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INDIAN DRAMATIC TRADITION

Drama in India has had a rich and glorious tradition. It is the result of growth for centuries and several
agencies-not simply one, has worked and contributed towards its growth and development. Dramatic
tradition in the ancient India was manifest predominantly in the existence of Classical Sanskrit Drama
alongside an unrefined folk theatre. both refined and folk form of theatre actually did continue
side by side in the same period, as we find even nowadays. (p.82, Theatre in Ancient India,
Siddeswar Chattopadyay, Manohar Publishers, 1993). Now we must turn to the Ntyastra itself,
by Bharata, in 36 chapters and usually considered to consist of 6000 verses. It is the most elaborate
treatise on drama and its production ever written. According to the framework of the text, Bharata is
the sage teacher of the theatre arts.Bharatas treatise on dramaturgy Ntyastra vouches for the
magnificence of ancient Indian stage craft. It is the earliest extant work on dramaturgy which assigns
to drama an exalted status by ranking it as the fifth Veda. All aspects of the drama- the different
divisions of drama, stage-setting and scenery, music, plot-construction, characterization, sentiments,
costumes, dialogue and acting, the audience and so forth have borne the close scrutiny of the author,
and a set of rules to guide the conduct of the stage has been elaborately laid down. Classical Sanskrit
plays contained in them all these essential elements that help in realizing the main import of a play.
Folk theatre, on the other hand, Adya rangacharya states, existed in the form of the uparupak type
of theatre, rather in a low, vulgar and undisciplined condition.(9, the Indian theatre) The stage-
shows were given to grmya dharma a generic term in Sanskrit for uncivilized ways and propagated
elemental passions like anger, jealousy, lust, greed, etc. Speaking about the existence and the nature of
the ancient Indian folk stage, Rangacharya says The Ntyastra not only recognizes its existence but
also complains that there was more of vulgarity (grmya-dharama) and ignorance and nothing of
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knowledge or instruction.(69, The Indian theatre) As these plays were predominantly
entertainment based and dealt with low humour, they caused moral degeneration in the society and
corrupted the public taste. A brief glance at the story narrated in the Ntyastra reveals that it was in
such a chaotic state that the gods led by Indra, approached God Brahma the creator and requested him
to create some form of entertainment (Kridaniyaka) pleasing to the ears and eyes alike so that it should
be accessible to the people of all castes. Accordingly, Brahma created a fifth Veda called Natyaveda
by extracting from the four Vedas Rig, Sama, Yajus and Atharva, the four most important elements of
drama, namely, speech, song, mimetic art and sentiment respectively. Thus, Natyaveda on the one
hand, was a source of entertainment (Kridaniyaka) and, on the other, a medium of moral instruction
and enlightenment (Veda). It is mentioned in the Ntyastra that the task of translating this new
creation Natyaveda into physical form and transferring it to earth fell upon the sage Bharata and his
hundred sons.(NS. i. 2-25;xxxvii. 1-23.) Eventually, Bharata completed this divine mission entrusted
to him and named the translated treatise Ntyastra. This fifth veda is the Ntyastra. (Page 3,
Adya Rangacharya, The Indian theatre)
Sanskrit drama was divided into rupakas and uparupakas. Rupakas are the ten major forms, and
uparupakas are the minor forms. The rupakas comprised nataka, samavakam, vyayoga, dima,
ihamriga, utsrishtikamka, prakarana, prahasana, bhan, and vithi. Their plots were broadly classified
as those known from tradition, which the playwright derived from myths, legends, and history, or as
those newly created by his imagination. The former category included nataka, samavakara, vyayoga,
dima, and ihamriga; in the latter figured prakarana, prahasana, and bhan. Utsrishtikamka
sometimes was sourced from tradition, sometimes from invention. Vithi was a class in itself, and many
forms took elements from it. Uparupaka forms included the natika and sattaka. These ten genres were
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called the dasarupakas (the ten forms) and were nataka, prakarana, samavakara, dima, vyayoga,
ihamriga, utsristikakka, prahasana, bhana, and vithi. Nataka was one of the ten genres performed in
ancient Indian theatre. Nataka was the most prominent of these, so much so that by modern times the
term nataka has come to be used for all drama rather than a particular genre.
Two principal types of play are distinguished: the naka, which is based on epic material, and the
prakaraa, which is of the authors invention, though often borrowed from narrative literature.
Prakarana grantha is introductory vedantic texts that unfold the entire subject matter of vedanta with
or without reference to any of the terse Upanishads. The purpose of these texts were to explain all the
concepts necessary for enlightenment in simple terms, so the subject could be understood without
having to resort to the study of the thick scriptures and the lengthy logical analysis, typical of the
scholarly approach. Some of the most known are - Atma Bodha, Vivekachudamani, Panchadasi,
Vedanta Sara, Vedanta Paribhasa.
Samavakara is the dramatic representation of some mythological fable in three acts. The first act
continues for nine hours, the second act prolongs foe three and a half hours and the third act continues
for an hour and a half. The theme of Samavarka is also varied. Although love may be touched upon,
heroism should be the main passion as the theme. The acts of enmity are exhibited. Tempests,
combats, and the storming of towns, are also represented, and all the pride and pomp of war, as horses,
elephants, and cars, also forms the theme of Samavarka.
Dima is a drama of a similar but gloomier character than the Samavakara. It comprehends four acts.
Dima is limited to the representation of terrific events, as portents, incantations, sieges, and battles.
The hero of Dima should be a demon, demi-god or deity.
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The story relates to gods and demons, although mortals may be introduced. There is no individual hero
in a Samavakara play. Sometimes the heroes may be as many as twelve in number as Lord Krishna
and other divinities.
Vyayoga is the form of Sanskrit theatre. The meaning of Vyayoga is actually described as intense or
manifold action. It uses a well-known story for its plot, and its dramatic personae consisted mostly of
males and a few females. It represented contentment, not provided by a woman. Hence it was
composed without the typically feminine kaisiki i.e. graceful vritti. The hero was a celebrated
personage i.e. a royal ascetic rajarshi or god of the `firm and haughty` i.e. dhiroddhata variety. Its
principal rasas did not include the snta i.e. peaceful, hsya i.e. comic, and sringara i.e. erotic.
Bhasas Madhyamavyayoga i.e. Vyayoga of the Middle One is the typical example, describing the
exploits of Bhima overpowering Ghatotkacha in the Mahabharata.
In Madhyama Vyayoga (1), Bhasa presents an interesting story in which pathos (karunam) is stored in
the integration of heroism (vira) and laughter (hsya) (laughter is not an expressed feeling here). Many
combinations with triple and double turns can be discovered on the subject of presentation of scenes in
the movements of this play. This Vyayoga is the combination of twos: this could be between Hidimba
and Bhima or between Ghatotkaca and Bhima. But a trinity is present in the name of the play,
Madhyama (Middle).
Ihamriga is a class of comedy, a piece of plot in four acts. In Ihamriga, the hero is a god or illustrious
mortal and the heroine is a goddess. Love and fun are the prevailing sentiments in Ihamriga. The
heroine may be the subject of war or stratagem in Ihamriga. The devices of the hero may end in
disappointment but not in death in Ihamriga. Ihamriga is a class of comedy, a piece of plot in four acts.
In Ihamriga, the hero is a god or illustrious mortal and the heroine is a goddess. Love and fun are the
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prevailing sentiments in Ihamriga. The heroine may be the subject of war or stratagem in Ihamriga.
The devices of the hero may end in disappointment but not in death in Ihamriga. (The Dasarupa a
Treatise on Hindu Dramaturgy, By Dhanamjaya)
In the Utsrstikka one should develop a well known subject by means of the imagination. The
pathetic should be the permanent sentiment and the heroes should be ordinary men. Its junctures,
styles and sub-divisions are like those of the Bhana and it contains lamentations of women. A battle is
to be presented by means of a descriptive speech and likewise ultimate victory or defeat. This is called
Utsrstikka instead of merely ka for the purpose of distinguising it from the ka (Act) included in
a play.
Prahasana can also be explained as farce. It represented reprobates invented by the dramatist, drawn
from life, and mostly incorporated wit, humour, and satire. Prakarana, bhana, and prahasana formed a
class in themselves, very often reflecting the social reality of their time and sometimes critiquing it
through laughter. Prahasana resembled bhana in the number of sandhis i.e. junctures of plot and
lasyanga i.e. feminine components of dance. But the elements essential in vithi were not obligatory. Its
principal rasa was hasya or comic.
When the hero was an impudent ascetic, medicant, or Brahman, it created pure prahasana, in one act.
Bodhayanas Bhagavadajjukiya i.e. The Sage and the Courtesan and Mahendravikrama`s
Mattavilasa i.e. Intoxicated Delights, both sometimes ascribed to Mahendravikrama in the seventh or
eighth century, best exemplify this variety. When a multitude of reprobates was represented, it became
a mixed prahasana in several acts. There are many types of one-act plays, including bha
(monologue), in which a single character carries on a dialogue with an invisible one, and prahasana
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(farce), which is classified into two categories: superior and inferior, both dealing with courtesans
and crooks.
Bhan is solo form of Sanskrit theatre presenting the exploits of a rogue i.e. dhurta in one act
comprising a variety of incidents not progressively developed. The term `Bhan` is derived from
bhand i.e. to mock or to deride. Typically bhan is a learned and expert vita i.e. a parasitic
companion of a dissolute young man or of a courtesan who is skilled in singing, music, and poetry, on
familiar terms with his associate whom he virtually serves as a vidushaka (jester). He described his
own or others experiences. Bhan suggested the sringra (erotic) and vira (heroic) rasas, but evoked
laughter and satire. The playwright had to invent the theme and generally employed the bharati, vritti,
sometimes the kaisiki or graceful too. Consequently, bhan texts abounded in verbal description,
improvised further by the performer. The actor wore make-up only once i.e. ekaharya and performed
many roles. He used the ingenious device of akasabhashita i.e. aerial discourse. To accost, speak,
and reply as if addressing one actually present, making rejoinders, and quoting the supposed speech of
another. They contained all ten lasyangas i.e. feminine components of dance. G. H. Tarlekar described
the basic of the *Ntyastra, which can be mentioned as follows:
Geyapada: song by the vocalist, seated, and accompanied by instrumental music.
Sthitapathya: a woman separated from her lover and suffering pangs of love recites in Prakrit, full of
sentiment.
Asina: song of sorrow and anxiety rendered in a seated posture without instrumental accompaniment.
Pushpagandika: songs and dances performed by a woman but accompanied by male movements.
Pracchedaka: a woman who, afflicted by moonlight and thus excited by passion, clings to her lover
even if he has done wrong.
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Trimudhaka: even metres full of manly states and composed of delicate diction.
Saindhavaka: representation, using Prakrit, of a lover who failed to keep an appointment.
Dvimudhaka: song of caturasrapada in four lines, each repeating the same tala pattern, full of
sentiment and emotive states, used for striking effect. Afterwards, according to Abhinavagupta, the
performer steps in four directions.
Uttamottamaka: composition in various metres with many sentiments of he la and hava i.e. the delicate
expressions of feminine love.
Uktapratyukta: combination of speech and counter-speech due to pleasure or anger, containing
censure, set to music.
Thus bhan presented a challenge to perform various characters and incidents singly, because its
nature as a monodrama could have rendered it monotonous. Only a performer fully trained in
abhinaya, music, and dance could have succeeded in it. Moticandras edition of very old texts titled
Caturbhani may best illustrate this form. (Indian Drama & Theatre, The Dasarupa a Treatise on Hindu
Dramaturgy By Dhanamjaya)
The Vithi is written in gay style and resembles the Bhan in its junctures, sub-divisions and acts. The
erotic sentiment is to be indicated, but one should touch on another sentiment as well. The vithi
contains the parts named induction and so forth, and the sub-divisions beginning with the abrupt
dialogue (udghatyaka). In this way the Vithi is to be arranged, with the employment of one character
or two. This kind of drama receives its name because it is like a vithi this word meaning either road
or series of subdivisions
Heroes and Heroines Comment [D1]: The Sanskrit drama
in its origin, development, theory &
practice
By Arthur Berriedale Keith
309
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The protagonist in the nataka always had an elevated character and was often a connoisseur of the arts.
His love was expressed in refined dialogue, both prose and poetry, and his longings through
conventional use on stage of songs and paintings. Patience, magnanimity, and gravity of purpose were
musts for all heroes and heroines. A supernatural episode was also necessary as part of the plot to
indicate the interest of the gods in human affairs and to raise the element of wonder in the play. For
example, in Abhijnanasakuntalam (The Ring of Sakuntala), a famous play by Kalidasa (flourished
fifth century), when the heroine Sakuntala is turned away by the king Dusyanta, she disappears in a
whirl of light and is transported far away by her divine mother to the retreat of a sage teacher.
The nataka relied heavily upon the presence of a jester (vidusaka), a distinctive feature of ancient
theatre. The role of the vidusaka is rooted in the precept of the Ntyastra that "laughter arises best in
an erotic situation." The vidusaka was a humorous foil to the moody, melancholic, or impractical
longings of the royal hero. But above all, this jester belonged to the tradition of Indian theatre that
consciously ridiculed the pretensions and hypocrisy of the upper classes, intellectual lite, Brahmans,
pundits, scholars, and ascetics. Whereas the dramatic genre called prahasana perfected vitriolic satire,
nataka took the middle way of milder ridicule. The typical vidusaka in the natakas was a bosom friend
and not a paid court jester. He was usually depicted as a distorted figure, an ugly-faced, dirty-looking,
bald Brahman who walked like a crane, looked up and down, and ogled stupidly. He spoke rubbish,
ridiculed the hero, or made vulgar comments. In most plays, he was shown as a slothful, sleepy
glutton. He never spoke Sanskrit but rather the common language, called avantika. In short, he was a
caricature of the alert, grave, and scholarly Brahman. But genuine affection and absolute faithfulness
to the hero were his most endearing qualities.
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A nataka consisted of five to ten acts and sometimes contained a subplot that extended its length. It
was also recommended that in a nataka there should be no more than four to five players at a time on
stage. This restriction was imposed to allow the dramatist to concentrate on the characters and their
dramatic development. To create memorable and special characters was the dramatist's main
challenge. For example, improving upon the story of Sakuntala as found in the epic Mahabharata,
Kalidasa made his heroine capable of much greater suffering and sacrifice.
The nataka was to be performed with plenty of dance and music, which the other nine dramatic genres
used sparingly. For this reason, as compared with modern naturalistic theatre of the European kind, the
progress of the ancient nataka was slow. If an injunction regarding an act in the Ntyastra is taken
to mean "to be performed in one day" and not to mean "depiction of the actions of one day," then the
playing time for a single act was supposed to be one day. If so, then a single play that nowadays takes
only three hours would have taken five to ten days to be performed.
The nataka was intended to display all the essential features of the ancient art of theatrical
representation, in which were employed not only the verbal medium of dialogue but also gestural
communication through highly complicated body language (angika abhinaya), subtle facial
expressions, and elaborate costumes. The aim was to create an intense aesthetic experience for the
audience through a variety of dramatic emotions that transported the audience to the state of delight
and special taste called rasa.
With the decline of ancient theatre from the eleventh century onward, the nataka, like the other nine
genres, fell into disuse. In modern times, with the revival of drama, it has been revived as a cross
between traditional and modern realistic drama.
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Sanskrit play production in ancient India - By Tarla Mehta
While following the sources and progress of drama and of the stage, we should note initially that a
dramatic representation consisted in it three important essentials-Dialogue, Music and Dance.
Bharatas Ntyastra discusses in detail the use and importance of these three essentials in the
production of a Classical Sanskrit play. According to Bharata, drama is the imitation of men and their
deeds (loka-vritta, anukarana). This imitation is chiefly done through stylized action called Abhinaya.
Abhinaya means carrying to-that is, communicating the play to the spectator. The need to express
oneself through art is a basic urge of every human being. Beauty and art are inter-related concepts
which are born out of human psyche. Abhinaya is an inseparable component of Natya, the ancient
Indian system of dramaturgy. The principles of Natya have been laid down by Bharata in his
exhaustive treatise on the subject in Ntyastra. Bharata's Natya is a composite performing art form
of theatre which combines not only the arts of dance, drama and music but also literature, painting and
sculpture. Today's well-known classical dance styles like Khathakali and Bharat Natyam as well as the
lesser known theatre forms like Kudiattam Yaksagna still follow Bharata's technique and his concept
of Abhinaya. The literal meaning of the word Abhinaya has been explained by Bharata thus:
"Abhi-purvas tu nin-dhatur abhimukhyartha isyate /
Yasmat Padarthan nayati tasmad abhinayah smrtah //"
'Abhi' is the prefix meaning 'towards' and 'ni (naya)' is the root meaning to carry. So, Abhinaya means
to carry towards, i.e. to carry the spectator towards the meaning. Thus, Abhinaya can be called a
vehicle of Natya through which the spectator experiences the particular emotions of the dramatic
character that is to lead him towards Rasananda - the ultimate bliss which is the aim of Natya.
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The above definition of 'Abhinaya' makes it clear that in terms of ancient Indian dramatic theory,
Abhinaya does not mean only acting, miming or facial expressions. The term applies to all the related
aspects of histrionics which contribute in conveying the poetic content of drama to the spectators.
Bharata has defined four major types of Abhinaya, viz., Angika Abhinaya, Vacika Abhinaya, Aharya
Abhinaya and Sattvika Abhinaya, says Sucheta Chapekar in The concept of Abhinaya
Angika Abhinaya means to convey the meaning through body movements. This involves natural as
well as symbolic gestures, postures and movements of the major and minor parts of the body,
including the Mukharaga, which are expressions conveyed through the subtle movements of facial
muscles. Bharata's description of the usages of body limbs for conveying various meanings is a
detailed scientific study of human behaviour.
Vacika Abhinaya is the expression through speech. Apart from Natya as a literary piece, this includes
the actor's skill at delivering the dialogues as well as dramatist's at using the correct language. Bharata
has discussed in detail the different Vrttas, metres in poetry; the Laksanas, figures of speech; the
Gunas and Dosas, the strong and weak points of poetic writing as well as diction.
The aspect of Aharya involves Rangabhusa - the make-up and costumes, ornaments etc. - of the Patra,
the dancer-actor, as well as the Nepathya, the stage props and decor. Bharata has prescribed specific
colours, hair-styles as well as costumes for particular characters.
Sattvika Abhinaya is mentioned as the fourth kind of Abhinaya. It is regarded as the expression of
Sattvika-s, i.e. the peculiar emotional states producing the particular physical reactions like Romana
(horripilation), Asru (tears), Sveda (perspiration), Vaivarnya (change of complexion) etc.
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Thus, Abhinaya can be termed as a particular system of dramatic presentation which uses all these
aspects of histrionics, viz., Angika, Vacika, Aharya and Sattvika. This fourfold Abhinaya performed
along with Sangita, i.e., the triple symphony of Gita, Vadya and Nrtya, produces Natya - the total
theatre, as conceived and described by Bharata.
To understand the full purport of the concept of Abhinaya, one must remember that the four aspects
mentioned earlier do not exist in isolation but are interdependent. While Sattvika is the pinnacle of
emotion, it is dependent on Angika and Vacika aided by Aharya to heighten it's effect.
As already mentioned, Bharata's description of Angika is the detailed study of all the possible
gestures, postures and movements of each and every part of the body. He divides body into three
major parts - the Anga, Pratyanga and Upanga.
1. The Angas are six - Siras, Hasta, Vaksas, Parsva, Katitata, Padz. Some consider Griva to be the
seventh.
2. There are six Pratyangas - Skandha, Bahu, Prstha, Udara, Uru, Jangha. Some consider
Manibandha, Kurpara and Janu also as Pratyanga
3. There are twelve Upangas or minor parts of the Siras or face which are important for
Mkukharaga or facial expression. These are - Drsti, Bhru, Puta, Kapola, Nasika, Adhara etc.
Bharata has defined postures, movements and usages for all these. Through the details of Angika,
Bharata wants to stress the importance of Ntyadharmi or the specific usage of total body movement
in Abhinaya. For instance, to say "you and me" in a realistic way as in today's theatre, it could be
purely through spoken words or with a slight nod of head or eyes. However, in Bharata's technique, it
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would involve a rhythmic step forward and backward as well as an elaborate arm movement within the
particular areas around body.
An important aspect of Angika is Hastabhinaya or conveying the meaning through Hastas or specific
gestures of hands. The tradition of using Hastas as expounded by Bharata and followed by the later
Sanskrta dramatic theorists is still very much alive in our classical dance traditions. Hastas are of two
types - Asamyukta (executed with one hand) and Samyukta Hastas (a formation with both hands
together). Bharata has also defined the Hasta-Pracara (hand positions), Hasta-Recaka (hand moving
along with arm movement) and Hasta-Karana (the turning movement of hand). All this artificial
gesticulation and stylish body language transforms any emotion into a beautiful kinetic form which
takes Natya into the realm of fantasy, helping the process of Rasanubhava, i.e., the aesthetic flavour of
the universalised emotion to be experienced by the spectators through the art of theatre.
Vacika in Bharata's Abhinaya contributes the spoken 'word' element which ideally should be full of
'Dhvani' or the suggested meaning. The dialogues are either spoken or sung by the Patra or the
accompanying musician. The words provide only the germ of an idea which is expanded further
through Angika. Music, i.e., the use of musical notes to create various types of moods or to accentuate
the colour of emotions, is an important factor of Bharata's Vacika. Added to it is the proper use of Tala
and Laya system.
Aharya plays a relative role in Bharata's Abhinaya depending on the Vrtti (type) or Dharmi (mode) of
the presentation. In Kaisiki Vrtti which is full of dance and Ntyadharmi which involves symbolic
gestures, Aharya is represented with Angika. For instance, in Lasya or solo Abhinaya presentation by
a single dancer, portraying the Nayika, will show the season of spring by showing the flowers and the
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bees with her hand gestures, the pleasant atmosphere by some dancing steps instead of using painted
curtain or the other props. Instead of using real ornaments, flowers, garments etc., she would show
them with actions and gestures while she is adorning herself to welcome her beloved. However, as in
Kathakali, a symbolic use of costumes and make-up is also made to create a larger than life image in
order to project the magnificent characters of the epics like Mahabharata. In Kathakali theatre,
dominant colours of make-up like green, black, red are used symbolically to show different types of
characters of the drama. It must be noted that Aharya is the only external vehicle other than body used
in Abhinaya, and this, too, is sometimes replaced by Angika.
The most important aspect of Abhinaya, i.e., Sattvika, at the outset, one may consider the probable
meanings of Sattvika. Sattva is mind, so, Sattvika is that which is a creation of mind. It is further
described as the external indication of the creation of mind. It is further described as the external
indication of internal feeling or sentiment. Some scholars translate Sattvika Abhinaya as a 'psycho-
physical' representation.
However, these meanings do not really give us the idea in totality about the true nature of what is
termed as Sattvika by Bharata.
Initially, if Sattvika means 'born out of mind', then all the emotions are born in mind before they are
conveyed through the vehicle of Abhinaya. In Bharata's own words,
"Nirvikaratmakan Sattvan Bhavayan Bhava Ucyate which means, that an emotion is born in tranquil
mind. Sattvika is the 'external indication' of the 'internal feeling', and external indication of the feeling
has to be a bodily reaction, i.e., Anubhava which becomes a part of Angika Abhinaya. Abhinaya is
essentially a manifestation, a vehicle of conveying the emotions; every expression becomes a two-fold,
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Bhava-Anubhava process. In this sense, all Bhavas can be termed 'psycho-physical'. But Bharata
defines Sattvika Abhinaya as a different aspect.
To find out the true nature of Sattvika as conceived by Bharata, it becomes essential to take a closer
look at what are defined as Sattvika Bhavas. These are mentioned to be eight:
1. Stambha means motionlessness, numbness that comes out of emotional shock.
2. Sveda is perspiration.
3. Romanca is a thrilled state of mind when the hair on the body stand erect (horripilation).
4. Svarabhanga is a change in the tonal quality of voice due to overstress of emotion.
5. Vepathu is shivering.
6. Vaivarnya is a change in complexion (colour and skin texture of the face).
7. Asru (tears).
8. Pralaya is falling down due to fainting.
These eight have been called Sattvika Bhavas - a separate category of emotions. It is easy to note the
following points from these 'Sattvikas':
Perspiration or tears are not actually the emotions, i. e., Bhavas, but Anubhavas, physical reactions
usually seen at the height of emotional experience.
It should also be noted that these Sattvika Anubhavas do not pertain to a particular emotion, for
instance, tears start rolling not only with extreme sorrow but also with extreme joy. One can go red not
only with anger but also with Lajja or shyness. The hair on body will stand not only with fear but also
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with any so called 'touching' experience. So, it can be seen that the same Sattvika Bhavas can occur in
absolutely contrasting emotions.
Another important point about the above mentioned Sattvika is that these Anubhavas, i.e., perspiration
or loss of colour cannot be 'acted' just as one can activate the movements of the other limbs. In other
words, our brain cannot "order" the body to produce these actions as it can "order" the other
Anubhavas like bending the head down or looking sideways, walking up and down etc. These
Sattvikas are essentially the external reactions of the change in the internal body organisms which are
activated by acute emotion alone. Sattvikas are indeed bodily reactions; yet this is where Sattvika
Anubhava differs from mere Angika. In fact, only when Sattvika underlines Angika and Vacika, the
Abhinaya is fully able to convey the emotive content of Natya.
The difference between mere Angika, and Angika infused with Sattvika, can be clearly felt by the
experienced spectator.
Going back to Bharata's explanations like "Sattvam Nama Manah-Prabhavam", Sattva is motivated by
mind, and "Manasah Samadhau Sattvanispattir bhavati", Satva is produced in the 'equipoised' state of
mind, one can realise that to reach this state, an actor requires complete identification with the
character. This is Sattva, and Bharata correctly regards Sattvika as an important aspect of Abhinaya. It
is easy to experience Sattvikas in real life but to produce them in the make-believe world of Natya
requires tremendous concentration, knowledge of human mind and technical skill on the part of the
actor as well as the dramatist.
To summarise, Sattvika can be called the physical reaction of the internal organs motivated by acute
emotions, the process which requires the total involvement of the actor with the character. Without
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Sattvika, Angika and Vacika Abhinaya will become lifeless, insipid and ineffective. Sucheta Chapekar , The
Concept of Abhinaya According to Bharata.
Ultimately, it is Sattvika which heightens the emotional appeal of Angika, Vacika and Aharya.
Knowing this, Bharata rightly called Abhinaya resonating with Sattva as the supreme acting. If Angika
and Vacika are the backbone of the body of the "Abhinaya Purusa" and Aharya, it's limbs, then
Sattvika is its soul.
These four aspects of abhinaya namely angikabhinaya (gestures) vacikabhinaya, (words)
satvikabhinaya (temperament) and lastly aharyabhinaya (costumes and make-up) are the one of the
means by which the main import of the play rasa is evoked. The scope of the other elements of
Bharatas performance theory such as Rasa (sentiment) Bhava (emotion) vrittis, (mood) dharmis (the
individual style of presentation) is explained by assessing the role of these three vital components in
the making of a play. Hence, a brief description of the aforementioned elements may not be out of
place here. Bharata takes up the essential subjects of the art which he lists as, the emotions, the actions
or representations; the two styles, natural and conventional or symbolic; the modes or tempos, the
manners of the people to be imitated; other matters relating to performance; music vocal and
instrumental, and lastly the theatre. The primary place is naturally occupied by the human feelings
(bhav), major and minor which the play, and its action has to portray, and the rasa or emotional
rapport, which the spectators should realize thereby. The aesthetic doctrine of rasa requires that every
element of production be governed by and be judged as appropriate or effective to the extent it is
evocative of, this emotional appeal. Nothing proceeds on the stage without the reference to rasa is
Bharatas most important pronouncement. One point which both Bharata and his commentators
emphasize must be noted, that is, only when all the components of a drama, as produced on the stage
are personated, does this rapport or realisation of rasa manifest itself in the spectator. Hence the
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realisation of rasa in the text of a drama, which is merely read not enacted, is of the second order.
(Sanskrit drama in performance - By Rachel Van M. Baumer, James R. Brandon).
Each rasa is considered as a mode of the more general, greater Rasa which is intuited directly from its
modes. Actually, this general Rasa is a kind of comprehensive term that is summing all the possible
emotional experience. Since the direct perception of Rasa corresponds to the perception of the activity
of mind itself, Rasa may be said as a legitimate vehicle helping in final release of particular passions
and immediate responses. It enables consciousness factor to become aware of itself.
Primarily, this theory explains that how artistic forms and processes touch these feeling-responses in
order to build up a rasa. The key term to understand this is Dhvani. The term Dhvani refers to the
resonance that is generated in ones mind about the unstated meanings and only-suggested auras of
significance aroused by words or visible presentations. This idea can be well conveyed through a
concrete image of the process embodied in some of the musical instruments of strings in India such as
the Sarangi, the big Vina and Sitar. At the lower side of the main playing strings of the instruments, a
long series of smaller strings is arranged. Each smaller string is tuned to degrees of the scale in which
it supposed to be played. In fact, these smaller strings are never struck in playing, but are expected to
resonate in sympathy with the notes that struck on the main strings. Thus the melody that is progressed
with time is accompanied by a continuous aura of sympathetic sound. The same effect can also be
marked in artistic designs. The consciously stated elements of an artistic design can be compared to
the melody of the main strings, and the resonance evoked due to this in the unconscious mind among
latent traces (vasanas) with the effect of the smaller strings. Dhvani basically identified as a means for
evoking Rasa and can be understood to embrace allegory, the amphiboly and ambiguity of poetic
diction. Not only this, but also the expressiveness of gesture & movement of figures, the evocative
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qualities of musical phrases or visual shapes are also defined with Dhvani.
However, the particular rasa can only be invoked with the help of touching the feeling-responses that
are latent in the regions of the particular Permanent Emotional Modes. This is typically done by means
of determinants that amount mainly to the artistic causes. In these artistic causes there are traces of
concomitants.
Thus Rasas are mainly evoked by using artistic processes that makes the visible or audible effects of
actual feeling in a group to stimulate or generate the latent traces proper to Permanent Emotional
Modes. This is calculated by working upon our memories of similar forms. Rasa is said to arise when
the sthybhva in the individual is awakened by his perception of the vibhvas, anubhvas,
vyabhicribhvas, and sttvic bhvas.
Vibhvas are the stimuli such as the story, the stage and the actors responsible for the awakening of the
sthyi, i.e. the latent sentiment in the spectator. The vibhvas are of two kinds:
lambana vibhva is the basic stimulus capable of arousing the sentiment, whereas uddipana vibhva
is the enhancing stimuli, the environment in which the basic stimulus is located.
Eg. In case of arousing the sentiment of pity or karuna rasa, the perception of an old weak woman on
the stage is the lambana vibhva; and that of thatched hut in which the old woman is lying and, the
surrounding atmosphere of neglect and poverty is the uddipana vibhva.
However, it must be noted that vibhva is not the cause of producing any emotion but only
the medium through which it passes to spectator by means of sympathetic induction. Thus, in
aesthetic induction, everything is a medium rather than a cause and this is because what is transferred
is always a generalized feeling (neither a result nor a knowledge). This transference however, implies
not the production of any new emotion in the spectator, but only the awakening of latent sentiment.
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Anubhvas are the deliberate manifestations of feelings on the part of the actor (in accordance with the
mood at aim). They consist of the various gestures and glances etc. of the actor which are intended to
develop the basic stimulus or the vibhva.
Eg. In the case of rngra rasa the presence of a beautiful young girl on the stage is a vibhva and her
movements and glances are the anubhvas.
Vyabhicribhvas are the transient emotions which arise in the course of maintaining and developing
the basic mood; they are the ancillary emotions determined by the basic emotion (in the scene or the
story) and Vyabhicribhvas in turn reinforce the basic mood.
Eg. If the basic mood is love, riti: joy in union and anguish in separation will be the accompanying
ancillary emotions.
Sttvic bhvas are the involuntary expressions such as blushing, perspiration etc. which arise as a
result of (successfully) experiencing and portrayal of the emotion.
As a result of the (successful) joint operation of all these factors, the sthybhva (the latent
sentiment) is aroused in the spectator and becomes Rasa; it develops into rasa when awakened and
brought to a relishable condition as a result of the complex stimuli. Rasa which arises as a result of all
these factors is distinct from all of them just as a dish is distinct in taste from each of its ingredients.
Also of significance is the qualification of a worthy spectator (rasaja) for rasnubhava
(subjective qualification for objective appreciation). [Seturaman, V.S., (ed.), Indian Aesthetics An
Introduction, MIL, Madras, 1992 ]
[Process (psycho-physical) of rasnubhava by Abhinavagupta]
Abhinavagupta holds that in the case of a truly poetic composition, after having grasped the full
significance of the words and their meanings, there is a mental intuition as a result of which the actual
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temporal and spatial character of the situation is withdrawn from the mental field and the emotion
suggested therein loses its individual character and also becomes dissociated from such conditions as
might have led us to any motivation. The emotion is apprehended and intuited in a purely universal
character and in consequences thereof the ordinary pathological symptoms of emotion lose their
significance and through all the different emotions bereft of their pathological characters we have one
enjoyment of joy. It is for this reason in the experience over tragedy we find as much enjoyment as
in that of a comedy, for the experience of a grief would have been unpalatable if it was associated with
its pathological consequences. These pathological consequences are always due to a sense of self-
struggle, self-motivation, loss and the like. But in the intuition of the Rasa we live through the
experience of a pure sentiment bereft of all its local characters and personal emotive associations.
When through artistic creation a purely universal emotional fear, amour, etc., are projected in
the mind, they become affiliated or apperception or implicit recognition of identity immediately
transforms the presented artistic joy there is a kinship and identity among all art-enjoyers.
Abhinavaguptas teacher Bhtta Tauta, in his work Kvya-kautuka, says that a dramatic play is
not a physical occurrence. In witnessing a play we forget the actual perceptual experience of the
individuals on the stage playing their different parts or manifesting their individuality as associated
with their local names and habitations. The man who is playing the part of Rama does not appear to us
that his actual individual character and it does not also appear to us that he cannot be the Rama about
whom Valmiki wrote. He stands somewhere midway between the pure actuality and the pure ideality.
This together with all the scenic associations and those of music (vibhvdis) produces an experience
which vibrates with exhilaration; and as a result thereof the whole presentation of actuality becomes
veiled, as it were, in so far as it is an actual occurrence of presentative character. The past impressions,
memories, associations, and the like, which were lying deeply buried in the mind, became connected
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with the present experience and thereby the present experience became affiliated and perceived in a
new manner resulting in a dimension of a new experience, revealing new types of pleasures and pains,
unlike those associated with our egoistic instincts and the success or failures of their strivings. This is
technically called Rassvdana, camatkara, carvana which literally means the experiencing of a
transcendent exhilaration from the enjoyment of the roused emotions inherent in our own personality.
Similarly when the required amount of dramatic elements falls short of one, two or more items, the
rasa realization by the audience is also rendered difficult, indirect or incomplete. Therefore
Abhinavgupta equates only natya, or a full drama with rasa. Until a play is mounted on a stage the text
alone does not engender rasa. Bharatas treatment of sentiment, or rasa, and emotion or bhva does not
stop with their higher aesthetics only. As his text is also a practical guide to actors, Bharata describes
the whole system whereby the actor should function in regard to them: the conditions which rouse the
emotions: their physical effects that is actions of the various limbs of the body and parts of the face
through which they should be portrayed by the actor; and the various minor feelings through which a
major emotional state manifests itself, and which have to be expressed by the actor. For example,
when a character in a play is in love, the sentiment of love (rati) is the basic continuing emotional state
(sthayibhava) portrayed by the actor. Its substrata (lampana) are the two lovers. Their feeling of love
is augmented by such conditions as fine dress, ornaments and perfume which relate to their own
person, and by aspects of the surroundings or the natural environment where they stay or go to the
season, the garden or seaside or moonlit night, or even music, drama and other performances that the
two may attend. These are called excitants (uddipana). The exchange of sweet glances, the play of the
eye-brows, graceful movements, and pleasing conversation, are physical actions (anubhava or
abhinaya) through which the actor externalizes the characters inner feelings. Love cannot be shown in
abstract; it is developed and ramified through the portrayal of accessory or component feelings which
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rise and fall within the basic emotional state- longing, restlessness, reminiscence, bashfulness, hope,
doubt, despondence, elation and joy, jealousy, cogitation, dejection, anger and so on. These accessory
feelings are called samcari bhava or vyabhicaribhava. The text of the play and the incidents and
motifs devised by the playwright embody these feelings. The incidents without the dialogue, the
scenes, in fact, the whole story of plot are of value or relevance only as embodiments or vehicles of
these feelings and of the basic emotion. Bharata thus describes eight major emotions: Love, mirth,
sorrow, anger, energy, terror, disgust and astonishment and thirty-three accessory feelings:
Discouragement, weakness, apprehension, envy, intoxication, weariness, indolence, depression,
anxiety, distraction, recollection, contentment, shame, inconstancy, joy, agitation, stupor, arrogance,
despair, impatience, sleep, epilepsy, dreaming, awakening, indignation, dissimulation, cruelty,
assurance, sickness, insanity, death, fright and deliberation. The presentation on the stage of all the
emotional factors mentioned above evokes in the responsive heart of the spectator the corresponding
emotion embedded therein which, through the course of the play matures and effects a rapport. This is
rasa. The various rasa serve also to distinguish different kinds of drama: the love play, heroic play,
social play, farce, religious play and others.
If rasa is the soul of the drama, the plot constitutes its body says Bharata. In Sanskrit drama the plot
usually stresses the means to the end rather than the end itself. In kuntala, Klidsa is more
interested in showing the subtle and delicate human emotions of the central characters. According to
the Ntyastra, the principle objective of the plot is to show the hero struggling for and finally
attaining the objective of his desire. Subsidiary incidents may contribute to this aim, but should not
divert attention from him. The realisation of the goal relates to the three ends of Hindu life duty,
pleasure and wealth. This is because the inner core of the rasa design lies in a latent form enveloped in
the body of a plot composed of many incidents and episodes. The incidents of a Sanskrit play are taken
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from well known sources like the epics, Puranas and Katha literature. The success or otherwise of a
play is depended to a large extent on whether the selection of the incidents and the scheme of
presenting them in a tightly worked out structure of the plot and the performance had succeeded in
immersing the spectator in the rasa presentation.
A Sanskrit play begins with a germ idea or the seed (bija) of a desire in the mind of the abhikari
hero ( the principle beneficiary of the fruit of the action of a play) to attain one or more of the threefold
goals of human existence : wealth and prosperity artha, Love through pleasure Kama, and the
righteous action Dharma
The heros effors towards the fulfillment of these desires motivate the dramatic action of the principle
plot. He is aided by other subsidiary characters of the sub-plots and faces many obstacles (vighna-s)
which he successfully overcomes with his self control, perseverance and concentrated efforts. At the
end of the play, he succeeds in attaining the fruits (phala) of his actions and achieves a condition of
serene contentment (moksa). The incidents of the story are fitted into this basic plot structure which is
primarily divided into:
i) The principle plot: (Adhikarika vastu) around the adhikari hero and the other dramatists
personae like the heroine and others who are concerned with, and are the supports of the
principle rasa of the play.
ii) The subsidiary plot / plots: (Prasangika vastu): Around the subsidiary characters, who may
have an interest of their own, but who are the supporters of the hero and the principle rasa
as well. The pataka and prakari nayakas and other dramatists personae who aid the hero).
The plot progression in terms of the efforts of the hero for the achievement of his desire is,
at the same time, split up in five divisions from the following three points of view:
I) Five successive stages of the heros action (Kryavasth).
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The first stage is the beginning (prrambha) of the desire in the hero. The second stage is
the effort (prayatna) towards it. The third, fourth and fifth stages are the possibility of
attainment (prptyasa), certainty of achievement (niyatapti) and finally the attainment of
fruit (phalayoga). The obstacles are to be faced and overcome.
II) Five phases of the development of the inner idea of the plot (Arthaprakrti) - the literal
meaning of the term Arthaprakrti - is the nature (prakrti) of the inner idea of the play
(artha). It denotes the urges and drives which induce phases of the changes of bhva
presentation of the plot. This is an aspect of the plot progression which is not in a form of a
linear movement, but appears to indicate the organic development of the germ idea and its
gradual outward expansion.
In the case of a self-controlled, fully resolved hero, they depict his inner states which carry
him towards accomplishing the final fruit of his desire. The seed bija - or the idea for the
achievement of the goal karya is germinated initially in a very small form bindu in
the mind of the hero where it sprouts.
Over and above these, there are two other situations involving secondary characters of the
sub-plots which carry forward the inner idea of the play and thus help the heros resolve.
III) Five Junctures (Sandhi-s)
The junctures (sandhis) are sequences which ingeniously connect the five arthaprakrti-s
and karyavastha-s and demonstrate the design of bhava presentation through the plot
structure. 1) the opening (mukha), 2) progression (pratimukha), 3) development (garbha),
4) pause (vimarsa) 5) conclusion (nirvahana) are the five junctures which indicate the
points or sequences in the plot structure which reflect the movement of the heros efforts
towards the achievement of his desire and his inner states during his journey.
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Sanskrit play production in ancient India - By Tarla Mehta
The plays have a fixed format of representation of the plot in a production.
1. The play opens with a prayer which is called a nandi sloga.
2. The prologue follows the prayer with the sutradhara, his assistant, the actress and the jester
introducing the play.
3. The plot of the play is presented through traditionally fixed number of acts kas which
are connected by short scenes called linking devices (arthopksepaka-s).
4. The play ends on a happy note. It concludes with the hero achieving his desired goal and
finishes with the actors benedictory verse Bharata vakya wishing for the well being of
all.
The basic unit of a play is the act or an ka. Its presentation is done through continuous
presentation narration style. Only those situations of the plot which are latent with rasa capable
of portraying the bhvvasth - s are represented in an ka. These are referred to as incidents
latent with rasa by tradition. They are represented with extended abhinaya of the inner states by
the performers. The other incidents which are without rasa lengthy and forbidden by the tradition
for portrayal, but which are nevertheless important for providing links with the plot progression,
are either simply narrated or hinted at. These narrations are presented with short informatory or
explanatory brisk linking scenes called arthopkepaka-s by one / two / three subsidiary characters.
The linking devices are:
i. The supporting scene (Vikambhaka), where the middle characters indicate the parts of the
story that have happened or about to happen in a condensed version, either in a monologue
or in a brisk scene between two or three characters speaking in Prakrit or Sanskrit or both
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ii. The introductory scene (Praveaka) which explains the happenings between the acts, often
indicating scene transfer, change of setting, time or season. They are enacted by Prakrit
speaking characters.
iii. Intimating Speech (Culika): A speech from behind the curtain or the dressing room
suggesting explanation of some vital matter.
iv. Transitional Scene (Ankavatara) : A narrative device by which the characters at the end of
the scene anticipate the action or the setting of the following act.
v. An Anticipatory Scene (Ankamukha or Ankasya) : A narrative devise where a male or a
female character, in the beginning of an act, indicates what is to follow in the act.
The format of the presentation of a plot of a Sanskrit play is, thus, that of a continuous
narration representation with anka forming its basic unit. The main plot is always inducted
by a nandi prayer. The play ends on a happy note and is concluded by a verse suggesting an
actors benediction for the well being of all. All the Sanskrit playwrights have used this
traditional format as a vehicle through their genius could create or suggest various states of
being for rasa evocation. Like the fixed format of the plot the dramist personae in the sanskrit
plays are also classified by the ancient dramaturgical traditions as eadily recognizable support
(lambana vibhva) who act as a catatlysts for rasa the realization. In order to fully understand
the classification, it is necessary to underline the point that the characters in Sanskrit plays are
not individuals but universalised archetypes with a set of easily identifiable characteristics.
They may be called conventional typesor the idealised symbols utilised basically to establish
impersal moods or inner states of human experience. In fact these characters are referred to as
vehicles (patr) acting as supporting stimuli of the latent states of being presented in the
play-texts. When represented through abhinaya, by the actors, the characters infuse the
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spectators with a delightful rasa experience. Each gesture, each inflexion, each reaction and
attitude as well as each shade and shape of the disposition and outlook have suggestive
implication and are traditionally predetermined to suit the basic nature (prakrti) and the
corresponding characteristics of the character type. The traditional classification and
definitions of these characteristics are illuminating and it is necessary that a drama producer
knows them.
The traditional classification of the dramatis personae as supports of rasa - bhva
Presentation, and the ideal characteristics of the actors of the drama troupe who could impersonate
them are examined as under:
The main classification Superior,Middle, Inferior
(Uttama prakrti, Madhyama prakrti, Adhama prakrti)
According to ancient tradition everyone is different with reference to ones basic nature (prakrti),
which one inherits at the time of ones birth. And so, Ntyastra classifies the dramatis personae
into three main groups of superior, middle and inferior natures. Enumerating the qualities and
characteristic behaviour of men and women belonging to each group. We quote a few of these
qualities here:
1. Superior Nature (Uttama Prakrti)
Superior man: He is a type with controlled senses, wise, skilled in arts and crafts, expert in
enjoyment, grave, liberal, patient, munificient, one who brings consolation to the poor and is
versed in the stra-s .
Superior woman is the woman who is tender by nature, is unfickle and speaks smilingly. She
is free from cruelty and is good mannered and endowed with natural beauty and nobility. She is
(also) grave and patient.
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2. Middle Nature (Madhyama Prakrti)
Middle type man is an expert in the social graces, proficient in arts, crafts and te stra-s and
is wise.
Middle type woman exhibits all qualities of the superior type of woman, but in a lesser
degree.
3. Inferior Nature (Adhama Prakrti)
The qualities of both men and women of the inferior type are the same and so they are
enumerated together. The description of such a person runs as follows:
Harsh in word, ill-mannered, low spirited, criminally disposed, irascible and violent; can kill
friends or anyone by torturing; prone to be engaged in useless things, mean, haughty,
ungrateful, indolent, expert in insulting honoured persons, covetous of women, fond of quarrel,
treachrous, doer of evil deeds, staler of others property, etc.
The Hero (Adhikri Net)
Whatever be the rasa, the one, who by his efforts, achieves the final fruit, is the adhikri hero
or net or nyaka or the phalabhokt. It is the hero, whose desire is finally fulfilled in a play
and as such he is the focus of the spectators concentration. The very name nyaka implies
that he is the one who leads towards the inner meaning of the play. The character of such a
hero, with whom, the spectator identifies, for the rasa experience, is the most impressive. His
essential quality I that of always being self controlled (dhira),unruffeled in the face of
adversities and of resolute mind (full of sattva) in his efforts.
Types of heroes:
Nyakabheda
Taking these characteristics as common to all types of heroes, their classification is based on
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A. Hero as per his conduct
i. One who is self-controlled and exalted: Dhirodtta
Ideal in constitution, noble and high souled, firm and forgiving, steadfast in action,
of exceedingly harmonious mind.
(Rma of the Rma plays and Jimtavhana of Ngnanda.)
ii. One who is self-controlled and light hearted: Dhiralalita
Soft, sportive, happy, humorous, drawn by harmless guiles and wiles, attached to
arts, gentle and gay.
(Udayana of Bhsa and ri Harsa: Agnimitra of Mlavikgnimitra
iii. One who is self-controlled and calm: Dhrapranta
Fond of fine arts, elegant, a little serious, graceful.
According to Darpaka, he is either a brahmin or a merchant. He is an ordinary,
common man, never a divine hero.
(Crudatta in Mcchakaikam, Mdhava in Mlati-Mdhava).
iv. One who is self-controlled and vehement: Dhiroddhata
Full of pride, jealousy, clever in the use of delusive and illusive art, fickle and
boastful.
(Duryodhana in Bhsas rubhagam)
B. Hero as a Support of the Erotic Rasa
In the ancient polygamous society, the hero as a lover is divided into four catagories of -
i. Chivalrous Hero: Dakina: One, who even when enamoured by another woman,
remains kind to his previous love.
(Puravas in Vikramorvaiyam)
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ii. Deceitful Hero: aha: One, who hides his unfaithfulness.
(Udayana of ri Harsa)
iii. Shameless Hero: Dha: One, who lets disfigurement of his body caused by the
love play with another woman, be seen by his previous love.
iv. Faithful Hero: Anukla: One, who has only one lady love.
(Rma of the Rma plays)

By permutations and combinations of these characteristics, sixteen or forty-eight varieties of
the hero-types are produced.
The Ntyastra tradition has laid down axioms for the selection of the right actors for
appropriate roles also.
Actors of the best kind who have beautiful eyes, eyebrows and facial features, and who are
tall, possessed of pleasant appearance, dignifies gait, who are neither fat nor lean, are well
behaved, wise and steady in nature were found suitable for the role of the hero as the king or a
prince.
The companions and supporters of the hero are ptak and prakari leaders who aid the hero.
The former is also called as anunyaka , the follower of the hero. According to Ntyastra,
the ptak leader should be intelligent and should possess qualities like a hero but in a lesser
degree.
In addition, there are assistants of the king-hero who are classified as under:
a. King heros assistants in duty regarding righteous conduct (dharma): Dharma Saciva-s
b. King heros assistants in duty regarding wealth and property (artha): Artha Saciva-s
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c. King heros assistants in duty regarding his conduct in love affairs (kma): kma
Saciva-s like the jester, gallant-parasite, masseur, (Vidaka, Via, Phamarda)
Actors with well-formed limbs, distinctive speech, neither tall nor fat, heroic, brave, eloquent and
with presence of mind were found to be suitable for the roles of the army leaders and the ministers by
the Ntyastra tradition.
The roles of priests, ascetics, and seers were given to actors who were proficient in sanskrit speech and
expert in conducting rituals.
The Vidaka (jester) is the most important ally of the hero in his affairs of the heart. As a support of
the comic (hsya) rasa, he often goes hand in hand with the hero who is a support of erotic rasa. This
is specially so during the delineation heros state of love in separation.
As an assistant of a king-hero, in his love affairs in the naka genre of Sanskrit play text, the jester
is shown as the wit of the court, who is also a familiar figure in the royal harem. He is expert in
conversation, and adept in mixing with noble ladies, and a figure of fun everywhere. His excessive
fondness for food, makes him a glutton. He is a brahmin, but speaks in Prakrit
and exposes his lack of learning and finesse. With his funny manners and speech, he invokes laughter.
The heroine or nyika was the total focal point (raya) of the heros state of love; consequently she
was given an important place in the scheme of bhva presentation. In fact, in the plays evoking erotic
rasa, the heroine more or less shared with the hero the status of the main support of the rasa. The
heroines in the Sanskrit plays were classified according to their qualities, age, class and behaviour in
love. We find precisely enunciated classifications of the heroines in Ntyastra, which subsequently
grew more complex in course of time.
Ntyastra divided the heroines in four classes of:
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Goddesses (Divy), Queens (bhavati), Women of high family (kulgan) and courtesans (ganik). In
addition to dividing heroines to their class, they were also classified by their qualifications in love:
A self-controlled one (dhir), a light-hearted one (lalit) and exalted heroine (uddt) and a modest
heroine (nibht).
The heroines were also classified according to their stages in love situation. The eight-fold division of
heroins in love situation the Aa nyik bheda is reasonably well-known and can be witnessed in
mediaeval paintings and classical dances, even to this date. The classification according to
Ntyastra is given below:
Vsakasajj, one dressed up for union with the beloved,
Virahotkahit, one distressed by separation,
Svdhinabhartk, one having her husband as a slave,
Kalahntarit, one separated fron her lover by a quarrel,
Khandit, one annoyed with her lover,
Vipralabdh, one deceived by her lover,
Proitabhartk, one whose husband is away on a visit,
Abhisrik, one who sets out to meet her lover. With permutations and combinations, nyika-bheda
came to 128 types of heroines. Later rhetoricians gradually arrived at a grand total of 384 types. Some
even postulated that the varieties of heroines would compute upto 16000 thus giving credence to the
mythical notion of ri Ka having as many queens.
Ntyastra is explicit about the actress who should play the role of the heroine. It says: the actress
should be endowed with a good physical form, good qualities, charater and of young age; She should
possess gold necklace and garlands; should be shining, affectionate, sweet and should possess
34

charming words with a lovely voice; she should also be steady in exercise-yoga-and conversant with
rhythm, tempo and bhva-sattva abhinaya.
Generally, an actress should know all about playing of drums, rhythm, tempo and should be
conversant with rasa and should be beautiful (srvgasundari).
In the play-text the heroine has her own retinue of friends (sakhi-s) of equal age, messengers (dti-s),
maids in waiting, the elderly ladies like a nurse (dhtri), a female recluse (paribrjik) and so on.
Besides the heroine, the female dramatist personae, in Sanskrit plays, dealing with a kings story
include the chief queen, the other queens and their attendants. These characters sometimes act as
obstacles in the way of the fulfilment of the desired end of the dhiralalit king hero.
Bharata devotes an entire chapter to make-up (aharya).The various characters in their diverse states,
says Bharata at the outset, are best introduced by fixing their identities through make-up and this
facilitates the further unfolding of the characters through the other aspects of acting technique. Mask is
basically an important part of theatre craft that has been connected with the rituals and Indian history
since antiquity. India is the place where such theatre crafts are in huge demand because of the fact that
India is the centre of theatre and drama. Masks of different culture and times connote that masks
existed since the ancient tradition. Masks are made in India in several states and this is particularly the
art of the tribal people. There are different kinds of masks like Bhuta Masks of South India, painted
mask bastar of Madhya Pradesh, Hanuman masks of Orissa, Papier Mache tiger masks of Himachal
Pradesh, Wooden masks of Nepal. Apart from these masks, Karnataka is the centre of a particular
mask especially headgears called Kiritams which are used by the artists performing Kathakali dance.
There are variations in the headgears as different headgears are made to represent different characters.
The headgears of religious figures, strong, gentle, devoted, and loyal differs from the headgears of
vicious and destructive characters. The tradition of masks depicts its existence in India since the
35

antiquity. Even in recent times, the contemporary theatre tradition values the use of the different forms
of masks to suit the persona of different characters in dramas and theatres. In South India, during
Bhagwat Mela literally a concourse of devotees when the story of the child devotee Prahlada is staged,
the player who depicts Narasimha, the Lion-god who slays the demon king Hiranyakashipu, wears a
magnificent ritual mask richly coloured and bejewelled and effectively conveying the blood-curdling
fury of Narasimha. This mask is itself an object of veneration and when not in use, is kept inside a
temple and prayers offered daily. Indeed this practice of worshipping masks used in mythological
plays is common in many parts of the country. The famous Chau dance of West Bengal uses different
types of mask. In some states of India the culture of folk tradition plays a vital role.
Masks play the role of familiar and vivid element in many folk and traditional pageants, ceremonies,
rituals and festivals which are often of an ancient origin. Having a traditional value, it is important to
the religious and social life of the community as whole or a particular group within same community.
There are some communities in India, who live on creating this particular item of theatre craft. The
artisans follow some ways to give each mask a distinct look. These masks play a key part within world
theatre traditions. They also continue to be a vital force within contemporary theatre, and their usage
takes a variety of forms. In many cultural traditions the masked performer is a central concept and is
highly valued. Masks not only protect but also transform, disguises, and enhance the face.
An actor, adds Bharata, has to give up or cover up his personal identity and become a new and
different person. Aharya encompasses not only the personal make-up of a character but also four
related external techniques: the use of color, costume and ornament, masks, and properties. Bharatha
sets forth in detail the differences and details to be followed in facial complexion, hairstyle and dress
according to a characters sex, age, country, religion, profession and status, and whether he is a god,
man, sage or demon. Even in the same person, particular activities and emotional states, like
36

separation or sorrow, will cause variance in dress and dcor. Full realism is emphasized by Bharata in
this respect. Ornaments, crowns and armour must be of very light material so that the actors are not
hampered by their weight.
Under properties, Bharata describes mountains, vehicles, chariots, shields, armour and banners. These
all should be made of light material fiber, split bamboo, hide or wax. Animals, birds and reptiles are
also constructed from similar light materials and used on stage. This raises an important question as to
the use and the extent of use of scenery and properties in the ancient Indian theatre. Bharata says that
There is no end to the things required in this world but it is not possible to bring them all, in their
proper form, on the stage (vv.201 202). Realism is one thing and convention and symbolism of the
stage are quite another. Furthermore, he says that even inanimate things, a mountain or a place, may
be introduced in a personified form (v. 94). It is well known that in Sanskrit literature, poem or play,
such personifications are most common. For example, the Himalayas appear as King Himavat and the
city of Ayodhya as a lady, in Kalidasa. The arms and weapons of Visnu appear as persons in Bhasas
plays. Turning to Abhinavaguptas Abhinavabharti, the commentary on the Ntyastra, we find that
vehicles are animals on which one rides, are to be prepared in small models or in drawings and carried
in hand by characters such as charioteers (vol.2 pp. 151 154).
Sanskrit theatre stressed the delineation or portrayal of bhava i.e. emotive state. Performers evoked to
the audience these bhavas which, through powerful abhinaya or acting were transformed into the ideal,
central aesthetic experience of rasa. The Ntyastra differentiates between lokadharmi and
ntyadharmi, realistic and theatrical forms of representation; (Approaches to acting, past and present,
by Daniel Meyer Dinkgrafe)
37

A close look at the Ntyastra, however, shows in the text both terms refer to practices of
representation which can be employed in performance. The realistic style, lokadharmi is defined as
follows:
If a play depends on natural behaviour (in its characters) and is simple and not artificial, and has in its
plot, professions and activities of the people and has simple acting and no playful flourish of limbs and
depends on men and women of different types, it is called realistic (lokadharmi).
The Ntyastra also laid down two modes of theatrical representation. The first, lokadharmi, was
nearer to the way things are seen in ordinary life. The second i.e. ntyadharmi was more conventional.
Lokadharmi may be seen as having survived in innumerable Indian folk forms, whereas ntyadharmi
is viewed in classical dance or dance-drama. Music was an integral part of theatre. This becomes
prominent in order to provide pleasure in the recitation of the text. The Ntyastra, Kalidasa, and
some later dramatists speak of the employment of dhruva songs. The first, lokadharmi, was nearer to
the way things are seen in ordinary life, from popular practices emulating the ways of the world also
called bhya or de. The second i.e. ntyadharmi was more conventional, with exclusive practice
emphasizing esoteric stage conventions, also called bhyantara or mrgi. However, a dialogue
between them always existed. They were not completely opposite modes, but shared some
complementarities. Lokadharmi may be seen as having survived in innumerable Indian folk forms,
whereas ntyadharmi is viewed in classical dance or dance-drama. The means of histrionic
representation (abhinaya) are variously combined to give rise to four different styles of dramatic
performance (vritti): the verbal (bharati), the grand (sattvati), the graceful (Kaisiki), and the energetic
(arabhati). Therefore, the practice of representation in a dramatic performance is twofold: realistic
(lokadharmi) and theatrical (ntyadharmi). The means of histrionic representation, abhinaya , belong
to the category of (ntyadharmi). While these can be identified with two different streams of practices
38

emerging out of separate circumstances, occasions and places, in practice the two the two traditions
interacted, intermingled and merged with each other to form a variegated and complex design of
abhinaya techniques governing the performances of Sanskrit plays. Ntyadharmi practice was highly
abstract and probably contained adoptions from very ancient and powerful esoteric conventions,
assimilated over the years, of magico-ritualistic traditions of the olden times. They were sacrosanct,
considered exclusive (bhyantara) and not everyone was allowed to practice them. Sophisticated
connoisseurs thoroughly appreciated this practice. The difference between the practices was not so
much of social strata or of high or low environments but that of the attitude of the practitioners
towards the hereditary art. Ntyadharmi performers acquired it through rigorous teacher-disciple
tradition and practiced it with an aim to maintain its immaculate purity in the manner of a traditionally
ordained ritual. Its conventions were of a highly specialized nature and were understood by or meant
specially for only select and erudite connoisseurs. The lokadharmi practices were not as sacred and
inviolable and were not learnt according to the maxims of the sstra-s, but were acquired, nevertheless
as hereditary skills. They certainly have a repertoire of conventions based on the observations of local
practices, customs and usages easily understood by spectators. In the course of long years of evolution,
each practice, interrelated, enriched and imbibed many aspects of the other. Consequently, the staging
practices of Sanskrit plays exhibited a rich amalgam of suggestions and conventions gathered from
both. Genres of Sanskrit plays like ntaka, utsrstiknka. Ntik, samavakra, vyayog, thmrgand
dim, dealing with the exploits of beings from the three worlds, were mainly performed in
Ntyadharmi practice. Divine beings, supernatural energies, natural forces like rivers forest spirits,
hills armour, conveyance, banner staffs and even a curse appeared on the stage in human forms as
characters in these plays. The stage areas were imaginatively divided into various zones, depicting
different locales through suggestive abhinaya. This was termed as the convention of zonal divisions.
39

Highly stylized hand gestures, sculpturesque stances of standing, sitting and reclining (sthna, sana
and ayana), dance like movements (karana-s and agahra-s), walks and facial expressions specially
of the eyes, make-up and costumes with magico-ritualistic undertones were used as a code language
suggesting implied meanings to the spoken word. The stylized, intoned and accented speech, chants
and songs, monologues, aside, speech in the air and concealed speech as well as the stylization of
sttvika, were parts of this highly symbolic and abstract form of Ntyadharmi theatrical practice. The
responsive spectator who relished the rich nuances of this practice of suggestion and implication, was
of course a vital part of its success.
This convention of lokadharmi also termed as realistic practice by the scholars, dealt with the
natural conditions of the things of the world as against the highly stylized ntyadharmi. Prakarana,
praana, bhna type of Sanskrit plays mainly emphasize this practice of performance because they
deal with the professions and activities of people. According to Ntyastra the practice had no
playful flourish of the limbs and depended on men and women of different types found in the society.
Performers behaved, moved and spoke in accordance with the nature, position, culture and regional
characteristics of the character types that they portrayed. Lokadharmi practice being an assimilation of
the ways of the world might not have been as dependent on rigorous specialization as the ntyadharmi
system and was comparatively less formal. But it was definitely performed according to the
lokadharmi hereditary traditions governing the fourfold abhinaya. There appears to be no strict
compartmentalization of their usage in play production. Both were employed according to the
situations so that we get an unending variety of both practices of staging in Sanskrit plays.
There are twelve verses on ntyadharmi, providing a detailed description of the particular
circumstances in which theatrical representation is appropriate. The emphasis on ntyadharmi might
lead to the conclusion that it is more important in natya than lokadharmi and indeed all the numerous
40

descriptions of the means of histrionic representation (abhinaya) in the Ntyastra belong to the
category of ntyadharmi. However, whatever the emphasis, lokadharmi is part of the actors theatrical
practice. Although it is thus possible to differentiate daily from extra-daily behaviour on the basis of
the concepts of lokadharmi and ntyadharmi, the important difference is that, daily behaviour lies
outside the realm of performance; even more, it is the kind of behaviour that the performer has to
overcome to become a good actor. In contrast, lokadharmi and ntyadharmi both pertain to the
performance.
Vritti is the mother of theatre i.e. vrittayo natyamatarah, according to the Ntyastra, chapter 13. In
Sanskrit aesthetics, there are three dimensions of human activity and behaviour. These are verbal,
physical, and mental or emotional. When such acts or behaviour take place passionately, with
absorption or involvement, they spontaneously become heightened and intense. The absorption occurs
in two ways, caused by the experience of joy, suffering or pain in ordinary life, or caused by the
sensitivity of the artist and the connoisseur of art. The physical, verbal, and mental and emotional acts
in daily living cannot be termed part of the rasa experience unless represented through an artistic
process. Surcharged with artistic absorption and by the creative process, however, they get
transformed into vrittis, in theatre as well as other art forms.
The individual predominance of physical, verbal, or mental/emotional responses varies from person to
person, as well as in the characteristic behaviour of people collectively, from region to region. For
instance, one person may be too talkative in relation to others; likewise, verbal traits may dominate in
one region, compared to others. The distinctiveness of behaviour may also be observed in different
psychic and corporeal states. In a specific state of being, an individual may be more silent and
peaceful, while in another he may be restless and vocal. Thus vrittis become important in delineating a
character, a people, or a state of being.
41

Vrittis are fourfold. The names can be mentioned as bharati or spoken, sattvati or internal i.e.
essence, kaisiki or soft and graceful, and arabhati or bold and energetic. They correspond to three
intrinsic channels of abhinaya or acting, namely vacika or verbal, sattvika i.e. mental and emotional,
and angika i.e. physical, which covers kaisiki as well as arabhati. As corporeal actions and behaviour
are visible, they are more concrete, their tenderness or vigorousness may be clearly experienced.
Therefore they have been differentiated into two, kaisiki and arabhati. The former is associated with
feminine behaviour, for tenderness is natural and predominant in women, whereas forceful behaviour
is natural in the expressions of men. This does not mean that males lack graceful or delicate aspects
and that energy is always missing in women.
These are the very general modes of human action and a play may abound in all of them or any of
them according to the demands of the rasa delineated. In theatre, the vrittis are artistically improvised,
the creative representation of actions or behaviour. If a play is said to have a certain vritti or vrittis,
these must be highlighted in acting. Thus vrittis occupy an important place in theatre. The literary
notion of style also emerges from the theatrical notion of vritti.
There are two broad categories of performance. These are sukumara or tender and aviddha i.e.
vigorous. Plays full of action like war, battle, wonder, and magic, with few female characters, and
featuring sattvati and arabhati vrittis, constitute the aviddha. The dima, samavakara, vyayoga, and
ihamriga dramatic forms belong to this category, whereas nataka, prakarana, bhana, vithi,
utsrishtikatnka, and natika belong to sukumara performance. Aviddha specially suits plays in which
demons and other terrible characters occur in plenty, whereas sukumara is appropriate for drama
where humans comprise the majority.
The same chapter of the Ntyastra also mentions pravritti, or specific human behaviour varying
from region to region. It divides India into four broad zones accordingly, to facilitate the
42

understanding of them, so that vrittis may find proper expression through the required portrayal in the
text as well as performance. The four pravrittis are dakshinatya i.e. southern, avantika i.e. western,
audramagadhi or gaudi from Magadha or Gauda i.e. eastern, and pancalamadhyama i.e. Panchala and
midland, or north-western and northern. In each, behaviour varies due to predominance of different
vrittis, requiring careful study by the playwright and actor so that description and performance achieve
the accurate representation.
Vrittis also played an important role in determining the structure of Sanskrit drama. Sanskrit theatre
stressed the delineation or portrayal of bhava i.e. emotive state. Performers evoked to the audience
these bhavas which, through powerful abhinaya or acting were transformed into the ideal, central
aesthetic experience of rasa. The interpretation given by the Nyadarpaa authors of the dramatic
vritti is very simple and to the point. The vrittis are said to be present in all forms of kvya wheteher
meant for theatrical presentation or not, but the fact remains that they were borrowed by the ravya-
kvya from the dya- kvya. At alll events the vrittis pertaining to a play which is to be represented
both visually and aurally before an audience should be essentially different from those of a ravya-
kvya which is intended to be realized by mind through reading and hearing alone. The theatricalism
of a performance largely depends on the degree to which the particular vritti is employed therein and
on the manner the diverse stage effects become fused to evoke the ideal atmosphere. Abhinava attacks
a view sponsored by some that vrittis determine only the general and superficial features of the ten
types of drama, for they consider that vrittis with their varieties are not found in compositions meant
for stage presentation. Abhinava rejects this view as absolutely baseless and reminds them that the
entire world is imbibed with the four vrittis. (A. Bh Vol. II p 407). He quotes from the vrittis chapter
of the Ntyastra several places to prove that the vrittis are present not only in mere kvya but also in
stage performances which alone display them in the most tangible fashion so that they may be
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perceived through the visual and aural organs as well as mind. It is only in a dramatic performance
which epitomizes on the stage, the ways of the world, that the vrittis appear in their true form.
Therefore the word prayoga (practice) used by Bharata in the context, signifies that the vrittis are
determinants that help to distinguish one type of play from another from a theatrical point of view.
Speech, expression of moods and emotions, physical movement and extraneous representation (i.e
stage properties, costume and make-up) when taken separately for study, each of them is called a
technique of representation or abhinaya, but in a dramatic performance, these four techniques, as
already been shown, cannot operate independently. They are all interdependent and cannot be much
effective unless they operate in co-ordination with each other. As a result of such a proper co-
ordination of two or modes of representation, is produced a certain element of beauty which permeates
the minds of the audience and this is called vritti. Whenever beautiful expressions and interesting
dialogue containing wit and humour become more effective than acting, costume or facial expressions
and attract the undivided attention of the audience, Bhrat-vritti can be said to be prevailing there.
The Ntyastra speaks of those who attend the theatre as spectators (prekaka, literally those who
see). From this it would seem that the ancient Indian theatre laid particular stress on the visual
aspects of performance and yet there is ample evidence that both sight and sound were to be an
effective blend and that the spectators were to be equally cognizant of the importance of both.
In the prologues to many of the plays, stage manager speaks directly to the spectators and flatters them
by declaring that they are learned and wise. Perhaps what the stage manager says was true and not just
a theatrical convention; however, it is more than likely that those who attended Sanskrit plays varied
widely in learning, judgement, and taste. It may be remembered that in the first chapter of
Ntyastra, Indra asked Brahma to create drama for the amusement and edification of all the colour
44

or caste groups (vara), from the highest caste brahmins, arbiters of ancient knowledge and wisdom,
to the lowly sudras, simple peasants, as well as for all the occupational groups in between.
Conformingto the general practice os specifying ideal types and classes of individuals and things, the
Ntyastra identifies the characteristics that the ideal spectators should possess. They should be of
good character, high birth, quiet and learned, partial, advanced in age, alert, honest and virtuous. The
audience was to be proficient in drama and acting, expert in playing musical instruments,
knowledgeable in costumes and make-up, and expert in other branches in arts and crafts. They shouls
understand the meaning of the sciences (stra). Grammar, prosody, sentiment and emotion all
these were to be known and appreciated by the ideal spectator.
Indian theatre: traditions of performance By Farley P. Richmond, Darius L. Swann, Phillip B. Zarrilli
The occasion for a theatre performance arose from a desire on the part of an individual, group, or
institution to organize a public gathering to celebrate some great occasion; perhaps the first and most
important occasion was the celebration of a temple festival. The numerous rituals accompanying the
building of the theatre, the stages in its construction, its consecration, and the preliminaries preceding
the performance of a play strengthen the contention that dramatic events were thought of as sacred
affairs. These plays were also performed for the coronation of kings, marriages, the birth of a son, the
return of a traveller, and the celebration of the confiscation of a town or a state. The Ntyastra
asserts that of all the duties of the king, this (ther performance of a play) has been proclaimed as
possessing the best result. Of all kinds of charities, allowing people to enjoy a dramatic show without
payment has been praised most. (Ghosh 1961, 237).

Classical Sanskrit drama employs Sanskrit language and different dialects of Prakrit, the language
spoken by the ordinary people in order to give a realistic touch to the play. Figures of speech such as
45

similes, metaphors and illuminators (dipaka) and metrical effects were dextrously woven into Sanskrit
dialogue so as to enhance the expression of the sentiments (Rasas). Ordinary dialogues in Sanskrit
plays are for the greater part in prose, but the poetic zeal of the dramatists inspired them to depict their
reflections or descriptions in the form of eloquent verse, that too, in refined Sanskrit. This led to a
misconception that Sanskrit drama was meant only for the royal court and the elite, not for the
ordinary people. One of the criticisms of classical Sanskrit drama is that it was written in language
which was not the peoples language; (28, Adya Rangacharya, The Indian Theatre). This claim
may not be totally true. E.W.Marasinghe, in his text, The Sanskrit Theatre and Stagecraft states that
in the Mrcchakatika which presents more than twenty five different characters, Sanskrit is spoken by
only three or four of them, and all the rest employ Prakrit dialect (297). From this suggestion, we may
assume that Sanskrit drama not only delighted the royal court and the elite but it was well appreciated
and well understood even by the common populace as considerable part of it was written in the Prakrit
dialect.
This multilingual character of Sanskrit drama with its dialogue in prose, lyrical prose, verse and song
both in Sanskrit and Prakrit obviously must have required a variety of modes of delivery. On the other
hand, the art of speech deliverance is a complex art for its wide range of styles and conventions. It may
be noted here that the actors of the ancient times were educated and competent enough to have
mastered various modes of dialogue delivery. Men, who could effectively declaim the stanzas of
Bhvabhuti, must have had both education and culture of a high degree (98, Chandra Bhan Gupta,
The Indian Theatre). They were proficient in phonetics, articulation and voice modulation and rhythm,
which form the vital constituents of vacikabhinaya (verbal representation) one of the four aspects of
Abhinaya elucidated by Bharata in his Ntyastra.
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Bharata prescribes elaborate rules for the use of Sanskrit and Prakrit by the characters in the
Ntyastra. In accordance with their social position, the various characters in a Sanskrit play were
assigned different dialects. Sanskrit was the language of the elite. It was spoken by dramatic persons
of the higher and middle ranks such as kings, Brahmins, officers of high position like ministers and
generals and other high-bred persons. Occasionally, the chief queen, female ascetics and members of
the harem spoke Sanskrit. Battle scenes, peace negotiations and omens where ever found described in
the play, the use of Sanskrit was preferred.
The Ntyastra recognizes seven principal Prakrit dialects for use in drama. They are Sauraseni,
Magadhi, Pracya, Avanti, Ardhamagadhi, Balhika and Daksinatya. He gives also a list of sub-dialects
(vibhasas) such as Sakari, Abhiri, Candali, Sabari, Dravidi, Odri and Dhakki. The principal Prakrit
dialect used in the dramas was Sauraseni, both for prose and verse. Ordinary men, women, heroine,
her friends and attendants, and other male characters of lower rank spoke Prakrit. The Vidusaka,
though a Brahmin spoke Prakrit dialect called Pracya. Ardhamagadhi was spoken by slaves, sons of
kings and masters of guilds. Whereas, inmates of royal harem, diggers of tunnels, inn-keepers,
watchmen, stable keepers were assigned Magadhi dialect. With regard to sub-dialects, Sakari was
attributed to the Sakara and Sabari to hunters, wood-workers and forest dwellers. Speaking about the
allocation of Sanskrit language or Prakrit dialects and its sub- dialects to various characters, Bharat
Gupt opines that, it was done based on the nature of characters and goes on to say that the producers,
audience and actors in ancient times did not have any prejudice or royalty for particular languages but
treated language purely as a medium of communication and used it according to the conventions of a
given art form. (183, Dramatic Concepts, Greek and Indian).
Dialogue is one of the essential components of drama because it helps to move the plot forward. The
Ntyastra gives more importance to the choice of words in a play and calls them the body of the
47

dramatic art (natya). Dialogue analysis has a major role in the study of drama. By analyzing a spoken
or written conversation between characters we can infer various things such as time of action, place of
action, mood, behavioural patterns of the actors and actresses etc.
Veda may be interpreted as Shruthi-what was heard i.e. from conversations. In the Rigveda we come
across certain hymns in the form of dialogues (Samvada Suktas) some of which seem to contain
dramatic essence consisting, as they do, of conversation, speech and repartee. there do exist in
the Rgveda itself a number of hymns which are obviously dialogues, and which are expressly
recognized as such by early Indian tradition. (13, A.B.Keith, The Sanskrit Drama) In fact, the
significance of an instructive or an entertaining dialogue was well-understood in India and our
religious scriptures-the Vedas and Upanishads Samhitas, Mahabharata, Tantras, Puranas and even
Jatakas or Bauddha Akhyanas are founded on conversations. Ancient dramatists gave great importance
to dialogues and proper dramatic delivery. Speech is fundamental to Sanskrit drama. Bharata in his
Ntyastra represents it as vacika-abhinaya. The aural content in Sanskrit theatre can be divided into
two parts; vak the spoken word and gana the sung word. Vak or the spoken word was transformed
into dramatic discourse through intonation, pitch variation, or song. All these three ways combined to
make up the ancient actors dialogue. The dialogue of a Sanskrit play has a number of functions. Apart
from carrying forward the theme, it always lays the setting and describes feelings and emotions of the
characters. In the course of a play, minute incidents not required for action, certain details that are not
physically present or rather not necessarily required on the stage, what is to be known and only be
heard by audience, parts of the story that have happened between two scenes or acts, confidential
speech between characters; all of these were conveyed to the audience by the ancient dramatists
employing various conversational techniques.. Dhananjaya in his treatise on dramaturgy called
Dasarupa discusses various conversational techniques through which the plot of a play could be
48

carried forward. Some of those devices are prakasa (Aloud) i.e. what is to be heard by all, Svagata or
Atmagata (Aside) i.e. what is not to be heard by all,
Janantika, (Personal Address) i.e. mutual conversation in the presence of other persons by shutting
out the others in the middle of a story by the hand with three fingers raised (Tripataka), Apavarita
(Confidence) i.e. a secret told by one actor to the another by turning around towards the character that
is to hear the secret. Conversation technique that suggests the conversation of a character with
imaginary persons is termed as Akasabhasita.
In the same treatise, Dhanunjaya gives a detailed list of thirteen types of speech types and their
possible usage in one of the ten types of drama known as Vithi. These thirteen subdivisions of the
Vithi are also called Vithyangas. They are as follows: Abrupt Dialogue (udghatyaka), Continuance
(avalagita), Compliment, (prapanca), Triple Explanation (trigata), Deception (chala), Repartee
(vakkeli), Outvying (adhibala), Abrupt Remark (ganda), Re-interpretation (avasyandita), Enigma
(nalika), Incoherent Chatter (asatpralapa), Humorous Speech (vyahara), and Mildness (mrdava). (84,
the Dasarupa, George . C.O. Haas, 1912, Columbia University press). Chuluka or intimation
speech is that which is made by a character from behind the curtain.
Indian music consists of three basic elements Bhava (emotions) Raga (musical delineation) and Tala
(rhythm). The ultimate aim of all these three constituents is create rasa nishpatti. Sangita, as it was
known during the time of Ntyastra, is the triad of gita or gana (vocal music), vadya (instrumental
music) and nartana (dance). The unison of all these three elements in accordance with rhythm not
only beautified the audio-visual aspects of ancient theatre performance but also offered immense scope
to the dramatists in significantly heightening the expression of the spoken word of the actor.
Moreover, appropriate music when scored in right time during the enactment of a play, glorifies
action, enhances the emotion and helps in the development of rasa because each sentiment has its
49

appropriate music and each action its special accompaniment. Certainly, musical integration began
with the introduction of gita or song and atodya or music. This served not only to determine the pace
and rhythm of movement, gait, exits, and entrances, but also to incorporate lasyangas into the play.
The change in Sanskrit theatre from rupakas to uparupakas is marked by the increasing use of music.
The tendency was already present in the period of Kalidasa and Harivamsa, and gathered momentum
with the passage of time. Music became more essential and uparupakas were often called sangitakas
i.e. song works. Dance, too, acquired a more dominant place in the dramatic and theatrical structure.
References in Abhinavagupta`s Abhinavabharati, Saradatanaya`s Bhavaprakasana and other texts
verify this conclusion. Sanskrit theatre was holistic, consisting of a highly evolved text, pre-written as
well as orally circulating among the community of artists. As how it is instrumental today in the field
of cinema, even in those early days, music played a crucial role in deciding the outcome of a dramatic
performance. Dramatists of classical and folk theatres made profuse use of music to produce rasa
effect for Bharata says without rasa no purpose is fulfilled. It may be noted here that ancient folk
theatre made an extensive use of music and dance than classical Sanskrit theatre because ancient folk
drama relied more on music and dance to produce the dramatic content. ancient Indian folk
theatre consisted mainly of dance and music representing some emotions or tales. (p.83,
Theatre in Ancient India, Siddeswar Chattopadyay,Manohar Publishers,1993 ) Even today, in
modern Indian folk theatre one can notice the continuance of ancient folk tradition i.e. the abundant
use of music and dance. Hence, the director and actors and actresses were all supposed to be well
trained in music. Every Sanskrit drama begins with music and ends with it. The prologue of a Sanskrit
play is called purvaranga. Natyadarpana defines purvaranga as the pre-play concert consisting of
songs, recitations, drumming, instrumental music and dance. The sutradhara and his assistants, aided
by singers, dancers and musicians participate in the invocation of the deities for the unhampered and
50

successful performance of the play and pray for the well being and prosperity of mankind in general
and of the king and all those connected with the performance in particular. In this manner, purvaranga
may be interpreted as a form of prayer or worship done on the stage to give a spiritual outlook to the
play that is to be enacted and also to create a sacred feeling in the audience. At the same time, it is
also a sort of prologue in which sutradara introduces the theme of the play to the audience. Thus, this
pre-play function was also useful to arouse and sustain the curiosity of the audience. On the whole, it
sets the mood of the audience. At the same time, it is also a sort of prologue in which sutradara
introduces the theme of the play to the audience. Even during the enactment of the play, songs and
instrumental music permeate various scenes and acts. In Ntyastra it is stated that song is the couch
on which natya is seated, and therefore, song deserves the greatest attention. If song and instruments
are employed properly there is no risk of failure in drama. (NS 32; 426) Such was the status assigned
to music in the Sanskrit drama. Reiterating the place of gana or gita in a dramatic production Bharat
Gupt says, Songs composed in various ragas not only intensify emotions that have been enacted
by the actors but also create emotional states that are conducive to receive the forthcoming
enactment.(194, Dramatic Concepts Greek and Indian) in a Sanskrit drama, at times, different
emotional states of the characters were expressed through songs though not in words. Bharata, while
mentioning the chief characteristics of Bhana a one-act play states that ten types of Lasyangas (gentle
dances) could be used to project the emotional feelings of a character. They are as follows: Geyapada,
Sthitapathya, Asina, Puspagandika Pracchedaka, Trigudha, Saindhava, Dvigudhaka, Uttamottamaka
and Uktaprtyukta. A lasyanga is always carried out by a lone actor. When a lasyanga is performed by
an actor, usually the dramatic action becomes secondary. The outpourings of inward feelings and
emotional states of characters are conveyed through song primarily. Though lasyangas are to be
51

technically categorized under the genre of dance, these may well be called musical items because all of
them or recitations or songs recited or sung by actors on the stage.
Bharata recommends the use of dhruva songs in Sanskrit plays. They were used for dramatic
purposes. They were sung in grama-ragas. They were of five kinds: pravesiki. It was sung on the entry
of a character. It also gave a hint about the emotional state and mental disposition of the character and
also the scene of his arrival. Thus it may be called entrance song. Naiskramiki was sung at the time of
exit of actors and at the end or in the middle of an act. Another kind of song called aksepiki was song
when a new sentiment was brought to rise having subdued the one already present. A song liberating
the mind of spectators from distraction and bringing it back to the main sentiment was known as
prasadiki. This dhruva was aimed at bringing solace to audience after they witnessed something which
agitated their feeling very much. A song sung to remove or soothe melancholic feelings of the
audience caused by scenes of swooning, poisoning of the chief characters etc. was called antara
druva. It is called antara-druva because it is sung in between (antare) and not during action. All these
dhruvas were sung by a chorus from behind the scenes. In this way, dhruvas provided a sort of
background music to the theme of the play besides suggesting acts and moods of different characters
in a play. Dhruvas were composed both in Sanskrit and Prakrit dialects to acquaint the elite and the
underprivileged with the proceedings of the play in equal measure.
Equally interesting is the role of musical instruments in enhancing the aesthetic appeal of the play.
Bharata classifies all instruments into four classes: (1) Tata- stringed instruments- Vina (2) Susira-
instruments with holes or wind instruments- flute (3) Avanaddha instruments
covered with skin or hide- Mridangam (4) Ghana- instruments made of brass or wood - cymbals.
Again, the first two of the four classes form one group as they include all instruments that produce
52

musical notes. The third and fourth classes combine to form the second group which covers all
instruments that are used to keep time.
Bharatas orchestra was called kutapa. It is synonymous of the word vadya-vrinda. Kutapa consisted
of male and female singers who sang and provided chorus, strings, and wind and percussion
instrumentalists. Bharata gives detailed description of Vina and Flute and their playing techniques.
Abhinava says that, the string and wind instruments not only cause melody but also help to cover up
any defects in the singing. Vinas and flutes were played for three different functional purposes. Firstly,
the music was played as a sort of introduction before a song started (tattva). Secondly, it was played as
an accompaniment of the song (anugata). Thirdly, it was played in a crescendo with more elaborate
strokes and varying style chiefly to produce effect (ogha). The drums were also regularly used for the
sake of variety and dramatic effect. They were also used to produce a variety of beats to suit the gaits
of the different characters. Drums played in quick tempo or slow tempo or moderate tempo during the
enactment of the play was suggestive of various dramatic moments and sentiments. E.R.
Sarachchandra, a well known dramatist of Ceylon, speaking on the importance of rhythm and the
universal appeal of drums says rhythms based on drums are universally understood, and I
have used them very effectively, I think. Rhythm is essential to theatre; drums are a marvelous
way of creating it.(The Uses of Tradition, An Interview with E.R.Sarachchandra by A.J.
Gunawardana, Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1144638).
Dance too has its own identity in the ancient Indian dramatic tradition. The presence of both male and
female dancers, natyacharyas (dance instructors) and courtesans in the royal harems of ancient India
stand as a testimony to this fact. It was not a pastime confined exclusively to the pleasure of the king
and the elite of the society. While Classical dance delighted the royal court and the educated classes of
the ancient Indian society, Folk Dance through its various folk forms, endeared the common public,
53

becoming an indispensable part of their social and cultural life. Various episodes from the two great
epics of India, The Ramayana and The Mahabharata were presented, much to the delight of the ancient
Indian audience through nrthya-kavyas. These nrithya-kavyas were basically dance-dramas.
Abhinavagupta recognizes them as uparupakas or secondary dramas. Unfortunately, the craze that the
ancient Indian society had for dance did nothing to elevate the status of the dance or that of the
dancers. The public looked down upon the dancing community. Female dancers were the worst
affected lot, though they enjoyed the patronage of the royal court. Most of them either dedicated their
lives in the service of god as temple-maids (devdasis) or were confined to royal harems. This devdasi
practice still exists in some parts of the south India, especially Tamil Nadu. English-speaking society
in India has painted devadasis as prostitutes. The truth is that devadasis were an essential part of
Indian temples. They performed useful functions at temples like cleaning of temples, lighting lamps,
dressing the deities etc. They sang devotional songs and danced in devotion to the deities. They taught
music and dance to girls. They kept alive and developed a tradition of classical music and dance that
we see today. The earliest classical dances of India such as Bharatanatyam and Odissi have been
handed down to us by these ritualistic dancers at the expense of their dignity.
Technically speaking, Nrtta means pure dance. This form of dance is associated with god Siva who
is also known as Nataraja- the lord of dances. In Sanskrit, a distinction is made between pure dance
(nrtta) and dance which has content (Nrtya). Nritta consists of bodily movements and patterns of
dance, which are decorative and convey no meaning. In other words, it is a dance with no abhinaya
involved in it. The emphasis is on pure dance movements, movements for their own sake, creating
patterns in space and time without any specific intention of projecting any emotion. Further, the
movements are created by the use of the various limbs producing beauty for its own sake. Whereas, in
Nritya, meaning is conveyed through the stylized hand gestures, facial expressions, mime and action.
54

These, in turn, augment the emotions and sentiments conveyed by the dancer. Therefore, the element
of expression is properly conveyed in nrtya. On the other hand, we know that Natya is a union of both
drama and dance. Interestingly, Nrtta, Natya and Nrtya- all these three words stem from the same root
Nrt.
In Bharatas Ntyastra two types of dance are mentioned in detail. Tandava dance was invented by
Lord Siva himself when he was in a violent mood. Hence, the dance was a violent type to be
performed by male dancers. The second type was called Lasya. A Mythological legend says that
goddess Parvati performed this tender amorous dance to tone down the anger of Lord Siva after He
was insulted by king Daksha. Lasya was gentle and graceful in its style and therefore it should be
performed only by women. Lasya was a gestural dance hence imitation was possible.
In Sanskrit drama, speech and action were inseparably blended with music and dance. As mentioned
earlier all Sanskrit plays invariably begin with purvaranga, in which the role of the dance is chiefly to
worship various deities for the successful conduct of the play. the Ntyastra prescribes an
elaborate series of preliminaries (purvaranga ) which must be performed before the actual
drama begins; they are intended to secure divine favour for the performance, and doubtless
they present us with a reminiscence of the early theatre in the mingling of music, dance and
song. It also appears from the Ntyastra that dance was introduced in purvaranga after Bharatas
second play production on the advice of Lord Siva because it adds colour and grandeur to the
performance. after the show was over, God Shiva, who liked it, made a suggestion to make it still
better. He asked Bharata to introduce dance and music to make the show more entertaining. this
came to be known as poorvaranga (a kind of prologue). (14, Adya Rangacharya, The Indian
Theatre, National Book Trust, new Delhi India, 1971) Apart from causing deep emotional arousal
in the spectators dance also relieves them of their stress and other mundane concerns. Bharata makes it
55

very clear in the Ntyastra that dance (ntta) should be sparingly performed for specific occasions
such as marriage, child birth, receptions, festivity, prosperity and adoration of deities but prohibits its
performance in a scene which presents an enraged heroine or a lovers quarrel (chapter iv, page, 36,
adya rangacharya, The Ntyastra, English Translation with Critical Notes, Munshiram Manoharlal
Publishers Pvt Ltd, New Delhi, 1996.).
The stage, the curtain, the green room, the preliminary music and dance, the types of roles, male and
female actors, the method of presentation and technique of action, dialogues and its characteristics, the
different modes of address such as the aside, speaking within oneself, speaking in the air all these are
as much reflected in the plays themselves as in the Ntyastra of Bharatha. The prologues to the
plays refer to the occasion and the place of production. The stage directions given by the poets in the
course of the texts of the plays, for entries and the exits and for the different movements and actions of
the actors while on the stage have a direct bearing on the production of the plays. The drama,
whatever its type is as a thing presented on the stage called prayoga, meaning production and it is by
this term or by its verbal forms that the coming play is referred to in the prologues. The prologues also
contain interesting notes on the actors, their make-up, the greenroom, the director and his wife or
understudy, the effort and care the actors should undertake, with their parts, the rivalry between the
group of actors and the friendship that certain playwrights like Bhavabhuti enjoyed with actors and
producers.
In a further series of observations that follow, the essentials of the performance are emphasized: the
music and its elements and qualities, the soft and the vigorous tempos and styles, musical instruments
and rhythms, the delivery of speeches in Sanskrit and Prakrit with appropriate pitch, intonation and
clarity; the nature of the characters portrayed, their emotional states, their make-up, their acting; and
the well-knit plot. A practical realization of the Ntyastra is to be seen here. But the word Bharata
56

also means actor and it is taken as signifying in its three constituent syllables, the three arts of drama,
music and dance based on emotion, melody and rhythm. The word natya also meant the whole of this
triune art. It is primarily drama, enriched with music and dance.
The prologues to the classical Sanskrit dramas mention either the temples or their festivals as the
venue and occasions of the performance or the theatre halls in palaces. The temple of goddess of
learning, Saraswati is specially mentioned in Kama Sutra and Bhavaprakasa (Treatise on emotions) as
the place of performance. Therefore, side by side with open areas, there were also protected places or
buildings for the drama.
In the opening chapter of Ntyastra a story is told as to how a special theatre hall came to be
constructed. The first drama was given in the open during the festival of Indiras flag (Indradhvaja,
dhvajamaha), but the demons or asuras, disturbed the performance, being offended at the theme of the
play which was the defeat of the asuras by the gods. So, to provide protection for the performance, a
theatre (natyagraha, natyamandapa, prekshagraha) came into being. Bharatamuni also specifies
where and how a play is to be performed. In ancient India plays were generally performed either in
temple-yard or within palace precints. During public performances, plays were generally performed in
the open. For such public performances, Bharatamuni has advocated the construction of a mandapa.
According to the Ntyastra in the construction of a mandapa, pillars must be set up in four corners.
With the help of these pillars a paltform is built of wooden planks. The area of the mandapa is divided
into two parts. The front part, which is the back stage is called the rangashrishu. Behind the ranga-
shirsha is what was called the nepathya-griha, where the characters dress up before entering the stage.
In the second chapter Bharata describes three types of theatres: The rectangular, the square and the
triangular. Each of these may be of large, medium or small dimensions according to requirements.
Bharata recommends a middle size house, neither too large nor too small, in which the text, songs and
57

the like could be well received, for minute facial expressions or acting with the eyes, would become
indistinct in too large a theatre. The theatre halls were carefully constructed and decorated according
to traditional rules of architecture. A theatre of medium size, according to Bharata, could
accommodate 400 spectators. Some of the stages had two storeys, the upper storey being for the
representation of action in the celestial sphere and the ground storey for that in the terrestrial
sphere.The theatre was made up of two primary parts, the stage and the auditorium. The stage proper
was divided into three parts, the two-doored green room at the back (nepathyagrha), the stage head,
which was an elevated portion (rangasirsa), and the actual acting space downfront (rangapitha). The
portion for acting had two spaces on either side (mattavarani) and was separated from the raised stage
head by a curtain. Bharata says that the orchestra would sit in the space between the two entrances to
the greenroom, facing the stage proper and the audience. The drums occupied the central space, the
vocal singers faced the north, to their left were the string players, to their right the flutists; a female
singer sat opposite the male singer.
Moreover, the theatre should be attractive, full of carvings in its woodwork and have paintings on the
walls. The hall should not be too open and windy as the voices of the actors and the music has to be
protected against distortion; the whole building should be like a cave to provide the best acoustics. In
Bharatas art the theatre building is not a major matter of concern. In fact, in the list of topics which
he gives in chapter 6 (verse 10), he puts the theatre building last.
Before the proper drama performance, there were several preliminaries, religious propitiations
(rangapuja or rangaisti), a series of musical items and several dances, all of which come under the
term purvaranga. Bharata himself says after devoting nearly three chapters to preliminaries, that they
can be simple as well as elaborate. If too much time is taken for preliminary music and dance, both
actors and spectators will become tired out and effect of the main performance will be hampered (vv.
58

157 160). That is why we find some of the poets making the stage director exclaim at the very
beginning of the prologue: Enough with too much indulgence in this!
The group of artists who participate in a dramatic performance is called natya-vnda or dramatic troupe.
The natya-vrnda comprehend among other actors, dancers, singers and musicians who in Sanskrit
terminology are called as natas, nartakas, gayakas and vadakas respectively .There are also generic
terms by which the member of the dramatic troupe was known as a commonest of them being bharata,
sailusa and kusilava. The term bharata has gained wider acceptance as it is derived from the root bhr
which means to bear or to assume. This is because an actor assumes the appearance, age, actions,
deeds and so forth of a particular character, availing himself of speech, costume, make-up, personal
props and other aids. An attempt is made to explain all the synonyms of an actor in terms of different
aspects of his skill. (Bharata is the name of the divine authority of on drama who codified and
translated into audio-visual form the Natyaveda conceived by Brahma and eventually became the
mythical author of the Ntyastra.) Ref. The Sanskrit Theatre and Stagecraft E.W Marasinghe.
Ntyastra narrates a very interesting account of how the dramatic art came down to earth. The
story goes that the hundred sons of Bharata were fond of enacting forces through which they parodied
the denizens of heaven. Once, it so happened that they staged a burlesque of the type known as
Silpaka in which ridiculed the behavior of the divine sages. This aroused the indignation of the
sages who pronounced a curse on the high born actors. They would be reduced to the despicable
conditions of the sudras, the lowest rank of the caste system and expelled with contempt from society;
their future generations would choose no other profession than the stage. Fearing that this might mean
the end of the dramatic art, Indra and the other gods approached Brahma. This imprecation did not
bear fruit until heaven got a new ruler, a former king on earth, Nahusa by name, who attained that
coveted position by virtue of his expediency, intelligence and valour king Nahusa was also fascinated
59

by their wonderful performance in heaven that he wished that the dramatic art be established on earth
as well. The request was granted but the gods would not send their heavenly nymphs down to earth to
play parts with the mortals. They were asked to descend to earth to teach the art to men and women
and perform before kings and Brahmins.The sages reassured the gods that drama would continue even
if the actors were cursed. However, Bharatas sons were so miserable that they threatened to commit
suicide. Just then, so the story goes, a king requested that Bharata and his sons descend to earth and
perform plays at his court. Thus drama was saved, and consequently it fell within the province of
kings, who took it upon themselves to patronize theatre and drama as one of their royal obligations.
Bharatas sons married earthly women and drama was sustained and the art passed down from
generation to generation.
Bharatamuni has also specified that every play should have a Sutradhara which literally means 'holder
of a string'. The Sutradhara was like the producer-director of today. Every play had to begin with an
invocation of God. This invocation was called the poorvaranga. Even today, plays in Indian languages
begin with a devotional song called Naandi. The Ramayana and the Mahabharata can be called the
first recognized plays that originated in India.
As the head of the company was the troupe leader, who also may have served as producer as well
as stage manager (sutradhara). His major jobs seems to have been supervisory, although there are
references that suggests that he was also an actor, perhaps even the principle actor of the company and
took the roles of the leading male characters. (Ancient India By Tarla Mehta)
As leader of the company, his responsibilities may have included establishing engagements for the
performance of plays with officials of a temple, the court, or wealthy citizens. As stage manager, the
original Sanskrit term literally means holder of the thread or stings he may well have been the
architect of the ancient theatre buildings. As the producer of the play, the Ntyastra charges him to
60

pay attention to the feelings (bhava), gestures (mudras), and the sattvas (perhaps feelings) in
representing the psychological state (bhava) through various characters (that may appear in drama)
(Ghosh 1967, 513)
Other evidence suggests that the group leader served a similar function to that of the modern stage
director. The Ntyastra assigns him the job of distributing roles in a play and of teaching the rule
which apply to the art and craft of the actors and actresses. It goes further and lays down the
characteristics of an ideal leader, He should be a person capable of fulfilling all these diverse and
difficult responsibilities, who has an excellent memory and intelligence, and who is versed in music,
language, astrology and physiognomy as well as theatre. He should be sensitive to human frailty and
familiar with the customs of different regions of the sub-continent.
The troupe seems to have presided over a company of actors, singers, dancers, musicians, back stage
workers and playwrights. We know a great deal more about the actors and playwrights than we do
about any of the other functionaries.
Actors are as old as dramatic art itself, for, there could be no drama without actors. The
We must take note of our important point in the narrative that these primeval actors of the divine
origins were Brahmins by caste. Saradatanya too records that the first actors who ever performed on
earth were Brahmins who performed before the kings in various faults. The story narrated by Bharata
may, therefore be regarded as a sincere effort to account for the pitiable conditions in which the actor
class found itself during the earlier centuries of the Christian era.
For the ancient Indians drama could not be conceived without women participating in it. The
importance attached all through the Ntyastra to the participation of women in drama is too
obvious. This presupposes a liberal society in which women enjoyed great freedom unparalleled in any
contemporary society. When there has been a strong aversion, in other countries like Greece, Chine
61

and Japan on women taking up the stage, there has never been any move in ancient India to banish
women from the stage or even to discourage them and the favourable attitude on the part of the stage
and of the general public towards womens participation engendered a healthy climate for the growth
of the theatre. But in the long run the actors suffered. Their too liberal mode of life naturally led to
their moral degradation
The natya-vrnda comprehend among other actors, dancers, singers and musicians who in Sanskrit
terminology are called as natas, nartakas, gayakas and vadakas respectively .There are also generic
terms by which the member of the dramatic troupe was known as a commonest of them being bharata,
sailusa and kusilava. The term bharata has gained wider acceptance as it is derived from the root bhr
which means to bear or to assume. This is because an actor assumes the appearance, age, actions,
deeds and so forth of a particular character, availing himself of speech, costume, make-up, personal
props and other aids. An attempt is made to explain all the synonyms of an actor in terms of different
aspects of his skill. Ref.The Sanskrit Theatre and Stagecraft E.W Marasinghe.
We must take note of our important point in the narrative that these primeval actors of the divine
origins were Brahmins by caste. Saradatanya too records that the first actors who ever performed on
earth were Brahmins who performed before the kings in various faults. The story narrated by Bharata
may, therefore be regarded as a sincere effort to account for the pitiable conditions in which the actor
class found itself during the earlier centuries of the Christian era.
For the ancient Indians drama could not be conceived without women participating in it. The
importance attached all through the Ntyastra to the participation of women in drama is too
obvious. This presupposes a liberal society in which women enjoyed great freedom unparalleled in any
contemporary society. When there has been a strong aversion, in other on women taking up the stage,
there has never been any move in ancient India to banish women from the stage or even to discourage
62

them and the favourable attitude on the part of the stage and of the general public towards womens
participation engendered a healthy climate for the growth of the theatre. But in the long run the actors
suffered. Their too liberal mode of life naturally led to their moral degradation.
The generic term for actor was Bharata, which seems to be the hereditary group to which they belong.
Actors were also called nata or nartaka and actresses were known as nati or natakaya. In the literature
of the time, these terms were also used interchangably to describe dancers and acrobats.
Apparently both men and women could perform in the plays. Roles could be taken by actors who were
their approximate age and sex of the characters. However, younger actors could also play older
characters and older actors could perform younger roles. And men were permitted to play women and
women could act the role of men. There are even records which indicate that entire companies were
composed of women. Actresses were usually regarded as better suited than men to sing, but were not
thought fit to participate in battle scenes, as actors were regarded as better suited to depict the
sentiments of heroism and rage. Mens voices were thought best for recitation, because they were
regarded as stronger than those of women.
If the Ntyastra is correct in its assessment, the knowledge required of an actor must have been
considerable. The ideal actor was assumed to have intelligence, strength, physical beauty, knowledge
of time and tempo and appreciation of sentiments and emotions. He must be the proper age to play her
role, possess curiosity, be able to acquire knowledge and other arts, and have retentive memory. He
must understand the vocal music that prompts dance, suppress stage fright, and display enthusiasm. He
must sing, dance, use complicated symbolic hand gestures, and be able to recite the text clearly enough
to be heard throughout the theatre. Since critics were supposed to judge the merits, and faults of his
work, he was obviously obliged to pay close attention to the accuracy of his execution.
According to the Ntyastra, actors could be faulted for the following:
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1. Unnaturalness in acting
2. Incorrect movement
3. Unsuitability for a role.
4. Forgetfulness.
5. Improper use of gestures.
6. Defect in costume and ornament.
7. Defect in rhythm of execution
8. Improper projection
9. Excessive laughter or weeping

Like a yogi who said to possess the power to transfer his soul from his body into that of a person who
has recently dies, the actor was supposed to think of himself, I am he (Ghosh 1961, 216-217).
Procedures for training actors are also established in the mythological origin of the theatre. Instruction
came directly to people from God, via a wise sage. Thus, a drama teacher is an older person, usually a
father, who instructs younger persons, usually his sons. The Ntyastra seems to have been designed
to serve as a guide to the correct procedures. In this way ancient wisdom was preserved and passed
down from generation to generation. When the actor had no access to a text or a competent teacher,
the text recommends that he observe and imitate the practices of others. Today, many of the same
training procedures proposed by the Ntyastra are practiced by performers of various rural art forms
and even by the actors of some urban theatre schools and companies.
The Ntyastra charges actors to keep physically fit by undergoing a regular routine of exercises. The
exercises were to begin with a purgation of the bowels followed by special dietary restrictions during
the period of exercise. The body was to be massaged by sesame oil or with barley gruel after
64

exercising. The proper places for exercises was the floor, which was called the mother of exercise.
The regimen included leaping in the air and stretching, accompanied by special movement patterns,
perhaps drawn from those used in the preliminary rituals before the performance of a play. Training
must have taken many long years of hard work, starting with the apprenticeship at a very young age of
the pupil to a teacher.
Actors may well have specialized in playing specific roles according to set role designations. The hero,
heroine, and clown are a few of the more important categories of roles. It is possible that actors who
had a natural aptitude, as well as skill and training, gravitated to one of these categories. Such a system
encouraged specialization, with the more difficult parts going to the better actors of the troupe and the
smaller roles assigned to younger, less experienced players. Given this hierarchy, it is entirely possible
that the actors who were senior and more experienced enjoyed a greater share of the profits. Since the
society venerated its elders, the practice probably did not seem unfair to highly talented but less
experienced younger players.
Other Company Members
The stage manager is thought to have had an assistant whose job was to help in the prologue and
recitation of the benediction. He may also have aided in the preparation and construction of the theatre
building. References in the prologues of many plays in which actresses appear lead us to believe that
the actress and the stage manager were husband and wife, although this has not yet been established as
anything more than a theatrical convention. Numerous other assistants seem to have shared in the
backstage responsibilities, including makeup artists, dressers, makers of ornaments and garlands,
painters and dyers and modellers of effigies, and washer men.
A company may have had musicians at its disposal, but it is also possible that the musicians
constituted a separate group of artists who performed with different troupes of players depending on
65

the occasion and the agreements that had been struck. Musical ensembles are thought to have varied in
number from small to medium or large, depending on the particular needs of a performance. The
ensembles consisted of male and female vocalists, flutists, players of string instruments, drummers,
and those who kept time with cymbals and bells.
Theatre companies may also well have included a separate group of dancers, engaged to perform in the
complicated preliminary rituals and perhaps between acts or at places undesignated in the extant play
scripts. However, it is also possible that the actors were responsible for performing their own dances in
the show.
Means of Support and Social Status
Apparently the performers were sustained by payments made by their patrons. This might have been in
the form of simple goods, like rice and oil to be used in preparation of the meals, as well as gifts of
clothing and precious metals or jewels. When particularly moved by a performance, spectators might
show their appreciation by offering material rewards to the players. It does not seem to have been the
practice to sell tickets to a play or to take up collection from the spectators.
The social position of the players does not appear to have been very high. Numerous ancient writers
speak of actors in the same breath as prostitutes and bandits. To prevent themselves from being ritually
polluted, Brahmans were never to take food from the hands of an actor. It was a common belief that
the actors sold their wives as prostitutes, yet some historical authorities indicate that close personal ties
existed between some actors and their royal patrons. Most probably acting companies varied widely in
terms of their standing in the community and among the various social classes; some probably enjoyed
a higher degree of respectability than others.
It must be noted that the conventions of Ntyastra were seldom subjected to changes in the later
years. It is true that all the extant plays are, roughly speaking cast in the same matrix conditioned in
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that great compendium. But this does not in any way mean that all Sanskrit plays are stereotyped and
lack originality and individuality. In subject matter and treatment, Sanskrit plays cover a wide range.
There are both serious and light plays based on love as well as political intrigue, social plays, martial
plays with epic heroes and heroines, such plays as fervent religious ideals, farces, monologue plays
and what not. Even in the employment of stage devices the playwrights had a certain amount of liberty
to exercise their creative power. If fact, some of the artifices found in their compositions are totally
absent in the Ntyastra - a fact which bespeaks them to be later innovations and some
conventions that have been enjoined in the Ntyastra have not been strictly followed in actual
practice. In view of these circumstances, it is more desirable to search for theatrical devices in the
plays themselves and try to relate them wherever possible to the conventions laid down in
Ntyastra, than to accept in total what is given in that work which assumed its present form well
before the time of the avant-garde of the Sanskrit theatrical art such as Bhasa, Kalidasa, Sudraka.
From the standpoint of theatrical technique, Sanskrit drama no doubt represents one of the most
sophisticated, stylized and symbolic theatres of the past, and as such, was non-realistic by any western
standards. The scenographic art which evolved on its simple stage had such a magical power that it
could bring about stage effects which even the most advanced theatre of the present day with its
modern technical devices would not have even dreamt of producing so effectively.
Ancient theatre which is extremely simple in view of its simple stage, yet highly sophisticated because
of its highly stylized nature. It fuses into a single art form a number of fine arts poetry, music, dance
and histrionics, and is a great feast to the eyes and ears alike.
There is a world of difference between reading a play and watching it on the boards. In the case of
Sanskrit drama, this disparity is still greater because, the theatrical technique is the crux of the entire
production of a Sanskrit play. Realism in every sense has been dispensed with and the director has
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before him a code of binding yet pliable and supple dramatic conventions for his guidance. The stage
being practically bare, the actor has to rely for stage effects mainly on his person. With his stylized
movement, conventional speech and stereotyped yet colourful costume, he alone becomes the focal
point of the audiences attention and the sole creator of artistic production known as play. The
dramatists technique of representing the acting, locale on the literary bare stage, through the words of
the character in lieu of ornate scenic effects. The art of word-painting: Except for a couple of
indispensible movable properties such as a plain chair and a cot, the stage in the Sanskrit theatre
remained empty from the beginning to the end, that is to say, no elaborate scenic equipment or painted
scenery was employed to localize the place of action. This is by no means a trait of a primitive theatre;
on the contrary it is a proof of the high sophistication it had attained at a very early date, for the
emptiness of the stage created no problem for the actor but promised him great possibilities instead.
The play meant the actor, his interpretation of his part and nothing more. The whole scene was
localized by the words of the characters themselves and it was left to the spectator to visualize the
scene through his eye of imagination. The scene of action in a Sanskrit play constantly changed and
this fluidity of the setting which would defy all technical devices employed on the modern stage could
be successfully shown through the medium of word-painting. When the scene is adequately portrayed
by the characters speech stage-scenery becomes not only redundant but also superfluous. Hence the
spectator of a Sanskrit play has to abandon his passive attitude and is called upon to co-operate with
the actors by actively participating in the performance by painting mind-pictures of the scene in which
the action is supposed to take place.
In the absence of atmospheric settings, the scene of action could be shifted from earth to heaven, from
forest to city and from land to sea with the utmost felicity, and the unity of place has not generally be
observed by Sanskrit dramatists. In some plays, action vacillates between terrestrial and celestial
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regions quite smoothly. Such rapid scene shifting was possible on the equally simple stage of the
miracle plays of mediaeval ages.
A stage direction like walking round or he walks about always suggests a change of the scene of
action. Kaksyavibhaga treated off in the Ntyastra has no reference to a stage equipped with
elaborate sets or physically divided into different acting zones (or kaksyas) but is only a convention
according to which certain parts of the stage were understood as representing certain scenes,
mountain, garden, riverside and so on, and when an actor stepped round or did the parikramana he
came to the different spot.
Since no incident can be supposed to have taken place without taking into consideration the factors of
place and time, convention requires the place and time of an incident to be explicitly mentioned in the
course of the scene. But there are no specific stage directions to introduce the several scenes in a play.
They are contained in the dramatic dialogue itself and as it proceeds along with appropriate action, the
scene rises gradually before the spectators minds eye, becoming more and more complete at every
turn of the dialogue. Division of an act into different scenes is not expressly shown though the division
is there. A scene may change with the actors taking of few steps over the stage or with the entry of a
new set of characters. An important thing to remember about the several scenes within an act of a
Sanskrit play is that one scene is almost always geographically related to the preceding or the
following one. Thus within an act, action generally runs with an unbroken continuity though the speed
may vary depending on the dramatic urgency of the facts presented. When the stage represents several
scenes simultaneously, they are always adjacent to one another.
Very often the setting is laid by the dramatic persons themselves who appear in the scene. Sometimes
there are more than one artist to paint the scene. The description of the glorious scene of the pleasure-
park in the third act of the Mlavikgnimitra is shared by the king and the Vidusaka alternately. The
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two actors have to show by gesticulation that they are admiring the vernal glory of the garden, though
in reality there is nothing on the stage except perhaps some object to represent a stone-seat for
Mlavik who is to enter the garden later. There are occasions when even without any word-
portraiture the audience is able to ascertain where the scene is laid. When a princess is coming playing
with a ball, we hardly need any commentary that the action is taking place in the pleasure-park. The
presence of the Kacukin is an indication of the scene being laid in the inner apartments of the palace,
because, very seldom, only on special occasions does he move out of the palace. If the king is seated
with his ministers, councillors and generals, the scene is invariably the royal court and if in the
company of his queen, the stage shall represent the drawing-room or an inner chamber of the palace.
Words and Movement
Sanskrit drama being essentially poetic in character, speech is undoubtedly its most important element
which serves several useful purposes. Not only does it refer to incidents past, present and future, paint
adequately, as we have just seen, the scene of the action in progress, describes the characters and tell
us how they are attired, but also contain in itself what may be legitimately called stage directions. It is,
therefore, extremely difficult to alienate speech from action, both being so dextrously woven into one
fabric. There are, of course, special instructions for the actors and the director. But most of the action
in a Sanskrit play is included in the dialogue itself. Sometimes words offer direct commentary on the
action and sometimes actions are merely suggested.
Very often words precede the action and sometimes words and movement are synchronized in a most
striking manner. What a character is going to do in a few moments is often made known by him and
this practice has, therefore, become a sort of mannerism in Sanskrit drama. This is done mainly for the
intimation of the audience who might otherwise find it difficult to comprehend fully the action owing
to either the scantiness of stage dcor or the highly artificial nature of the acting. The action is clearly
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defined beforehand by words. When speech accompanies action, it looks more natural than speech
preceding action; if there are stage directions, they are only complimentary too the dialogue. Thus the
Sanskrit dramatists meticulously worded the dialogue which not only carried forward the plot but also
supplements and accompanies and accompanies action. This interplay of the narrative and dramatic
qualities is the cardinal feature of the dialogue of all good Sanskrit drama. The dialogue is too
expressive of action that a reader with a vivid imagination can visualize the entire play, just as a
spectator does from the auditorium.
Dramatic Dialogue The text of a Sanskrit play strikes the reader in more than one way. The straight
prose dialogue which proceeds along with the action is interspersed with a large number of verses as
well as lyrical prose passages. Only in a broad sense it can be called as Sanskrit but strictly speaking, it
is a mixture of Sanskrit and different dialects of Prakrit. However Sanskrit is the prominent language
(by virtue of its being the language of all major characters and of the bulk of the verse) though not
necessarily the predominant. For instance in Mrichakatika which presents more than twenty-five
characters, Sanskrit is spoken only by three or four of them, and all the rest employ prakrit dialects.
Convention has left its mark on every aspect of dramatic speech, and the dialogue is written not in that
everyday speech but in a deliberately patterned form of prose capable of serving as a means of artistic
expression to be in keeping with the modes of artistic representation used in drama. (The Sanskrit
Theatre and Stagecraft, Theatrical technique E.W.Marasinghe).
The multilingual character of the drama is a unique feature perhaps not shared by any other drama in
the world, either ancient or modern. Therefore the mention of prakrit dialects employed in Sanskrit
drama becomes necessary. The term prkrta seems to have derived from prakrti which connotes
besides other meanings, subjects or common people. Thus the language spoken by ordinary people
came to be known as prkrtaand a distinction was made between them and Sanskrit, the language
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used for literary and official purposes and also spoken by the lite. The allocation of prakrit dialects to
female and lower male characters may be regarded as an attempt at giving the drama a realistic touch.
When a spoke language is used as a literary medium, it cannot evidently retail its volatile character,
but needs to be disciplined by a code of binding rules. Dramatic persons of the higher and middle
ranks such as kings, Brahmins, officers of high position like ministers and generals and other high-
bred persons, speak Sanskrit the language of the lite. All the rest speak prakrit and vibhs dialects.
Prakrits are not vernacular forms in the strict sense but artificial and formal literary dialects grown out
of vernaculars. (A History of Sanskrit Literature, S.N. Dasgupta and S.K. De 1947). The vibhss are
Apabhramsas or corrupt forms of Prakrit but still different from the spoken languages especially
designed for certain characters of humble origin. The dialect generally varies according to the sex, the
rank and station of a character. Women both of high and low birth including the heroines, their friends,
servants and many of the male characters of lower rank speak aurasen which thus becomes the most
widely used prakrit form. The multiplicity of dialects in Sanskrit plays may not have stood as an
insuperable barrier between the audience and the play, for there is no reason to believe that the Prakrit
forms were so far removed from the vernaculars to be incomprehensible to them. It is very important
to bear in mind that there was a common link between Sanskrit and all the different Prakrit forms.
Masks were not used, and the subtlest interplay of emotions was conveyed through facial expressions,
gestures and speech. The adroit employment of the curtain made for heightened impact. The choice of
themes covered a wide range and the treatment of the theme also varied greatly. Skits, comedies and
intense melodramas were all written and presented. The absence of scenic effects was made up by a
versatile histrionic technique. The other salient feature which characterizes the dramatic dialogue is
the liveliness of descriptive and emotional stanzas couched in a rich variety of metres, which add
immensely to the lyrical quality of a play. For descriptions of glorious scenes, verse is decidedly more
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effective than prose. A growing emotion, gathering momentum in the course of the dialogue, finds its
climatic outburst in a beautiful lyrical verse. Generally it is the male characters who resort to poetry so
often, for it is they who largely contribute to the development of the rasa. Dramatists have not been
fair to females in the distribution of verse among the characters. Only rarely are they given a chance to
recite or sing a verse. The diverse nature of the dialogue with its straight speech, lyrical prose, verse
and song both in Sanskrit and Prakrit naturally calls for a diversity of modes of delivery.
Sanskrit theatre was characterised by its high degree of refinement in performance technique. It
followed well-articulated, aesthetic principles, usually those laid out in the ancient dramatics texts. It
depended on a high degree of audience knowledge and expertise i.e., only the refined sensibility could
appreciate it. Religion played an important role in drama as certain rituals accompanied most plays,
and even the stage was consecrated before a performance. Thus the Sanskrit drama could be called an
amalgamation of the religious, educational and entertaining elements.
Going by history of Indian drama and its significant contribution to the art history of India, one gets to
be enlightened that after the 15th century, Indian dramatic activity almost ceased due to foreign
invasions on India. However, the age had remained witness to the beginnings of Loknatya (people`s
Theatre), which was noticed in every state of India from 17th century onwards. Several states
innovated fresh and new styles of drama; in Bengal there were styles like Yatrakirtaniya, Paal, Gaan;
in Madhya Pradesh Mach; in Kashmir Bhandya Thar and in Gujarat the forms comprised Bhavai,
Ramlila; in northern India there existed the Nautanki, and Bhand, Ramlila and Raslila; in Maharashtra
Tamasha; in Rajasthan Raas and Jhoomer; in Punjab Bhangra and Songe; while in Assam it was
Ahiyanat and Ankinaat; in Bihar it was Videshiya.
Theatre in India initiated as a narrative form. The art of reciting, dancing and singing gradually
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became an integral element of Indian theatre whilst boasting its copious tradition. Indian theatre is
essentially narrative. This emphasis on narrative elements made Indian theatre theatrical right from the
remote past of the heydays of Sanskrit theatre. This is perhaps the reason why Indian theatre has so
very well encompassed all the popular expression of literature and fine arts into its physical
manifestation. Indian theatre, pregnant with its rich past has therefore amalgamated the richness of
literature, mime, dance, music, painting, architecture and sculpture to carve a niche for itself in the
arena of entertainment.
The beginning and the rise of the modern history of Indian dramas was hidden within the 18th century
when the British Empire and its stretch consolidated its stable power in India. In 1765, there came up
two drama lovers, who had staged the legendary two English comedy plays by the names Disgaij and
Love is the Best Doctor. In 1831, Prasaankumar Thakur had laid the foundation stone for the Hindi
Rangmanch. In 1843, on the ardent request of the Sangli King, playwright Vishnudas Bhave had given
birth to Seeta Swayamwar in Marathi. With passing time, precisely in 1880, Annasaheb Kirloskar had
staged Abhignan Shakuntal in Marathi. However, in the western part of India, due utter the Portuguese
domination, drama groups from western countries began to arrive in India to stage English plays.
The Parsi plays, besides the language of the play, also devoted much attention to stage decor and stage
specialties. Thus, from the beginning in 1850 and reaching upto 1940, there could be witnessed a
resurgence of dramatic movement in different regions of India and there was significant development
in the genre of Indian drama and its historical flowering. This almost hundred years can rightly be
stated as the `Golden Age` of Indian theatre.

The period after Indian Independence in 1947, marks a significant second stage in the development
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and history of modern Indian Drama. Prior to 1947, drama scripts were pivoted around Sanskrit plays,
English plays and ancient religious-historical epics, deriving much influence from ancientness in the
play-acting scenario. They related themselves to the social problems as well as the ideology of the
Indian freedom movement; making it an exceedingly powerful medium and tool, intended to make an
impact on the life of the common man.

The second stages of modern Indian drama post 1947, had made an endeavour to divide dramas into
two parts, comprising Professional Theatre and Non-Professional Theatre. The Non-Professional
Theatre groups were established and took shape by co-operative theatrical societies, where their
subjects were inspired by western plays. The Indian theatre groups, including the theatre craftsmen
and artists, then travelled to foreign countries to acquire knowledge of stagecraft and other detailed
artistries. The present day drama in the contemporaneous scenario also has been amassed within the
history of Indian drama, as each day comes with an evolutionary cycle towards the better.
Performances are, now-a-days enriched by itself, with the help of modern techniques of stage screens,
sets, scenery, lighting and sound effects and the same also has been chalked out to be continued, till
date and advanced date.
Eminent personalities in Indian theatre made theatre in India not only an art form but slowly crafted it
as the refined technique of illustrating the unedited realities of life in the form of "Rupaka" and
"Natya". Theatre, which was once just a medium of expression gradually broke the barrier of
mythology, history and eposes and became a weapon to protest. Very often it can be seen that theatre
has been used for social progress and for bringing various changes in the society. Theatre for
development includes activist and grass-roots bodies, government and non-government organizations
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(NGOs), as well as socially-aware theatre groups or individuals. The groups working with Dalits,
women, children, sex workers, and other marginalized populations, all qualify as practicing theatre for
development. The echo of the age old Sanskrit plays faded away, Classical dance drama style
gradually modernized; and developed a new form of expression- Indian drama. Dance, instrumental
music, speech furnished on lyrics, verses and prose then laced the Indian Theatre whilst making it an
expression of the creative minds.