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1. eHow
2. Home & Garden
3. Landscaping & Outdoor Building
4. Paving
5. Cobblestone Types
Cobblestone Types
By Jennifer Hayes, eHow Contributor
Share
Print this article
Round or angular, cobblestones are common materials for roads, buildings
and landscapes.
Commonly defined as small, rounded paving stones, cobblestones are actually any type of small
stone used for paving, landscaping or architecture, regardless of size, shape or texture. Both
durable and versatile, cobblestones originate from a variety of places, from fields and along
bodies of water to rock quarries. Whether naturally occurring or manufactured, cobblestone types
include road paving, architectural and landscaping stones.
Other People Are Reading
Cobblestone & Stone Characteristics
How to Lay Cobble
1. Naturally Occurring Cobblestones
o
There are two types of naturally occurring cobblestones: fieldstone and lake-
washed cobbles. Deposited in the soil or body of water by the movement and
melting of glaciers, naturally occurring cobblestones are generally sandstone,
limestone or gneiss. Fieldstones cobbles, often a byproduct of agriculture, are
rough and amorphous, bearing no standardized shape; while lake-washed cobbles,
also referred to as water-worn, are generally round and smooth due to the
continual movement of water over the surface.
2. Manufactured Cobblestones
o
Manufactured cobbles are stones quarried or formed for the purpose of paving,
landscaping and architecture. The type of stone commonly quarried for
cobblestones is granite, due to its natural cleavage and resistance to wear.
Manufactured granite cobblestones are often uniform in size, angular and
available in colors such as gray, black and varying shades of red. A manufactured
granite cobble is generally 4 inches, a size determined best for the footfalls of
horses. Brick cobbles are another type of manufactured cobblestone, composed of
clay or shale and fired in kilns.
o Sponsored Links
Sedimentary Petrography
Point Counter and Software. Petroledge and Hardledge Compatible
www.endeeper.com
3. Road-Paving Cobblestones
o The use of cobblestones for paving roadways is a practice that has been in
existence since antiquity. Ancient Roman roads served as a model for successive
generations, spreading throughout Europe and taken to the American colonies in
the 17th century. Referred to as both cobblestone and stone-block, the majority of
roads in 18th and 19th century America utilized both naturally occurring and
manufactured granite cobbles. Many examples of these roads remain today, such
as the fieldstone cobbled roads found in the historic district of downtown
Nantucket, Massachusetts.
Architectural and Landscaping Cobblestones
o
Architectural and landscaping cobbles are the most common type of stones sold
today. Cobbles, with their many shapes and styles, are versatile decorating
materials, used for everything from exterior facades, courtyards and walkways to
fireplaces and chimneys. Fieldstone cobbles are common architectural features in
New York and New England, with a history dating back to European origins. For
example, the small fieldstone church St. Andrews by the Sea, located atop Sunset
Hill in Hyannisport, Massachusetts, gets it name and cobbled faade from the
original St. Andrews in Scotland.
Sponsored Links
Read more : http://www.ehow.com/info_8537281_cobblestone-types.html
YES
NO
1. eHow
2. Home & Garden
3. Landscaping & Outdoor Building
4. Paving
5. Cobblestone Types
Cobblestone Types
By Jennifer Hayes, eHow Contributor
Share
Print this article
Round or angular, cobblestones are common materials for roads, buildings
and landscapes.
Commonly defined as small, rounded paving stones, cobblestones are actually any type of small
stone used for paving, landscaping or architecture, regardless of size, shape or texture. Both
durable and versatile, cobblestones originate from a variety of places, from fields and along
bodies of water to rock quarries. Whether naturally occurring or manufactured, cobblestone types
include road paving, architectural and landscaping stones.
Other People Are Reading
Cobblestone & Stone Characteristics
How to Lay Cobble
1. Naturally Occurring Cobblestones
o
There are two types of naturally occurring cobblestones: fieldstone and lake-
washed cobbles. Deposited in the soil or body of water by the movement and
melting of glaciers, naturally occurring cobblestones are generally sandstone,
limestone or gneiss. Fieldstones cobbles, often a byproduct of agriculture, are
rough and amorphous, bearing no standardized shape; while lake-washed cobbles,
also referred to as water-worn, are generally round and smooth due to the
continual movement of water over the surface.
2. Manufactured Cobblestones
o
Manufactured cobbles are stones quarried or formed for the purpose of paving,
landscaping and architecture. The type of stone commonly quarried for
cobblestones is granite, due to its natural cleavage and resistance to wear.
Manufactured granite cobblestones are often uniform in size, angular and
available in colors such as gray, black and varying shades of red. A manufactured
granite cobble is generally 4 inches, a size determined best for the footfalls of
horses. Brick cobbles are another type of manufactured cobblestone, composed of
clay or shale and fired in kilns.
o Sponsored Links
Sedimentary Petrography
Point Counter and Software. Petroledge and Hardledge Compatible
www.endeeper.com
3. Road-Paving Cobblestones
o The use of cobblestones for paving roadways is a practice that has been in
existence since antiquity. Ancient Roman roads served as a model for successive
generations, spreading throughout Europe and taken to the American colonies in
the 17th century. Referred to as both cobblestone and stone-block, the majority of
roads in 18th and 19th century America utilized both naturally occurring and
manufactured granite cobbles. Many examples of these roads remain today, such
as the fieldstone cobbled roads found in the historic district of downtown
Nantucket, Massachusetts.
Architectural and Landscaping Cobblestones
o
Architectural and landscaping cobbles are the most common type of stones sold
today. Cobbles, with their many shapes and styles, are versatile decorating
materials, used for everything from exterior facades, courtyards and walkways to
fireplaces and chimneys. Fieldstone cobbles are common architectural features in
New York and New England, with a history dating back to European origins. For
example, the small fieldstone church St. Andrews by the Sea, located atop Sunset
Hill in Hyannisport, Massachusetts, gets it name and cobbled faade from the
original St. Andrews in Scotland.
Sponsored Links
Read more : http://www.ehow.com/info_8537281_cobblestone-types.html
Summary
Dire Dawa pioneered cobblestone road construction in Ethiopia. To date, more than 27km of the
citys road network is cobbled. Cobblestone paving is a simple and replicable technology; its
ability to create thousands of jobs for men and women is impressive. The aesthetic value of
cobblestone roads is well recognised. More than 20 towns in Ethiopia, including Addis Ababa,
have now institutionalised cobblestone road construction.
A poor road network, expensive asphalt roads, declining economic activities, increased poverty
and unemployment were some of the factors which influenced the city to find a road building
technology that was labour-intensive, used local resources, was durable and easy to maintain.
After testing the technology, the city decided to upscale cobblestone roads. Most of the
immediate objectives were met: local skills were developed, thousands of women and men
were employed and the road network improved at almost half of the cost of asphalt roads.
These successes were not without challenges. Workers had to be convinced that chiselling and
paving provided a decent income. The public also had to test the durability of the roads. The
force account strategy (see below) was a learning process and thousands of people were
organised into cooperatives, unions or as small-scale contractors.
Cobblestone paving is replicable, creates jobs and uses local resources which has inspired other
Ethiopian cities to learn from Dire Dawa. The Federal Ministry of Works and Urban
Development and the Ethiopian Road Fund endorsed and financially supported the project and
the Ethiopian Roads Authority is in the process of integrating cobblestone paving as a national
standard.
SITUATION BEFORE THE INITIATIVE
Dire Dawa is the second most populous city in Ethiopia. The citys rapid population growth and
increasing number of vehicles damaged existing roads and, with the exception of a few main roads, the
existing road network required rehabilitation. Many secondary or internal roads were dusty, sandy or
gravelled.
The cost of constructing asphalt roads was high and rising. During the period the cost of building asphalt
and cobblestone roads was 2.6 and 1.6 million ETB respectively. At the same time investment in urban
roads was falling.
Declining economic activities after the weakening of the contraband trade, and the ensuing poverty and
unemployment, meant that the city was in a vicious circle of low incomes and lower services. Thus, the
need for roads which were less dusty than gravel roads, using local resources, requiring little
maintenance and creating employment lead to the initiative.
ESTABLISHMENT OF PRIORITIES
Cobblestone roads were new to Ethiopia and Dire Dawa. The skills had to be learned. A pilot
project and public support for the new roads were the immediate priorities. The hills around
the city were checked for rocks suitable for cobblestones and the citys sandy soil was deemed
ideal for building durable cobblestone roads. Priorities included:
Identifying and prioritising roads for cobblestone paving
Designing and testing roads
Promoting public awareness on the benefits of cobblestone paving
Gaining political support, including budgetary support
Organising unemployed people in cooperatives
Training workers in chiselling and paving
Constructing cobblestone roads in five steps (producing cobblestones, surveying
proposed roads, sub-grade preparation, sand and cobblestone laying and finishing)
Monitoring and quality control
FORMULATION OF OBJECTIVES AND STRATEGIES
The following two general objectives were set:
Dire Dawa residents will have improved access to social services and markets
Contribute to the revitalisation of the citys economy through employment intensive
road construction
The following immediate objectives were pursued:
Improve movement in the city by building cost-effective, affordable, durable and easy to
maintain roads
Increase local skills in producing and paving cobblestones
Create jobs for unemployed women and men in Dire Dawa
At first a force account strategy was pursued. This involved the direct organisation of labour
via the Roads Authority. This strategy was a necessary step towards organising small-scale
contractors and prepare for the privatisation of the sector.
MOBILISATION OF RESOURCES
The total cost of constructing the 27km of roads was 30.8 million ETB. About one third was
contributed by the Dire Dawa administration, 29 per cent from the Ethiopian Road Fund and
the remaining 55 per cent was covered by the ULGDP Project (World Bank-UDCBO).
PROCESS
The pilot scheme not only proved the technical and economic feasibility of the roads, but also convinced
hundreds of unemployed women and men to seek employment by producing and paving roads.
However, the first challenge was introducing a new concept, specifically: trying to adapt a Western road-
building technology practised hundreds of years ago.
RESULTS
By September 2009 the citys road network had 27km of cobblestone roads. The city had never
built so many roads in such a short period. 10,000 jobs for chisellers and pavers were created in
the cobblestone sector (60 per cent of the pavers and 40 per cent of the chisellers are women).
Private and government owned newspapers such as The Reporter, Addis Neger, Road Fund and
Lemate Ketema covered the improvements to workers in the sector.
Cobblestone road construction was prioritised: the city administration fully supported the
endeavour, as did government institutions and kebeles. Without this support, the projects
success would have been difficult.
Cobblestone technology is now institutionalised, not only in Dire Dawa, but in more than 20
towns. Several chisellers and pavers have trained micro and small enterprises.
In allocating resources, the National Road Fund has given priority to towns building roads using
cobblestones. In a letter dated Hamle 5, 1999, the Ethiopian Road Fund wrote a directive to
towns and cities to follow Dire Dawas example. Towns were instructed to allocate 30-50 per
cent of their resources to the construction of labour-intensive cobblestone roads, in which case
they would receive up to 25 per cent of additional funds.
The last five years have convinced many that cobblestone roads can be adapted to Ethiopian
conditions and are durable, easy to maintain and beautiful.
The fact that 60 per cent of the pavers alone are women is evidence of the changing role of
women, who are now well-established in what used to be male territory.
SUSTAINABILITY
Simple technology, local resource utilisation, low maintenance costs and labour-based
technology are key factors in the sustainability of cobblestone roads. The presence of
organised, small-scale cobblestone road contractors, though a new phenomenon, has gone
beyond direct support and is now a self-sustaining business field. Contractors are sub-
contracted by the citys Road Authority and are exporting their skills to other towns (social
mobility). Simply put:
