The outcome of cognitive development is thinking.
The intelligent mind creates from
experience "generic coding systems that permit one to go beyond the data to new and
possibly fruitful predictions" (Bruner, 1957, p. 234).
Thus, children as they grow must acquire a way of representing the "recurrent
regularities" in their environment.
So, to Bruner, important outcomes of learning include not just the concepts,
categories, and problem-solving procedures invented previously by the culture, but
also the ability to "invent" these things for oneself.
Cognitive growth involves an interaction between basic human capabilities and
"culturally invented technologies that serve as amplifiers of these capabilities." These
culturally invented technologies include not just obvious things such as computers and
television, but also more abstract notions such as the way a culture categorizes
phenomena, and language itself. Bruner would likely agree with Vygotsky that
language serves to mediate between environmental stimuli and the individual's
response.
The aim of education should be to create autonomous learners (i.e., learning to
learn).
In his research on the cognitive development of children (1966), Jerome Bruner
proposed three modes of representation:
Enactive representation (action-based)
Iconic representation (image-based)
Symbolic representation (language-based)
Bruner's Three Modes of Representation
Modes of representation are the way in which information or knowledge are stored and encoded in memory.
Rather than neat age related stages (like Piaget), the modes of representation are integrated
and only loosely sequential as they "translate" into each other.
Enactive
(0 - 1 years)
This appears first. It involves encoding action based information and storing it in our
memory. For example, in the form of movement as a muscle memory, a baby might
remember the action of shaking a rattle.
The child represents past events through motor responses, i.e. an infant will shake a rattle
which has just been removed or dropped, as if the movements themselves are expected to
produce the accustomed sound. And this is not just limited to children.
Many adults can perform a variety of motor tasks (typing, sewing a shirt, operating a lawn
mower) that they would find difficult to describe in iconic (picture) or symbolic (word) form.
Iconic
(1 - 6 years)
This is where information is stored visually in the form of images (a mental picture in the
minds eye). For some, this is conscious; others say they dont experience it. This may
explain why, when we are learning a new subject, it is often helpful to have diagrams or
illustrations to accompany verbal information.
Symbolic
(7 years onwards)
This develops last. This is where information is stored in the form of a code or symbol, such
as language. This is the most adaptable form of representation, for actions & images have a
fixed relation to that which they represent. Dog is a symbolic representation of a single class.
Symbols are flexible in that they can be manipulated, ordered, classified etc., so the user isnt
constrained by actions or images. In the symbolic stage, knowledge is stored primarily as
words, mathematical symbols, or in other symbol systems.
Bruner's constructivist theory suggests it is effective when faced with new material to
follow a progression from enactive to iconic to symbolic representation; this holds true even
for adult learners. A true instructional designer, Bruner's work also suggests that a learner
even of a very young age is capable of learning any material so long as the instruction is
organized appropriately, in sharp contrast to the beliefs of Piaget and other stage theorists.
The Importance of Language
Language is important for the increased ability to deal with abstract concepts.Bruner argues that language can code
stimuli and free an individual from the constraints of dealing only with appearances, to provide a more complex yet
flexible cognition.
The use of words can aid the development of the concepts they represent and can remove the constraints of the here &
now concept. Basically, he sees the infant as an intelligent & active problem solver from birth, with intellectual abilities
basically similar to those of the mature adult. According to Bruner the child represents the world to himself in three
different ways.
Educational Implications
For Bruner (1961), the purpose of education is not to impart knowledge, but instead to facilitate a child's
thinking and problem solving skills which can then be transferred to a range of situations. Specifically,
education should also develop symbolic thinking in children.
In 1960 Bruner's text, The Process of Education was published. The main premise of Bruner's text was that
students are active learners who construct their own knowledge.
Bruner (1960) opposed Piaget's notion of readiness. He argued that schools waste time trying to match the
complexity of subject material to a child's cognitive stage of development. This means students are held back
by teachers as certain topics are deemed to difficult to understand and must be taught when the teacher
believes the child has reached the appropriate state of cognitive maturity.
Bruner (1960) adopts a different view and believes a child (of any age) is capable of understanding complex
information:'We begin with the hypothesis that any subject can be taught effectively in some intellectually
honest form to any child at any stage of development'. (p. 33)
Bruner (1960) explained how this was possible through the concept of the spiral curriculum. This involved
information being structured so that complex ideas can be taught at a simplified level first, and then re-visited
at more complex levels later on. Therefore, subjects would be taught at levels of gradually increasing
difficultly (hence the spiral analogy). Ideally teaching his way should lead to children being able to solve
problems by themselves.
Bruner (1961) proposes that learners construct their own knowledge and do this by
organizing and categorizing information using a coding system. Bruner believe that
the most effect way to develop a coding system is to discover it rather than being told
it by the teacher. The concept of discovery learning implies that students construct
their own knowledge for themselves (also known as a constructivist approach).
The role of the teacher should not be to teach information by rote learning, but instead
to facilitate the learning process. This means that a good teacher will design lessons
that help student discover the relationship between bits of information. To do this a
teacher must give students the information they need, but without organizing for them.
The use of the spiral curriculum can aid the process of discovery learning.
Bruner and Vygotsky
Both Bruner and Vygotsky emphasise a child's environment, especially the social
environment, more than Piaget did. Both agree that adults should play an active role in
assisting the child's learning.
Bruner, like Vygotsky, emphasized the social nature of learning, citing that other
people should help a child develop skills through the process of scaffolding. The term
scaffolding first appeared in the literature when Wood, Bruner and Ross described
how tutors' interacted with preschooler to help them solve a block reconstruction
problem (Wood et al., 1976).
The concept of scaffolding is very similar to Vygotsky's notion of the zone of
proximal development, and it not uncommon for the terms to be used
interchangeably.Scaffolding involves helpful, structured interaction between an adult
and a child with the aim of helping the child achieve a specific goal.
[Scaffolding] refers to the steps taken to reduce the degrees of freedom in carrying out
some task so that the child can concentrate on the difficult skill she is in the process of
acquiring. (Bruner, 1978, p. 19)
Bruner and Piaget
Obviously there are similarities between Piaget and Bruner, but an
importantdifference is that Bruners modes are not related in terms of which
presuppose the one that precedes it. Whilst sometimes one mode may dominate in
usage, they coexist. Bruner states that what determines the level of intellectual
development is the extent to which the child has been given appropriate instruction
together with practice or experience. So - the right way of presentation and the right
explanation will enable a child to grasp a concept usually only understood by an adult.
His theory stresses the role of education and the adult.
Although Bruner proposes stages of cognitive development, he doesnt see them as
representing different separate modes of thought at different points of development
(like Piaget). Instead, he sees a gradual development of cognitive skills and techniques
into more integrated adult cognitive techniques.
Bruner views symbolic representation as crucial for cognitive development and since
language is our primary means of symbolizing the world, he attaches great importance
to language in determining cognitive development.
