also a way to build systems which are durable
enough to catch some kind of future.
Just like with food, you have to be an
unbelievable optimist to believe that the system
we are relying on for the moment is going
to last all that much further into the future.
Think about it: what it is at the moment that
we depend on with electricity. We depend
on convincing people in West Virginia and
Kentucky to blow the tops off their mountains
and give us cheap coal. Think about what we
depend on for mobility; we depend on spending
young people -- Vermonts lost more people per
capita in the War in Iraq than any state in the
union. The current system depends on sending
people to guard the 5000 mile straw from which
we drink hydrocarbons from the Persian Gulf.
Its beautiful to think about a system that
instead works like the internet, or a farmers
market, where all kinds of us are putting in
energy and taking it out, just like were bringing
food to the market and bringing other food
home. Its even spread to things like currency.
Theres all of a sudden a big explosion in
people trying to fgure out how to take more
and more and more of their economies into
their hands. I was a little ways west of here
three weeks ago for a celebration to mark the
millionth Berkshare in circulation, that local
currency. For those of you who havent seen
them, theyre absolutely gorgeous. And it
was for the most part people who had tried
this experiment before it kind of foundered
in a small ghetto of vegan restaurants and
politically correct masseuses. But this one
spread beyond that, and it was pretty amazing
to be able to go to the Mr. Ding-a-ling truck and
buy an ice cream bar with a Berkshare, and get
change back in Berkshares, and realize that the
possibilities are expanded at an enormous rate.
Why is this happening? Well one of the
reasons is that we have begun to sense all
those vulnerabilities. Because we have begun
to realize how irresponsible it is to depend on
taking things from other countries and how
unlikely it is that it will last all that much
longer. Peak oil, the idea that were beginning
to run out of that magic fuel that has powered
our economy for two centuries, was a real slap
upside the head in a lot of ways for Americans.
That sense that we couldnt depend on things to
just keep rolling forward for another generation
in the ways that we have gotten used to.
We cant do that, its not an option anymore.
And we begin to sense the fimsiness of all
these arrangements. Its pretty shocking to turn
on the radio today and listen as the federal
reserve bank pumps money by the tens of
billions of dollars into the capital market to try
and keep it from melting down because we have
built so many crappy houses that no one can
afford to buy; and mortgaged ourselves to the
hilt with stuff that were going to be desperate
to get rid of.
So that vulnerability and that insecurity is one
part of the reason why we are moving suddenly
and quickly in this direction and that all kinds
of people are beginning to feel this move.
But theres another reason too, and its just as
interesting, and in a way, more interesting and
maybe more profound. The one real, maybe
one biggest, lie of the kind of growth economy
ber-consumer capitalism that weve built since
WWII in this society, the one real lie is that it
was going to make us spectacularly happy.
And it turns out as we begin to look at it --
this was part of the burden of a book of mine,
Deep Economy -- that that just isnt true. For
a long time, we had no way of assessing this.
Academics stayed away from the business of
trying to decide whether or not people were
happy, even though it seemed like a kind of
basic-bottom-line question, maybe the basic-
bottom-line question. It also seems too soft
for them. They had no way to know, in any
confdence, that if you asked people: Are
you satisfed with your life? that the answer
would mean anything. It was viewed as just too
wimpy a question. Instead we were left with the
economists proxy: the concept of utility, the
idea that you could tell what satisfed people by
what they bought. And that served as our basic
proxy in this era of Neoclassical economics.
Its the reason, more than anything else, that
we fxate on the idea that we have to grow the
GDP at an enormous rate each year, because
surely it has something to do with the world
getting better and better. In the last few years,
academics have actually tried to fgure out
whether thats true or not. And it actually
began with the economists, including some
pretty prominent ones: Daniel Kahneman from
Princeton for instance, who won the Nobel four
years ago in economics.
Big economists began to try and study this
question in grim dismal ways. The frst study
that Kahneman talks about in his big book
on this involved interrupting people every
ten seconds while they were undergoing
colonoscopies to ask them how they were
feeling. How are you feeling now!
But over fve or six years, economists,
psychologists, and sociologists did an immense
amount of research and began to build up an
impressive body of data to show that in fact
subjective sense of wellbeing was a robust
phenomena. If I asked you, Are you satisfed?
The answer you give correlates with a lot of
things we can measure: how people view you,
certain things in your brain chemistry that are
scientifcally verifable.
Once people had decided that this was a
question worth asking, then they could look at
what data there was lying around. And some of
it is pretty powerful stuff. For instance, every
year since WWII, one of the big polling frms
in this country has asked Americans fat out,
Are you satisfed with your life? The number
of Americans who say, I am very satisfed
with my life, peaks in 1956, and goes slowly
but steadily down ever since. Barely a quarter
of Americans will make that claim, which is
very odd because in that same ffty-year period,
our average standard of living, the amount of
stuff that we have, has almost tripled. We live
in infnitely bigger houses, we take far more
vacations, we can get any food on earth, any
vaguely musical sound emitted anywhere on
the planet can be bought and paid for instantly,
and we have appliances that no one had ever
thought of ffty years ago.
If the economy worked the way that we had
intuitively believed it does, those two curves
should go in something like the same direction.
They wouldnt go exactly the same way, but
at least the same direction. The fact that they
diverge like that is very odd and very unsettling.
And the question is, why are they diverging?
Why would we become less satisfed with our
lives? And the answer, so far as we can tell, is
not mere coincidence. It is that past a certain
point, there are things inherent in affuence
that lead to a kind of dissatisfaction. And the
thing thats mainly inherent in that affuence is
a loss of connection with each other, a loss of
community.
Think about what Americans spent money on
since the end of WWII. More than anything else
what we spent money on was building suburbs -
- building bigger houses farther apart from each
other. In the year 1900, the average American
lived on the same acre with eight other people.
By the year 2000, the density of the new
subdivisions of America was two people per
acre. Theres just less chance that we are going
to run into each other, just mathematically in
the course of the day.
It shouldnt come as a huge surprise to us that
the average American has half as many close
friends as we did ffty years ago. That we spend
way less than half as many evenings eating
dinner with friends or family or relatives than
we did ffty years ago. Those are very large
changes for an evolved social animal. And
it turns out that they are bigger changes than
whatever beneft we got from having more
access to more stuff along the way.
And it turns out that the same phenomenon can
be observed if you look for it, all over the place.
Past per capita income of about $10,000 a year
in our dollars, so forty thousand dollars for a
family of four, theres no longer any correlation
in any place around the world between increase
in income and satisfaction with life. The results
just scatter all over the place after that. The
correlation that does exist when youre very
poor, and have your basic needs met by more,
disappears once youve reached that point.
Instead you begin to hunger for something else.
Now, of course the trap is, once youve
started down that line, its hard to get out of
it. You get more and more used to the kind of
privatized life that we now lead, the sort of
hyper individualistic life that Americans have
built. Maybe some of you saw a story in the
Times about two months ago, that I thought was
one of the most revelatory stories Ive seen in
a long time. It set out to answer the question of
whats in those houses the size of junior high
schools that people have recently built. It turns
out that one of the things thats in them -- and
not just in them, but now standard in upscale
subdivision housing of just the kind that is
currently causing our credit markets to collapse
-- is dual master bedrooms. That is to say the
new trend is, the husband snores, or the wife
steals the blankets or whatever, and the way
that we solve this is to add nine-hundred square
Th e Nat ur al Far me r F a l l , 2 0 0 7 40
feet to the house. Theres something kind of
tragic about it if youve spent much time in
the developing world, and you know if people
are lucky enough to have one bed in the house,
theres going to be four people in it and nobody
is worried about whos snoring. Theres also
something just kind of tragic and lonely about
it. This idea that in the most affuent society
that there ever was on the face of the earth,
people are hunkered down in their little caves,
peering out across the hallway at their mates.
Theres something kind of horrifying about it.
And I think what it means is that here too weve
reached a kind of nadir and were beginning to
go the other direction. Why are people going
to Farmers Markets in such huge numbers?
Part of it is because they want delicious food,
good food thats good for them and local food
and they understand the environmental benefts
and all that. But thats only part of it. A couple
of years ago, a pair of sociologists followed
shoppers - frst around supermarkets, and then
around farmers markets. You all have been
to the supermarket, you all know that drill
backwards and forwards. You walk in, a white
trance overtakes you, you visit the stations of
the cross around the perimeter of the market,
you emerge with the same basket of stuff you
had the week before. Dare I say, I think this
happens even at Whole Foods. When they
followed the shoppers around farmers markets,
they found them having, on average, ten times
more conversations per visit. Ten times! These
are social scientists. They are used to parsing
whether the .18 percent increase of something
is statistically signifcant. Ten times: an order
of magnitude more interchange and connection
and involvement in community.
Its not like it was a different way of picking
up your calories for the week. It was an
entirely different human experience. And not
surprisingly enjoyable, because its the same
human experience that people have been having
since agriculture began. Thats how people
have shopped forever. They have gone to the
market, and seen the vendors, seen their friends
and talked among themselves, and brought food
there, and taken food home. And it corresponds
with something deep inside of us. Which is why
we like that.
So, in one sense, it seems to me that all of the
news is good. That we are beginning to fgure
things out, that this kind of odd experiment in
the last ffty years of this country has seen the
kind of furthest reach of its penetration and now
its time for the pendulum to swing slowly and
patiently in the other direction. And for us to
kind of resume how normal human life began.
Paul Hawken, in this magnifcent new book,
Blessed Unrest, talks about how all around the
world, in one area, in one thing after another,
people are doing this same work, bringing us
back from these bizarre excesses of corporate
and globalizing and dehumanizing systems.
And its very, very inspiring to read it and it
makes one profoundly optimistic in all sorts of
ways.

But, and you knew that there would be a but,
there is one deal breaker, one game stopper,
and thats what I will be talking about for the
rest of this talk. And thats the one problem
thats so large and infringing on us so fast, that
unless we are able to do something about it
very dramatically, and very quickly, theres not
going to be a way for that pendulum to swing
smoothly back in the direction that it needs to
go for us to resume the normal course of human
affairs.
And here I am talking about climate change,
about global warming. About the feld where I
have spent the last twenty or so years working.
I wont belabor the science with you tonight.
Suffce to say that really the only thing that has
changed in the twenty years since I began this
work is that we understand now that both the
magnitude and the pace of this problem is larger
than we had guessed. And thats because we
didnt fully understand the system twenty years
ago, the physical system of the whole earth
because no one had really done this experiment
before. So far, human beings on this earth have
increased the temperature little more than one
degree Fahrenheit, about 59 degrees to about
60 degrees, global average. We would have
predicted, twenty years ago, that that would be
bringing us just now to the beginnings of the
greenhouse era. And that the real destruction
would still be another degree, and hence
another few decades in the future.
It turns out the system was more fnely balanced
than we realized. And that there are all kinds of
positive feedback effects that start happening
once you tip the system a little way. And the
scale of those feedback effects turn out to be
truly enormous.
Just to give you an example, and there are
many examples, but one that is the easiest and
most obvious is whats going on as the sea ice
begins to melt in the arctic. This is not the big
pack ice over Greenland or the west Antarctic
which Ill talk about in a minute. That ice,
when it melts, will raise the sea level. But that
pack ice, that extent of white, which you see
from any satellite picture of the earth, thats
been there for a very long time, thats melting
extraordinarily fast now.
Theres a story that came out today on the
wires about this years extensive melting, that
scientists who last year had reported by far the
largest extent of that melting , said today that
this years melting, in the words of one, was
something truly incredible and beyond anything
we could have imagined. We are now thinking
that by summer 2020, there may be no ice in
the arctic. That those satellite pictures will
not show a white cap on top of the planet, but
merely blue in the summer.
And what does that mean? Well one thing that
it certainly proves is that the planet is warming,
but it also helps amplify that warming. There
used to be a beautiful white mirror across the
top of the earth that refected 80% of the suns
rays back out to space. They hit the ice bounce.
You all know how bright it is on a sunny winter
day. When you replace that with blue water, it
absorbs eighty percent of that incoming solar
radiation. And it just begins to amp up this
reaction, and there are similar things going on
in forests and in soils, and in permafrost, and
on and on and on, and in all of the big physical
systems of this planet, and all taking us in the
same direction.
The effects are beginning, not beginning but
are showing up profoundly around the earth,
in places that we can see very easily. Just
in the last few weeks, the United Kingdom
has suffered the worst food in the very long
recorded history of the United Kingdom. The
same in south Asia, where the usual, wonderful,
life giving monsoon has turned into something
monstrous that is fooding people by the tens of
millions out of their homes. The western US,
about half the country, had the warmest July
on record, in many places by about 3 and 4
degrees. This change is stunning already, and
thats with a one-degree rise in temperature.
The consensus of all of the computer models is
that unless we take very swift action, very soon,
what we will see in the course of this century
is another fve degrees rise in temperature,
to about 65 degrees, which will make it far
warmer than it has been, since before human
evolution began -- before there were primates
wandering around on this planet.
All of the consequences of that are grim, and
Im not going to spend a lot of time on it.
Suffce it to say the horseman of the apocalypse,
famine, war, pestilence, all those things become
far more likely, and more dangerous, going
forward.
Its also possible that were nearing red lines
across which the level of catastrophe is so large
we dont even want to entertain the possibility
of going there. We used to think that those
big ice sheets above the west Antarctic and
Greenland were stable on a century or so time
scale; that we could start melting them now, but
it would take a very long time for it to happen.
Because its a mile and half thick sheet of
ice, theres a lot if inertia in all that ice. How
would you go about melting it? The computer
models assumed, as it got warmer, there would
be a little surface melt and it would politely
evaporate off into the atmosphere. It turns
out thats not whats happening. As you melt
that surface layer, the water is quickly fnding
its way down to the bottom of those great ice
sheets, and they are greasing the skids for their
slide into the ocean.

James Hanson, the NASA scientist, testifed
recently in a court case in Vermont against the
nations auto manufacturers and he said that
in his opinion it is conceivable in this century
that we might see rises in the sea level on the
order of twenty feet. We had, three days ago, a
wicked thunderstorm in New York City where
it rained for 24 hours and shut down the entire
subway system because it was all fooded out.
Think about what 20 feet of sea level does for
almost every coastal city on this planet.

And the truly depressing thing is that our
political system so far has not reacted to the
situation. We havent begun to take any of the
steps that would do anything about the kind of
scale of the problem that we are addressing.
You know from your own work what sort of
changes we need. I was sitting in a camp the
other day with a group of kids that were doing
this climate march across New Hampshire at
Nesenkeag Farm and Eero Ruutila was telling
us about the fact that he has seen three ffty-
year storms in the last twenty months, okay?
Its been fooded out completely. The number of
storms that have dumped more than two inches
over this period, or real gully washers, has
increased about 25% at this latitude from the
level of 1970.
Are there any farmers here who enjoy 2 inch
rainfalls over the course of a day? Not too
many, because it is not what we need and it
is not what our systems have evolved to deal
with. We need to fgure out very quickly how
to spark the transformation away from a fossil
fuel economy and towards one that the world
can live with. I can talk for a long time about all
the kind of engineering solutions that we might
head towards and that sort of thing. Im not
going to do that. I want to talk only about what
you can to do to make those things possible,
because they are possible, you know.
Twenty years ago, when environmentalists
talked about renewable power, they did it with
Th e Nat ur al Far me r F a l l , 2 0 0 7 41
their fngers crossed, okay, because it wasnt
ready for prime time yet. There are some in
this room who were willing to be down in the
basement with a wrench fguring out how to top
off the batteries; but it wasnt going to happen
on the kind of scale that we needed. But now it
can, now we knowI mean there was a story in
the Economist magazine, that left-wing rag, last
week talking about people who have fgured
out that with wind created across Europe -
- because it is always windy somewhere in
Europe they can provide enough power for
the continent from wind alone. Its possible.
Its not the technology, its not the engineering,
thats lacking. Whats lacking is the political
will. And my work now increasingly has less
and less to do with writing and more and more
and more to do to with trying to fgure out how
to summon that kind of political will quickly
enough to make something happen.
Let me tell you a couple of stories, just
quickly. Right about this time last year I had
been in Tibet and in far northern India, in the
Himalayan portions of India, doing a story
for National Geographic and for Harpers,
some reporting. Of course probably a lot of
you have been to Tibet once upon a time, and
as you know almost every time you turn a
corner in the road you see in the distance some
pilgrim prostrating themselves along the road,
doing the full prostration one after another on
the six or eight or ten month trip to Lhasa or
Mount Kailash or wherever it is that they are
going. And then I was in, as I say, rural India,
in a village in India, where if you are paying
attention its impossible not to keep coming
across the tracks of Gandhi and the Gandhian
movements and that kind of legacy.
When I got back to Vermont, I was thinking.
I think that all those images were in my head
in my real despair about how little we were
doing political around this problem -- and
remember this time last year we still had James
Inhofe of Oklahoma chairing the relevant
Senate Committee, a man who invited as the
only witness to last years Global Warming
hearings in the US Senate, the novelist Michael
Crichton to explain that global warming was a
hoax. In my despair about all that, I just said:
Well, I have to do something even if its sort
of pointless. So I called up a couple of my
friends, one of them the wonderful Vermont
writer John Alder and said: Look, lets walk up
to Burlington -- I was thinking about all those
pilgrims -- and well do a sit-in on the steps
of the Federal Building and well get arrested.
There will be some kind of story in the paper
and itll maybe not do anything, but maybe itll
do something. But at least we will have had
the satisfaction of having taken some action,
you know, kicked off something and from little
acorns grow great oaks and on and on and on.
Johns a writer like me and a good guy, and
said: Okay, Ill come with you. We talked
to a few more people and thank God one of
them, doubtless one of the young people from
Middlebury where I work, had the good sense
to call up to the police in Burlington and
ask what would happen if we did this. The
police said nothing would happen; you can sit
on the steps of the Federal Building as long
as you want. As I said before, they kind of
implied that we would need to burn down the
Federal Building. So we calculated the carbon
emissions from that and quickly recalibrated
and instead just started telling people we were
going to do this walk, this kind of pilgrimage,
up the west side of Vermont.
We left on a Wednesday, I guess, from Robert
Frosts old summer writing cabin in the Green
Mountains because we liked that most clichd
of all high school English poems about the road
not taken, you know it seemed very apropos.
And for fve days we walked and we camped at
night in farmers felds. Wonderful, some of the
time. We got to a new farm in Ferrisburg where
a fellow was growing grain and just built a
clay oven and he was happily making pizza for
however many of us there were there. The few
frst days it started with about three hundred of
us and by the Sunday, fve days later, when we
got to Burlington, there were about a thousand
people marching, which for Vermont is actually
a lot of people. It was the biggest political
demonstration in Vermont for a very long time.
It was very interesting and very instructive.
It was more than enough people to get every
single person who was running for offce in
Vermont last fall -- all our federal candidates
-- to come meet with us. And not just people
you would expect to be champions like Bernie
Sanders. In fact Bernie loves organizing more
than anything, activism of all kinds, and
came running up to us as we were coming
into Burlington, saying: This is great, this is
great, Ive never seen this many people, this is
so great, what is this about again? And hes
turned into the greatest champion on this issue
in the US Senate.
But weve got all these guys here and then we
said, look, we dont want to just hear that you
are sad about global warming. Here are the
things we think would be good to do: wed
like to see carbon emissions in this country
cut 80% by 2050, and wed like to see 40 mpg
cars soon, and before you talk to the thousand
of people gathered here, wed like to give you
a chance to sign on to the bottom of this big
sheet of cardboard that were carrying around.
And we slightly loaded the dice by giving the
magic marker to the youngest kid who walked
all fve days, all ffty or sixty miles with us and
he handed it to each one of them as they got up.
And they all signed including the conservative
Republicans who were running for offce.
There was a woman named Martha Rankin who
was running on the GOP ticket for Congress,
who actually came very close to winning. And
she had said in her announcement speech two
months before that she wasnt sure that global
warming was real and that more research
needed to be done. It turns out, and this is
something to really understand, it turns out that
this more research that needed to be done was
how many people would walk across Vermont
who believe this. Bless her heart. She signed
onto that thing and then she campaigned on it
all full on. In fact, her TV commercials showed
her signing it; they Photoshopped out all the
other candidates.
It worked the way it was supposed to work.
And it was great, by the way, to have this
support of the Vermont agricultural and farming
community all the way along. And to have
people fooding in on this day from places
like the Intervale. one of the great cases in
this entire nation, on 120 acres in the center of
Vermont, growing something like 10% of all
the fresh food that people in Vermonts largest
city eat. Not a fringe, not an experiment, not a
pilot, absolutely at the center of how the world
is going.
The only depressing note was to pick up the
paper the next morning and read a story saying
that that thousand people who gathered on the
edge of Lake Champlain might have been the
biggest demonstration about global warming
that had yet taken place in this country. At
frst that seemed unlikely but I thought about
it and indeed I think it was sort of true, that we
built a kind of super structure of a movement
around climate. We had bright economists
and engineers and scientists, obviously, people
coming up with policy solutions. The only
part that we had forgotten was the movement
itself, the people who had to put the necessary
pressure on.
So we decided to see if maybe we could do this
same thing outside of Vermont. It is a goofy
place obviously, could we do it elsewhere, too?
So on the 10
th
of January of this year, we (and in
this case we means me and six kids who are just
in the process of graduating from Middlebury,
who are earning $100 a week to do this
work), we set up a website called StepItUp07.
org. We asked people: Would you organize
demonstrations in your community on April
14
th
-- which was 12 weeks away -- to make this
same demand: 80% cuts in carbon emissions by
2050?
We had no money and we had no organization.
We didnt have a list of people to start with. So
we just started emailing all people that we knew
and telling them to email on. We had no idea.
We had low expectations because of that. Our
secret goal was that we would organize 100 of
these demonstrations over the course of those
three months and that would be 100 more than
there had been before. But instead the thing
just took off, not in great thanks to us, but I
think in great thanks to the fact that there were
people all across the country who were haunted
by this thing and yet had no idea exactly
what to do about it. No idea, its such a big
problem, no idea where to stick the screwdriver
in the crack and start jimmying. And all we
did was say: Well, look heres the crack that
you can start jimmying. People responded
unbelievably. All kinds of people.
I knew that this thing would be reasonably
successful seven or eight days into it. I got
a picture in the mail and the email from the
University of Texas in Austin from a sorority
house, the Alpha Phi sorority chapter at the
University of Texas in Austin. There are 180
University of Texas sorority girls looking
exactly as you would expect. There isnt a
person in this room who could smile as widely
as any of those girls. They had a big sign that
said Step It Up Congress Cut Carbon 80% by
2050. And they appended across the bottom
a little note: they said we wanted to show you
it wasnt just hippies who cared about this.
I say God bless you because that is exactly
right. It is hippies, people like you and me,
who think about the world a little off kilter, who
start things. Thats who starts things. But its
sorority chapters and chambers of commerce
and Evangelical congregations, that fnish them
off, that move them so far into the mainstream
that they cant be ignored or marginalized. And
thats what began to happen over those ten or
eleven weeks. It was unbelievable to be getting
emails everyday from churches, from just every
kind of people.
By the time we fnished on April 14
th
there
were 1400 of these demonstrations taking
place simultaneously. It was so much fun to
watch! We gathered in Washington that night.
We rented out a room in the Smithsonian and
invited all the people we could fnd around
Washington because we wanted to show them
this sort of thing, the results of this thing. So
people were emailing, uploading pictures all
Th e Nat ur al Far me r F a l l , 2 0 0 7 42
day long of their demonstrations on our website
and all these dignitaries are streaming in and the
seven of us could hardly tear ourselves away
from the computer screen because the pictures
coming in were so beautiful, so moving.
Wed asked people to think about the geography
of their place, to think about iconic places
where they were that would make this sacred,
and so they did. From Key West, where the
only coral reefs in the continental US are, they
didnt do a normal demonstration. They got
tons of people in scuba gear and went down
off those coral reefs and had an underwater
demonstration with a big sign Step It Up
to make the point that those coral reefs arent
going to be there in thirty years if that water
temperature keeps warming. Already were
seeing leaching of huge swaths of coral each
year. The video on the website of them
demonstrating is so gorgeous. Theres people
on every side of this big gorgeous fsh just
swimming in and around in the middle of this
thing, kind of joining in.
A little further up the coast in Jacksonville,
Florida, which Ive never been to but I suspect
is somewhat different from Vermont, the sacred
place they chose -- because its where all the
community gathers in the fall for big tailgate
parties and things -- was the parking lot of the
Jacksonville Jaguars NFL stadium. And what
did they do? They rented a crane and they
winched a guy twenty foot up into the air and
they said: thats where the ocean is going to be
if we dont step it up
In New York City there were thousands of
people in blue shirts who got down in the
Battery, Lower Manhattan, and linked arms
made a kind of sea of people to show where the
new tidal line would be. Out West people skied
in formation down the dwindling glaciers in
the Rockies that arent going to be there much
longer. Glacier National Parks not going to
have any glaciers by 2030, really soon; they are
melting really fast. It was amazing how people
could fgure out how to harness the genius of
their place. And it was amazing to see that
in many respects this set of demonstrations
actually began to do a little bit of work, to
actually have some effect. When we started,
80% cuts by 2050 was seen as a very radical
idea. There were people who were advising
us to pick something more realistic so we can
claim victory in the end or whatever/ Well, that
would be good, but actually everything is going
to melt unless we get those cuts, so were going
to do this.
About eight weeks into this thing, before it even
happened, we were starting to get calls from
the different presidential campaigns, talking to
John Edwards people back and forth. Pretty
soon we got a call from them saying: Look at
our energy policy when it comes out tomorrow
I think youll like it. And indeed when it came
out, the frst one to do a real energy policy, its
centerpiece was cutting carbon 80% by 2050.
Within two weeks of the end of this thing,
both Hillary Clinton and Barack Obama had
signed on to Bernie Sanders legislation in
the Senate calling for the same thing, as co-
sponsors. It has become part of the debate,
something that the lobbyists for Exxon-Mobil
have to rally against and move the bar up a
little bit. Its begun to work. But of course,
its only the beginning. If youre going to have
a movement, it needs to keep on moving. It
needs to build momentum, especially if its
trying to do something as hard as undercut the
main foundation of the economy that weve
built. Theres nothing that will be as staunchly
independent as the incredible profts that there
are to be made if you happen to own oil wells
or coal mines or centralized utility systems or
whatever it is. So weve got to build a much
stronger movement, a much more powerful one.
We just yesterday issued the call for the second
of these days of national climate action. It will
be on November 3
rd
. I know thats just at the
end of harvest season and everybodys tired and
wanting to just go into hibernation for awhile,
but we badly need you, in all your communities,
to gather your communities and do another
set of these demonstrations. And this time we
are not concentrating so much on place, this
time we are asking people to rally in spots that
commemorate great leaders of the past, to use
American history as a guide and to demand that
politicians come forward and see if they match
up to that template. Were calling it Step It Up
to Whos a Leader.
Some of the heroes we know. None of them
were saints, were not asking for saints to
come forward, if we need to rely on saints we
probably wont get it done in time. We need
leaders, people who, whatever their faws,
grasp the medal in the moment it was given to
them and made the shifts they needed to make.
Some of those leaders and heroes are national.
I returned yesterday from one group of people
in New Hampshire. Theres going to be a rally
on top of Mt. Washington and another group of
climbers out in Washington State are going to
be rallying on top of Mt. Jefferson. That will be
good.
But many of them are local. We were talking
yesterday with people in New York City who
are going to try to do something big across the
Brooklyn Bridge to honor that guy Roebling,
who built the Brooklyn Bridge; a piece of
engineering that people said couldnt be done.
But he believed that he could and he proved
that he could, which is precisely the sort of
engineering we need at the moment. Weve
even heard from people in Great Barrington
about going to honor Robin Van En and the
beginning of the CSA movement: the leadership
that we really need.
Look, as I say, I dont really know how to do
this work in particular. Im a writer. Im sort
of shy in my nature, happiest sitting in my
room and typing away. But with these amazing
kids, and by the way, one of the best lessons of
the last year: we always seem to worry about
the environmental movement that it might
be graying or something like that. Look, the
kids are all right. Things are really starting
to happen. Its so much fun to be working
constantly with them, and theyre different from
my generation of college activists: the ratio of
action to talk is considerably better and people
are extraordinarily mature. They dont demand
to change every facet of our culture and all the
ways. Theyre very concentrated on the kind
of changes that have to be made quickly and
powerfully across our economy, across our
society in order to get done what needs to be
done.
So we need you there. Its time to gather
communities. One of the things, maybe the
only interesting thing really not knowing about
this organizing, is what it did to me. When I
started, people said, well the way you do this
is you have a march on Washington. We didnt
want to do that, A: because we didnt have
any Martin Luther King to come talk to us and
B: because there seemed something kind of
bizarre about having people cross the continent
spewing carbon to worry about global warming.
But mostly because we really believed in this
movement that you all helped to launch. This
idea of globalness and of community and of the
community as the place where one takes the
stand and does what needs to be done. What we
wanted to do was try to fgure out how to make
that community politically powerful on a larger
level, too.
They dont call it Global Warming for nothing.
We need to fgure out how to do this in
Washington and around the world to get the
change we need in time. One of the tools we
now have to make that happen is the internet,
that possibility of connections. Its incredibly
good to have the young people who know
intuitively how to use those technologies in
powerful ways. So thats why we did it, spread
out like that. Thats why we need to do it
spread out like that again. Why we need you.
I think all the time about a slogan. Todd
Murphy, when he started the Farmers Diner up
in Barre -- now its down in Quiche, Vermont
-- the Diner tries to get most of its food from
nearby. Not an easy task. You need bacon
if you are going to have a diner. When it got
started there was nobody in Vermont raising
pork commercially. You raised pork two and
half million head and swine at a time on a
single farm in Utah, a farm that produces more
sewage in a day than the city of Los Angeles.
Thats really sort of what our system at the
moment is about. But anyway, forget about the
swine. He put on the top of his menu the motto
Think Globally, Act Neighborly, which seems
to me a good credo for the moment in which we
live.
Act Neighborly because it makes ecological
sense and Act Neighborly because it makes
human sense. The highest cost of cheap fossil
fuel wasnt global warming, the highest cost
at least for us may have been that it allowed
us to be the frst generation of humans that
there ever were that didnt need our neighbors
for anything. If you have a credit card and
telephone you dont have a need for anybody.
It turns out that is a horrible way to be a human
being.
I have no absolute guarantees to offer you
that its all going to come out okay. I mean,
I wrote a book called End of Nature. But for
the moment anyway, I am incredibly charged
up and optimistic and frightened as hell. It is
possible, in fact that we are going to do it, but it
is going to be extraordinarily close. Science has
given us a very short window to do what needs
to be done. Its going to take immense effort
to catapult our society, our planet through that
window before it shuts. Were going to do it,
its going to be close, we need every one of you
doing all the things youre already doing all day
long but also doing this kind of political work.
Its really important to screw in the new light
bulb above your kitchen table. Its even more
important to screw in the new congressman to
make sure that we get the work done that needs
to be done. So thank you all enormously for
the work you have done. You have turned the
corner in this society. You have started the
work of rescuing America from the trap that it
had fallen into. So thank you for that and thank
you in advance for all the work you are going to
do in the years to come. God bless you.
Th e Nat ur al Far me r F a l l , 2 0 0 7 43
The Jungle
by Upton Sinclair
published by See Sharp Press (original edition
published in 1905)
www.seesharppress.com
368 pages
$8.95, paperback
review by Sandy Snyder
Id always heard about The Jungle and how awful
conditions were in the meatpacking industry, but I
had never seen the book.
It seems Upton Sinclair wrote a very long book,
but in the end edited it down to the more essential
elements about the meatpacking industry.
Then in 1980 a bunch of papers were found in an
old cellar near Girard, Kansas. The fnder realized
they might be valuable and took them to Kansass
Pittsburgh State University where Gene De Giuson,
the special collections curator, cleaned and studied
the papers. He eventually put together a more
expanded edition of The Jungle which he published
in 2003. The main character is Jurgis Rudkos
who came to America with a group of his friends,
including his future bride.
I liked the book for many reasons. The opening
chapter describes a wedding not unlike the
Ukrainian weddings I attended as a child.
Descriptions are well written and colorful. Ona, the
young woman who came to America with Jurgis and
her family, had now become old enough to marry
Jurgis and, of course, eventually they have a child.
It really caught my interest that when the child was
born the doctor wanted the mother to stay home
and nurse the child for the health of both mother
and child. The mother did not, citing the need for
money.
The family and Jurgis were decent, hard working
people who tried their best to make intelligent
choices, save money, and buy a home.
Milk was described as thin, watery, bluish
and treated with formaldehyde to keep it from
spoiling(NOT because milk spoils if it is truly
milk, but because it was milk from weak animals
reviewers comments!)
Fabrics were described as weak and made from
rewoven yarns. (Acid conditions would make cotton
weak.)
Clothing per person was minimal and coats were
sometimes lacking.
Since I did not read the 1st edition I cant say what
was added to the second edition. And while I found
the entire book interesting, including how Jurgis
eventually became a socialist, the emotionally
diffcult part of the book to read is what it is all
aboutjust how bad the meatpacking industry was
in the early 1900s.
Descriptions are graphic. Workers go to work and
work until quitting time or later with some very
horrifc conditions. Slippery foors and moving
equipment mean serious injuries and even death.
The production line keeps moving. Waste that gets
shoveled aside and into barrels could sit for many
weeks before, in cleaning out the barrels, the old
scraps are dumped into a product like sausage.
Most areas had no water available. The workers
could not wash up. But in areas where water was
used in product, the workers often washed up in
that water, which was then dumped into the meat
production vats. I cant help but wonder if this led to
our modern day over doing of wash your hands!
Pickling brines were dumped through foor grates
and then reused. If a ham did not cure properly or
Book
Reviews
smelled bad, chemicals were added or high heat was
applied near the bone and it was sold or made into
sausage.
People were subject to chemical burns, even to the
point of losing fngers or toes. They were required
to be at work by 7:30 in the morning and stay there
even if there was no work to do. Only when animals
were being processed was their time paid for. Much
of the time the people were in cold, damp and even
freezing conditions. If animals came through late
in the day, the workers were expected to stay late
without a meal break.
Ironically, the better quality meat was shipped to
places like Germany, which demanded high quality
meat. If any was refused and sent back to the US as
below standard, it was simply dumped into the next
batch of sausage.
Yes, all of the meat factories had federal meat
inspectors. Physical condition inspection is not the
job of the inspectors. After the inspectors left for the
day, any downed or dead cows were processed.
Other horrifc conditions were about the hundreds
who would come to the plants daily hoping to be
hired. Scratch the word hundreds. Sinclair says
thousands came daily, hungry and weak, some
literally froze to death in cold weather and many
had parts of their bodies freeze.
Children also worked at the plants or tried to bring
in income from such activities as newspaper sales.
Poorly constructed homes did have running water,
which simply dumped under the house, cess-pool
style. Since the homes were close together and
the water included human waste which could not
properly process, there was also water borne illness.
(In the Orient in the same time period, all human
waste was collected from each home daily and
carefully carried to the country for composting and
use on crop lands. For example, Japan had one acre
per person available for its 50 million people. That
acre grew all crops including rice, tea, bamboo,
mullberry, vegetables and animals. The population
had 3 to 4 crops per year per acre for annual crops
and diets of over 150 food types. The person that
collected the waste paid for the waste! [Comments
are reviewerssee Farmers of 40 Centuries from
Acres USA] The Orient had low disease levels and
low alcoholism rates, and canal and river waters
were drinkable.)
Eventually, injuries and social confrontations meant
Jurgis had a diffcult time fnding work. They let
him work in the fertilizer department -- which really
smelled.
The description about the fertilizer got me to
thinking. Usually I have thought of bone meal as
being purchased for calcium. But the focus was
on the phosphate content as in standard bone
phosphate. So what it said to me is that as we today
lose calcium from our bones, the body phosphorus
content is a higher percentage of our body mass.
Every doctor should be required to read this
book with the greatest of care and explain to his
professors what the human body does under what
conditions.
After lard and tallow was dried out of tankage and
bones were dried, the processing began of sawing
bones with fne dust fying and making all sorts of
by-products. The fnely ground tankage and bone
dust was then added to railroad cinders and ground
up rock to be hand shoveled into bags ready for
shipping to farmers.
Here Sinclair describes the people as doomed
to die in a certain defnite time. He would fnd
his head beginning to ring, and the veins on his
forehead to throb, until fnally he would be assailed
by an overpowering blast of ammonia fumes
Where the ground fertilizer was bagged, visibility
was less than 6 feet in from of ones face. in
fve minutes he had a headache and in ffteen was
almost dazed. The blood was pounding in his
brain There was a frightful pain in the top of
his skull, and he could hardly control his hands
and half an hour later he began to vomit he
vomited until it seemed his insides must be torn to
shreds. In spite of a splitting headache he would
stagger down to the plant. and so at the end of
the weekhe was able to eat again, and though his
head never stopped aching, it ceased to be so bad
that he could not work. Every man who worked
in the fertilizer plant was dying slowly of deadly
diseases.
This is also a great book for students who want to
study how people lived. For example, in chapter
22, Jurgis stopped at the home of a Slav like
himself, a new emigrant from White Russia. The
description is of how child care which is appropriate
in one environment needs to be different in another
environment. The nights had begun to be chilly,
and his mother, ignorant as to the climate in
America, had sewed him up for the winter; then it
had turned warm again, and some kind of a rash
had broken out on the child. The doctor said she
must bathe him every night and she, foolish woman,
believed him.
Personally, I dont know the exact details of the
above practices. But I would like to know a lot
more. I know Indians, for example, wrapped their
babies papoose style. The properly fed (nursed)
baby of a mother eating lacto-fermented foods, or
foods that could ferment properly when digesting,
would basically give off body waste that could stay
in contact with the childs body and would probably
ferment in such a way that the child would
actually absorb nutrients from the fermentation
process. Yes, there would be an odor associated with
it that we are not familiar with. That is not the issue.
The issue is did it work? Why did they do it? How
often did the babys wrapping get changed? Did it
affect how often the baby was nursed?
As for the bathe, I know from personal experience
that excess cleaning can be harmful. I was
showering several times a day, trying not to smell
bad. It didnt work. Now I rarely bathe or wash my
hair, counting on real foods for health and learning
how to balance the environment around me. Yes, I
wash clothes and dishes.
It is books like Upton Sinclairs The Jungle that
have given me the clues and the courage to change
my life to bathe less, study the soil, experiment
with lacto-fermenting, eat raw foods (including
select meats and organ meats) drink raw milk, and
experiment with primitive cheese-making.
And The Natural Farmer set me on this path of
exploration about 15 years ago when the publication
printed a detailed account of milk fever in cows. If
they knew in such detail how cows do it, there were
reasons why I had become ill and ways to be more
well. Thanks you, Natural Farmer!
P.S. In a private conversation with a veterinarian
who will no longer do large animal care, the man
told me Upton Sinclairs The Jungle was nothing
compared to what he was seeing on farms today.
I love NOFA-Vermont and the farmers who are
making a difference in the state where I live!
Plenty: One Man, One Woman, and a
Raucous Year of Eating Locally
by Alisa Smith and J.B. MacKinnon
Harmony Books; April 24, 2007
Hardcover 264 pages
review by Leslie Chaison
Alisa Smith and James Mackinnon, authors of
Plenty: One Man, One Woman, and a Raucous
Year of Eating Locally, had already begun taking
steps to live less consumptively of fossil fuels,
when they learned the average North Americans
food travels between 1,500 to 3,00 miles before it
reaches our table. Inspired by this ugly statistic,
and one beautiful meal, served to friends in their
remote north-western Canadian cottage, the idea
for the 100-mile diet was born. The plan-- to
eat only foods from within a 100-mile radius of
Vancouver for one year-- took effect on the frst
day of spring, March 21, 2006. The couple, whose
food-production was limited to a small community-
garden patch, took on local eating, urban-style. The
book begins here, and is divided into 12 chapters,
Th e Nat ur al Far me r F a l l , 2 0 0 7 44
(one for each month), to chronicle the couples
experiment, in alternate voices.
It isnt only that our food is traveling a great
distance to reach us; we, too, have moved a great
distance from our food. says James in the frst
chapter. This most intimate nourishment, this stuff
of lifewhere does it come from? Who produces
it? How do they treat their soil, crops, animals?
These questions are the foundation of the book.
But the book is much moreit is an exploration
into a broader investigation of land use, natural
history, culture, economic exploitation, and our very
relationship with the earth.
The context of the 100-mile diet, and the couples
feelings about environmental degradation and global
warming is woven throughout, sometimes refecting
discouragement and downright hopelessness.
In the September chapter for example, James
describes a train wreck that dumped 14,000 gallons
of concentrated sodium hydroxide solution, (lye)
into the Cheakamus Riverinstantly killing more
than 90% of the free-swimming fsh in the 10
miles downstream. Though the toxic event in and
of itself deserves Jamess decries, this particular
environmental crisis begrudges the couple of their
salmon supply. Never before had an ecological
disaster affected their bellies so directly, so
poignantly. Both of the authors expertly guide
us through an exploration of how we tread on this
earth, and gently bring us back to our most basic
acteating.
I was most curious about how James and Alisa did
it. What did they eat, and how did they access their
staples? I was particularly intrigued to shadow
them, as they sought to feed themselves from a
small apartment building in the Pacifc Northwest
in March. These were no homesteaders, these
were urbanites with offce jobs. I wanted to hear
how hard it was. The book delivered, on this
front, bemoaning months of potato consumption,
describing the smell of fermenting sauerkraut in
their hallway, and rotting winter squash in their
former sock drawer; and revealing relationship angst
catalyzed by an arduous evening of corn-processing.
But the book was heaver still on the overwhelming
pleasures of eating locally. Meals that featured wild
mushrooms, local cheeses, fresh blueberry pies and
the like were described in tempting detail. How
the ingredients were gathered, and food prepared
were described equally beautifully, reminding us
that lovingly-prepared food tastes alive. And each
chapter opens with a tantalizing recipe-of-the-
month.
My favorite part of the book is the story of the
couples quest for local wheat. Besides being
humorous, I think that it has the most to say to us
as Northeastern farmers and gardeners who think
consciously about the food system. After several
months without grains or cereal crops of any kind,
Alisa, in particular, felt desperate for a sandwich.
When the bread James concocted out of grated
turnip and egg didnt suffce, the couple sought a
wheat farmer in earnest. Thrilled to locate a farmer
willing to part with his experimental wheat harvest,
the couple arrived at his warehouse, dreaming
of pancakes, with empty sacks in hand. Upon
examination, James quickly recognized that, for
each grain of wheat, there were at least as many
mouse turds in their mountain of grain. Refusing
to give up, the couple brought home the wheat, and
began the process of painstakingly separating turds
from seeds on their kitchen counter with a credit
card. The wheat saga doesnt end there, but I will
let you readers discover the entertaining outcome.
As I followed this story line, I thought about our
own region, my own diet, and the question of
sustenance. Grains and legumes predominate in my
household, beginning in the morning with oats, and
often ending in the evening with rice. Grains are
comforting, nourishing, and groundingI couldnt
do without them. Although some regional growers
are experimenting with grain-growing, accessing
local wheat, and other grains is nearly impossible in
most parts of the state. (Although I was thrilled to
recently learn of one grower within my 100-mile
diet radius that sells his wheat.) But clearly, there
is a gap in our knowledge and production of grain in
our region . This book lead me to think more about
how we could improve the sustainability of our local
food system here by teaching and learning about;
and experimenting with grain-growing.
Smith and MacKinnons book is an entertaining
read. The writing is well-crafted, the history well-
researched, and again, woven together successfully
with this exploration of how we eat. I liked
them as people, while reading, and found them to
be honest and passionate, but not sanctimonious.
Anyone interested in the local food movement,
natural history of the Pacifc Northwest, or just
good food would enjoy this book. Because of their
use of the internet as an organizing tool, Smith
and MacKinnon are at the forefront of the local
food movement. Their website, 100milediet.org,
assists individuals and groups in eating locally and
reconnecting with their community.
The Return of the Fertilizer King and Other
Tales
by Mark U. Sturgis
Robert D. Reed Publishers, PO Box 1992, Brandon,
OR 97411
www.RDRpublishers.com
Hardcover 84 pages, $19.99
review by Mary Lou Conna
This is a small and delightful book of lyrical fction
and poetry, exploring the interconnectedness of man
and his friends in the insect world. It is easy to read
and re-read, with even greater understanding the
second time around. The eighty-four pages were too
quickly fnished and prompted this reader to read the
entire book with equal pleasure again.
The frst poem The Return of the Fertilizer King,
is a mystical tale and needs a second reading for
clarifcation. It was strange. One titled Drumming
searches for the origin of the sound and fnally fnds
who makes it and why. The Fall Flight describes the
exodus of the birds in the Autumn and the result of
the new freedom of their food chain, the bugs and
beetles.
I will look for more poetry by this author. In his
words: If we make a better habitat for beautiful
insects, we are going to have a better habitat for
ourselves.
The NOFA Organic Land Care Program has
announced the addition of Ashley Kremser to its
staff as Program Manager. The seven-year-old
NOFA Program is a collaboration of the Connecticut
and Massachusetts chapters of the Northeast
Organic Farming Association. It is the nations
leading organic educational and accreditation
program for land care professionals.
Originally from San Juan, PR, Ashley moved to
Bronxville, NY in 1997 to attend Sarah Lawrence
College, graduating with a B.A. in Social Sciences.
Ashley has been involved with a variety of non-
proft organizations and worked for a number
of years with the Connecticut Association of
Community Organizations for Reform Now (CT
ACORN) where she was a community organizer
motivating individuals to take action around issues
ranging from health care to predatory lending.
Within a year of starting with CT ACORN she was
promoted to head organizer, in charge of Bridgeport
ACORNs operations and offce. At Bridgeport
ACORN she was instrumental in the expansion of
the organizations membership and chapters. Ashley
is fuent in Spanish, currently resides in New Haven,
CT and volunteers for CitySeed at their farmers
market in Wooster Square.
NOFAs new Program Manager will serve as the
central communication point for the Organic Land
Care Program, respond to inquiries, and run the
day-to-day operations of the program. Ashley
will also be responsible for the organic land care
accreditation course in Connecticut and for bringing
the NOFA courses and program to other states.
NOFA Organic Land
Care Program announces
a new Program Manager
The accreditation course will be also be offered
next winter in Massachusetts (coordinated by Kathy
Litchfeld) and Rhode Island (coordinated by Frank
Crandall). In its six years, the course has educated
over 500 professionals. Of these, 275 from 11 states
are currently NOFA Accredited Organic Land Care
Professionals. A list of these professionals and more
information about the course and program can be
found at www.organiclandcare.net.
Ashley played a major role in the coordination of
the NOFA Lawn and Turf Course. This course for
landscapers and municipal employees was held
on August 14
th
in Marblehead, MA and on August
16
th
in Manchester, CT. The NOFA Lawn and Turf
Course covered topics such as: how to grow organic
lawns and turf that look good and survive stress,
why the demand for organic lawn and turf care is
increasing, and transitioning from conventional to
organic management. For more information please
contact Ashley Kremser at akremser@gmail.com
or Bill Duesing, CT NOFA Executive Director, at
ctnofa@ctnofa.org or at (203) 888-5146.
photo courtesy Bill Duesing
Ashley Kremser
Th e Nat ur al Far me r F a l l , 2 0 0 7 45
Waterpenny Farm News, June 20, 2007
Dear Local shareholders, We have sad news
from the farm. We have diagnosed damage from
herbicides on about half of our farm felds. It came
from hay mulch that we bought from a local farmer
who we have gotten hay from for 5 years. The likely
herbicide is called Grazon, which was sprayed on
his hayfelds to kill broadleaf plants in the feld.
Unfortunately, we werent aware of the possibility
of herbicides being sprayed in hayfelds. We have
been mulching with hay for 7 years, and the farm
we worked on before starting Waterpenny has been
mulching for over 25 years, with only positive
effects. The man we bought the hay from also was
unaware of the long-term effects to us of having this
chemical sprayed on his felds. It stayed preserved
in the round hay bales that we had stored for the
winter, and then used to mulch about half of our
farms acreage- our frst 2 tomato plantings, frst
cherry tomatoes, 2 squash plantings, 4 cucumber
plantings, and all our peppers and eggplant.
The herbicide contains picloram, which is a
persistent plant growth regulator. We are still
waiting for the lab results, but our Virginia
extension agents and a man from Dow chemical
(the herbicide manufacturer) agree everything
points in this direction. We are strongly dedicated
to raising pesticide-free vegetables, and we feel
that any pesticide residues are potentially harmful;
in addition, this chemical is unrated for human
consumption, and its illegal to sell vegetables with
any trace of it. Aside from the ethical and legal
concerns, though, pretty much all the mulched
plants are dying or apt to show signs soon, so they
wont mature to produce fruit anyway.
The problem began to unfold at the beginning of
June. We had a very dry month of May, and we
watered from the river using our drip irrigation
system. The plants looked good, despite the cool
temperatures we had been experiencing. We were
pleased that it looked like wed have some squash
for the second shares. We also were pleased to have
about 3/4 inch of rain on Friday, June 1.
I was in the squash felds harvesting zucchini the
next day when I frst noticed that some of the new
leaves were curling up, as if they had been stressed
with too much water. The yellow squash and patty
pan were unaffected, though. There were no signs of
insects or disease- the plants were healthy and green
aside from some curled leaves. Then, on Monday,
when Eric and I were harvesting squash, he pointed
out some of our tomatoes that were also curled on
their new growth, although they looked otherwise
healthy.
We looked on the internet, and found nothing
that exactly matched except for water stress and
herbicide damage - we assumed water stress, and
thought the plants should grow out of it. When the
problem seemed to be worsening on Wednesday,
we called our extension agent, and talked with him
on Thursday. He came on Friday the 8th to take
samples to send into the state lab for analysis. Eric
also took photos that our extension agent sent to
experts in the state. On Monday the 11th, all of the
people he had contacted had replied that it looked
like herbicide damage from a broadleaf plant
growth regulator, and listed some product names.
They wondered if it was drift from spraying, which
seemed unlikely in our protected location.
The likely vector seemed to be the hay. When Eric
saw our hay person, who was delivering more
hay that morning, he asked if he ever sprayed any
herbicides. He said he sprayed Grazon sometimes,
maybe not since 2 years ago. It was a chilling
discovery. At that point, on Monday afternoon,
we werent sure of the extent of the damage, and
couldnt imagine that it could be a devastating
problem - maybe all of the 120 round bales
wed used werent affected. We tried to gather
information from our hay guy on which felds our
hay had come from, and tried to trace the possible
extent of the damage.
A Word to the Wise
(or Read it & Weep!)
For a while on Tuesday we thought that it might
only be on 15 bales. Some mulched felds didnt
seem affected, and some rows of zucchini, all of
the yellow squash, and the patty pan squash looked
fne. I called our extension agent again, to fnd out if
there were any potential affects on human health in
eating or selling produce from contaminated plants.
He hadnt thought of that possibility, but called
VDACS (the Virginia Department of Agriculture
and Consumer Services), and got back to us on
Thursday.
At that point, we learned that Picloram isnt rated
for human consumption and therefore it is illegal to
sell food contaminated with it. We still dont know
if the chemical is actually transferred to the fruits,
but at that point we decided not to sell anything
from potentially contaminated plants. Then, on
Wednesday we had about an inch of rain in evening
thunderstorms. On Thursday we got almost another
inch of rain, mixed with hail. We noticed damage on
more and more crops- cherry tomatoes, melons, and
half of our peppers, where we hadnt seen damage
before. The rain had washed more residues from the
mulch into the soil.
We had decided before the rain that we needed to
remove mulch from affected felds. At that point,
we realized that all of the felds we had mulched
were affected or likely to be. On Friday morning
we sent out a call for help to our local community
and friends - we had an enormous, very yucky job
to do, removing about 50,000 pounds of mulched
hay from 3 1/2 acres. We had about 17 1/2 felds
measuring 300 feet by 30 feet to un-mulch. On
Friday afternoon our frst volunteers showed up to
help. The process is not a pleasant one - taking up
loose, wet hay thats starting to rot and loading it
onto trucks and trailers, taking it to a nearby feld
and unloading it, and doing it again and again.
By Monday afternoon about 60 people, including
many CSA shareholders, had come to volunteer,
contributing about 120 volunteer hours to the effort.
Children and grandparents came to help! It was
amazing and heartwarming to see the outpouring
of support, on such short notice. Several people
brought trucks or tractors and rakes and other hand
tools to contribute to the effort. Farm employees
also worked about 120 hours. As I write this
on Tuesday, we have cleared 12 1/2 felds, and
have only 5 to go. Well be resuming cleanup on
Thursday afternoon - all are welcome!
There are many unanswered questions that we have
at this point about the long-term prospects for our
farm and felds. Once the contaminated hay is out
of the felds, well work to remediate the soil and
hopefully can make it a healthy place for plants
to grow next spring. On a long-term scale, were
confdent that well still be farming well into the
future. For this season, we are abandoning all of the
potentially contaminated crops. Thats about half
of our farm - and about half of our expected sales
for the year - but we have no way of reconstructing
which hay bales are where, and it seems like most or
all of them had the herbicide residues.
Young plants that look fne now probably just
havent started showing symptoms yet, as it
seems the plants have to get big enough to
reach the affected soil. We are beginning the
process of working with our hay supplier and his
insurance company to determine how we might
be compensated for our losses, the scope of which
are unknown at this time. Our supplier has been
forthcoming in helping us to fgure out the problem,
and feels terrible about it; he knew we were using
the hay for mulch, but he didnt know the label for
Grazon specifcally says not to use hay from treated
felds to mulch vegetables.
Coming from the standpoint of being blissfully
ignorant of the fact that herbicides are used for
hay at all, were getting an education on a class of
agricultural substances we never dreamed wed
have to know very much about. The more we learn
about this particular chemical, picloram, the crazier
it seems to have invented it and to apply it to the
earth at all.
Pichloram (formerly named Tordon) has been
around for decades, but has only been legal to use in
Virginia since 2002, and is only legal in some parts
of Virginia - areas, like our Rappahannock County,
where broadleaf row crops are uncommon and cows
and hayfelds are. Its designed to kill a whole class
of plants, and persists on the hay and in the soil
(this soil persistence is according to EPA, not Dow
Chemical).
It also persists through the gut of cows, horses, or
any animal that eats it, and comes out in the manure,
thus making a good organic compost component
toxic to garden plants. (Its supposed to be OK for
these animals to eat it because it doesnt bind in
their fesh and milk; yet its unsafe for humans to
eat- were skeptical.)
This information is written as a warning in the 10-
page pesticide label that weve read, but the way
this information is passed down the chain to all of
the people it could affect seems like a big game of
telephone- the message doesnt come through
clearly, or even at all.
An article I just read promoting Grazon from
Virginia Tech and the extension doesnt mention
anything about the persistence or potential hazards
of using it. Now that all this bad news is sinking
in, heres the good news. The bright side is that
the un-mulched felds (about half of our acreage)
are not contaminated, and there are a few crops
we grow that we never mulch. They include all
leafy crops, broccoli, root crops (except potatoes),
beans, and onions. The garlic is mulched but with
uncontaminated hay.
Because our felds are separated by 12-foot-wide
grassy strips, the likelihood of contamination to
the whole farm is very, very low. Also, we would
know immediately if the felds were contaminated,
because the plants would twist up and die. Aside
from these crops, we have our third tomato
planting out in the feld, un-mulched and therefore
uncontaminated, and more tomatoes and melons
and cucumbers yet to plant. Winter squash and fall
greens and broccoli are yet unplanted, too. We also
have hopes of getting more pepper plants to re-plant
for the later season. We also can assure you that no
contaminated vegetables are or have been in the
shares.
We have abandoned the plants that produced the
squash we had in the frst shares, but they didnt
have signs of damage until after we harvested
them, and we believe and state agriculture experts
tell us that contamination of vegetables without
signs of damage is implausible. The rest of the
vegetables are and have been from un-mulched, un-
contaminated felds. For the CSA this season, this
means well be canceling two months of deliveries
of shares in Arlington and Lorton. This weeks share
will be the last we can provide from our farm until,
we estimate, August 22nd.
As shareholders you have two options - you can
stay with the CSA and well refund you 40% for
the 8 weeks of lost produce (that would be $95 for
a half share, or $166 for a full share). If you choose
this option, you can also choose to have credit at
our on-farm stand for the appropriate amount. You
can also opt out for the rest of the season, and well
send you an 80% refund for the remainder of the
season ($188 for a half share, $332 for a full share).
Please make this decision knowing that whatever
you decide, we wont take it personally. Please let
us know your decision via e-mail or phone by June
27th.
We know that our farm is an important source
of local, pesticide-free vegetables, and wish our
community had more options for purchasing this
kind of produce. Because of this, we will make
every effort to have produce from other pesticide-
free farms in the area available for you to purchase
on the farm during the 8-week break in the CSA
shares. We also will have a few vegetables that
we produce, as well as eggs available. We will let
shareholders know when we have produce from
other farms available for sale on the farm.
We hope to see you this summer! Any contributions,
expertise, or ideas you have are welcome to us.
We are very thankful for your support and help as
we deal with this problem. Well be in touch as we
know more. ~Rachel and Eric, Waterpenny Farm
Th e Nat ur al Far me r F a l l , 2 0 0 7 46
Connecticut
CT NOFA Offce: P O Box 164, Stevenson, CT
06491, phone (203) 888-5146, FAX (203) 888-
9280, Email: ctnofa@ctnofa.org, website: www.
ctnofa.org
Executive Director: Bill Duesing, Box 164,
Stevenson, CT 06491, 203-888-5146, 203 888-
9280 (fax), bduesing@cs.com
Offce Manager/Webmaster: Deb Legge, PO
Box 164, Stevenson, CT 06491, deb@ctnofa.
org, 203-888-5146
President: James Roby , P.O Box 191, 1667
Orchard Road, Berlin, CT 06037, 860-828-
5548, 860-881-8031 (C), jroby7088@sbcglobal.
net
Vice President: Dr, Kimberly A. Stoner, 498
Oak Ave. #27, Cheshire, CT 06410-3021, (203)
271-1732 (home), 203-974-8480 (w), Email:
kastoner@juno.com (h), kimberly.stoner@
po.state.ct.us (w)
Treasurer: Lynn Caley, 593 Old Post
Road, Tolland, CT 06084, 860-613-0325,
momocaley@yahoo.com
Secretary: Chris Killheffer, 112 Bishop Street,
New Haven, CT 06511-7307, 203-787-0072,
Christopher.killheffer@yale.edu
Farmers Pledge Program: Contact the offce.
Conference Coordinator: Leanne Davis, 52
Canner St., New Haven, CT 06511, 203-773-
1162, leanne@ctnofa.org
Organic Land Care Manager: Ashley Kremser,
PO Box 164, Stevenson, CT 06491, akremser@
ctnofa.org, 203-888-5146
Massachusetts
President: Frank Albani Jr., 17 Vinal Avenue,
Plymouth, MA 02360, (508) 224-3088, email:
plymouthrockmusic@msn.com
Vice President: Sharon Gensler, 87 Bullard
Pasture Rd. Wendell, MA 01379, (978) 544-
6347, email: wildbrowse@yahoo.com
Secretary: Mary Blake, P.O. Box 52, Charlton
Depot, MA 01509, (508) 248-5496, Email:
blakem_2001@msn.com
Treasurer and Executive Director: Julie
Rawson, 411 Sheldon Rd., Barre, MA 01005
(978) 355-2853, Fax: (978) 355-4046, Email:
Julie@nofamass.org
Administrative Coordinator: Kathleen Geary,
411 Sheldon Rd, Barre, MA 01005 (Mondays
& Thursdays, 8:00 am - 5:00 pm), email: info@
nofamass.org
Webmaster: David Pontius: 68 Elm Street,
Shelburne Falls, MA 01370 (413) 625-0118;
Email: webmaster@nofa.org
Baystate Organic Certifers Administrator:
Don Franczyk, 683 River St., Winchendon,
MA 01475, (978) 297- 4171, Email:
baystateorganic@earthlink.net, website: www.
baystateorganic.org
Extension Educator: Ed Stockman, 131 Summit
St. Plainfeld, MA 01070, (413) 634- 5024,
stockman@bcn.net
Newsletter Editor: Jonathan von Ranson, 6
Lockes Village Rd., Wendell, MA 01379, (978)
544-3758, Email: Commonfarm@crocker.com
Website: www.nofamass.org Email: nofa@
nofamass.org
NOFA Contact People
New Hampshire
President: Essie Hull, 115 Baptist Rd.,
Canterbury, NH 03224, (603) 783-4782,
seedhead@essenceofthings.com
Vice President: Joan OConnor, PO Box
387, Henniker, NH 03242, (603) 428-3530,
joconnornh@yahoo.com
Treasurer: Paul Mercier, Jr., 39 Cambridge
Drive, Canterbury, NH 03224, (603) 783-0036,
pjm@mercier-group.com
Program & Membership Coordinator: Elizabeth
Obelenus, NOFA/NH Offce, 4 Park St., Suite
208, Concord, NH 03301, (603) 224-5022,
info@nofanh.org
Newsletter Editor: Karen Booker, 44 Prospect
St., Contoocook, NH 03229, (603) 746-3656,
pottedplant@juno.com
Organic Certifcation: Vickie Smith, NHDA
Bureau of Markets, Caller Box 2042, Concord,
NH 03301 (603) 271-3685, vsmith@agr.state.
nh.us
Website: www.nofanh.org,
New Jersey
President: Donna Drewes, 26 Samuel Dr.,
Flemington, NJ 08822, 908-782-2443,
drewes@tcnj.edu
Vice President: Stephanie Harris, 163
Hopewell-Wertsville Rd., Hopewell, NJ 08525,
(609) 466-0194, r.harris58@verizon.net
Treasurer: William D. Bridgers, c/o Zon
Partners, 5 Vaughn Dr., Suite 104, Princeton,
NJ 08540, (609) 452-1653, billbridgers@
zoncapital.com
Secretary: Emily Brown Rosen, 25
Independence Way, Titusville, NJ 08560, 609-
737-8630
Newsletter Editor & Outreach Coordinator:
Mikey Azzara, PO Box 886, Pennington, NJ
08534-0886, (609) 737-6848, fax: (609) 737-
2366, Email: mazzara@nofanj.org
Certifcation Administrator: Erich V. Bremer,
c/o NJ Dept. of Agriculture, PO Box 330,
Trenton, NJ 08625, (609) 984-2225 erich.
bremer@ag.state.nj.us
Offce Assistant: Cynthia Beloff, PO Box 886
Pennington, NJ 08534-0886, (609) 737-6848,
Fax (609) 737-2366 General Request Emails:
nofanj@nofanj.org Email: cbeloff@nofanj.org
website: www.nofanj.org
New York
President: Scott Chaskey, Quail Hill Farm, PO
Box 1268, Amagansett, NY 11930-1268, H
(631) 725-9228 W (631) 267-8942, schaskey@
peconiclandtrust.org
Vice President: Vince Cirasole, Sunshine Farm,
745 Great Neck Rd, Copiague, NY 11726,
(631) 789-8232, vince@sunshinefarm.biz
Treasurer: Joseph Gersitz, 90 Hotchkiss Cir,
Penfeld, NY 14526-1402 (585) 381-8659,
josephg2@aol.com
Secretary: Maria Grimaldi, Panther Rock Farm,
148 Hardenburgh Rd, Livingston Manor, NY
12758, (845) 482-4164, pantherrock@direcway.
com
Interim Executive Director: Greg Swartz, 245
Westwood Dr, Hurleyville, NY 12747-5527,
(845) 796-8994, fax: (845) 434-7306, director@
nofany.org
Offce Manager: Mayra Richter, PO Box 880,
Cobleskill, NY 12043-0880, (607) 652-NOFA,
fax: (607) 652-2290, offce@nofany.org
NOFA-NY Certifed Organic, LLC,
Certifcation Director: Carol King, 840 Front St,
Binghamton, NY 13905, (607) 724-9851, fax:
(607) 724-9853, certifedorganic@nofany.org
Organic Seed Partnership (OSP) Project
Coordinator: Elizabeth Dyck, Crimson Farm,
1124 County Rd 38, Bainbridge, NY 13733-
3360, (607) 895-6913, organicseed@nofany.org
Projects Coordinator & ODT Project Co-Project
Manager: Kate Mendenhall, 14 Menlo Pl,
Rochester, NY 14620-2718, (585) 271-1979,
projects@nofany.org
Organic Dairy Transitions Project Co-Project
Manager: Bethany Russell, PO Box 874,
Mexico, NY 13114-0874, (315) 806-1180,
bethany.organicdairy@nofany.org
Organic Dairy Transitions Project Dairy
Technician: Robert Perry, Maple Slope Farm,
5557 NYS 41, Homer, NY 13077, (607) 749-
3884, robert.organicdairy@nofany.org
Newsletter Editor: Aissa ONeil, Betty Acres
Organic Farm, 21529 State Highway 28, Delhi,
NY 13753, (607) 746-9581, newsletter@
nofany.org
website: www.nofany.org
Rhode Island
President: Fritz Vohr, In the Woods Farm, 51
Edwards Lane, Charlestown, RI 02813 (401)
364-0050, fritzvohr@verizon.net
Vice-President: Kristin Howard 1245 Reynolds
Road, Chepachet, RI 02814 (401)-647-4570
kmariahoward@yahoo.com
Secretary: Dan Lawton 247 Evans Road
Chepachet, RI 02814 (401)-949-1596
dlawton33@hotmail.com
Treasurer: Abbie Barber, Shannock
Organic Farm, 1411 Shannock Rd.,
Charlestown, RI 02813-3726 (401) 364-7140
shannockorganicfarm@hotmail.com
Bookkeeper/Membership Coordinator:
Peggy Conti, Brookside Apartments, Apt.
#8, Charlestown, RI 02813, (401) 364-3426,
PeggyConti@peoplepc.com
NOFA/RI : 51 Edwards Lane, Charlestown, RI
02813, (401) 364-7557, nofari@nofari.org
website: www.nofari.org
Annie McCleary, Director, with George Lisi
Plant Spirit Communication
Nature Adventures ~ Herbs and Wild Edibles
Food as Medicine ~ Holistic Living Skills
Certication, Advanced and Winter Programs
802-453-6764 ~ anniemc@gmavt.net
Lincoln, Vermont ~ www.WisdomOfTheHerbsSchool.com
Wisdom of the Herbs School
Gail Giustozzi, Realtor

Let us live in harmony with the earth and the creatures,

all given to us by God, our Creator.
105 Old Long Ridge Road, Stamford, CT 06903
Cell/VM: (203) 561-5764 Fax: (203) 595-9815
Email: gailg3@optonline.net Website: iworkforyou.us
i work for you
Th e Nat ur al Far me r F a l l , 2 0 0 7 47
Calendar
Sat. Sep 8 and Sun, Sep 9: 19th Annual Sheep
and Wool Festival, Essex Junction VT, for more
info: 802-446-3325, www.vermontsheep.org, or
katsmith@vermontel.net
Sun. Sep 9, 2007: Taste! Organic Connecticut -
Topmost Herb Farm, Coventry, CT, for more info:
(203) 888-5146 or email ctnofa@ctnofa.org
Sat. Sep. 15 and Sun. Sep 16: North Quabbin
Garlic and Arts Festival, Orange, MA, for more
info:978-544-9023
Sat. Sep 29 and Sun. Sep 30: 2007 Northeast
Animal-Power Field Days, Tunbridge Vermont, for
more info: 802-234-5524 or lmccrory@together.net.
Sun. Sep 30: Pioneer Valley Relocalization
Workshop, Northampton Center for the Arts,
keynote by Bill McKibbon, for more info: Eli
Beckerman at 617-821-1453 or elibeck@gmail.com
Sat. Oct 13 and Sun. Oct. 14: Fall Wild Foods
Workshop. Lincoln, Vermont. for more info: Wisdom
of the Herbs School: 802-453-6764
or www.WisdomOfTheHerbsSchool.com.
Sat. Oct 27: Dewey Caron addresses Franklin
County Beekeepers, Deerfeld, MA, for more info:
warmcolors@verizon.net
Sat. Nov 3, 2007: Step It Up 2 Actions throughout
the country, for more info: www.StepItUp2007.org
Sat. Nov 3, 2007: Organic Harvest Celebration
and Annual Meeting - Jones Auditorium at the CT
Agricultural Experiment Station in New Haven, CT,
for more info: (203) 888-5146 or email ctnofa@
ctnofa.org

Sat. Nov 10, 2007: Organic Beekeeping Fall
Workshop, New Paltz, NY, for more info: Carol
Rosenberg, 845-352-5020 x20, info@pfeiffercenter.
org, or www.pfeiffercenter.org.
Sat. Nov 10 and Sun. Nov 11: Soil Nutrition From
a Plants Eye Point of View with Mark Fulford,
Dorchester, NH, for more info: (603) 786-2366 or
info@dacres.org, or www.dacres.org

NOFA-VT 2007 Summer Workshop Series, for
more info: www.nofavt.org, or 802-434-4122, or
info@nofavt.org.
Sat. Sep 8, Basics to Organic Gardening Workshop,
Craftsbury Common, VT
Tues. Sep 11, Methane Digesters, Time & Location
TBA
Wed. Sep 12, Hands On Gleaning Introduction,
Wolcott, VT
Mon. Sep 24, Training for Tractors & their Various
Implements, Huntington Center, VT
Tues. Sep 25, Tractor Maintenance and Repair Jobs,
Huntington Center, VT
Thur. Oct 4, Value Added Product, Starksboro, VT
Sat. Oct 20, Biodynamic Tree Pasting, East
Montpelier, VT
You may join NOFA by joining one of the seven
state chapters. Contact the person listed below for
your state. Dues, which help pay for the important
work of the organization, vary from chapter to
chapter. Unless noted, membership includes a
subscription to The Natural Farmer.
Give a NOFA Membership! Send dues for a friend
or relative to his or her state chapter and give a
membership in one of the most active grassroots
organizations in the state.
Connecticut: Individual $35, Family $50, Business/
Institution $100, Supporting $150, Student/Senior
$25, Working $20
Contact: CT NOFA, Box 164, Stevenson, CT 06491,
(203)-888-5146, or email: ctnofa@ctnofa.org or join
on the web at www.ctnofa.org
NOFA Membership
Massachusetts: Low-Income $20, Individual $30,
Family/Farm/Organization $40, Supporting $100
Contact: Kathleen Geary, 411 Sheldon Road,
Barre, MA 01005, (978) 355-2853, or email: info@
nofamass.org
New Hampshire: Individual: $30, Student: $23,
Family: $40, Sponsor: $100, Basic $20*
Contact: Elizabeth Obelenus, 4 Park St., Suite
208, Concord, NH 03301, (603) 224-5022, info@
nofanh.org
New Jersey: Individual $35, Family/Organizational
$50, Business/Organization $100, Low Income:
$15*
Contact: P O Box 886, Pennington, NJ 08534-
0886,
(609) 737-6848 or join at www.nofanj.org
New York*: Student/Senior/Limited Income $15,
Individual $30, Family/Farm/Nonproft Organization
$40, Business/Patron $100. Add $10 to above
membership rates to include subscription to The
Natural Farmer.
Contact: Mayra Richter, NOFA-NY, P O Box 880,
Cobleskill, NY 12043, Voice (607) 652-6632, Fax:
(607) 652-2290, email: offce@nofany.org www.
nofany.org
Rhode Island: Student/Senior: $20, Individual: $25,
Family $35, Business $50
Contact: Membership, NOFA RI, 51 Edwards Lane,
Charlestown, RI 02813 (401) 364-7557, fritzvohr@
verizon.net
Vermont: Individual $30, Farm/Family $40, Business
$50, Sponsor $100, Sustainer $250, Basic $15-25*
Contact: NOFA-VT, PO Box 697, Richmond, VT
05477, (802) 434-4122, info@nofavt.org
*does not include a subscription to The Natural
Farmer
Vermont
NOFA-VT Offce, P. O. Box 697, Bridge St.,
Richmond, VT 05477 (802) 434-4122, Fax:
(802) 434-4154, website: www.nofavt.org,
info@nofavt.org
Executive Director: Enid Wonnacott, elila@
sover.net
NOFA Financial Manager: Kirsten Novak
Bower, kbower@gmavt.net
Winter Conference Coordinator: Olga Boshart,
olga@madriver.com
VOF Administrator & Apprentice Program
Coordinator: Nicole Dehne, nicdehne@hotmail.
com
Bulk Order Coordinator & VOF Staff: Cheryl
Bruce, Cheryl2643@aol.com
VOF Staff: Erin Clark, ebclark23@hotmail.com
Dairy & Livestock TA Administrator, David
Rogers, drogers@uvm.edu
Dairy and Livestock Advisor: Willie Gibson,
wgibson@thelifeline.net
Offce Manager: Meg Klepack, info@nofavt.
org
Ag Education Coordinator: Abbie Nelson,
abbienelson@comcast.net
Offce Assistant and Share the Harvest
fundraiser: Becca Weiss, info@nofavt.org
NOFA
Interstate
Council
* indicates voting representative
* Bill Duesing, Staff, Box 135, Stevenson, CT,
06491, (203) 888-5146, fax, (203) 888- 9280,
bduesing@cs.com
Kimberly A. Stoner, 498 Oak Ave. #27,
Cheshire, CT 06410-3021, (203) 271-1732
(home), Email: kastoner@juno.com
* Mary Blake, Secretary, P O Box 52 Charlton
Depot, MA 01509 (508)-248-5496 email:
blakem_2001@msn.com
* Ron Maribett, 269 Elm St., Kingston, MA
02364, (781) 585-9670, ron_maribett@hotmail.
com
Elizabeth Obelenus, 22 Keyser Road, Meredith.
NH 03253, (603) 279-6146, nofanh@innevi.
com
* Jack Mastrianni, 277 Holden Hill Road,
Langdon, NH 03602, (603)835-6488,
jamastrianni@yahoo.com
* Steve Gilman, Ruckytucks Farm, 130
Ruckytucks Road, Stillwater, NY 12170 (518)
583-4613, sgilman@netheaven.com
* Vince Cirasole, Sunshine Farm, 745 Great
Neck Rd, Copiague, NY 11726, (631) 789-
8231, vince@sunshinefarm.biz
Elizabeth Henderson, 2218 Welcher Rd.,
Newark, NY 14513 (315) 331-9029 ehendrsn@
redsuspenders.com
* Fritz Vohr, In the Woods Farm, 51 Edwards
Lane, Charlestown,RI 02813 (401) 364-0050,
fritzvohr1@verizon.net
* Abbie Barber, Shannock Organic Farm,
1411 Shannock Rd., Charlestown, RI 02813-
3726 (401) 364-7140 shannockorganicfarm@
hotmail.com
* Enid Wonnacott, 478 Salvas Rd., Huntington,
VT 05462 (802) 434-4435 elila@sover.net
Kirsten Novak Bower, 65 Wortheim Ln.,
Richmond, VT 05477 (802) 434-5420,
kbower@juno.com
Kay Magilavy, Virtual Rep, 212 18th St., Union
City, NJ 07087, (201) 927-7116
Brian Schroeher, Webmaster, 21 Tamarack
Court, Newtown, PA 18940, (215) 825-2140,
cell (908) 268-7059, Email: webmaster@nofa.
org
Jack Kittredge and Julie Rawson, The Natural
Farmer, NOFA Summer Conference, 411
Sheldon Rd., Barre, MA 01005 (978) 355-2853,
TNF@NOFA.org, Julie@nofamass.org
Torrey Reade, Treasurer, Credit Card Support,
723 Hammersville-Canton Rd., Salem, NJ
08079, 856-935-3612, neptune@waterw.com
Interstate
Certifcation
Contacts
Nicole Dehne, nicdehne@hotmail.com,PO Box
698, Richmond, VT 05477, 802-434-4122, 802-
434-4154 (fax)
Carol King, 840 Front Street, Binghamton, NY
13905, (607) 724-9851, fax: (607)724-9853,
certifedorganic@nofany.org
Erich V. Bremer, c/o NJ Dept. of Agriculture,
PO Box 330, Trenton, NJ 08625, (609) 984-
2225 erich.bremer@ag.state.nj.us
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