8ICL4- opu|anons and env|ronment

Chapter 1- opu|anons

CULA1ICN
-
A group of lndlvlduals of Lhe same specles LhaL occupy Lhe same hablLaL aL Lhe same ume.

CCMMUNI1
-
1he organlsms of all specles LhaL llve ln Lhe same area.
e.g. wlLhln an oak woodland, a communlLy may lnclude oak Lrees, bluebells, neules eLc.

A8IC1IC IAC1Ck
-
An ecologlcal facLor LhaL makes up Lhe non-llvlng envlronmenL of an organlsm.
e.g. LemperaLure, soll pP, ralnfall, humldlLy eLc.

8IC1IC IAC1Ck
-
An ecologlcal facLor LhaL makes up parL of Lhe llvlng envlronmenL of an organlsm.
e.g. food avallablllLy, compeuuon, predauon eLc.

LCCSS1LM
-
All Lhe llvlng and non-llvlng feaLures ln an area, LhaL lnLeracL wlLh one anoLher.
e.g. fresh waLer pond, lake, oak woodland eLc.

nA8I1A1
-
1he place where an organlsm llves.

LCCLCGICAL NICnL
-
All condluons and resources requlred for an organlsm Lo survlve, reproduce, and malnLaln a
vlable populauon. no Lwo specles occupy Lhe same nlche.

SAMLL SI2L
-
lL's vlrLually lmposslble Lo ldenufy and counL every organlsm- Lo do so would be very ume
consumlng and would probably damage Lhe hablLaL belng sLudled.
-
Small samples are chosen for convenlence, as long as Lhey're represenLauve of Lhe populauon as
a whole, concluslons drawn from Lhe ndlngs wlll be valld.

SAMLING 1LCnNIULS- MAkING kLSUL1S VALID 8 kLMCVING SAMLING 8IAS
-
8andom sampllng wlLh frame or polnL quadraLs.
-
SysLemauc sampllng along LransecLs.
-
CapLure-mark-release-recapLure, for esumaung moblle populauons.

UADkA1S (3 IAC1CkS 1C CCNSIDLk)
-
Slze. Sampllng larger organlsms requlres larger quadraLs.
-
Pow many. A larger sample area requlres more quadraLs. uslng more quadraLs wlll always
produce more rellable resulLs, buL lL ls ume consumlng.
-
osluonlng. 1o remove sampllng blas and ensure valldlLy of daLa, random sampllng ls used.

kANDCM SAMLING
-
SpllL sample area lnLo a grld.
-
uslng a random number generaLor, generaLe random numbers Lo use as co-ordlnaLes.
-
CeneraLe >10 co-ordlnaLes, and place quadraLs aL Lhese locauons on Lhe grld.

1kANSLC1S
-
SLralghL llne across a hablLaL, along whlch organlsms are sampled.
-
used when Lhere ls a gradual change/Lransluon along a hablLaL, e.g. a beach gemng sLeadlly
more weL.

SS1LMA1IC SAMLING
-
More lnformauve when measurlng Lhe abundance and dlsLrlbuuon of a specles.
-
Llne LransecLs are a sLrlng or Lape, sLreLched across Lhe ground. Any organlsm passlng over
Lhe llne ls recorded.
-
8elL LransecLs are a sLrlp, usually a meLre wlde, marked by Lwo parallel llnes. Crganlsms
occurrlng wlLhln Lhe sLrlp are recorded.

MLASUkING A8UNDANCL (1nL NC. CI INDIVIDUALS CI A SLCILS IN A GIVLN SACL)
-
lrequency. lf one uses 30 sample quadraLs, and Lhe observed specles occurs ln 13 of Lhose
30, Lhen Lhe frequency of lLs occurrence ls 30. useful when specles ls hard Lo counL. uoes
noL glve any lnfo on Lhe populauon denslLy or dlsLrlbuuon.
-
cover. An esumaLe of Lhe area wlLhln a quadraL LhaL ls covered by Lhe observed specles.
1he cover of all Lhe quadraLs ls recorded, and a mean average ls calculaLed. uaLa can be
gaLhered qulckly, buL ln areas where planLs overlap, lL ls noL very useful.

CA1UkL-MAkk-kLLLASL-kLCA1UkL (ICk MC8ILL |.e. ANIMAL CULA1ICNS)
-
CapLure as many of one specles as posslble wlLhln a glven ume frame. CounL how many
organlsms were capLured.
-
Mark Lhe capLured organlsms (ln a non-harmful way).
-
8elease Lhe organlsms back lnLo Lhelr communlLy, leavlng enough ume for Lhem Lo dlsperse.
-
8ecapLure as many of Lhe specles as posslble, wlLhln Lhe same ume frame LhaL was used on
Lhe rsL capLure. CounL how many organlsms were capLured, and how many marked
organlsms were recapLured.
-
LsumaLe populauon slze uslng Lhe followlng formula:

opulauon esumaLe= (no. lndlvlduals ln sample 1*no. lndlvlduals ln sample 2)
no. marked lndlvlduals recapLured

ASSUM1ICNS MADL USING C-M-k-C
-
1he mark ls noL losL/rubbed o durlng Lhe dlspersal ume.
-
1he mark does noL make Lhe lndlvldual more easlly predaLed.
-
1here lsn'L a slgnlcanL amounL of lmml/emlgrauon lnLo or ouL of Lhe populauon.
-
1here are few blrLhs/deaLhs ln Lhe dlspersal ume.
-
1he marked lndlvlduals dlsperse evenly Lhrough Lhe populauon.
-
1he rauo of marked:unmarked lndlvlduals ln sample 2 ls represenLauve of Lhe whole
populauon.

DA1A ANALSIS
-
CuallLauve daLa ls converLed Lo quanuLauve daLa, whlch ls presenLed ln a Lable or graph.
-
1hls makes daLa easler Lo compare.
-
Cnly LenLauve concluslons can be drawn, as many facLors can cause dlerences ln daLa.

S1A1IS1ICAL 1LS1ING
-
ueLermlnes Lhe probablllLy of resulLs belng due Lo chance.
-
Lnables accepLance/re[ecuon of a null hypoLhesls (a predlcuon LhaL resulLs are noL due Lo Lhe
facLor belng lnvesugaLed).
-
ueLermlnes wheLher a resulL/correlauon ls sLausucally slgnlcanL.
-
SLausucal LesLs lnclude Spearman's 8ank correlauon, and x
2
(chl-squared) LesLs.

MINIMISING IMAC1 CI AN LCCLCGICAL INVLS1IGA1ICN CN 1nL LNVIkCNMLN1
-
Crganlsms should be sLudled ln slLu. lf removal ls necessary, lL should be done Lo Lhe mlnlmum.
-
Any organlsms, even lf dead, should be reLurned Lo Lhelr naLural hablLaL. 1hls way, Lhey can be
consumed by oLher organlsms, and conunue Lo provlde energy and nuLrlenLs Lo Lhe ecosysLem.
-
uamage/dlsLurbance Lo Lhe hablLaL should be avolded.
-
1he hablLaL should be le for a sumclenL perlod of ume before belng lnvesugaLed agaln. lf
sLudles are carrled ouL Loo soon aerwards, daLa could be obLalned LhaL ls noL Lyplcal of Lhe
hablLaL ln lLs 'normal' sLaLe.
LMPASlS Cn An A8C8lA1L 8ALAnCL 8L1WLLn uAMACL uCnL, Anu 1PL vALuL Cl 1PL
lnlC8MA1lCn CAlnLu.

CULA1ICN GkCW1n CUkVLS- 1nkLL nASLS
1. erlod of slow growLh, Lhe lnlually small no. of lndlvlduals reproduce Lo slowly bulld up Lhelr
numbers.
2. erlod of rapld growLh, Lhe ever-lncreaslng no. of lndlvlduals conunue Lo reproduce.
3. erlod of decllne due Lo a llmlung facLor, large populauon wlll decllne unul lLs slze remalns
more or less sLable.

IAC1CkS 1nA1 LIMI1 CULA1ICN SI2L
-
AvallablllLy of food, llghL, oxygen and shelLer.
-
Accumulauon of dlsease and Loxlc wasLe.
-
resence of predaLors.

A8IC1IC IAC1CkS 1nA1 INILULNCL CULA1ICN SI2L
-
1emperaLure:
-
Lach specles has an opumum LemperaLure aL whlch lL can survlve besL. Any devlauon from
Lhe opumum slows populauon growLh.
-
8elow opumum LemperaLure = enzymes work more slowly, meLabollc raLe reduced.
-
Above opumum LemperaLure = enzymes gradually denaLure, and work less emclenLly.
-
LlghL:
-
As llghL lnLenslLy lncreases, raLe of phoLosynLhesls lncreases.
-
As raLe of phoLosynLhesls lncreases, planL growLh speeds up, and producuon of seeds/spores.
-
As more planLs are produced, greaLer food ls avallable Lo prlmary consumers.
-
1he populauon of Lhese consumers lncreases due Lo greaLer food avallablllLy.
-
pP:
-
Lvery enzyme has an opumum pP aL whlch lL operaLes mosL eecuvely. Any devlauon from
Lhe opumum ls a deLrlmenL Lo enzyme acuvlLy.
-
WaLer and humldlLy:
-
Where waLer ls scarce, populauons are small and conslsL of specles LhaL are adapLed Lo dry
condluons.
-
PumldlLy aecLs Lranslprauon raLes ln planLs, and evaporauon of waLer from Lhe bodles of
anlmals.

IN1kASLCIIIC CCML1I1ICN
-
Compeuuon beLween organlsms of Lhe same specles, e.g. for food, waLer and breedlng slLes.

IN1LkSLCIIIC CCML1I1ICN
-
Compeuuon beLween organlsms of dlerenL specles, e.g. for food, llghL, waLer.
-
lnLerspeclc compeuuon occurs when Lwo specles are compeung Lo ll a parucular ecologlcal
nlche, no Lwo specles can ll Lhe same nlche.

kLDA1Ck
-
An organlsm LhaL feeds on anoLher organlsm (Lherefore aL leasL 2
o
consumer).
-
AdapLed Lo be fasLer, and have eecuve camouage.

kL
-
An organlsm LhaL ls fed on by anoLher organlsm.
-
AdapLed Lo have hlghly eecuve camouage, and physlcal/behavloural procLecuve feaLures.

1nL kLDA1Ck-kL kLLA1ICNSnI
-
redaLors eaL Lhelr prey, reduclng Lhe populauon of Lhe prey.
-
WlLh fewer prey, Lhe predaLors experlence greaLer lnLraspeclc compeuuon.
-
1hls reduces Lhe populauon of Lhe predaLors, as some lndlvlduals are ouL-compeLed.
-
WlLh fewer predaLors le, fewer prey are eaLen.
-
1hls allows Lhe populauon of Lhe prey Lo lncrease.
-
1he predaLors eaL Lhe lncreased amounL of prey.
-
1hls allows Lhe populauon of Lhe predaLors Lo lncrease.

nUMAN CULA1ICNS
-
8lrLh/deaLh raLes aecL populauon growLh and slze.
-
lmmlgrauon- people [olnlng a populauon from Lhe ouLslde.
-
Lmlgrauon- people leavlng a populauon.

opulauon growLh = (blrLhs + lmmlgrauon) - (deaLhs + emlgrauon)

populauon growLh raLe = populauon change durlng Lhe perlod *100
durlng a perlod populauon aL Lhe sLarL of Lhe perlod

IAC1CkS AIILC1ING 8Ik1n kA1L
-
Lconomlc condluons. Low per caplLa lncome generally = hlgher blrLh raLe.
-
CulLure/8ellglon. CulLure can encourage large famllles, and some rellglons oppose blrLh conLrol.
-
Soclal pressures. ln some counLrles, a large famlly can lmprove soclal sLandlng.
-
8lrLh ConLrol. 1he exLenL Lo whlch conLracepuon and aboruon are used.
-
ollucs. CovernmenLs can have lnuence vla educauon and Laxauon pollcles.

IAC1CkS AIILC1ING DLA1n kA1L
-
Age prole. CreaLer proporuon of elderly generally = hlgher deaLh raLe.
-
Llfe expecLancy aL blrLh. Lower llfe expecLancy = hlgher deaLh raLe.
-
lood supply. AdequaLe/balanced dleL = lower deaLh raLe.
-
SafeLy of drlnklng waLer/sanlLauon. 8euer hyglene = lower rlsk of conLracung waLer-borne
dlseases.
-
Medlcal care. Access Lo healLhcare = lower deaLh raLe.
-
Cccurrence of naLural dlsasLers.

8lrLh/deaLh raLe = no. blrLhs/deaLhs per year *100
1oLal populauon ln Lhe same year


CULA1ICN kAMIDS GIVL INICkMA1ICN CN IU1UkL 1kLNDS IN DIIILkLN1 CULA1ICNS
-
SLable populauon. 8lrLh/deaLh raLes are balanced. no drasuc change ln populauon slze.
-
lncreaslng populauon. 8lrLh raLe > deaLh raLe. 1yplcal of less economlcally developed counLrles.
opulauon pyramld has a wlde base.
-
uecreaslng populauon. 8lrLh raLe and deaLh raLe are low. More elderly people. 1yplcal of more
economlcally developed counLrles. opulauon pyramld has a narrow base, and a wlde apex.















































Chapter 2- A1 (Adenos|ne 1r|phosphate)

LNLkG
-
CannoL be creaLed or desLroyed, only Lransformed.
-
Measured ln [oules.

USLS CI LNLkG (MMMMA!)
-
MeLabollsm. All reacuons LhaL Lake place ln llvlng organlsms lnvolve energy.
-
MovemenL. lncludes movemenL of Lhe organlsm, and movemenL lnslde Lhe organlsm.
-
MalnLenance of body LemperaLure.
-
MalnLenance (repalr/dlvlslon) of cells.
-
Acuve LransporL.
-
roducuon of subsLances (l.e. enzymes and hormones)

A1 + n
2
C ==> AD +
|
+ LNLkG
-
A1 synLheslsed durlng reacuons LhaL release energy.
-
A1 hydrolysed Lo provlde energy for reacuons LhaL requlre lL.

nCSnCkLA1ICN- 1nL kCCLSS CI ADDING A nCSnA1L ICN
-
hoLophosphorylauon. Cccurs ln chlorophyll-conLalnlng planL cells durlng phoLosynLhesls.
-
SubsLraLe-level phosphorylauon. Cccurs ln planL and anlmal cells, when phosphaLe groups are
Lransferred from donor molecules Lo Au, resulung ln A1 (e.g. pyruvaLe formauon from
glyceraLe phosphaLe)
-
Cxldauve phosphorylauon. Cccurs ln Lhe mlLochondrla of planL and anlmal cells, wlLhln Lhe
elecLron LransporL chaln.
l
ls added Lo A1 when energy ls released from elecLrons movlng from
one elecLron carrler Lo Lhe nexL.

A1 AS AN LNLkG SCUkCL
-
lmmedlaLe energy source for a cell, beuer Lhan glucose because:
-
A1 releases less energy per molecule- energy ls released ln small, manageable quanuues.
-
Pydrolysls of A1 ls a slngle reacuon LhaL releases lmmedlaLe energy. 1he breaklng down of
Clucose ls relauvely long and slow.
-
A1 cannoL be sLored, and musL be made conunuously ln cells.

USLS CI A1
-
MeLabollc processes, e.g. polypepude synLhesls.
-
MovemenL, l.e. muscle conLracuon.
-
Acuve LransporL.
-
Acuvauon of molecules- when
l
ls Lransferred from A1 Lo anoLher molecules, lL provldes LhaL
molecules wlLh lLs acuvauon energy, maklng lL more reacuve.
-
Secreuon. A1 ls needed Lo form Lhe lysosomes necessary for Lhe secreuon of cell producLs.











Chapter 3- hotosynthes|s

LLAVLS' ADA1A1ICNS ICk C1IMAL kA1LS CI nC1CSN1nLSIS
-
Large surface area Lo collecL as much llghL as posslble.
-
1hln, so dluslon gradlenL for llghL ls shorL.
-
Long, narrow upper mesophyll cells LhaL are packed wlLh chloroplasLs Lo collecL sunllghL.
-
numerous sLomaLa for gas exchange, capable of openlng and closlng wlLh llghL lnLenslLy.
-
neLworks of xylem and hloem LhaL brlng waLer Lo Lhe planL, and carry resplraLory producLs
(glucose) away from Lhe planL respecuvely.

nC1CSN1nLSIS- 1nkLL S1LS

1]3 LIGn1 CA1UkING
-
SunllghL hlLs Lhe leaf, passlng Lhrough Lhe LransparenL cuucle and epldermls.
-
Some llghL ls absorbed by Lhe chloroplasLs ln Lhe layer of mesophyll cells under Lhe
epldermls.
-
Some wavelengLhs of llghL are reecLed back lnLo Lhe aLmosphere.

2]3 LIGn1-DLLNDLN1 kLAC1ICN
-
Cccurs ln Lhe Lhylakold membranes of chloroplasLs.




















































































Chapter 4- kesp|ranon

ALkC8IC
-
8equlres oxygen and glucose.
-
roduces carbon dloxlde, waLer, and loLs of A1.

ANALkC8IC
-
8equlres glucose. used when oxygen ls noL avallable.
-
ln anlmals, produces lacLaLe and llule A1.
-
ln planLs, produces eLhanol, carbon dloxlde and llule A1.

ALkC8IC kLSIkA1ICN- ICUk S1LS

1]4 GLCCLSIS
-
Spllmng of a 6C glucose lnLo Lwo 3C pyruvaLe molecules.
-
llrsL sLage of aeroblc and anaeroblc resplrauon.
-
Cccurs ln Lhe cyLoplasm.
-
lour sLages ln Clycolysls:
1. Clucose ls acuvaLed vla subsLraLe level phosphorylauon. rovldes glucose wlLh enough
energy Lo reacL wlLh oLher molecules. (-2A1)
2. 1he phosphorylaLed glucose (hexose phosphaLe) ls spllL lnLo Lwo 3C Lrlose phosphaLe
molecules.
3. Lach 3C Lrlose phosphaLe molecule ls oxldlsed lnLo a 3C glyceraLe phosphaLe molecule.
1rlose phosphaLe ls oxldlsed Lhrough Lhe loss of 2P, whlch are used Lo reduce Lhe
elecLron carrler nAu
+
. (+2A1, +2nAuP + P
+
)
4. Lach 3C glyceraLe phosphaLe ls coverLed (vla an enzyme-conLrolled reacuon) lnLo 3C
pyruvaLe. (+2A1)
-
2A1 used, 4A1 galned- neL galn of +2A1. Also +2nAuP + P
+
.

2]4 LINk kLAC1ICN
-
Converslon of a 3C pyruvaLe molecule lnLo carbon dloxlde and aceLylcoenzyme A.
-
1he Llnk 8eacuon happens Lwlce per glucose molecule.
-
Cccurs ln Lhe maLrlx of Lhe mlLochondrla. yruvaLe ls acuvely LransporLed here from Lhe
cyLoplasm.
-
1hree sLages ln Lhe Llnk 8eacuon:
1. yruvaLe ls oxldlsed Lhrough Lhe loss of 2P, whlch are used Lo reduce Lhe elecLron
carrler nAu
+
. (+1nAuP + P
+
)
2. 1he oxldlsed pyruvaLe loses 1C and 2C ln Lhe form of carbon dloxlde. lL ls now a 2C
aceLyl group. (+1CC
2
)
3. 1he aceLyl group comblnes wlLh coenzyme A Lo form aceLylcoenzyme A.
-
1he Llnk 8eacuon happens Lwlce, Lherefore +2nAuP + P
+
, and +2CC
2
.

3]4 kkL8S' CCLL
-
1he lnLroducuon of aceLylcoenzyme A lnLo a cycle of redox reacuons LhaL yleld A1 and a
large number of reduced elecLron carrlers.
-
1he krebs' Cycle happens Lwlce per glucose molecule.
-
Cccurs ln Lhe maLrlx of Lhe mlLochondrla.
-
llve sLages ln Lhe krebs' Cycle:
1. AceLylcoenzyme A comblnes wlLh oxaloaceLaLe Lo form 6C clLraLe.
2. Coenzyme A ls losL, and reLurns Lo Lhe Llnk 8eacuon Lo be used agaln.
3. 1he 6C clLraLe ls converLed lnLo a 3C lnLermedlaLe Lhrough oxldauve decarboxylauon-
clLraLe loses a CC
2
, and ls oxldlsed Lhrough Lhe loss of 2P, whlch are used Lo reduce Lhe
elecLron carrler nAu
+
. (+1nAuP + P
+
, +1CC
2
)
4. 1he 3C lnLermedlaLe ls converLed lnLo a 4C lnLermedlaLe Lhrough oxldauve
decarboxylauon- Lhe 3C lnLermedlaLe loses a CC
2
, and ls oxldlsed Lhrough Lhe loss of 6
loLs of 2P, whlch are used Lo reduce Lwo nAu
+
, and one lAu
+
. A phosphaLe group ls
Lransferred dlrecLly from an lnLermedlaLe, Lo an Au molecule, formlng A1. (+2nAuP +
P
+
, +1lAuP
2
, +1CC
2
, +1A1)
3. 1he 4C molecule LhaL remalns ls oxaloaceLaLe. 1hls comblnes wlLh Lhe nexL
aceLylcoenzyme A LhaL enLers Lhe krebs' Cycle.
-
1he krebs' Cycle breaks down larger macromolecules lnLo smaller ones, pyruvaLe ls broken
down lnLo carbon dloxlde.
-
lL regeneraLes oxaloaceLaLe, whlch comblnes wlLh aceLylcoenzyme A, whlch would oLherwlse
accumulaLe.
-
1he krebs' Cycle ls a source of lnLermedlaLe compounds used by cels ln Lhe manufacLure of
oLher lmporLanL subsLances such as fauy aclds, amlno aclds, and chlorophyll.
-
1he krebs' Cycle happens Lwlce per glucose molecule, Lherefore (+6nAuP + P
+
, +2lAuP
2
,
+4CC
2
, +2A1)

4]4 LLLC1kCN 1kANSCk1 CnAIN
-
1he reduced elecLron carrlers produced ln sLeps 1-3 are used here Lo synLheslse A1.
-
WaLer ls produced as a by-producL aL Lhe end of Lhls sLep.
-
Cccurs on Lhe lnner mlLochondrlal membrane.
-
nlne sLages ln Lhe LlecLron 1ransporL Chaln:
1. 1he reduced nAu and lAu, produced ln sLeps 1-3, donaLe Lhe elecLrons of Lhe hydrogen
aLoms Lhey are carrylng Lo Lhe rsL carrler ln Lhe L1C.
2. 1hese hydrogen aLoms are now proLons, whlch are acuvely LransporLed across Lhe lnner
mlLochondrlal membrane lnLo Lhe lnLer-membrane space.
3. 1he nAu/lAu have been reoxldlsed as Lhey have losL Lhe hydrogen Lhey were carrylng,
so Lhey reLurn Lo oLher areas of Lhe cell Lo be reduced agaln.
4. 1he elecLrons, now ln Lhe rsL carrler of Lhe L1C, move Lo Lhe nexL carrler vla a serles of
redox reacuons. 1he elecLrons lose energy as Lhey move from carrler Lo carrler (Lhere
are Lhree carrlers). 1he energy losL beLween carrlers ls used Lo add
l
Lo an Au
molecule, formlng A1. Lach reduced nAu provldes energy Lo synLheslse 2.3A1, and
each reduced lAu provldes energy Lo synLheslse 1.3A1.
3. When elecLrons leave Lhe lasL carrler, Lhey are accepLed by an oxygen aLom- maklng
oxygen Lhe nal elecLron accepLor ln Lhe L1C.
6. 1he proLons (P
+
lons) ln Lhe lnLer-membrane space are acuvely LransporLed back across
Lhe lnner membrane, generaung A1 as Lhey go, Lhe klneuc energy from Lhe proLons ls
converLed lnLo chemlcal, whlch phosphorylaLes Au. 2P comblne wlLh Lhe oxygen aLom,
formlng meLabollc waLer (P
2
C).
-
WlLhouL oxygen aL Lhe end of Lhe L1C, elecLrons would accumulaLe ln Lhe carrlers, Lhe
reduced nAu/lAu would noL be able Lo donaLe elecLrons anymore, and Lhey would noL be
able Lo reLurn Lo oLher areas of Lhe cell Lo be reduced. 1he elecLrons would noL be able Lo
move from carrler Lo carrler, so A1 would noL be generaLed. 1hls would halL Lhe process of
resplrauon.
-
28A1 are generaLed ln Lhe L1C per glucose molecule, maklng a LoLal of 32A1 produced per
glucose molecule resplred.




ANALkC8IC kLSIkA1ICN- 1WC S1LS

1]2 GLCCLSIS
-
Spllmng of a 6C glucose lnLo Lwo 3C pyruvaLe molecules.
-
llrsL sLage of aeroblc and anaeroblc resplrauon.
-
Cccurs ln Lhe cyLoplasm.
-
lour sLages ln Clycolysls:
1. Clucose ls acuvaLed vla subsLraLe level phosphorylauon. rovldes glucose wlLh enough
energy Lo reacL wlLh oLher molecules. (-2A1)
2. 1he phosphorylaLed glucose (hexose phosphaLe) ls spllL lnLo Lwo 3C Lrlose phosphaLe
molecules.
3. Lach 3C Lrlose phosphaLe molecule ls oxldlsed lnLo a 3C glyceraLe phosphaLe molecule.
1rlose phosphaLe ls oxldlsed Lhrough Lhe loss of 2P, whlch are used Lo reduce Lhe
elecLron carrler nAu
+
. (+2A1, +2nAuP + P
+
)
4. Lach 3C glyceraLe phosphaLe ls coverLed (vla an enzyme-conLrolled reacuon) lnLo 3C
pyruvaLe. (+2A1)
-
2A1 used, 4A1 galned- neL galn of +2A1. Also +2nAuP + P
+
.

2a]2 LAC1A1L ILkMLN1A1ICN (ANIMALS CNL)
-
yruvaLe ls converLed lnLo lacLaLe.
-
1wo sLages ln LacLaLe lermenLauon:
1. yruvaLe ls converLed Lo lacLaLe vla reducuon, lL galns 2P from reduced nAu. (+1nAu
+
)
2. 1he newly generaLed nAu
+
can be used for Clycolysls agaln.
-
LacLaLe lermenLauon does noL generaLe A1. lL oxldlses Lhe reduced nAu, so Clycolysls can
conunue Lo Lake place.
-
1hus, Clycolysls ls Lhe only means of produclng A1 anaeroblcally (oxygen ls requlred for Lhe
Llnk 8eacuon and Lhe krebs' Cycle).
-
LacLaLe bullds up ln Lhe muscles whlle resplrlng anaeroblcally, causlng muscle cramp.
-
8ed blood cells musL resplre ln Lhls way as Lhey lack mlLochondrla.

2b]2 ALCCnCLIC (L1nANCLIC) ILkMLN1A1ICN (LAN1S]LAS1 CNL)
-
yruvaLe ls converLed lnLo eLhanol.
-
1wo sLages ln Alcohollc lermenLauon:
1. yruvaLe ls converLed Lo eLhanal, Lhen Lo eLhanol vla reducuon, lL galns 2P from
reduced nAu. Carbon dloxlde ls also produced as pyruvaLe ls reduced (+1nAu
+
, +1CC
2
)
2. 1he reoxldlsed nAu
+
can be used for Clycolysls agaln.
-
Alcohollc lermenLauon does noL generaLe A1. lL oxldlses Lhe reduced nAu, so Clycolysls can
conunue Lo Lake place.
-
1hus, Clycolysls ls Lhe only means of produclng A1 anaeroblcally (oxygen ls requlred for Lhe
Llnk 8eacuon and Lhe krebs' Cycle).
-
?easL ls made Lo resplre anaeroblcally as a means of commerclally produclng eLhanol.











Chapter S- Lnergy and Lcosystems

CkGANISMS kLL CN AN LNLkG SCUkCL 1C CAkk CU1 AC1IVI1ILS
-
SunllghL ls Lhe ulumaLe source of energy. lL ls converLed from llghL Lo chemlcal energy ln planLs,
Lhen passed on as food beLween oLher organlsms.

kCDUCLk- GLNLkALL LAN1S
-
hoLosynLheuc organlsms LhaL manufacLure organlc subsLances uslng llghL energy, waLer and
carbon dloxlde as per Lhe Lhe phoLosynLhesls equauon:

6CC
2
+ 6P
2
C + (llghL energy) ==> C
6
P
12
C
6
+ 6C
2

CCNSUMLk- GLNLkALL ANIMALS
-
Crganlsms LhaL obLaln Lhelr energy by feedlng on (consumlng) oLher organlsms, raLher Lhan uslng
sunllghL dlrecLly.

DL1kI1IVCkLS- GLNLkALL SMALL ANIMALS
-
Crganlsms LhaL break down dead organlsms mechanlcally, l.e. Lo a lesser exLenL Lhen
decomposers.

DLCCMCSLkS- GLNLkALL 8AC1LkIA]IUNGI
-
Crganlsms LhaL secreLe enzymes Lo break down Lhe complex chemlcals ln dead producers/
consumers, and converL Lhem lnLo slmpler componenLs.
-
1hey release valuable mlnerals and elemenLs ln a form LhaL can be absorbed by planLs- Lhus
conLrlbuung Lo recycllng.

ICCD CnAIN
-
uescrlbes a feedlng relauonshlp ln whlch Lhe producers are eaLen by prlmary consumers, whlch
are eaLen by secondary consumers, whlch ln Lurn are eaLen by Leruary consumers, and so forLh.
-
Lach sLage referred Lo as a Lrophlc level.
-
Arrows ln a food chaln represenL Lhe dlrecuon of energy ow.

ICCD WL8
-
WlLhln a slngle hablLaL, many food chalns may be llnked LogeLher Lo form a food web.

LNLkG LCSSLS IN ICCD CnAINS
-
MosL of Lhe llghL energy from Lhe sun ls noL converLed,
-
!90 of sunllghL ls reecLed back lnLo space by clouds/dusL, or absorbed by aLmosphere.
-
noL all wavelengLhs of llghL can be absorbed and used for phoLosynLhesls.
-
LlghL may noL fall on a chlorophyll molecule.
-
Low carbon dloxlde levels can acL as a llmlung facLor for phoLosynLhesls.
-
lurLher along food chaln:
-
noL all Lhe organlsm ls consumed.
-
Some parLs of Lhe organlsm noL dlgesLed, l.e. losL ln fecal mauer.
-
Some energy losL ln excreLory maLerlals, e.g. urlne.
-
Some energy losL as heaL durlng resplrauon.

INLIIICILNC CI LNLkG 1kANSILk 8L1WLLN 1kCnIC LLVLLS
-
Cnly four or ve Lrophlc levels, lnsumclenL energy avallable Lo supporL a large enough breedlng
populauon aL Lrophlc levels hlgher Lhan Lhese.
-
Less blomass aL hlgher Lrophlc levels.
-
1oLal amounL of energy sLored ls less aL each level.

energy Lransfer = energy avallable Al1L8 Lransfer *100
(k!m
-2
year
-1
) energy avallable 8LlC8L Lransfer

kAMID DIAGkAMS

kAMIDS CI NUM8Lk
-
8ars wlLh lengLhs proporuonal Lo Lhe numbers presenL aL each Lrophlc level.
-
noL always pyramld shaped.
-
uoes noL Lake lnLo accounL Lhe slze of Lhe organlsm.
-
number of lndlvlduals can be so greaL, LhaL represenung everyLhlng on Lhe same scale can be
lmposslble.
-
no organlsms need be kllled.
-
Lasy Lo counL.

kAMIDS CI 8ICMASS
-
Crganlsms musL be kllled Lo obLaln Lhe mass wlLhouL waLer.
-
A small sample may be unrepresenLauve, lL ls lmposslble Lo capLure and klll all organlsms.
-
8lomass may change wlLh season- whlch ls noL Laken lnLo accounL.
-
A more rellable, quanuLauve descrlpuon of a food chaln ls provlded when measurlng Lhe
blomass of organlsm.
-
nearly always pyramld shaped.
-
1akes lnLo accounL Lhe slze of Lhe organlsm.

kAMIDS CI LNLkG
-
Crganlsm musL be kllled.
-
MeLhod of measuremenL ls ume-consumlng.
-
MosL accuraLe represenLauon of Lhe energy ow Lhrough a food chaln, ls Lo measure Lhe
energy sLored ln organlsm.
-
1akes lnLo accounL Lhe season (as energy ls measured per year).
-
Always pyramld shaped.

AGkICUL1UkAL LCCSS1LMS
-
Made up of largely domesucaLed anlmals and planLs used Lo produce food for manklnd.
-
AgrlculLure Lrles Lo ensure LhaL as much of Lhe avallable energy form Lhe sun as posslble ls
Lransferred Lo humans.
-
1hls lncreases Lhe producuvlLy of Lhe human food chaln.

kCDUC1IVI1
-
1he raLe aL whlch someLhlng ls produced.

GkCSS kCDUC1IVI1
-
1he raLe aL whlch planLs asslmllaLe Lhe chemlcal energy Lhey've produced by converung llghL
energy durlng phoLosynLhesls. Measured ln k!m
-2
year
-1
.
-
1he LoLal amounL of energy Laken ln by an organlsm.
-
1yplcally abouL 40 of energy made avallable Lo Lhe organlsm.

kLSIkA1Ck LCSSLS
-
Chemlcal energy used by Lhe organlsm for resplrauon, Lyplcally around 73 of whaL lL Lakes ln.

NL1 kCDUC1IVI1
-
neL roducuvlLy = Cross roducuvlLy - 8esplraLory Losses
-
AecLed by Lhe emclency of Lhe crop carrylng ouL phoLosynLhesls.
-
AecLed by Lhe area of ground covered by Lhe leaves of Lhe crop.

NA1UkAL VS. AGkICUL1UkAL LCCSS1LMS

LS1
-
An organlsm LhaL compeLes wlLh humans for food or space, or could be a danger Lo healLh.

LS1ICIDL
-
olsonous chemlcals LhaL klll pesLs.
-
Perblcldes klll planL pesLs.
-
lunglcldes klll fungus pesLs.
-
lnsecucldes klll lnsecL pesLs.

kCLk1ILS CI AN LIILC1IVL LS1ICIDL
-
SpeclclLy, only Loxlc Lo Lhe pesL lL ls meanL for.
-
8lodegradablllLy, musL break down lnLo harmless chemlcals ln Lhe soll.
-
Chemlcal sLablllLy, musL have a long shelf-llfe.
-
CosL-eecuveness, pesucldes remaln useful for a cerLaln amounL of ume, pesLs can develop
geneuc reslsLance.
-
non-accumulaung, elLher ln speclc parLs of an organlsm, or as lL passes along a food chaln.

8ICLCGICAL CCN1kCLS
-
osslble Lo conLrol pesLs by uslng organlsms LhaL are elLher predaLors or paraslLes of Lhe pesL
organlsm.
-
Alms Lo conLrol Lhe pesL, noL eradlcaLe lL.
-
1oLal eradlcauon of Lhe pesL ls cosLly Lo carry ouL, counLerproducuve, and almosL lmposslble Lo
achleve.
NA1UkAL LCCSS1LM AGkICUL1UkAL LCCSS1LM
Solar energy only Solar energy + energy from food (labour), and
fossll fuels (machlnery and LransporL)
Lower producuvlLy Plgher producuvlLy
More specles dlverslLy Less specles dlverslLy
More geneuc dlverslLy wlLhln a specles Less geneuc dlverslLy wlLhln a specles
nuLrlenLs are recycled naLurally wlLhln Lhe
ecosysLem, wlLh llule addluon from ouLslde
nuLrlenL recycllng ls more llmlLed and
supplemenLed by Lhe addluon of aruclal
ferullsers
opulauons are conLrolled by naLural means,
such as compeuuon and cllmaLe
opulauons are conLrolled by boLh naLural
means and by use of pesucldes and culuvauon
ls a naLural cllmax communlLy ls an aruclal communlLy prevenLed from
reachlng lLs naLural cllmax

IN1LGkA1LD LS1 CCN1kCL SS1LMS
-
Alm Lo comblne all forms of pesL conLrol raLher Lhan belng rellanL on one Lype alone.
-
Lmphasls on decldlng an accepLable level of a pesL populauon.
-
6 sLages Lo lnLegraLed pesL conLrol:
-
Choose a planL/anlmal varleLy LhaL sulLs Lhe local area, and ls as pesL reslsLanL as posslble.
-
Manage Lhe envlronmenL Lo provlde sulLable hablLaLs, close Lo Lhe crops, for naLural
predaLors.
-
8egularly monlLor Lhe crop for slgn of pesLs so LhaL early acuon can be Laken.
-
8emove Lhe pesLs mechanlcally (e.g. hand plcklng), lf Lhe pesL exceeds an accepLable
populauon level.
-
uslng blologlcal agenLs lf necessary and avallable.
-
uslng pesucldes as a lasL resorL.

nCW LS1S AIILC1 kCDUC1IVI1
-
esLs may ouLcompeLe planL crops for waLer, mlneral lons, or carbon dloxlde. 8educes raLe of
phoLosynLhesls, and Lherefore producuvlLy.
-
lnsecLs may eaL planL leaves. 8educes raLe of phoLosynLhesls, and Lherefore producuvlLy.
-
lnsecLs may eaL planLs. 8educes energy avallable Lo humans, and Lherefore producuvlLy.
-
Crowlng crops and domesucaLed anlmals ln monoculLure allows pesLs Lo spread more rapldly.

CCNILIC1S CI LS1 CCN1kCL
-
8alanclng Lhe cosL of pesL conLrol wlLh Lhe beneLs lL brlngs.
-
Conlcung argumenLs- emphasls on balanclng Lhem!:
-
1he farmer who has Lo sausfy publlc demand for cheap food.
-
1he conservauon of naLural resources, so we have food ln Lhe fuLure.

IN1LNSIVL kLAkING CI DCMLS1IC LIVLS1CCk
-
Converung Lhe smallesL posslble amounL of food energy lnLo Lhe greaLesL quanuLy of anlmal
mass.
-
More of Lhe food energy ls converLed ln Lo anlmal mass, ready Lo be passed on Lo Lhe nexL llnk ln
Lhe food chaln.
-
As much energy from resplrauon as posslble goes lnLo growLh, as opposed Lo oLher acuvlues.
-
Achleved by keeplng anlmals ln conned spaces.

nCW 1C INCkLASL LNLkG CCNVLkSICN kA1L
-
MovemenL ls resLrlcLed, so less energy ls used ln muscle conLracuon.
-
1he envlronmenL can be kepL warm so LhaL less energy ls used malnLalnlng body LeperaLure.
-
leedlng can be conLrolled so LhaL Lhe anlmals recelve Lhe opumum amounL and Lype of food for
maxlmum growLh wlLh mlnlmum wasLage.
-
redaLors are excluded so LhaL Lhere ls no loss Lo oLher organlsm ln Lhe food web.
8ICLCGICAL CCN1kCL CnLMICAL LS1ICIDL
very speclc Always have some eecL on non-LargeL specles
Cnce lnLroduced, conLrol organlsm reproduces
lLself
MusL be reapplled aL lnLervals, very expenslve
esLs do noL become reslsLanL esLs develop geneuc reslsLance, new
pesucldes musL be developed.