Chapter No 1 Introduction 0

INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................... 2
POLYETHYLENE:............................................................................................................................. 2
GENERL DE!CRIPTION:................................................................................................................ "
HI!TORY O# LO$ DEN!ITY POLYETHYLENE %LDPE&:....................................................................'
TYPICL PPLICTION!:
............................................................................................................... 11
LI(ITTION! O# LDPE:...............................................................................................................1"
PROCE!! !ELECTION O# LDPE IN TU)ULR RECTOR:...............................................................1*
!EPRTION !TEP! O# HIGH+PRE!!URE PROCE!!E!:...................................................................1,
PROCE!!ING O# POLYETHYLENE:................................................................................................1,
MATERIAL BALANCE ......................................................................................................... 1-
CRO!! TU)ULR RECTOR:........................................................................................................1-
CRO!! HIGH PRE!!URE !EPRTOR:.........................................................................................1-
CRO!! LO$ PRE!!URE !EPRTOR:..........................................................................................1-
CRO!! THE DRYER..................................................................................................................... 1.
CO(PRE!!OR DE!IGN ........................................................................................................... 21
INTRODUCTION:............................................................................................................................ 21
GENERL CON!IDERTION #OR NY TYPE O# CO(PRE!!OR #LO$ CONDITION!:
......................21
CO(PRE!!OR CL!!I#ICTION CHRT.............................................................................2*
!ELECTION O# CO(PRE!!OR...............................................................................................2'
RECIPROCTING CO(PRE!!OR............................................................................................2,
RECIPROCTING CO(PRE!!OR !PECI#ICTION!..........................................................2.
DE!IGN PROCEDURE..............................................................................................................."1
INTERCOOLER DE!IGN..........................................................................................................."-
!ELECTION GUIDE TO HET E/CHNGER TYPE!...........................................................*0
!HELL ND TU)E HET E/CHNGER.................................................................................*1
CL!!I#ICTION O# !HELL ND TU)E HET E/CHNGER!........................................................*2
DE!IGN PROCEDURE #OR !HELL+ND+TU)E HET E/CHNGER!..............................................*"
TU)E !IDE CLCULTION!:..................................................................................................*,
!HELL !IDE CLCULTION!:................................................................................................*1
)UNDLE DI 2 D) 2 DO3% NO. O# TU)E!451&3%14N1&.................................................*1
D) 22-,.-1 ((.......................................................................................................................... *-
D) 2 0.2. (................................................................................................................................ *-
!HELL CLERNCE 2 11.0 ((..................................................................................*-
IN!IDE DI(ETER O# !HELL 2 D! 2 )UNDLE DI 6 !HELL CLERNCE.....................................*-
IN!IDE DI(ETER O# !HELL 2 D! 2 2-,.-1 6 11.0 2 2.1.-1 ((..............................................*-
PRE!!URE DROP TU)E !IDE:.................................................................................................*.
#RICTION #CTOR 7LUE ON TU)E !IDE 28# 2 0.0021...............................................................*.
PRE!!URE DROP !HELL !IDE:..............................................................................................'0
RE 2 ''2-..1................................................................................................................................... '0
!PECI#ICTION !HEET #OR INTER COOLER....................................................................'0
0
Chapter No 1 Introduction 1
RECTOR DE!IGN ................................................................................................................... '"
DE7ELOP(ENT O# CHE(ICL RECTION RTE E/PRE!!ION!:...............................'*
RECTOR PRINCIPLE!.............................................................................................................'*
RECTOR TYPE!........................................................................................................................... ''
!PCE 7ELOCITY ND !PCE TI(E..............................................................................................''
CHIN+GRO$TH POLY(ERI9TION..................................................................................''
5INETIC!:..................................................................................................................................... '1
DETER(INING THE 7OLU(E O# THE RECTOR:..........................................................................'-
7LUE! O# RTE CON!TNT!:....................................................................................................'.
!ELECTING THE (ONO(ER CON7ER!ION:..................................................................................'.
CLCULTING THE 7OLU(E O# THE RECTOR:..........................................................................,0
E:UTION O# (ONO(ER CON7ER!ION:.....................................................................................,0
7OLU(E...................................................................................................................................... ,1
RE!ULT:........................................................................................................................................ ,1
(ODELING ND !I(ULTION #OR THE (ULTI IN8ECTION O# THE INITITOR............................,2
!!U(PTION!:............................................................................................................................. ,"
OPTI(L CONTROL O# THE RECTOR .............................................................................. ,'
OPTI(L CONTROL O)8ECTI7E:..................................................................................................,'
PREHEATING IN THE TUBULAR REACTOR ........................................................... ,.
DE!IGN:........................................................................................................................................ ,.
#OR PIPE !IDE:.......................................................................................................................... 10
#OR NNULU!:........................................................................................................................... 11
RECTION ND COOLING 9ONE:...................................................................................................1"
#OR PIPE !IDE........................................................................................................................... 1'
#OR NNULU!:........................................................................................................................... 1,
PRE!!URE DROP #OR PIPE !IDE:..................................................................................................1-
DRU(! ....................................................................................................................................... -0
GENERL:..................................................................................................................................... -0
7POR+LI:UID !EPRTION.........................................................................................................-0
LI:UID !URGE.............................................................................................................................. -1
OPERTING CONDITION!:.............................................................................................................-1
LI:UID+LI:UID !ETTLING............................................................................................................-1
(ECHNICL CON#IGURTION O# DRU(:..................................................................................-1
HIGH PRESSURE SEPARATOR ..................................................................................... -,
COOLER #TER HIGH+PRE!!URE !EPRTOR...............................................................................-.
CHPTER 2 ................................................................................................................................ -.
1
Chapter No 1 Introduction 2
HET LOD:................................................................................................................................. -.
LO$ PRE!!URE !EPRTOR ................................................................................................ .1
COOLER #TER LO$ PRE!!URE !EPRTOR:..............................................................................."
)UNDLE DI 2 D) 2 DO3% NO. O# TU)E!451&3%14N1&..................................................-
D) 22-,.-1 ((.......................................................................................................................... .-
D) 2 0.2. (................................................................................................................................ .-
!HELL CLERNCE 2 11.0 ((...................................................................................-
IN!IDE DI(ETER O# !HELL 2 D! 2 )UNDLE DI 6 !HELL CLERNCE.......................................
IN!IDE DI(ETER O# !HELL 2 D! 2 2-,.-1 6 11.0 2 2.1.-1 ((................................................
#RICTION #CTOR 7LUE ON TU)E !IDE 28# 2 0.00"'.............................................................101
RE 2 -1*-.'-1............................................................................................................................... 102
!PECI#ICTION !HEET #OR COOLER #TER LO$ PRE!!URE !EPRTOR.................................10"
DRYING OPERTION:..............................................................................................................10*
CL!!I#ICTION O# DRYER! )!ED ON PHY!ICL #OR( O# #EED:...........................................10'
CL!!I#ICTION O# DRYER! )Y !CLE O# PRODUCTION............................................................10'
CL!!I#ICTION O# DRYER! )Y !UIT)ILITY #OR !PECIL #ETURE!......................................10,
!ELECTION O# DRYER:..........................................................................................................10,
!PECI#ICTION !HEET O# DRYER..............................................................................................111
#CTOR! ##ECTING CHOICE O# PU(P:........................................................................11.
CHRCTERI!TIC! O# THE GER PU(P:........................................................................122
INSTRUMENTATION & CONTROL ............................................................................ 12*
TE(PERTURE (E!URE(ENT ND CONTROL...........................................................12'
#LO$ (E!URE(ENT ND CONTROL.............................................................................12'
HAZOP STUDY .................................................................................................................... 1"0
H9RD ND OPER)ILITY !TUDY %H9OP&:............................................................................1"0
!TEP! CONDUCTED IN H9OP !TUDY:.............................................................................1"1
ECONO(IC! O# HIGH+PRE!!URE PROCE!!E!:..........................................................................1"-
COST ESTIMATION .......................................................................................................... 1*1
#I/ED CPITL IN7E!T(ENT:...................................................................................................1*2
TYPE! O# CPITL CO!T E!TI(TE!...............................................................................1*"
CO!T INDE/E!......................................................................................................................... 1**
CO!T E!TI(TION O# CO(PRE!!OR..........................................................................................1*'
CO!T E!TI(TION O# DOU)LE PIPE HET E/CHNGER............................................................1*,
CO!T E!TI(TION O# HIGH PRE!!URE !EPRTOR...................................................................1*,
CO!T E!TI(TION O# LO$ PRE!!URE !EPRTOR:...................................................................1*1
!HELL ND TU)E INTERCOOLER %#OR CO(PERE!!OR&..............................................................1*1
!HELL ND TU)E HET E/CHNGER % INTERCOOLER& #TER HIGH PRE!!URE !EPRTOR:....1*1
!HELL ND TU)E HET E/CHNGER % INTERCOOLER& #TER LO$ PRE!!URE !EPRTOR:......1*-
CO!T O# ROTRY DRYER:...........................................................................................................1*-
2
Chapter No 1 Introduction 3
E!TI(TION O# TOTL CPITL IN7E!T(ENT DIRECT CO!T %R!&.........................................1*-
REFRENCES .......................................................................................................................... 1'*
3
Chapter No 1 Introduction 2
INTRODUCTION
Polyethylene:
Polyethylene or polyethylene is a commodity thermoplastic heavily used in
consumer products (over 60M tons are produced worldwide every year). Its name
originates from the monomer ethene used to create the polymer. In the polymer industry
the name is sometimes shortened to PE similar to how other polymers li!e
polypropylene and polystyrene are shortened to "" and "# respectively. In the $nited
%ingdom the polymer is called polythene.
&he ethene molecule (!nown almost universally 'y its non(I$")* name ethylene) *2+,
is *+2 - *+2 &wo *+2 connected 'y a dou'le 'ond thus.
2
Chapter No 1 Introduction 3
"olyethylene is created through polymeri/ation of ethene. It can 'e produced
through radical polymeri/ation anionic polymeri/ation and cationic polymeri/ation.
&his is 'ecause ethene does not have any su'stituent groups which influence the sta'ility
of the propagation head of the polymer.
0ach of these methods results in a different type of polyethylene.
.
General Descripi!n:
) semi(crystalline (typically around 102) whitish semi(opa3ue commodity
thermoplastic that is soft fle4i'le and tough ( even at low temperatures ( with
outstanding electrical properties 'ut poor temperature resistance. It also has very good
chemical resistance 'ut is prone to environmental stress crac!ing5 it has poor $6
resistance (unless modified) and poor 'arrier properties e4cept to water.
3
Chapter No 1 Introduction ,
Classification of polyethylenes:
"olyethylene is classified into several different categories 'ased mostly on its mechanical
properties. &he mechanical properties of "0 depend significantly on varia'les such as the
e4tent and type of 'ranching the crystal structure and the molecular weight.
$+M7"0 (ultra high molecular weight "0)
+8"0 (high density "0)
98"0 (low density "0)
998"0 (linear low density "0 sometimes referred to as Medium 8ensity "0
M8"0)
UHMWPE is polyethylene with a molecular weight num'ering in the millions usually
'etween 3.1 and 1.6: million. &he high molecular weight results in a very good pac!ing
of the chains into the crystal structure. &his results in a very tough material. $+M7"0 is
made through metallocene catalysis polymeri/ation.
HDPE has a low degree of 'ranching and thus stronger intermolecular forces and
tensile strength. &he lac! of 'ranching is ensured 'y an appropriate choice of catalyst
(e.g. ;iegler(<atta catalysts) and reaction conditions.
LDPE has a high degree of 'ranching which means that the chains do pac! into the
crystal structure as well. It has therefore less strong intermolecular forces as the
instantaneous(dipole induced(dipole attraction is less. &his results in a lower tensile
strength and increased ductility. 98"0 is created 'y free radical polymeri/ation.
LLDPE is a su'stantially linear polymer with significant num'ers of short 'ranches
commonly made 'y copolymeri/ation of ethylene with longer(chain olefins.
,
Chapter No 1 Introduction 1
His!r" !# L!$ Densi" P!l"e%"lene &LDPE'(
"olyethylene was first synthesi/ed 'y the =erman chemist +ans von "echmann
who prepared it 'y accident in 1>?> while heating dia/omethane. 7hen his colleagues
0uge @am'erger and Ariedrich &schirner characteri/ed the white wa4y su'stance he had
created they recogni/ed that it contained long (*+2( chains and termed it polymethylene.
&he first industrially practical polyethylene synthesis was discovered (again 'y
accident) 'y 0ric Aawcett and Beginald =i'son at I*I *hemicals in 1?33. $pon applying
e4tremely high pressure (several hundred atmospheres) to a mi4ture of ethylene and
'en/aldehyde they again produced a white wa4y material. #ince the reaction had 'een
initiated 'y trace o4ygen contamination in their apparatus the e4periment was at first
difficult to reproduce. It was not until 1?31 that another I*I chemist Michael "errin
developed this accident into a reproduci'le high(pressure synthesis for polyethylene that
'ecame the 'asis for industrial 98"0 production 'eginning in 1?3?.
&he story of polyethylene really starts in 1?32. @ritain along with the whole
industriali/ed world was in deep recession following the 7all #treet *rash of 1?2?. It
was difficult to find money for large(scale research and yet something new was needed.
In I*I there was suggested a research program to loo! for new reactions under e4treme
1
Chapter No 1 Introduction 6
pressure. Aifty different reactions were tried all without success ( 'ut one of the failures
resulted in the discovery of polyethylene through a remar!a'le series of coincidences.
Cne of the suggested mi4tures had included ethylene a very light gas prepared from
petroleum. &he reaction hoped for had not occurred 'ut instead there was a white wa4y
solid on the walls of the reaction vessel. )nalysis showed that this must have formed
from the ethylene alone. In 1?31 the reaction was tried again without the other
component 'ut this time the vessel lea!ed5 nevertheless some more polyethylene was
o'tained. )t this time I*I management made the very 'old decision to start a maDor
development programm on the 'asis of only > grams o'tained of the promising productE
#o they tightened up their procedures and as a result ( no polyethyleneE It was only after
months of wor! that they reali/ed that o4ygen had to 'e present in some form either
from air lea!ing in or in the first e4periment indirectly from having reacted with the
other component of the original mi4ture. &hese two Fhappy accidentsF had allowed
polyethylene to 'e prod 9ow 8ensity "olyethylene (98"0) is a corrosion(resistant
e4truded material that sustains low moisture permea'ility. It also has a relatively low
wor!ing temperature soft surface and low tensile strength.
Date Contri;utor
1>?> +ans van pechman
1?32 I*I
March 2, 1?32 I*I research
Ae' 1?36 I*I
#ep 1 1?3? I*I
1?,3 8upont
1??:
6
Chapter No 1 Introduction :
Che<ica= Re>i>tance
Acids - concentrated Good-Fair
Acids - dilute Good
Alcohols Good
Alkalis Good
Aromatic hydrocarbons Fair-Poor
Greases and Oils Good-Fair
Halogenated Hydrocarbons Fair-Poor
Halogens Fair-Poor
Ketones Good-Fair
E=ectrica= Propertie>
ielectric constant !"#H$ %&%-%&'(
ielectric strength ) k* mm
-"
+ %,
issipation factor ! "#H$ "-"- . "-
-/
0urface resisti1ity ) Ohm2s3 + "-
"'
*olume resisti1ity ) Ohmcm + "-
"(
-"-
"4
:
Chapter No 1 Introduction >
(echanica= Propertie>
5longation at break ) 6 + /--
Hardness - 7ock8ell /"-/9 : 0hore
;$od impact strength ) < m
-"
+ ="---
>ensile modulus ) GPa + -&"--&'
>ensile strength ) #Pa + (-%(
Ph?>ica= Propertie>
ensity ) g cm
-'
+ -&?%
Flammability H@
Aimiting o.ygen inde. ) 6 + ",
7adiation resistance Fair
7efracti1e inde. "&("
7esistance to Bltra-1iolet Poor
Cater absorption - o1er %/ hours ) 6
+
D-&-"(
>
Chapter No 1 Introduction ?
Ther<a= Propertie>
Coefficient of thermal e.pansion
) ."-
-9
K
-"
+
"---%--
Heat-deflection temperature -
-&/(#Pa ) C +
(-
Ao8er 8orking temperature ) C + -9-
0pecific heat ) < K
-"
kg
-"
+ "?---%'--
>hermal conducti1ity !%'C ) C m
-"
K
-"
+
-&''
Bpper 8orking temperature ) C + (--?-
?
Chapter No 1 Introduction 10
Di@@erent propert? te>t> u>ed @or LDPE:
Polyethylene Properties
Property ASTM
or UL
Test
LDPE
Water Absorption (24hrs) (%) D-570 <0.01
Density (lb/in) D-72 0.0!!
("/#$) 0.2
%&'D (ot#he) %$pa#t (*t-lb/in) D-25+ (o ,rea-
.ensile /tren"th (psi) D-+!0 11000-21200
.ensile 2o)3l3s (psi) D-+!0 -
.ensile 4lon"ation at 5iel) (%) D-+!0 +00
6ar)ness (/hore D) D-705 D41-D50
7o$pressi8e /tren"th (psi) D-+5 -
7o$pressi8e 2o)3l3s (psi) D-+5 -
9le:3ral /tren"th (psi) D-70 -
9le:3ral 2o)3l3s (psi) D-70 -
.her$al 7on)3#ti8ity (,.;-in/*t
2
-hr-<9) 7-177 -
(: 10
4
#al/#$-se#-<7) -
6eat De*le#tion .e$p at ++ psi (<9 / <7) D-+40 110/!0
7oe**i#ient o* =inear .her$al
4:pansion
(: 10
-5
in./in./<9) D-++ -
9la$$ability >atin" ;=-4 -
2eltin" .e$perat3re (<9 / <7) D-!410 -
2a: 'peratin" .e$p (<9 / <7) - 1+0/71
Diale#tri# /tren"th1 1/0? thi#- (@/$il) D-14 -
Diale#tri# 7onstant at 50 -6A D-150 -
Dissipation 9a#tor at 50 -6A D-150 -
@ol3$e >esisti8ity at 50% >6 (oh$-#$) D-257 -
10
Chapter No 1 Introduction 11
Benefits:
9ightweight
8esign 6ersatility
8imensional #ta'ility
04cellent 0lectrical "roperties
9ow *ost Aa'rications
Machina'le
Aorma'le
#ufficiently low water permea'ility.
7ipes *lean
Typical applications:
98"0 was introduced initially as a special purpose dielectric material of a particularly
value for high fre3uency insulation. )fter #econd 7orld 7ar there was a dramatic
increase in the production of 98"0. <ow days it is used in a num'er of fields such as
Aood "rocessing
*hemical
8yeingG@leaching
Marine
"aper
"etroleum
"harmacuetical
&e4tile
&anning
11
Chapter No 1 Introduction 12
12
Chapter No 1 Introduction 13
Li)iai!ns !# LDPE(
&he limitations of 98"0 include.
&he low softening point.
&he opacity of material in 'ul!.
&he wa4 li!e appearance.
&he poor scratch resistance.
&he lac! of rigidity.
&he low tensile strength.
&he high gas permea'ility.
13
Chapter No 1 Introduction 1,
Pr!cess seleci!n !# LDPE in *+*lar reac!r(
It gives a more sta'le operation.
<o 'ac! mi4ing capa'ility
9ow product decomposition rate.
More efficient heat removal
+igher conversion per pass
6arying pressure in the reactor
Multiple inDection of initiator
Multiple reaction /ones.
@roader M.7.8. polyethylene can 'e produced cheaper.
Process Description
Production Rate 220Aton4?ear
Pre>>ure "000 at<
Te<perature -0+2*0 oC
ConBer>ion "'C
Initiator OD?Een%100pp<&
1,
Chapter No 1 Introduction 11
Aor producing low density polyethylene ethylene should 'e at least ??.? 2 pure
containing trace amounts of ethane and methane.
Compressors:
*ompressing ethylene to high pressures needed for polymeri/ation is a maDor step of
overall process. 9arge positive displacement (piston) compressors are used .two step
compression system is normal in the first step ethylene at a relatively low pressure is
compressed to a'out 221 atm. In the second step of compression the ethylene feed is
com'ined with recycle ethylene and the mi4ture is compressed to reaction pressure 'y
the high pressure compressor.
&he temperature of ethylene must never e4ceed a'ove >0H* as the ethylene is
compressed. Ctherwise some polymeri/ation might occur. Aor this purpose intercoolers
are used after each stage.
Tubular Reactor:
0thylene and dissolved initiator (o4ygen) enter the reactor tu'e at high pressures.
0ach reactor consists of three /ones the first for preheating /one the second for reaction
and the third for cooling /one. +eat transfer media for heating and cooling /ones are
steam and water respectively.
)fter the ethylene containing the initiator has 'een sufficiently heated conversion
starts and e4othermic heat of reaction causes an additional increase in temperature.
04othermic heat of reaction of 100 !DGmol has to 'e #uccessfully dissipated otherwise
there will 'ean increase in temperature of 12I1,H*.+eat transfer resistances are high in
the tu'ular reactor 'ecause of very thic! walls re3uired to withstand the high pressures.
Cne way of removing the heat of reaction is to heat the incoming cool ethylene with
the outgoing mi4ture. &emperature must never rise a'ove 2,0H*. Multiple inDection of
initiator is used in order to increase the degree of conversion.
11
Chapter No 1 Introduction 16
Separai!n seps !# %i,%-press*re pr!cesses(
)fter leaving the reactor the mi4ture of ethylene and polyethylene enters into the
high pressure separator which operates at a'out 166 atm .the pressure is reduced with the
help of pressure reducing valve. &he efficiency of the high pressure separator is ?12.&he
ethylene is flashed immediately as the pressure is reduced. &he rate of flashing must 'e
sufficiently low to avoid e4cessive foaming .#tarting with a single phase of ethylene and
polyethylene a polyethylene JprecipitateK is formed as flashing starts. )s more ethylene
flashes the precipitated granules agglomerate to form a continuous polyethylene li3uid.
&he remaining 12 ethylene is separated in low pressure separator which operates at
atmospheric pressure. &he recovered ethylene is cooled with the help of coolers and
recycled.
Pr!cessin, !# P!l"e%"lene(
04trusion and palleti/ing is the first operation as the polyethylene leaves the
reactor. &he semi li3uid polyethylene is pumped 'y a screw inside a 'arrel and it is
forced through a die with holes of appro4imately 1G> inch in diameter. &he polyethylene
is directly e4truded through into water 'ath which free/es it. ) rotating !nife or a similar
device chops or dices the e4truded polymer as it leaves the die to form pellets. @efore
passing through e4truder certain additives are used in order to incorporate certain
processing properties.
Drying:
8rying the polyethylene pellets is the ne4t operation. Aree water is first drained
from the pellets. Aor drying purpose we use a rotary dryer.
&he last step is of storing the pellets in the silos or hoppers
16
Chapter No 2 Material Balance 1>
Maerial Balance
Acr!ss T*+*lar reac!r(
Aeed L recycle - :?361.0> %gGhr
*onversion - 312
".0. Arom Beactor - 2::::.:> !gGhr
0thylene from Beactor-111>:.3 !gGhr
Cut put from Beactor - :?361.0> !gGhr
Acr!ss Hi,% Press*re Separa!r(
0fficiency of +"# - ?12
0thylene Becovery from +"#-,?00:.?, !gGhr
0thylene in the product #tream -21:?.361 !gGhr
".0 from +"# - 2::::.:> !gGhr
&otal )mount in Becycle stream - ,?00:.?, !gGhr
&otal )mount in "roduct #tream - 3031:.1, %gGhr
Acr!ss L!$ Press*re Separa!r(
0fficiency - 1002
0thylene recovery from 9"# -21:?.361 !gGhr
1>
Chapter No 2 Material Balance 1?
".0 from 9"# - 2::::.:> %gGhr
&otal amount I< Becycle #tream from 9"#- 21:?.361 !gGhr
&otal amount in the "roduct #tream from 9"#- 2::::.:> !gGhr
Acr!ss %e Dr"er
"olyethylene from 9"# - 2::::.:> %gGhr
7ater 0ntering - ,,,.,, %gGhr
+ot )ir - 2.6 M10
,
!gGhr
7ater coming out - ,30.16 %gGhr
)ir coming Cut - 2.6M10
,
%gGhr
8ry product coming Cut - 2::::.:> %gGhr
0vaporated water - 13.>> %gGhr
&otal )mount entering-1,222.22
&otal )mount *oming Cut-1,222.22
1?
*hapter <o 3 *ompressor 8esign 21
COMPRESSOR DESIGN
Inr!.*ci!n(
*ompression of gases and vapors is an important operation in chemical and
petrochemical plants. It is necessary to 'e a'le to specify the proper type of e3uipment 'y
its characteristic performance. *ompression may 'e from 'elow atmospheric in a vacuum
pump or a'ove atmospheric as for the maDority of process application. 8etermining and
specifying the re3uired process performance and mechanical re3uirements including the
corrosive and ha/ardous nature and the moisture content of the fluid (gasesGvapors) to 'e
compressed is important. *ompressors are used to transfer large volumes of gas while increasing
the pressure of the gas from an inlet condition to pressures as high as 300 Map. 0ven though there are
many types of compressors they are generally classified into two maDor categories namely
continuous(flow compressors and positive displacement compressors.
General C!nsi.erai!n #!r An" T"pe !# C!)press!r
#l!$ C!n.ii!ns(
In esta'lishing specifications the first important item to identify from the plant
process material 'alance are normal ma4imum and minimum inta!e or suction flow
rates together with corresponding conditions of temperature and pressure. &he re3uired
discharge pressure must 'e esta'lished.
21
*hapter <o 3 *ompressor 8esign 22
Fluid Properties
Aluid properties are important in esta'lishing the performance of compression
e3uipment. 7henever possi'le fluid analysis should 'e give and where this is not
availa'le due to lac! of complete information or secrecy close appro4imations are
necessary. $nder the last conditions actual field performance may not agree with the
design data due to the deviation in values of the ratio of specific heats and the average
mol. wt. identify as to composition and 3uantity any entrained li3uids or solids in the gas
stream. <o manufacturer will designed for entrained li3uid or solids although some
machines will handle NdirtyO gases. #olids are always removed ahead of any compression
e3uipment using suita'le wet or dry scru''ing e3uipment and li3uid separators are
recommended for any possi'ilities of li3uid carry(over.
Compressibility
=as compressi'ility has an important 'earing on compressor capacity performance.
&herefore it is good practice to state compressi'ility values at several temperatures and
pressure points over the compression range under consideration. 7hen possi'le a
compressi'ility curve or reference there to is included in the en3uiry. 7here specific
information is not availa'le 'ut compressi'ility is anticipated as 'eing a factor to
consider appro4imate values should 'e esta'lished and so presented for further study 'y
the manufacturer. #ome manufactures use the average value 'etween inta!e and
discharge conditions.
Corrosive Nture
*orrosive fluids or contaminants must 'e identified to the manufacturer. &he
principle gas stream may or may not 'e corrosive under some set of circumstances yet
the contaminants might re3uire considera'le attention in cylinder design. Aor e4ample
considera'le difference e4ists 'etween handling N'one(dryO pure chlorine gas and the
same material with the 1ppm moisture. &he corrosiveness of the gas must 'e considered
when selecting fa'ricating materials for the compression parts as well as seals lu'ricants
etc.
22
*hapter <o 3 *ompressor 8esign 23
Moisture
Moisture in a gas stream might 'e water vapor from the air or a water scru''ing
unit or it could 'e some other condensa'le vapor 'eing carried in the gas stream. It is
important in calculating compressor volume calculation to !now the moisture (or
condensa'le vapor) condition of the gas.
Spe!il Conditions
Cften the process may have conditions that control the fle4i'ility of compression
e3uipment selection. &hese might include limiting temperatures 'efore polymer
formation (as in this case the discharge temperature should 'e less than 100
o
*) chemical
reaction e4cess heat of lu'rication materials e4plosive conditions grater than a certain
temperature.
)ny limiting pressure drops 'etween stages should 'e specified in which the gas
and vapors are discharged from one stage pass through piping cooling e3uipment andGor
condensate !noc! out e3uipment and are then returned to the ne4t higher stage of the
compression process. $sually a reasona'le figure of 3(1psigcan 'e tolerated as pressure
drop 'etween stages for most conditions. &he larger this drop is more horsepower is
re3uired. #pecial situations might hold this figure to 0.1(1psig.
23
*hapter <o 3 *ompressor 8esign 2,
COMPRESSOR CLASSIFICATION CHART
"ositive 8isplacement 8ynamic
Beciprocating
*entrifugal
9i3uid Bing
#crew
6ane
9o'e
Botary
8iaphragm
"lunger
"iston Mi4ed Alow
)4ial
2,
*hapter <o 3 *ompressor 8esign 21
SELECTION OF COMPRESSOR
In selecting the appropriate compressor for a specific process condition the
volumetric capacity head and discharge pressure are useful parameters in ma!ing a
preliminary choice. &he selection process must also recogni/e process pro'lems with
certain gases at elevated temperatures that could create a potential e4plosion ha/ard or
with the admission of small amounts of lu'ricating oil or water that would contaminate
the process gas stream. Ainally for continuous process operation a high degree of e3uip(
ment relia'ility will 'e re3uired since fre3uent shutdowns cannot 'e tolerated.
21
*hapter <o 3 *ompressor 8esign 26
&he following ta'le will also provide helps in the selection of compressor for our process.
)s we need high discharge pressure so there is no other choice e4cept the reciprocating
compressor.
RECIPROCATING COMPRESSOR
Most common type of compressors.
Beciprocating compressor are generally used when a high pressure head is
re3uested at a low flow rate.
#uch units are availa'le in single or multistage types.
7or! 'y trapping and compressing specific volumes of gas 'etween a piston and
a cylinder wall.
&he 'ac! and forth motion incorporated 'y a reciprocating compressor pulls gas
in on the suction (or inta!e) stro!e and discharges it on the other.
*ompressor type Ma4. 8ischarge
"ressure (psia)
Ma4. *ompression Batio
per stage
Beciprocating 31000(10000 10
*entrifugal 3000(1000 3(,.1
Botary displacement 100(130 ,
)4ial Alow >0(130 1.2(1.1
26
*hapter <o 3 *ompressor 8esign 2:
#pring(loaded suction and discharge valves openGclose automatically as the piston
moves up and down in the cylinder cham'er.
&he reciprocating compressor is a fi4ed capacity machine as long as the driver
speed is constant. @y altering the speed of the driver the compressor capacity can
'e changed.
Intercoolers are inserted 'etween stages in multistage units. &hese heat
e4changers remove the heat of compression there'y reducing the volume of gas
going to the ne4t stage and reducing the power re3uired for the compression.
More importantly the cooling maintains the temperature within safe operating
limits.
#ome @asic "arts of Beciprocating *ompressor are.
"iston
*onnecting Bod
*ran!shaft
"iston Bings
#uction 9ine
8ischarge 9ine
#pring (9oaded #uction and 8ischarge 6alves
2:
*hapter <o 3 *ompressor 8esign 2>

2>
*hapter <o 3 *ompressor 8esign 2?
RECIPROCATING COMPRESSOR SPECIFICATIONS
2?
*hapter <o 3 *ompressor 8esign 30
50;GE CAACBAA>;OE0:
Parameter Primary Compressor Secondary Compressor
otal Ethylene
Enterin!"#!$hr%
3031:.1 :?361.1
Ethylene for Sin!le
Battery "#!$hr%
60:1.,3 11>:3
Molar flo& 'ate
"!(mol$hr%
216,1?.33, 161>02
)ol*metric flo&
'ate"m
+
$hr%
12,1.1,: 63.362,
,nlet Press*re "atm% 1 216.2:
-*tlet Press*re "atm% 216.2: 31>0.1
,nlet emperat*re "
o
C% 21 21
-*tlet emperat*re "
o
C% :> :>
Ethylene Density"#!$m
+
% 1.2603
Molec*lar &ei!ht"!$!(mol% 2>.01,
Critical press*re"atm% ,?.:,
Critical temperat*re"
o
C% ?.3
./era!e Compressi0ility 1actor 0.?>1
Cp /al*e"cal$!(
o
C% 0.3?
2as constant ' /al*e"3$!(mol(#% >.31,
)al*e of 4 "Cp$C/% 1.222
456$4 0.1>2
.dia0atic efficiency :62
Electric Motor Efficiency ?,2
30
*hapter <o 3 *ompressor 8esign 31
DESIGN PROCEDURE
Compression Path:
)dia'atic *ompression followed 'y Iso'aric cooling
Limitation:
8ischarge temperature of compressed gas should 'e less than 100
o
* 7e have to
consider this limitation in the designing of compressor
STEP NO !
*hoose an appropriate compression ratio which is for reciprocating compressor
mostly in the range of 1(10 and find the discharge temp 'y the formula
-r
[ ] k
k
7 C > >
1
1 2
.

7here
&2 - 8ischarge temperature (%)
&1- Inlet temperature of the gas (%)
"2 - 8ischarge pressure (atm)
"1- Inlet pressure (atm)
"2 G "1 - *ompression ratio - *.B.
!- *pG*v
"utting the values in the a'ove formula
&2 - 2?>.11*(2.,1)
0.1>2
&2 - 310.>6 %
&2 - ::.:
o
*
)s &2 is less than 100
o
* so our selected *ompression Batio (*.B.) - 2.,1 is set.
k
k
P
P
> >
1
1
2
1 2

1
]
1

31
*hapter <o 3 *ompressor 8esign 32
STEP NO "
@y using the selected *.B. find the <o. of stages (<s) 'y using the formula
7here
*.B.- *ompression ratio
"n - Ainal re3uired pressure (atm)
"1 - Inlet pressure (atm)
<s - <o. of #tages re3uired to achieve the desired pressure
#implify this formula

,
_

1
) . (
P
P
An 7 C An E
n
0
"utting the values in the a'ove formula
<s P 9n (2.,1) - 9n (3000G1)
<s - >.?3,
<s - ?
#o ? compression stages will 'e re3uired.
0
E
n
P
P
7 C
1
1
.
1
]
1

32
*hapter <o 3 *ompressor 8esign 33
&he ta'le given a'ove shows that for primary compressor 7 sta!es are needed
'ecause we have to attain pressure a'out 210 atm 'efore secondary compressor.+5sta!es
for secondary compressor which gives final reaction pressure. ,ntercoolers are used
'etween these compression stages to reduce the gas temperature to the initial
temperature.
STEP NO #
*alculate &otal adia'atic wor! for Primary Compressor 'y using the formula
P1 1 atm
P2 2.45 atm
P3 2.450 atm
P4 6.003 atm
P5 6.003 atm
P6 14.706 atm
P7 14.706 atm
P8 36.030 atm
P9 36.030 atm
P10 88.274 atm
P11 88.274 atm
P12 216.270 atm
P13 216.270 atm
P14 529.86 atm
P15 529.86 atm
P16 1298.2 atm
P17 1298.2 atm
P18 3180.5 atm
33
*hapter <o 3 *ompressor 8esign 3,
( ) [ ] 1 .
G 1
G 1 1

k k a1g 0
A
7 C
k k
7> $ E
8
7here
7) - )dia'atic wor! (QGg.mol)
<s - <o. of stages for primary compressor
;avg - )verage *ompressi'ility Aactor
B - =as constant (>.31, QGg.mol.%)
&1 - Inlet temperate (%)
! - *pG*v
*.B - *ompression Batio
"utting the values in the a'ove formula
7) - (0.?>1P6P>.31,P2?>.11)G(0.1>2)PR(2.,1)S(0.1>2) T 1U
7) - 1,216.1 QGg.mol
7) - 1,216.1P 0.23>? calGg.mol
7) - 3,01.::> calGg.mol
*alculate &otal adia'atic wor! for Secondary Compressor 'y using the a'ove
formula only 'y changing the no. of stages re3uired for compression
7) - (0.?>1P3P>.31,P2?>.11)G(0.1>2)PR(2.,1)S(0.1>2) T 1U
7) - :12>.0, QGg.mol
7) - 1:02.>>? calGg.mol
3,
*hapter <o 3 *ompressor 8esign 31
STEP NO$
*alculate #haft wor! @ra!e wor! or *ompressor wor! for Primary Compressor
'y using the formula
7here
7c - #haft wor! (calGg.mol)
7) - )dia'atic wor! (calGg.mol)
V - )dia'atic efficiency
"utting the values in the a'ove formula find the shaft wor! for the Primary Compressor
7c - 3,01.::>G0.:6
7c - ,,>1.2? calGg.mol
#imilarly 'y putting the values in the a'ove formula find the shaft wor! for the
Secondary Compressor
7c - 1:02.>>?G0.:6
7c- 22,0.6, calGg.mol
STEP NO %
&o calculate the compressor horsepower use the following formula
7here
c
A
c
C
C

C C
C n P
31
*hapter <o 3 *ompressor 8esign 36
"c - compressor power (%7)
n - Molar flow rate of gas (g.molGhr)
7c - #haft 7or! (calGg.mol)
"utting the values in the a'ove formula and find the *ompressor "ower for the
Primary Compressor
"c - 216,1?.33, * ,,>1.2? P 0.000001163
"c - 112:.?2 %7
"c - 112:.?2 P 1.3,1
"c - 11,2.1,2 hp
"utting the values in the a'ove formula and find the *ompressor "ower for the
Secondary Compressor
"c - 161>02 * 22,0.6, P 0.000001163
"c - 1,:,.,1 %7
"c - 1,:,.,1 P 1.3,1
"c - 1?::.1:? hp
SEP N-( 7
&o si/e the electric motor divide the compressor power 'y an electric motor
efficiency
7here
"0 - 0lectric motor power (hp)
"c - *ompressor power (hp)
5
C
5
P
P

36
*hapter <o 3 *ompressor 8esign 3:
V0 - 0lectric motor efficiency
"utting the values in the a'ove formula and find the si/e of electric motor for
Primary Compressor
"0 - 1112.1,2 G 0.?,
"0 - 160?.0? hp
&his shows that a standard motor of 1:10 hp will 'e suita'le for this compressor
with a safety factor of > 2.
"utting the values in the a'ove formula and find the si/e of electric motor for
Secondary Compressor
"0 - 1?::.1:?G 0.?,
"0 - 2103.3> hp
&his shows that a standard motor of 2100 hp will 'e suita'le for this compressor
with a safety factor of 112.
STEP NO &
)s throughput is much so we use 1 parallel compressor 'atteries (? stages in each
'attery) to decrease the flow rate of gas
3:
*hapter <o 3 *ompressor 8esign 3>
&hen the re3uired electric motors are
Compressor 8*antity Electric Motor Si9e"hp%
Primary 1 1:10
Secondary 1 2100
INTERCOOLER DESIGN
I<&BC8$*&IC<.
) Intercooler is 'asically a heat e4changer which is used for
transfer of internal thermal energy 'etween two or more fluids availa'le at different
temperatures. In most heat e4changers the fluids are separated 'y a heat(transfer
surface and ideally they do not mi4. +eat e4changers are used in the process power
petroleum transportation air conditioning refrigeration cryogenic heat recovery
alternate fuels and other industries. *ommon e4amples of heat e4changers familiar to
us in day(to(day use are automo'ile radiators condensers evaporators air pre(
heaters and oil coolers.

6 #tage "rimary *ompressors 3 #tage #econdary *ompressors
6 #tage "rimary *ompressors
6 #tage "rimary *ompressors
6 #tage "rimary *ompressors
6 #tage "rimary *ompressors
3 #tage #econdary *ompressors
3 #tage #econdary *ompressors
3 #tage #econdary *ompressors
3 #tage #econdary *ompressors
3>
*hapter <o 3 *ompressor 8esign 3?
In our proDect a num'er of heat e4changers are used . +ere we will discuss heat
e4changer used as
Intercooler
*ooler
)ll of these are shell and tu'e heat e4changers.
3?
*hapter <o 3 *ompressor 8esign ,0
SELECTION GUIDE TO HEAT E/CHANGER TYPES
ype Si!nificant feat*re
.pplications 0est
s*ited
Limitations
.ppro:imat
e relati/e
cost in
car0on steel
constr*ction
Ai4ed tu'e
sheet
@oth tu'e sheets fi4ed
to shell.
*ondensers5 li3uid(
li3uid5 gas(gas5 gas(
li3uid5 cooling and
heating hori/ontal or
vertical re'oiling.
&emperature
difference at e4tremes
of a'out 200
o
A 8ue to
differential e4pansion.
1.0
Aloating
head or
tu'esheet
(remova'le
and
nonremova'l
e 'undles)
Cne tu'esheet NfloatsO
in shell or with shell
tu'e 'undle may or
may not 'e remova'le
from shell 'ut 'ac!
cover can 'e removed
to e4pose tu'e ends.
+igh temperature
differentials a'ove
a'out 200
o
A e4tremes5
dirty fluids re3uiring
cleaning of inside as
well as outside of
shell hori/ontal or
vertical.
Internal gas!ets offer
danger of lea!ing.
*orrosiveness of fluids
on shell(side floating
parts. $sually
confined to hori/ontal
units.
1.2>
$(tu'e5
$(@undle
Cnly one tu'e sheet
re3uired. &u'es 'ent in
$(shape. @undle is
remova'le.
+igh temperature
differentials which
might re3uire
provision for
e4pansion in fi4ed
tu'e units. 0asily
cleaned conditions on
'oth tu'e and shell
side.
@ends must 'e
carefully made or
mechanical damage
and danger of rupture
can result. &u'e side
velocities can cause
erosion of inside of
'ends. Aluid should 'e
free of suspended
particles.
0.?(1.1
8ou'le pipe 0ach tu'e has own Belatively small #ervices suita'le for 0.>(1.,
,0
*hapter <o 3 *ompressor 8esign ,1
shell forming annular
space for shell side
fluid. $sually use
e4ternally finned tu'e.
transfer area service
or in 'an!s for larger
applications.
0specially suited for
high pressures in tu'e
(greater than ,00
psig).
finned tu'e. "iping(up
a large num'er often
re3uires cost and
space.
"ipe coil
"ipe coil for
su'mersion in coil('o4
of water or sprayed
with water is simplest
type of e4changer.
*ondensing or
relatively low heat
loads on sensi'le
transfer.
&ransfer coefficient is
low re3uires relatively
large space if heat load
is high.
0.1(0.:
"late and
frame
*omposed of metal(
formed thin plates
separated 'y gas!ets.
*ompact easy to
clean.
6iscous fluids
corrosive fluids
slurries high heat
transfer.
<ot well suited for
'oiling or condensing5
limit 310(100
o
A 'y
gas!ets. $sed for
li3uid(li3uid only5 not
gas(gas.
0.>(1.1
#piral
*ompact concentric
plates5 no 'ypassing
high tur'ulence.
*ross(flow
condensing heating.
"rocess corrosion
suspended materials.
0.>(1.1
SHELL AND TUBE HEAT E/CHANGER
In process industries shell and
tu'e e4changers are used in great num'ers far more than any other type of e4changer.
More than ?02 of heat e4changers used in industry are of the shell and tu'e type. &he
shell and tu'e heat e4changers are the Nwor! horsesO of industrial process heat transfer.
&hey are the first choice 'ecause of well(esta'lished procedures for design and
manufacture from a wide variety of materials many years of satisfactory service and
availa'ility of codes and standards for design and fa'rication. &hey are produced in the
,1
*hapter <o 3 *ompressor 8esign ,2
widest variety of si/es and styles. &here is virtually no limit on the operating temperature
and pressure.
Classi#icai!n !# S%ell an. T*+e Hea E0c%an,ers
&here are four 'asic considerations in choosing a mechanical arrangement that
provides for efficient heat transfer 'etween the two fluids while ta!ing care of such
practical matters as preventing lea!age from one into the other.
*onsideration for differential thermal e4pansion of tu'es and shell.
Means of directing fluid through the tu'es.
Means of controlling fluid flow through the shell.
*onsideration for ease of maintenance and servicing.
+eat e4changers have 'een developed with different approaches to these four
fundamental design factors. &hree principal types of heat e4changers
1) Ai4ed tu'e(sheet e4changers
2) $(tu'e e4changers and
3) Aloating head e4changersIsatisfy these design re3uirements.
,2
*hapter <o 3 *ompressor 8esign ,3
Desi,n Pr!ce.*re #!r S%ell-an.-T*+e Hea E0c%an,ers
,3
*hapter <o 3 *ompressor 8esign ,,
DESIGN STEPS:
&1-:>
o
* &2-21
o
*
t2- ,1
o
* t1-20
o
*
"roperty 0thylene 0thylene 7ater 7ater
Inlet &emperature :>
o
* 311.11% 20
o
* 2?3.11%
Cutlet &emperature 21
o
* 2?>.11% ,1
o
* 31>.11%
)vg. #pecific +eat 0.,1calGg.
o
*
1:16.6:
QG%g.
o
*
0.??> calGg.
o
*
,1:>.626
QG%g.
o
*
)vg. &hermal
*onductivity
0.023
7Gm.
o
*
0.62
7Gm.
o
*
)vg. 8ensity 2.1> %gGm
3
??,.?1
%gGm
3
)vg. 6iscosity 0.000011
%gGm.sec
0.000>10
%gGm.sec
Heat Load .
> mCp F
7here
W - +eat produced (QGhr)
m - Mass flow rate of 0thylene (%gGhr)
*p - #pecific heat of 0thylene (QG%g.
o
*)
,,
*hapter <o 3 *ompressor 8esign ,1
W - 60:1.,2P1:16.6:P(:>(21)
W -1123??102 QGhr
W -1123??102P0.0002:::::>
W - 113,,,.21 watt
Lo! Mean emperat*re Difference "LMD%:
9M&8-t
2
(t
1
G9n(t
2
Gt
1)

9M&8- 1,.>,
o
*


.SSUMED C.LCUL.,-NS:
)ssume the value of over all heat transfer co(efficient $8

$8-321 7G m
2 o
*
Heat ransfer .rea :
)-W G ($8 P9M&8)
) - 113,,,.21 G (321P1,.>,)
)
- 31.>2 m
2
*0e Layo*t ; Si9e:
9ength - 1 m
C8 @7= pitch - 1?.01mm 1, @7=
23.>1 mm &riangular pitch.
"ass - 1
)rea of #ingle &u'e - )& -
A
o

7here
,1
*hapter <o 3 *ompressor 8esign ,6
8o - outside diameter of tu'e (m)
9 - 9ength of tu'e (m)
)& - 3.1,2P.02P1
)& - 0.30 m
2
<o. of tu'es - <& - ) G )&
<& - 31.>2 G 0.3
<& - 106.32
&u'esG"ass - 106.32G1
&u'esG"ass - 106.32
&u'e *ross(sectional )rea -
2
,
i

7here
8i - Inside 8iameter of tu'e (m)
&u'e *ross(sectional )rea - (3.1,G,)P(0.01,>)
2
&u'e *ross(sectional )rea - 0.0001:3 m
2
)reaG"ass - (&u'esG"ass) P (&u'e *ross(sectional )rea)
)reaG"ass - 106.32P0.0001:3
)reaG"ass - 0.01>, m
2
Mass Alow Bate of 0thylene - 60:1.,20 %gGhr
)verage 8ensity of 0thylene - 2.1> %gGm
3
6olumetric Alow Bate - 60:1.,20 G (2.1> P 3600) - 0.6136> m
3
G sec
&u'e #ide 6elocity - 6olumetric Alow Bate G )reaG"ass
&u'e #ide 6elocity - 0.6136> G 0.01>,
&u'e #ide 6elocity - 31.612 mGsec

TUBE SIDE CALCULATIONS(
'eynolds<s No( = '
e
= >D
t *
t

$
,6
*hapter <o 3 *ompressor 8esign ,:
7here
8t
- &u'e inside diameter - 0.01,> m
$
t
- &u'e side velocity - 31.612 mGsec
6iscosity of 0thylene - 0.000011 !gGm sec
BeynoldsKs <o. - B
e - 123>6:.>0
Prandtel No( =
Pr = Cp
$ 4
7here
*p - #pecific heat of ethylene - 1:16.6:0 DG!g
o
*
X - 6iscosity of water - 0.000011 !gGm sec
! - &hermal conductivity of 0thylene - 0.023 7Gm
o
*
"randtel <o. - "r - 0.>32?
9Gdi- 33:.11
9 - 9ength of tu'e - 1 m
di - Inside diameter of tu'e - 0.01,> m
Q+
Aactor 6alue
-0.002:
N*sselt No(= N* = 3H '
e$Pr
?(++
<u - 31,.>6
h
i
= N* 4$d
i
h
i
-Inside fluid film coefficient
hi - ,>1.36 7Gm
2

o
*
SHELL SIDE CALCULATIONS(
%1 - 0.31?0
n1 - 2.1,20
)und=e dia 2 D; 2 do3% No. o@ tu;e>4A1&3%14n1&
,:
*hapter <o 3 *ompressor 8esign ,>
- 1?.01P(106.32G0.31?0)P(1G2.1,20)
b G%49&4, mm
b G -&%? m
S%ell clearance 1 2234 ))
Insi.e .ia)eer !# s%ell 1 D
s
1 B*n.le .ia 5 s%ell clearance
Inside diameter of shell = D
s
= 286.87 + 11.0 = 297.87 mm
@affle spacing - 9@ - 8sG, - 2?:.>:G, - :,.,: mm
"t - triangular pitch - 1.21P do
"t - 1.21P1?.01 - 23.>1mm
Shell area = .s = "Pt 5 do%@Ds@LB $ Pt
)s - R(23.>1 T 1?.01) P 2?:.>: P :,.,: U G 23.>1
)s - ,,36.,1 mm
2
)s - .00,, m
2
EA*i/alent dia = De = 6(6$do@"Pt
2
5"?(B6C@do
2
%
8e - 1.1G1?.01 P R(23.>1)
2
T Y 0.?1: P (1?.01)
2
ZU
03uivalent dia - 8e - 13.13 mm - 0.01, m
Mass flow rate of water - 12>:.>1, !gGhr
Mass flo& rate of &ater
)ol*metric flo& rate of &ater =
Density of &ater
6olumetric flow rate of water - 12>:.>1, G ??,.?1 m
3
G hr
6olumetric flow rate of water - 1.31 m
3
G hr
6olumetric flow rate of water - 1.31 G 3600 m
3
G sec
6olumetric flow rate of water - 0.001,:63 m
3
G sec
,>
*hapter <o 3 *ompressor 8esign ,?
)ol*metric flo& rate of &ater
Shell side /elocity =
Shell area
#hell side velocity - 0.001,:63 G .00,,
- 0.333 mGsec
'eynold<s No( = '
e
= >De
*
s

$
7here
$
s
- #hell side velocity - 0.333 mGsec
6iscosity of water - 0.000>10 !gGm sec
8e- 03uivalent dia - 0.01, m
BeynoldKs <o. -Be- 112>.?:3
Prandtel No( =
Pr = Cp
$#
7here
*p - #pecific heat of water - ,1:>.626 DG!g
o
*
X - 6iscosity of water - 0.0000>10 !gGm sec
! - &hermal conductivity of water - 0.62 7Gm
o
*
"randtel <o.-
"r -1.,,>

Q+
Aactor 6alue
- 0.00:?
hs = o*tside fl*id film coefficient = 4$De@"3H@'e%@"Pr
?(++
%
hs- 3110.317Gm
2

o
*
6$Uo=6$hoD6$hodDdoln "do$di% $"2@4&% D do$di@6$hidDdo$di@6$hi
$o - the overall coefficient 'ased on outside area of tu'e (7Gm
2

o
*)
$o - 30?.12 7Gm
2

o
*
PRESSURE DROP TUBE SIDE(
'e= 62+E7C(E?
,?
*hapter <o 3 *ompressor 8esign 10
riction actor !al"e on t"#e side =$
f
= 0.0027
<o of passes - 1
F Pt
= *0e side press*re drop = N
p
@GE@Hf"L$d
i
%D2(IJ@>@*t
2
$2
where
<p - <o of tu'e passes
ut - tu'e inside velocity -1,0.,2>6 m Gsec
di -inside dia of tu'e
[ "t
-16003.:, "a
[ "t
- 2.32 "si
PRESSURE DROP SHELL SIDE(
%
e
= &&28.97
Ariction Aactor 6alue on #hell #ide -Qf - 0.011
FP
s
= E@Hf"Ds$De%"L$LB% @ > @*s
2
$2
where
8
s
- #hell inside dia
9 - 9ength of tu'e
9@ - @affle spacing
["
s
- 31>3?.2, "a
["
s
- 1.20 "si
SPECIFICATION SHEET FOR INTER COOLER
,dentification: 04changer
No( 'eA*ired - ,0
10
*hapter <o 3 *ompressor 8esign 11
1*nction: Bemoves the +eat of *ompression

-peration: *ontinuous
ype: 1(1 +ori/ontal
Heat D*ty - 1.1410
1
%QGhr
*0e Side:
Aluid handled .0thylene =as
Alow rate - 60:1.,2 %gGhr
"ressure - 213.31%"a
&emperature - 311.11% to
2?>.11%
&u'es. C8.1?mm 1,@7=
106 tu'es each 1m long
1 pass
2,mm triangular pitch
pressure drop - 16 %pa
Shell Side:
Aluid handled . 7ater
Alow rate. 12>:.>1, %gGhr
#hell. 13.13mm dia 1 pass
@affles spacing :,.,:mm.
"ressure drop - 31.>, %pa
"ressure 101.321%pa
&emperature 2?3.11% to
31>.11%
$d assumed - 321 7G m
2 o
* $d calculated -30?.12 7Gm
2

o
*
11
Chapter No * Reactor de>iEn 13
"EACT#" DES$%N
$HT I! RECTORF
*hemical reactors are vessels that are designed for a chemical reaction to occur
inside of them. &he design of a chemical reactor deals with multiple aspects of chemical
engineering. It is the Do' of the chemical engineer to ensure that the reaction proceeds with
the highest efficiency towards the desired output product producing the highest yield of
product while re3uiring the least amount of money to purchase and operate. <ormal
operating e4penses include energy input energy removal raw material costs etc. 0nergy
changes can come in the form of heating or cooling pumping to increase pressure frictional
pressure loss (such as pressure drop across a ?0o el'ow or an oriface plate).
Selection of 'eactors
&he selection of the 'est reactor type for a given process is su'Dect to a num'er of
maDor considerations. #uch design aspects for e4ample include (1) temperature and pressure
of the reaction5 (2) need for removal or addition of reactants and products5 (3) re3uired
pattern of product delivery (continuous or 'atchwise)5 (,) catalyst use considerations such as
the re3uirement for solid catalyst particle replacement and contact with fluid reactants and
products5 (1) relative cost of the reactor5 and (6) limitations of reactor types as discussed in
the previous section. Cther considerations such as availa'le space safety 0nd related factors
can 'e important and should not 'e overloo!ed. &he resulting comple4 set of reactor physical
re3uirements is often possi'le to achieve 'y using multiple reactor types in which such
considerations of cost safety and related concerns 'ecome the determining considerations in
selecting a reactor.
13
Chapter No * Reactor de>iEn 1,
It is important to note that while e4plicit guidelines for reactor selection are not availa'le
there are some general rules of thum' that can 'e followed in the selection process of an
appropriate reactor for a given reaction.F &hese are 'riefly summari/ed here.
6( Aor conversions up to ?1 percent of e3uili'rium the performance of five or more *#&Bs
connected in series approaches that of a "AB.
2( *#&Bs are usually used for slow li3uid(phase or slurry reactions.
+( @atch reactors are 'est suited for small(scale production very slow reactions those
which foul or those re3uiring intensive monitoring or control.
K( &he typical si/e of catalytic particles is appro4imately 0.003 m for fi4ed('ed reactors
0.001 m for slurry reactors and 0.0001 m for fluidi/ed('ed reactors.
I( 9arger pores in catalytic particles favor faster lower(order reactions5 conversely smaller
pores favor slower higher(order reactions.
DE6ELOPMENT OF CHEMICAL REACTION RATE
E/PRESSIONS(
It is normally necessary to use a simplified or empirical e4pression for the reaction rate
r in terms of constants and concentrations of reactant and product that can 'e assumed from
the stoichiometry of a proposed reaction mechanism or developed purely empirically on the
'asis of e4perimental data. Cne of the !ey components of the rate e4pression is the specific
rate constant ! which must almost always 'e determined directly from la'oratory data
although some theoretical e4pressions do e4ist.
&he most common form of presenting a rate constant is in the form of the )rrhenius
e3uation as
4 = .e5EL$'
where ! is the specific rate constant with appropriate units to fit the rate e3uation )
the fre3uency factor with units identical to those of ! 0a the activation energy with units that
ma!e 0aGB& dimensionless B the ideal gas law constant and the a'solute temperature.
It is worthwhile to note that sincg tfee reaction constant is dependent on the temper(
ature the reaction rate is also dependent on the temperature. &he effect of temperature on the
reaction coefficient and reaction rate can 'e su'stantial for even small temperature variations.
&he sensitivity of reaction rates to temperature variation is due to the dependence of the
)rrhenius rate coefficient on the e4ponent of the negative inverse of the reaction temperature.
&his dependence is illustrated in 04ample 13(3 with the gas(phase degradation of dinitrogen
pento4ide at temperatures of 2?3 and 303 %.
REACTOR PRINCIPLES
&he 'asic mathematical model for a reactor system is developed from (I) reaction rate
e4pressions incorporating mechanism definition and temperature functionality5 (2) material
1,
Chapter No * Reactor de>iEn 11
'alances including inflow outflow reaction rates mi4ing effects and diffusion effects5 (3)
energy 'alances including heats of reaction heat transfer and latent and sensi'le heat effects5
(,) economic evaluations5 and (1) special constraints on the design system.
Reac!r T"pes

&he common ideali/ed designations for types of reactors are 'atch plug(flow and
'ac!(mi4 or continuous stirred tan!. In an ideali/ed 'atch realtor the reactants initially are
fully mi4ed and no reaction mi4ture is removed during the reaction period.

*omplete mi4ing is assumed during the reaction so all their reactor contents are at
the same temperature and concentration during the reaction process. &he composition (and
often the temperature) changes with time. &he ideali/ed plug reactor is a tu'ular reactor in
which the reacting fluid moves through the tu'e with no 'ac! mi4ing or radial concentration
gradients. *onditions are at steady state so that the concentration as well as the temperature
profile along the length of the reactor does not change with time. )n ideali/ed 'ac!(mi4 flow
reactor is e3uivalent to a continuous stirred(tan! reactor (*#&B) where the contents of the
reactor are completely mi4ed so that the complete contents of the reactor are at the same
concentration and temperature as the product stream. #ince the reactor is designed for steady
state the flow rates of the inlet and outlet streams as well as the reactor conditions remain
unchanged with time. &hese three 'asic types of reactors represented schematically in Aig.
13(Q3 form the 'asis for all reactor designs with modifications to meet specific needs.
In reality very few reactors can fulfill the re3uirements for ideality and the design
engineer therefore must generally design for non ideal reactors.
Space 6el!ci" an. Space Ti)e
Alow reactor analysis often utili/es two concepts space velocity and space time. #pace
velocity is defined as the ratio of the volumetric feed rate to the volume 3f the reactor which
permits determination of the num'er of reactor volumes of feed that can 'e treated inuring a
specified time period.
CHAIN-GRO7TH POLYMERIZATION
*hain(growth polymeri/ations re3uire the presence of an initiating molecule that
can 'e used to attach a monomer molecule at the start of the polymeri/ation. &he initiating
species may 'e a radical anion or cation as discussed in the following sections. Aree(
radical anionic and cationic chain(growth polymeri/ations share three common steps I
initiation propagation and termination. 7hether the polymeri/ation of a particular
monomer can occur 'y one or more mechanisms (i.e. free radical anionic or cationic)
depends in part on the chemical nature of the constituent group. Monomers with an
electron(withdrawing group can polymeri/e 'y an anionic pathway while those with an
11
Chapter No * Reactor de>iEn 16
electron(donating group follow a cationic pathway. #ome polymers with a resonance(
sta'ili/ed constituent(group such as a phenyl ring may 'e polymeri/ed 'y more than one
pathway. Aor e4ample polystyrene can 'e polymeri/ed 'y 'oth free(radical and anionic
methods.
Aree(Badical "olymeri/ation and *opolymeri/ation
9i!e other chain(growth polymeri/ations a free(radical polymeri/ation has three
principal steps.
\ Initiation of the active monomer
\ "ropagation or growth of the active (free(radical) chain 'y se3uential addition of
monomers
\ &ermination of the active chain to give the final polymer product
Initiation. Initiation in a free(radical polymeri/ation consists of two steps
\ a dissociation of the initiator to form two radical species followed 'y addition of a single
monomer molecule to the initiating radical (the association step). &he dissociation of the
initiator (I(I) to form two free(radical initiator species (E\) can 'e represented as
"ropagation. in the ne4t step called propagation additional monomer units are added
to the initiated monomer species as
&ermination.
"ropagation will continue until some termination process occurs. Cne o'vious
termination mechanism occurs when two propagating radical chains of ar'itrary degrees of
polymeri/ation of 4 and y meet at their free(radical ends. &ermination in this manner occurs
'y com'ination to give a single terminated chain of degree of polymeri/ation Dc L y through
the formation of a covalent 'ond 'etween the two com'ining radical chains as illustrated 'y
the following reaction.
16
.
2 7 ;
d
K

. .
7# # 7
a
k
+
( )
( ) ( )
.
1
.
.
2
.
. .
# # 7 # # # 7
# # 7 # 7##
7## # 7#
.
k
.
k
k
p
p
p
+
+
+
+
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) 7 # 7 7 # # # # 7
7 # # 7 7 # # # # 7
y .
k
y .
y .
k
y .
t
t
+

+
+ +
1
. .
1
1
. .
1
Chapter No * Reactor de>iEn 1:
8ineics(
&he rate e3uations of Initiation propagation and termination from their corresponding
e3uation are respectively given 'elow.
)t steady state r
i
-r
t
#o we get
)lso 'y solving r
i
and r
p
we get the following e3uations.
<ow 'y putting all the derived values of a'ove procedure in the rate e3uation of reaction
we get.

1:
[ ]
[ ][ ]
[ ]
2
.
.
2
2
7# k r
7# # k r
; fk r
t t
p p
d i

[ ] [ ]
2
1
2
1
.
;
k
fk
7#
t
d

,
_

( )
[ ] ( ) t 7# K # #
and
t fk ; ;
p
d

e4p
2 e4p
( ) ( )

,
_

,
_

,
_

t
k
t k ; fk
kp
k
t k ; fk
# k r
t
d d
t
d d
p p
2
1
2
1
e4p
e4p
e4p
o o
o
Chapter No * Reactor de>iEn 1>
Bate e3uation of Monomer conversion at any time
Deer)inin, %e 6!l*)e O# %e reac!r(
8ata from the literature
Rate Con>tant 7a=ue o@ rate con>tant Re@@erence
%th lGs 6.0, M 103 e4p R(3.6:0: M
10,(& L 2:3.11)(1U
@randolin et al.
(1??6)5 8hi' and
)l(<idawy (2002) %p lGs ?.? M 101 e4p ]^2.11>1 M
103(& L 2:3.11)^1]
%tc lGs ,.31 M 10> e4p ]^1.>36? M
103(& L 2:3.11)^1]
%trm lGs 1.2 M 101 e4p ]^:.2,61 M
103(& L 2:3.11)^1]
%trp lGs 1.> M 10> e4p ]^,.:303 M
103(& L 2:3.11)^1]
%] lGs 1., M 10? e4p ]^?.611, M
103(& L 2:3.11)^1]
%]1 lGs ,., M 10? e4p ]^?.611, M
103(& L 2:3.11)^1]
%td lGs 3.2,6 M 10> e4p ]^1.21:> M
102(& L 2:3.11)^1]
%trs lGs 1.6 M 10: e4p ]^1.0,>, M
103(& L 2:3.11)^1
%d lGs 2.2?21 M 101, e4p
]^1.1163M 10,(& L
2:3.11)^1]
#eidl and 9uft
(1?>1)5 8hi' and
)l(<idawy (2002)
1>
( )

,
_

,
_

t
k
t k ; fk
k # #
t
d d
p
2
1
e4p
e4p
o
o
Chapter No * Reactor de>iEn 1?
6al*es O# Rae C!nsans(
)t our reactor conditions op temperature. &he calculated values of rate constants are as
follows.
#
p
=+(?E:6?K L$mol(sec
#
t
=6(B:6?5K L$mol(sec
#
d
=''#( 6$sec
Selecin, %e M!n!)er C!n9ersi!n(
@y the reference of chemical Dournal NInternational Qournal of *hemical reactor
0ngineeringO 7e have the following graph of the monomer conversion to te reactor length.
&hus 'y the a'ove data we selected a monomer conversion with one inDection to 'e 12 2.
1?
Chapter No * Reactor de>iEn 60
Calc*lain, %e 6!l*)e O# %e Reac!r(
8ata availa'le.
Kp 3.0>410, L/mol.sec
Kt 1.?410(, L/mol.sec
Kd 0.038 1/sec
Efficienc 80! "ss#med
E:*ai!n !# )!n!)er c!n9ersi!n(
) Con*ersiom !+,r-
0.129602 28.68365
0.25898 28.73357
0.388132 28.78355
0.517061 28.83361
0.645766 28.88375
0.774247 28.93395
0.902505 28.98423
1.030541 29.03457
1.158355 29.085
1.285948 29.13549
1.41332 29.18605
1.54047 29.23669
1.667401 29.2874
1.794112 29.33819
1.920604 29.38904
2.046877 29.43997
2.172932 29.49097
2.298768 29.54205
2.424387 29.59319
2.54979 29.64441
2.674975 29.69571
60
( )

,
_

,
_

t
k
t k ; fk
k # #
t
d d
p
2
1
e4p
e4p
o
o
Chapter No * Reactor de>iEn 61
6!l*)e
<ow we callate the volume 'y ta!ing area under the curve .
&he volume of the reactor is 31 m
3.
RESULT(
=iving 20 2 safety allowance we get the volume of the reactor as follows.
6olume of the reactor - 31 L :-,2 m
3
61
Chapter No * Reactor de>iEn 62
M!.elin, an. Si)*lai!n #!r %e M*li In;eci!n !# %e
Iniia!r
Arom the data o'tained from the International Qournal Cf *hemical Beactor 0ngineering
we have the following set of e3uations
To account for the density variation of reacting mixture feed, the
density correlations of

In the following equation for the density variation:
62
Chapter No * Reactor de>iEn 63
Ass*)pi!ns(
The reactor model is based on the following assumptions:
1. The heat capacity of reaction mixture is the sum of the heat capacities
of pure components only.
2. verall heat transfer coe!cient, following the approach of "hen et al.
#1$%&', is given by
where,
h
i
is the calculated heat transfer coe!cient on reaction side, and
h
w
represents the (lm coe!cient for metal wall, reactor )ac*et, and fouling
e+ect.
,. The pressure inside reactor is *ept constant, and there is no pulse valve
e+ect.
-. Initiator, being present in small amounts, does not a+ect the .ow
dynamics, and heat transfer of reaction mixture.
/. 0ropagation is the only thermally relevant step #1randolin et al., 1$22'
to be considered in the energy balance of reactor.
63
Chapter No ' Opti<a= contro= o@ the reactor 61
OPTIM-L CONTROL O.
T/E RE-CTOR

The above simulation results reveal a strong relation between
reactant temperature, monomer conversion, and the average
molecular weights of polymer. 3ince reactant temperature is a+ected
by the temperature of heat4exchange .uid in reactor )ac*et, its
temperature can be used to achieve desirable monomer conversion,
and polymer properties. This optimi5ation can be even more e+ective if
the )ac*et temperature is variable along reactor length, i. e. if the
)ac*et temperature is considered as an optimi5ation function. The
optimi5ation strategy that uses an optimi5ation function is *nown as
optimal control. The following presents an application of optimal
control to the industrial, tubular 6708 reactor based on the model,
which has been developed and simulated above.
Opi)al C!nr!l O+;eci9e(
The optimal control ob)ective is to determine the optimal )ac*et
temperature as a function of reactor length that would maximi5e the
(nal monomer conversion of an 6708 reactor.
9athematically, the ob)ective is to maximi5e the performance index
J = X(L) (12)
by using the temperature of reactor )ac*et, Tc, as a control function
of reactor length. In 8quation , : is monomer conversion, and 6 is the
length of reactor. The maximi5ation of ; is sub)ect to the mathematical
model of the reactor given by the set of algebraic equations, 8quations
#,&'<#,2', and the set of di+erential equations, 8quations #-1'<#--',
61
Chapter No ' Opti<a= contro= o@ the reactor 66
and #1'<#11'. There are two additional process constraints to be
satis(ed as well. The (rst constraint is on reactor temperature, which
should never exceed the maximum prescribed limit of Tmax, i. e.
T T
max
; ? 9 L
The second constraint is on the range of control function, i. e.
Tc,min Tc _Tc,max ; 0 z L
The above di+erential4algebraic model of reactor is highly non4
linear. =urthermore, due to the inequality constraints of 8quation #1,'
and #1-', the relation between the performance index and )ac*et
temperature cannot be expected to be unimodal and continuous. To
handle this challenging optimal control problem, a robust optimal
control method based on genetic algorithms #>preti, 2??-' was
applied. The reactor was considered to be surrounded by contiguous
)ac*ets of equal length, and at uniform #but not necessarily equal'
temperatures.
Thus, the temperature of )ac*ets, i. e. the control function, was
represented by a series of step values, or control stages. The step si5e,
or the length of contiguous )ac*ets, was *ept constant over the length
of reactor. The number of control stages, the di+erential4algebraic
model #sans the energy balance for )ac*et' with its parameters, and
the reactor temperature constraint of 8quation #1,' were input to the
optimal control method. These inputs are needed to evaluate the
performance index or @(tnessA for a given control function. The
application of the method yielded the optimal control function by
stochastically applying genetic operations on a randomly generated
set or @populationA of control functions constrained by 8quation #1-'.
The optimal control method of >preti #2??-' uses three genetic
operations, namely, selection, crossover and mutation iteratively in a
si5e4varying control domain with logarithmic and linear mappings. The
method does not require any input of feasible control solution, or any
auxiliary condition. 3election stochastically pic*s control functions from
their population on the basis of (tness. B control function with better
(tness has a greater probability to populate a new set of control
functions. "rossover wor*s on the new set or population, which has a
greater representation of control functions with better (tnesses.
66
Chapter No ' Opti<a= contro= o@ the reactor 6:
"rossover recombines the building bloc*s of these control
functions, which are represented through binary digits, or bits. This
operation results in a newer population of @childrenA, some of which
are li*ely to be better than their @parentsA. =inally, mutation changes
the bits of children with a very low probability, and is equivalent to a
local search for the control functions of even better (tnesses. =urther
details of this method may be found in >preti #2??-'.
The ptimal control of the multi in)ection is shown in the
following (gure.n the basis of this data we have selected - in)ections
of the of the initiator at selected lengths to ta*e our conversion to ,/C
as is selected by our group discussion.
6:
Chapter No , PreheatinE in the tu;u=ar reactor 6?
PREHEATING IN THE
TUBULAR REACTOR
Desi,n(
Mass flow rate for one loop - mH-2::::.>G6
- ,62?.0 %gGhr
&he temperature of the gas is to increase
Arom :?_*((110_*.
#o the average temperature - :?L110G2
-11,_*
`t - 220_A
*p of ethylene at 11,_* - 1.>?> %QG%g_*
#o the heat load will 'e given as
W - mHP*p P `t
- ,?26P1.>?> P :1
- 2.11P10
1
7att
- :.1?P10
1
%QGhr
Mass flow rate of steam to preheat the gas.
mHs- W G a
7here a - latent heat of vapori/ation.
)t 220_* a - 1>11 %QG%g_ *
6?
Chapter No , PreheatinE in the tu;u=ar reactor :0
mHs -:.1?P10
1
G 1>11
- ?0, %gGhr
mHs - 1?>>.> l'Ghr
9M&8 - (220 ( :?) T (220 ( 110)G ln(1,1G:0)
- :1 G 0.:0
- 102.1 _ *
- 12,_ A
7e assume $d - 2> 7attGm
2
_ *
W - $d P) P 9M&8
) - W G $dP 9M&8
- 2.11P10
1
G 2>P102.1
- :3.1 mb
FOR PIPE SIDE(
8ia of the pipe
I8 (inner dia) - :0 mm
(I8) - 0.0: m
C8 (outer dia) - 1:0mm
- 0.16?> m
Alow area - )p - cG,P(I8)b
- cG, P(0.0:)b
- 0.003>1 m
2
Mass velocity =p - mH G )p
- ,62?.0 G 0.003>1
- 1.2:P10
6
%gGhr m
2
)t an average temperature of 11,_* viscosity of ethylene
d - 0.10>2 %gGhr m
Beynolds no. of pipe Bep- 8 P =pG d
- 0.06?> P ,62?.0G 0.10>2
Bep - :?2000
Arom graph at this Beynolds no the value of
:0
Chapter No , PreheatinE in the tu;u=ar reactor :1
Q+ - 1100 (appro4imately)
)lso at 11, _* heat capacity of ethylene
*p - 1.>?> %QG%g_*
&hermal conductivity %- 0.0>:2 wattGmb(_*Gm)
(*pPd G %)
1G3
- (1.>?>P0.10>2G0.0>:2)
1G3
- (2.3,)
1G3
- 0.:>2
hi - Q+ P (*pPd G %)1G3 P (%G8) P(dGdw)
.1,
hi - 1100 P 0.:>2 P0.103P e
hiGe - ,3,.2 7attG m
2
_*
FOR ANNULUS(
Inner dia of the annulus - 82 - 21, mm
- 0.21, m
Cuter dia of the pipe - 81- 0.16?> m
Alow area )a- cG, R(8b2 T 8b1)U
- cG, R(0.21,)b( (0.16?>)bU
- cG, (0.0312)
- 0.02> mb
03uivalent dia -8e- (8b2 T 8b1)G81
-0.0312G0.16?>
- 0.210 m
Mass velocity =a - mHsG )a
- ,0?G0.02>
- 1.,?P 10
,
%gGhr m
2
6iscosity of steam at 220_*
- 2.,2 %QG%g _*
BeynoldKs no. - 8eP =aG d
- 0.210P1.,?P 10
,
G2.,2
- 1::00
:1
Chapter No , PreheatinE in the tu;u=ar reactor :2
)t this no. the value of Q+ from graph- 160
)nd *p of steam -2.,2 %QG%g _*
&hermal conductivity - 0.0,1 7attGmb(_*Gm)
- 0.1,? %QGhrGmb(_*Gm)
(*pdG%)
1G3
- (2.,2P0.06,>G0.1,?)
1G3
- 0.113
ho Gmb(_*Gm)- Q+ P (*pdG%)
1G3
P(%G8e)P(dGdw))
.1,
- 160 P 0.113 P 0.3:,Pe
hoGe - 32.13 ( :2 (
hio - hi P I8GC8
- hiGe P 0.0:G0.16?>
hioG e - ,3,.2 P 0.0:G0.16?>
- 1>2.36 7attGmb _*
<ow we will calculate the wall temperature
tw - ta L hioGeG hioGeP hoGe P(&a(ta)
- 11, L (1>2.36G( 1>2.36L32.13)P (220(11,)
- 11, L (0.>,>)P106
- 11, L >?.>
- 201 _*
)t wall temperature the viscosity of ethylene
dw - 0.126 %gGhr m
Aor ethylene dG dw - (0.10>2G0.126)
0.1,
e- 0.?>,
)nd the viscosity of water
dw - 0.06,> %gGhr m
Aor water e- (dG dw)
0.1,
- 1.0
hoG e - 6.>0
ho - 32.13P1.0
- 32.13 7attGmb _*
hio - 1>2.36P 0.?>,
- 1:?.,, 7attGmb _*
:2
Chapter No , PreheatinE in the tu;u=ar reactor :3
$c -hioPhoGhioLho
$c - (1:?.,,P32.13)G(1:?.,,L32.13)
-1>3:.1G21,.::
- 2>.2: 7attGmb _*
1G$d- 1G$c L Bd
1G$d-1G2>.2:L.01
- 0.0313L0.001
- 0.0363
Cur assumption is correctso
$d-1G0.0363
-2:.1 7attGmb _*
W - $dP)P9M&8
) -WG$dP9M&8
-2.11P10
1
G2:.1P102.1
- :3.2 mb
)lso
)- cP 8 P9
Cr
9 - )G cP 8
- :3.2G3.1,M0.0:
9 - 333 m
9ength of one tu'e -10 m
&otal no of tu'es - 333G10
- 33.3 -3,
Reaci!n an. c!!lin, <!ne(
Mass flow rate for one loop - mH-2::::.>G ,
-6??,,.2 %gGhr
-112:: l'Ghr.
&he temperature of the gas is to increase
:3
Chapter No , PreheatinE in the tu;u=ar reactor :,
Arom 110_*((1:0_*.
#o the average temperature - 110L1:0G2
-1,0_*
`t - 220_A
*p of ethylene at 220_A - 0.,6 @tuG_A.l'
#o the heat load will 'e given as
W - mHP*p P `t
- 112::P0.,6 P220
- 1110 P 10f @tuGhr
mass flow rate of steam to preheat the gas.
mHs- W G a
7here a - latent heat of vapori/ation.
at 230_* a - 1>13 %D G %g
)s W - 1110 P 10f @tu G hr
#ince 1 @tu - 1011 Doule
&herefore W - 1110 P 1011 P10f DGhr
-16,0 P 10f %D G hr
mHs - 16,0 P 10fG 1>13
- ?0, %gGhr
mHs - 1?>>.> l'Ghr
9M&8 - (230 ( 110) T (230 ( 1:0)G ln(120G60)
- 60 G 0.6?3
- >6.6_ *
- 12,_ A
7e assume $d - 1.0 @tuGhr ftb. _A
W - $d P) P 9M&8
) - W G $dP 9M&8
- 1110 P 10f G 1 P 12,
:,
Chapter No , PreheatinE in the tu;u=ar reactor :1
- 2116 ftb
- 233 mb
FOR PIPE SIDE
8ia of the pipe
I8 (inner dia) - 12.0? in
(I8) - 1.0 ft
C8 (outer dia) - 12.:1 in
- 1.06 ft
Alow area - )p - cG,P(I8)b
- cG, P(1)b
)p - 0.:>1 ftb
Mass velocity =p - mH G )p
- 112:: G 0.:>1
- 1?,61 l'G hr ftb
)t an average temperature of 220_Aviscisity of ethylene d - 0.031, l'Ghr.ft
Beynolds no. of pipe Bep- 8 P =pG d
- 1 P 1?,61 G 0.031,
Bep - 6:00.0 P10 f
Arom graph at this Beynold nothe value of
Q+ - 1300 (appro4imately)
also at 220 _A heat capacity of ethylene
*p - 0.,6 @tu G l' _A
&hermal conductivity %- 0.0161
(*pPd G %)P1G3-(0.,61P0.031,1G 0.0161)P1G3
- 0.32
hi - Q+ P (*pPd G %)1G3 P (%G8) P(dGdw)).1,
hi - 1300 P 0.33 P 0.0161P e
hiGe - 6.?0
:1
Chapter No , PreheatinE in the tu;u=ar reactor :6
FOR ANNULUS(
Inner dia of the annulus - 82-20 in- 1.6: ft
Cuter dia of the pipe - 81- 1.06 ft
Alow area )a- cG, R (8b2 T 8b1U
- cG, R 1.6:b( 1.06bU
- cG, (1.63)
- 1.2:> ftb
03uivalent dia -8e- 8b2 T 8b1G81
-1.63G1.33
-1.23 ft
Mass velocity =a - mHsG )a
-1?>>.>G1.2:>
- 111:.3 l'Ghr
6iscosity of steam at 230_*(3>2_ A)
- 0.011 P 2.,2
- 0.03,2 l'Gft.hr
BeynoldKs no. - 8eP =aG d
- 1.211 P 111:.3G0.03,2
- 16:00
)t this no. the value of Q+ from graph- 110
)nd *p of steam -1.13 @tuGl'_A
&hermal conductivit - 0.01>0
(*pdG%)1G3 - (1.13P0.03,2G0.01>0)1G3
-0.>>
ho - Q+ P (*pdG%)1G3P(%G8e)P(dGdw)).1,
- 110 P 0.>> P 0.061G1.23 Pe
hoGe - 6.>0
hio - hi P I8GC8
:6
Chapter No , PreheatinE in the tu;u=ar reactor ::
- hiGe P 1.0G1.06
hioG e - 6.?0 P 1.0G1.06
-0.>>

)t wall temperature the viscosity of ethylene
dw - 0.0131 P 2.,2
- 0.033l'Gft.hr
Aor ethylene dG dw -(0.031,G0.033)0.1,
e- 0.?>?
)nd the viscosity of water
dw - 0.033> l'Gft.hr
Aor watere- (dG dw)0.1,- 1.11
hoG e - 6.>0
ho - 6.>0P1.16
- >.3,@tuGhr . ftb._A
hioG e - 6.61P 0.??1
-6.611@tuGhr . ftb._A
$c -hioPhoGhioLho
$c->.3,0P6.611G>.3,0L6.611
-1>.>G1,.?1
- 3.?3 @&$Ghr.ftb._A
1G$d- 1G$c L Bd
1G$d-1G3.?, L.01
- 0.21,L0.01
- 0.26,
$d-1G0.26,
-3.:>
W - $dP)P9M&8
) -WG$dP9M&8
-1160P10fG3.:>P12,
::
Chapter No , PreheatinE in the tu;u=ar reactor :>
- 332> ftb
- 310 mb
9 - )G cP 8
- 310G3.1,P0.0:
9 - 1,10 m
9ength of one tu'e -10 m
&otal no of tu'es - 1,10G10
- 1,1
Press*re .r!p #!r pipe si.e(
f - .0031L(0.26,)GBe
0.,2
-0.0031L(0.26,)G(:.:2M10
1
)
0.,2
-0.0031L0.0000>>
-0.00,3>
`A
p
-,f=
p
2
9
p
G2gg
:>
Chapter No 1 Dr*ms >0
DRUMS
General(
&he containers in which the feedstoc!s intermediate products and final products are
held are generically !nown as vessels. Belatively large capacity vessels are called
storage tan!s and small capacity vessels are P called drums. In a refinery drums are
widely used not only as procesr units 'ut also as utility and off(site facilities.
&he types of drums and their internal construction vary depending upon the !ind of
services in which the drums are used5 mainly they are used for the following purposes.
\
( 6apor(9i3uid #eparation (incl. 6apor 8isengaging)
( 9i3uid #urge
( 9i3uid(9i3uid #ettling
&he typical names of drums used in a refinery are summari/ed in &a'le ,(1 together with
their functions.
6ap!r-Li:*i. Separai!n
&he vapor(li3uid separation is accomplished 'y feeding the mi4ed phase fluid into
a separation drum where the vapor and li3uid are separated 'y allowing the vapor to rise
and 'e discharged at the top of the drum and the li3uid to settle and 'e drawn(off the
'ottom of the drum.
In these services the vapor velocity must 'e sufficiently low to prevent e4cessive
li3uid entrainment. &he demister pad (crin!led wire mesh screen) is sometimes provided
at the vapor outlet for this purpose as shown in Aig. ,(1. &ypical applications are the
services where even moderate entrainment can have a detrimental effect upon the
process and are utili/ed where economical to ma!e possi'le the use of higher vapor
velocities in the drum design such as the compressor suction drum. &he demister pad is
>0
Chapter No 1 Dr*ms >1
usually 100 to 110 mm thic! depending on type5 demisters 210 to 300 mm thic! are used
for special applications such as for a fine mist vapor. +owever the efficiency of the
demister is not proportional to its thic!ness. )n increased thic!ness will in most cases
lead only to a greater pressure drop and higher initial costs with little or no compensatory
'enefits.
If the velocity of the vapor through the demister pad is too low li3uid particles will pass
through the demister pad and 'e carried away with the vapor. If the velocity of the vapor
is too high li3uid will 'e forced to the top of the demister5 'loc!ing the passage of the
vapor.
Li:*i. S*r,e
&he li3uid surge drums are provided to hold the process li3uid fluids for a certain
necessary holdup time and act as a 'uffer 'y a'sor'ing fluctuation in the.
Operain, c!n.ii!ns(
&he li3uid holdup time is determined 'y the process control system or 'S(
emergency re3uirements. $nder normal circumstances the holdup in a li3uid surge drum
'etween the high and low li3uid levels can 'e maintained for 1 to 11 minutes 'ased on
the pump(out rate. @asic configurations of li3uid surge drums is same as the drum.
Li:*i.-Li:*i. Selin,
&he drum is used for an 9"= caustic treatment facility. &his treatment is used to
remove impurities such as mercaptan from 9"=. @asically the li3uid(li3uid settling is
achieved 'y using the difference in densities 'etween two phases. ) settling 'affle or
coalescer pad li!e a demister and is sometimes used where economical to reduce the
settling time.
6ertical settling pots ('oots) are often used on hori/ontal drums where a small
volume of water or other heavy phase material is withdrawn.
Mec%anical C!n#i,*rai!n !# Dr*)(
No99les:
>1
Chapter No 1 Dr*ms >2
<ormally a hori/ontal drum is installed on a saddle fi4ed to a 'ase or foundation. )
vertical drum is installed on a s!irt.
)orte: Brea4er
7hen li3uid flows into the outlet no//le at the 'ottom of a drum the force of the
li3uid flow causes a vorte4 to form in the li3uid a'ove the no//le. &he rotation of the
li3uid causes a vacuum to form in the center of the vorte4 which will lead to loss of
suction at the draw(off pump.
&o prevent this a vorte4 'rea!er (anti(vorte4 'affle) is installed inside the drum at
the top of the no//le.
Maintenance Proced*res
"rocess e3uipment re3uires periodical maintenance to prevent e4cessive fouling
wearing etc. in order to assure safe continuous and efficient operation.
1ire Pre/ention
)s drums usually contain flamma'le materials fire prevention procedures must 'e
strictly o'served. Aor e4ample. 'efore opening a manhole to inspect the interior of a
drum the drum must first 'e thoroughly purged with steam or inert gas. Cperators must
also ensure that all drums are properly grounded to prevent spar!ing caused 'y the
discharged of accumulated static electricity.
Lined Dr*ms
#ome drums are lined with a special metal or &eflon or coated with aluminum or
/inc to protect the drums against corrosion or to prevent deterioration of the products.
*are must 'e ta!en to ensure that the lining or coating material is not damaged during
inspection or maintenance wor!.
Chec4in! Wall hic4ness
&he wall thic!ness at predetermined points of the drums must 'e periodically
measured to chec! the corrosion status. $sually an ultrasonic thic!ness gage is\used to
measure the wall thic!ness.
Weld ,nspection
7elded Doints shall 'e visually inspected for low pressure vessels. Aor high
pressure vessels welded Doints shall 'e su'Dected to a magnetic particle e4amination to
detect fine crac!s invisi'le to the na!ed eye.
>2
Chapter No 1 Dr*ms >3
Na<e 7apor+LiGuid
!eparation
LiGuid !urEe LiGuid+
LiGuid
!ett=inE
\
+igh pressure separator h C o
9ow pressure separator h o I .
+ot separator h o
*old separator h o o
Alash drum h o
*ompressor suction (%(.W.) drum h
Auel gas %.C. drum h
Cverhead receiver (Beflu4 drum) o o
)ccumulator \ o 0
#lowdown drum h o o
Aeed surge drum h o
#olvent surge drum h
7ater inDection drum \ h
*hemical inDection drum . h
*austic settler h
7ater separator 0
>3
Chapter No 1 Dr*ms >,
>,
Chapter No - HiEh pre>>ure !eparator >6
HIGH PRESSURE
SEPARATOR
$nconverted ethylene from the reactor -111>:.3 %gGhr
#eparation of unconverted ethylene from the first separator
- ?12 of total unconverted ethylene.
-111>:.3P0.?1
-,?00:.?312
8ensity of ethylene gas in the first separator at temperature 230_* and pressure 166.:
atm. Cr 16>>:.> %pa from graph - 6 molGdmf
-16> gG dmf
-16> %gGmf
<ow we will calculate the volumetric flow rate of vapors
6vi - Mass flow rate of ethylene recovered
8ensity of ethylene at given conditions.
-,?00:.?31G16>
6vi -2?1.:0 mfGhr.
8ensity of the mi4ture (polyethyleneL ethylene)in the first separator can 'e calculated
)s
&otal weight of polyethylene mi4ture - 2::::.> L 21:?.36
-3031:.1, %gGhr
>6
Chapter No - HiEh pre>>ure !eparator >:
#o the 7eight fraction of polyethylene -2::::.>G3031:.1,
- .?11
7eight fraction of unseparated ethylene - 21:?.3G3031:.1,
- .0>,?
8ensity of polyethylene at given conditions - 0.:1 gGcmf
-:10 %gGmf
#o 8ensity of mi4ture (Bho9i3i) will 'e
- 8ensity P 7eight Araction of ".0. L 8ensity P weight Araction of ethylene.
-:10 P 0.?110 L 16> P 0.0>?,
-6>.621 L 1.,20
- :00 %gG mf
#o volumetric flow rate of li3uid
69i - Mass flow rate of mi4ture
8ensity of mi4ture
-3031:.1, G :00.0
69i-,3.36 mfG hr
<ow we will find the vapor velocity in the separator
6v -%v ((g li3uid Tg vapors)G g vapors) j
7here
%v- velocity constant (mGsec) calculated 'y relation 79G7v P (g vaporG g li3uid)
79-Mass flow rate of li3uid %gGhr
76-Mass flow rate of vapors %gGhr
79G7v P g li3uid G g vapor
-3031,G,?006 P (16>G:00)j
- 0.6?, P 0.,>?
-.303
)t this the value of %v from graph is 0.33 ftGsec or 0.10 mGsec. this velocity constant
is in the presence of mist eliminator.
6v - 0.10 P ((:00(16>)G16>))j
>:
Chapter No - HiEh pre>>ure !eparator >>
- 0.10 P (132G16>)j
- 0.10 P (1.>)
6v - 0.1:> mGsec.
)rea of separator is given as
6vi- 6v )
6vi - 2?1.:0 mfGhr
- 0.10>1 mfGsec.
) - 6viG 6v
- 0.10>1 G 0.1::
- 0.62, mb
9i3uid level in the separator is given 'y the formula
9l P ) - 69i P ts.
7here
9l - li3uid level in the separator (m)
ts - residence time in the separator(sec)
- 2 min
-0.033 hr
99 - 69iP tsG )
- ,3.36 P 0.033 G 0.62,
99 -2.0 m
8iameter of the separator is given as
) - c G, P 8b
8 - (, P) G c) j
- (, P 0.62,G c) j
-0.>>3 m
<ow total 9ength of the separator is given 'y the formula
9 - 99 L 1.1 P 8 L 1.1ft
1.1 ft - 0.1 ft thic!ness of mist eliminatorL1.0ft space for vapor removal from &op.
-0.,:2 m
9 - 2.0 L 1.1 P (0.>33) L 0.,:2
>>
Chapter No - HiEh pre>>ure !eparator >?
- 2.0 L1.32 L 0.,:2
9 - 3.:1
9G8 - ,.2,
C!!ler a#er %i,%-press*re separa!r
&
1
-230
o
* &
2
-21
o
*
t
2
- ,1
o
* t
1
-20
o
*
Chapter !
Hea L!a.(
> mCp F
7here
W - +eat produced (QGhr)
m - Mass flow rate of 0thylene (%gGhr) -,?0: !gGhr
*p - #pecific heat of 0thylene (QG%g.
o
*) - 2101.63 QG%g
0
*
W - ,?0:P2101.63P(230(21)
W -2116,::1:,QGhr
W -2116,::1:, QGhr G3600 sec
W - 6??021.,3: watt
>?
Chapter No . LoH pre>>ure >eparator ?1
LO0 PRESSURE
SEP-R-TOR
$nconverted ethylene from the +igh pressure separator - 21:?.361 %gGhr
#eparation of unconverted ethylene from the low pressure separator
- 1002
-21:?.361%gGhr
8ensity of ethylene gas in the first separator at temperature 220_* and pressure 1 atm.
from graph - 0.03 molGdmf
-0.>, gG dmf
-0.>, %gGmf
<ow we will calculate the volumetric flow rate of vapors
6vi - (Mass flow rate of ethylene recovered)$ "8ensity of ethylene at given conditions)
- 21:?.361G0.>,
6vi -30:0.6:2 mfGhr.
#o volumetric flow rate of li3uid
69i - Mass flow rate of pure polyethyleneG 8ensity of pure polyethylene
- 3031:.1,G :10.0
69i- ,0.,:mfG hr
<ow we will find the vapor velocity in the separator
?1
Chapter No . LoH pre>>ure >eparator ?2
6v -%v ((g li3uid Tg vapors)G g vapors) j
7here
%v- velocity constant (mGsec) calculated 'y relation 79G7v P (g vaporG g li3uid)
79-Mass flow rate of li3uid %gGhr
76-Mass flow rate of vapors %gGhr
79G7v P g li3uid G g vapor
-3031:.1,G21:?.361 P (0.>,G:10)j
- 11.:6P 0.033,
-0.,
)t this the value of %v from graph is 0.21 ftGsec or 0.0:62 mGsec. this velocity
constant is in the presence of mist eliminator.
6v - 0.0:602 P ((:10(0.>,)G0.>,))j
- 0.0:602 P (:,?.16G0.>,)j
- 0.0:602 P (2?.>63)
6v - 2.1>mGsec.
)rea of separator is given as 6vi- 6v )
6vi - 30:0.6:2 mfGhr
- 0.0>12 mfGsec.
) - 6viG 6v
- 0.>12 G 2.1>
- 0.,1: mb
9i3uid level in the separator is given 'y the formula
9l P ) - 69i P ts.
7here
9l - li3uid level in the separator (m)
&s - residence time in the separator (sec)
-2 min
-0.033 hr
99 - 69iP tsG )
- ,0.,: P 0.033 G 0.,1:
?2
Chapter No . LoH pre>>ure >eparator ?3
9l - 1.>1 m
8iameter of the separator is given as
) - c G, P 8b
8 - (, P) G c) j
- (, P 0.,1:G c) j
-0.:632 m
<ow total 9ength of the separator is given 'y the formula
9 - 99 L 1.1 P 8 L 1.1ft
1.1 ft - 0.1 ft thic!ness of mist eliminatorL1.0ft space for vapor removal from &op.
-0.,:2 m
9 - 1.>1 L 1.1 P (0.:632) L 0.,:2
- 1.>1 L 1.10 L 0.,:2
- 3.,2 m
9G8 - ,.,1
C!!ler a#er L!$ Press*re Separa!r(
DES,2N SEPS:
&
1
-230
o
* &
2
-21
o
*
t
2
- ,1
o
* t
1
-20
o
*
"roperty 0thylene 0thylene 7ater 7ater
Inlet &emperature 230
o
* 103.11% 20
o
* 2?3.11%
Cutlet &emperature 21
o
* 2?>.11% ,1
o
* 31>.11%
)vg. #pecific +eat 0.,?calGg.

2011.63 0.??> ,1>:.626
?3
Chapter No . LoH pre>>ure >eparator ?,
o
* QG%g.
o
* calGg.
o
* QG%g.
o
*
)vg. &hermal
*onductivity
0.02>
7Gm.
o
*
0.62
7Gm.
o
*
)vg. 8ensity 0.>13 %gGm
3
??,.?1
%gGm
3
)vg. 6iscosity 0.00001:
%gGm.sec
0.000>10
%gGm.sec
Heat Load .
> mCp F
7here
W - +eat produced (QGhr)
m - Mass flow rate of 0thylene (%gGhr)
*p - #pecific heat of 0thylene (QG%g.
o
*)
W - 21:?.36P2101.63P(230(21)
W -10>,>,0036 QGhr
W -10>,>,0036 QGhr G3600 sec
W - 3013,,.,1 watt
Lo! Mean emperat*re Difference "LMD%:
9M&8-t
2
(t
1
G9n(t
2
Gt
1)

9M&8- ,?.>,
o
*

?,
Chapter No . LoH pre>>ure >eparator ?1

.SSUMED C.LCUL.,-NS:
)ssume the value of over all heat transfer co(efficient $
8

$
8
-1?2 7G m
2 o
*
Heat ransfer .rea :
)-W G ($
8
P9M&8)
) - 3013,,.,1 G (1?2P,?.>,)
)
- 31.,? m
2
*0e Layo*t ; Si9e:
9ength - 1 m
C8 @7= pitch - 1?.01mm 1, @7=
23.>1 mm &riangular pitch.
"ass - 1
)rea of #ingle &u'e - )
&
-
A
o

7here
8
o
- outside diameter of tu'e (m)
9 - 9ength of tu'e (m)
)
&
- 3.1,2P.02P1
?1
Chapter No . LoH pre>>ure >eparator ?6
)
&
- 0.30 m
2
<o. of tu'es - <
&
- ) G )
&

<
&
- 31.>2 G 0.3
<
&
- 106.32
&u'esG"ass - 106.32G1
&u'esG"ass - 106.32
&u'e *ross(sectional )rea -
2
,
i

7here
8
i
- Inside 8iameter of tu'e (m)
&u'e *ross(sectional )rea - (3.1,G,)P(0.01,>)
2
&u'e *ross(sectional )rea - 0.0001:3 m
2
)reaG"ass - (&u'esG"ass) P (&u'e *ross(sectional )rea)
)reaG"ass - 106.32P0.0001:3
)reaG"ass - 0.01>, m
2
Mass Alow Bate of 0thylene - 21:?.36 %gGhr
)verage 8ensity of 0thylene - 2.1> %gGm
3
6olumetric Alow Bate - 21:?.36 G (0.>13 P 3600) - 0.>, m
3
G sec
&u'e #ide 6elocity - 6olumetric Alow Bate G )reaG"ass
&u'e #ide 6elocity - 0.>,G 0.01>,
&u'e #ide 6elocity - ,1.61 mGsec

UBE S,DE C.LCUL.,-NS:
'eynolds<s No( = '
e
= >D
t *t
$
?6
Chapter No . LoH pre>>ure >eparator ?:
7here
8
t - &u'e inside diameter - 0.01,> m
$t - &u'e side velocity - ,1.61 mGsec
6iscosity of 0thylene - 0.00001: !gGm sec
BeynoldsKs <o. - B
e - 3,,06.2>3
Prandtel No( =
Pr = Cp
$ 4
7here
*p - #pecific heat of ethylene - 2011.63 DG!g
o
*
X - 6iscosity of water - 0.00001: !gGm sec
! - &hermal conductivity of 0thylene - 0.02> 7Gm
o
*
"randtel <o. - "r - 1.212
?:
Chapter No . LoH pre>>ure >eparator ?>
9Gd
i
- 33:.11
9 - 9ength of tu'e - 1 m
d
i
- Inside diameter of tu'e - 0.01,> m
Q
+ Aactor 6alue
-0.0031
N*sselt No(= N* = 3
H
'
e$Pr
?(++
<u - 12?.6>2
hi = N* 4$di
hi -Inside fluid film coefficient
h
i
- 2,3.662 7Gm
2

o
*
SHELL S,DE C.LCUL.,-NS:
%1 - 0.31?0
n1 - 2.1,20
)und=e dia 2 D; 2 do3% No. o@ tu;e>4A1&3%14n1&
- 1?.01P(106.32G0.31?0)P(1G2.1,20)
b G%49&4, mm
b G -&%? m
?>
Chapter No . LoH pre>>ure >eparator ??
'hell clearance = 11.0 mm
Inside diameter of shell = D
s
= ("ndle dia + shell clearance
Inside diameter of shell = D
s
= 286.87 + 11.0 = 297.87 mm
@affle spacing - 9
@
- 8sG3 - 2?:.>:G3 - ??.2? mm
"
t
- triangular pitch - 1.21P d
o
"
t
- 1.21P1?.01 - 23.>1mm
Shell area = .
s
= "P
t
5 d
o
%@D
s
@L
B
$ P
t
)
s
- R(23.>1 T 1?.01) P 2?:.>: P ??.2? U G 23.>1
)
s
- 1>??.:?, mm
2
)
s
- .006 m
2
EA*i/alent dia = D
e
= 6(6$d
o
@"Pt
2
5"?(B6C@d
o
2
%
8
e
- 1.1G1?.01 P R(23.>1)
2
T Y 0.?1: P (1?.01)
2
ZU
03uivalent dia - 8
e
- 13.13 mm - 0.01, m
??
Chapter No . LoH pre>>ure >eparator 100
Mass flow rate of water - 10363.>>? !gGhr
)ol*metric flo& rate of &ater = Mass flo& rate of &ater
Density of &ater
6olumetric flow rate of water - 10363.>>? G ??,.?1 m
3
G hr
6olumetric flow rate of water - 10.,1: m
3
G hr
6olumetric flow rate of water - 10.,1: G 3600 m
3
G sec
6olumetric flow rate of water - 0.003 m
3
G sec
Shell side /elocity = )ol*metric flo& rate of &ater
Shell area
#hell side velocity - 0.001,:63 G .006
- 0.,> mGsec
'eynold<s No( = '
e
= >D
e *s
$
7here
$s - #hell side velocity - 0.,> mGsec
6iscosity of water - 0.000>10 !gGm sec
8
e
- 03uivalent dia - 0.01, m
BeynoldKs <o. -Be- >1,>.1>:
100
Chapter No . LoH pre>>ure >eparator 101
Prandtel No( =
Pr = Cp
$#
7here
*p - #pecific heat of water - ,1>:.626 DG!g
o
*
X - 6iscosity of water - 0.0000>10 !gGm sec
! - &hermal conductivity of water - 0.62 7Gm
o
*
"randtel <o.-
"r -1.,1>
Q
+ Aactor 6alue
- 0.006
h
s
= o*tside fl*id film coefficient = 4$D
e
@"3H@'e%@"Pr
?(++
%
h
s
- 3?31.>:,7Gm
2

o
*
6$U
o
=6$h
o
D6$h
od
Dd
o
ln "d
o
$d
i
% $"2@4&% D d
o
$d
i
@6$h
id
Dd
o
$d
i
@6$h
i
$
o
- the overall coefficient 'ased on outside area of tu'e (7Gm
2

o
*)
$
o
- 1:2.1>6 7Gm
2

o
*
P'ESSU'E D'-P UBE S,DE:
$e% 34406.283
riction actor !al"e on t"#e side =$
f
= 0.00)&
<o of passes - 1
101
Chapter No . LoH pre>>ure >eparator 102
F P
t = *0e side press*re drop = Np@GE@Hf"L$di%D2(IJ@>@*t
2
$2
where
<
p
- <o of tu'e passes
u
t
- tu'e inside velocity - ,1.61 m Gsec
d
i
-inside dia of tu'e
[ "
t -10>>:.1 "a
[ "
t - 1.1> "si
P'ESSU'E D'-P SHELL S,DE:
%
e
= 81*8.&87
Ariction Aactor 6alue on #hell #ide -Qf - 0.011
FP
s
= E@Hf"Ds$De%"L$LB% @ > @*s
2
$2
where
8s - #hell inside dia
9 - 9ength of tu'e
9
@
- @affle spacing
102
Chapter No . LoH pre>>ure >eparator 103
["
s
- 3:113.?:1 "a
["
s
- 1.3? "si
103
Chapter No . LoH pre>>ure >eparator 10,
Speci#icai!n S%ee #!r C!!ler a#er L!$
press*re Separa!r
,dentification: 04changer
1*nction: Bemove the +eat form ethylene

-peration: *ontinuous
ype: 1(1 +ori/ontal
Heat D*ty - 1.0>410
6
%QGhr
*0e Side:
Aluid handled .0thylene =as
Alow rate - 21:?.36 %gGhr
"ressure - 101.321%"a
&emperature - 103.11% to
2?>.11%
&u'es. C8.1?mm 1,@7=
106 tu'es each 1m long
1 pass
2,mm triangular pitch
pressure drop - 10.> %pa
Shell Side:
Aluid handled . 7ater
Alow rate. 10363.>> %gGhr
#hell. 13.13mm dia 1 pass
@affles spacing ??.>:mm.
"ressure drop - 3:.113 %pa
"ressure 101.321%pa
&emperature 2?3.11% to
31>.11%
$d assumed - 1?2 7G m
2 o
* $d calculated -1:2.1>6 7Gm
2

o
*
10,
Chapter No . LoH pre>>ure >eparator 101
DRYING OPERATION(
8rying of solids means the removal of relatively small amounts of water or
other li3uid from the solid material to reduce the content of residual li3uid to an
accepta'ly low value. 8rying is usually the final step in a series of operation and the
product from a dryer is often ready for final pac!aging.
Classification of Dryer ypes
) wide variety of dryers are used in the process industries. +owever following
criteria is employed to classify dryers.
6( Method of -peration
&he first su'division is 'y method of heat transfer.
(a) *onduction +eating
(') *onvection +eating.
.
*lassification of 8ryers 'ased on Method of Cperation
2( Physical 1orm of 1eed
It must first 'e emphasi/ed that purely mechanical means should 'e used to reduce
the moisture content of the wet feed to as low a figure as possi'le 'ecause with few
101
Chapter No . LoH pre>>ure >eparator 106
e4ceptions processes such as evaporation filtration and centrifuging are cheaper and
faster than e3uivalent processes in drying plant.
Baw pastes and sludges are difficult to handle into dryers and the drying rate
3uic!ly slows down through the formation of superficial s!ins having a low permea'ility
to vapour. &his form of feed therefore re3uires pretreatment 'y JperformingK into pellets
a'out 1 mm cu'e or 'y forming granules with mi4ed('ac! fines
Classi#icai!n !# .r"ers +ase. !n p%"sical #!r) !#
#ee.(
3. #cale of Cperation
It will 'e seen that the num'er of types for continuous large scale drying is much
more limited than for medium scale outputs.
Classi#icai!n !# .r"ers +" scale !# pr!.*ci!n
106
Chapter No . LoH pre>>ure >eparator 10:

K( Nat*re of the 1eed
7e then come to classification in terms of overriding features such as to4ic or heat
sensitive materials special form of dry product etc.5 these are shown
Classification of dryers by suitability for special features
I( Capital and -peratin! Costs
8ryers may also 'e classified in terms of the la'or heat fle4i'ility and capital
cost of their operation. Mechanical maintenance cost can only 'e estimated 'y study of
the designs provided 'y individual manufacturers.
SELECTION OF DRYER(
7hen selecting a dryer there are a lot of things to 'e considered such as5
6( &ype of feed
2( &ype of production
10:
Chapter No . LoH pre>>ure >eparator 10>
+( *apital cost
K( Method of operation
I( Belia'ility of unit
7( )vaila'ility of data
C( Wuality of product
E( Maintenance cost
WHM - SELEC N'-.'M D'ME'O(
6( ype of feed: Cur feed is free flowing pellets k rotary dryer
'est handles the free flowing material .
2( ype of prod*ction: Cur plant is 'ased on continues operation
k rotary dryer is considered to 'e the 'est dryer as a NcontinuesO
unit.
+( Capital cost: Botary dryer has a low capital cost per unit of out
put.
K( Method of operation: *onvection is the method of operation
k rotary dryer is 'est suita'le for this method.
I( Handlin! of &ide si9e particles .In rotary dryer wide
particle si/e distri'ution can 'e handled
10>
Chapter No . LoH pre>>ure >eparator 10?
7( ./aila0ility of data: 0ither data is availa'le for designing or
notl Botary dryer can 'e scaled up with sufficient success from
data given in the literature.
C( 8*ality of prod*ct: ) dryer needs to 'alance a 3uality against
cost of production. k rotary dryer fulfills this need.
E( Maintenance cost: Maintenance costs are often a maDor
consideration. "ast history shows rotary dryers have relatively low
maintenance cost.
Cperation of rotary dryer.
) rotary dryer consist of a revolving cylindrical shell slightly inclined
to the outlet. 7et feed enters one end of cylinder dry material discharges from the other.
)s the shell rotates internal flights lift the solids and shower them down through the
interior of shell.Botray dryers are heated 'y direct contact of heated gas with solids 'y
hot gas passing through an e4ternal Dac!et or 'y stream condensing in a set of
longitudinal tu'e mounted on the inner surface of shell. &he last of these types is called a
steam tu'e rotary dryer. In a direct indirect rotary dryer hot gas first passes through
Dac!et and then through shell where it comes in contact with solids

. ypical dia!ram of a direct heat 'otary dryer



Desi!n considerations
10?
Chapter No . LoH pre>>ure >eparator 110
#olid feed rate and inlet moisture contents
&emperature of air and 98"0
8iameter and length of dryer
#lope of drum
Botational speed of drum
8rying gas direction
9ifting flights
-perational parameters
Besidence time
Cutlet moisture contents
#olid feed rate and inlet moisture contents

#olid feed rate -2>222.22!gGh
Moisture contents -,,,.,,!gGh
-6(7P"on dry 0asis%
110
Chapter No . LoH pre>>ure >eparator 111
&emperature of air and 98"0
&he 'est drying efficiency is at the highest air temperature at the inlet and the lowest
air temperature (or highest air moisture) at the outlet. &he ma4imum at the inlet is limited 'y
1. &he strength(temperature properties of the metals
2. +eat sensitivity of the solids and how long they are e4posed to heat co(current flow
allows high inlet air temperatures even for heat sensitive materials.
It is 'ecause when air enters the dryer it rapidly removes the moisture. In
concurrent the outlet temperature difference of solid is 10(20*.@ut in counter(
current the outlet temperature of solid reaches to inlet temperature of air. #o co(
current process is 'est for 98"0.
*are must 'e ta!en that outlet temperature of 98"0 does not e4ceed 61* 'ecause
at this temperature its heat distortion property will 'e affected. &herefore this is outlet
temperature of 98"0.
Inlet temperature Cutlet temperature
98"0 30* 61*
)ir 1:1* :1*
Cutlet temperature is found 'y formula

N
t
- <o of heat transfer units (1.1(21)

h0
- )ir inlet temperature

&0
- Inlet and outlet wet 'ul' temperature

ha
- )ir outlet temperature
111
1
]
1

8b ha
8b hb
t
> >
> >
E ln
Chapter No . LoH pre>>ure >eparator 112

Inlet humidity of air -0.01!g of waterG!g of dry air
Inlet wet 'ul' temperature at 1:1* -,1*
<o of heat transfer units -1.1

1.1-ln Y(1:1(,1)G(&
ha(,1)Z
)ir outlet temperature
&
ha-:1*
*alculation of +eat duty.
+eat duty is calculated 'y e3uation given as

8
t
-heat re3uired to remove moisture-l
C
ps
-#pecific heat of 98"0 - 1.30>!DG!g*
m
s
-solid flow rate - 2::::.:>!gGhr

s0 - Inlet temperature of solid -30*

sa
- Cutlet temperature of solid -61*
- 9atent heat of vapori/ation at ,1* -21?1.03!DG!g
Qa - moisture content at inlet -0.016!g of waterG!g of 98"0
Q
0
- moisture at outlet -1.0001!g of waterG!g of 98"0

WtG2::::.:>-1.30>,P(61(30)L(0.016(0.0001)P21?1.03
-:?.>1P2::::.:>
Wt -2.66P10
6
!DGhr
W
t
-:.3>P10
1
watts
112
) ( ) ( b a sa sb ps
s
t
H H > > C
m
F
+
Chapter No . LoH pre>>ure >eparator 113
Mass flow rate of entering air
Mass flow rate is calculated 'y this e3uation
m
! - mass flow rate of entering air -l

h0
- inlet temperature of air -1:1*

ha
- outlet temperature of air -:1*
Cs0 - humid heat of air -1.021!DG!g*
-2.66P10
6
G1.021P(1:1(:1)
m
!
-2.60P10
,
!gGhr
Mass flow rate of dry air
Mass flow rate is calculated 'y this e3uation
H
0
-humidity at inlet temperature-0.01!g of waterG!g of dry air

mg(1L0.01)-2.66P10
6
G1.021P(1:1(:1)
- 2.60P10
,
G(1.01) !gGhr
m
!
- 2.1:P10
,
!gGhr
Mass velocity of air
&he minimum air velocity is set 'y particle si/e.3>00!gGh or :::.6.l'Ghr is
ade3uate for 3000 microns particle.
113
) ( ha hb sb
t
g
> > C
F
m

) (
) 1 (
ha hb sb
t
b g
> > C
F
H m

+
Chapter No . LoH pre>>ure >eparator 11,
)verage rate of mass transfer
)verage rate of mass transfer is calculated 'y e3uation

m
v
-average rate of mass transfer
m
a
-moisture contents in feed
m
'
- moisture contents in prod
- 2:::::.:>P(0.016(0.0001)
m
v
- ,30.11!gGhr
&#tlet '#midit
Cutlet humidity is calculated 'y e3uation

H
a
-outlet humidity
H
0
-inlet humidity-0.01 !g of waterG !g of dry air

- 0.01L,30.1G2.61P10,
H
0
- 0.026 !g f waterG !g of dry air

)t a dry 'ul' temperature of :1* wet 'ul' temperature &w' for +a-0.026 is ,1* the
same as &w' (as it should 'e for adia'atic drying).
.rea of dryer
)rea of dryer is calculated 'y dividing the mass flow rate of to mass
velocity of air.
= 2.60P10
,
!gGhr G 3>00 !gGhr m
2
. - 6.>, m
2
(:3.6 ft
2
)
Diameter of dryer
8iameter is calculated 'y e3uation

11,
) ( b a s 1 H H m m
g
1
b a
m
m
H H +
1 . 0
P ,

,
_

Chapter No . LoH pre>>ure >eparator 111

- (,P6.>,G3.1,)
0.1

D - +(? m "B(EK ft%

)ol*me of dryer
6olume of dryer is calculated 'y this e3uation

$
a
=)ol*metric heat transfer coefficient=Bt*$5h5ft
+
51

2 -mass velocity of air - :::.6 l'G hr ft
2
D -8iameter of dryer -?.>, ft

- 0.1P(:::.6)
0.6:
G?.>,
Ua - ,., @tuGhr ft
3
A
[& -logarithmic mean difference dry 'ul' and wet 'ul' temperatures

- (3,:(113)((16:(113) G Rln (3,:(113)((16:(113)U
-122.:1 A
Wt - heat transferred to solid and water - 2.12P10
6
@tuGhr

- 2.12P10
6 G
,.,P122.:1
) - ,66>.3? ft
3
( 133.1?3 m
3
)
Len!th of dryer
9ength of dryer is calculated as
- 6olume of dryer G area of dryer
- ,66>.3? G :3.6
Len!th of dryer = 63.: ft (1?.,2 m)
111
> B
F
*
a
t

P
G Ba G 1 . 0
6: . 0

) G( ) lnR(
) ( ) (
8a ha 8b hb
8a ha 8b hb
> > > >
> > > >
>



Chapter No . LoH pre>>ure >eparator 116
9G8 ratio =1?.,2G3.0
=6.1
Slope of dr*m
#lope of drum is !ept from 0 to 1H. More the slope of the drying drum
more will 'e forward driving force 'ut product a'rasion will also increase. 7e have !ept
3H slope.
'otational speed of dr*m

Botational speed of drum may 'e 'etween 20 to 21 mGmin. @ecause the
circumference of our dryer is ?.,2 m so 20 mGmin or 2 revGmin is ta!en.
Dryin! !as direction
8rying gas direction is ta!en as co(current with wet solid 'ecause in counter
(current the solid polymer temperature may suddenly rise to its degradation temperature.
No of fli!hts and radial hei!ht
<o of flights - 3P8 (8 in ft)
-3P?.,>- 2?
? flights are re3uired using lip angle of ?0
o
(lip angle depend on the type of feed ?0
o
is
suita'le for free flowing particles)

116
Chapter No . LoH pre>>ure >eparator 11:
'adial hei!ht
Badial height is ta!en as 1G> of 8 (8 in m )
Badial height - 3G>-0.3:1 m
Badial height
'esidence ime:
Besidence time or e4posure time is limited 'yproductns heat tolerance and 'y
e3uipment design .Aor e4ample in Botary dryers the residence time may 'e several
minutes 'ut in flash and spray dryers residence time is limited to a few seconds. &ime of
passing in rotary dryer can 'e. *alculated 'y relationship given 'y Ariedman and Marshall
&
r
- (0.23P9) G (#<Hn
?
8) LG( (0.6@9=)G=
f
...........................
(3)
(L6e sign for counter current k (ve sign for co(current direction of gas.)
7here
r - residence time minute
L - length of dryer ft
S - #lope of drum
N - rpm
D - dryer dia ft
B - a constant B= I@Dp
5(?(I
11:
Chapter No . LoH pre>>ure >eparator 11>

Dp - average particle si/e of 'eing
handled micron
2 - mass velocity of air l'G hr ft
2

2
f
- mass velocity of solid l'Ghr.ft
2
( of dryer cross section )
slope varies 0 to > cmGm
let # - 2 cm Gm-0.02 ftGft (or 3
o
)
Dp - 3000 micron
B - 1P(3000)(
0.1
- 0.0?1
2f - mass flow rate of solid G area of dryer
. - 61111.11G:3.6
. - >30.31 l'G
hr ft
&
r
- R(0.23P63.:) G(0.02P2
0.? P
?.>,)U TR(0.6P(0.0?1P63.:P:::.6) G >30.31U

r
=+E min*tes


-*tlet moist*re content
outlet moisture content should 'e of 0.0001 of dried 98"0.
-0.0001P2:::::.:>
-13.>> !gGhr
Speci#icai!n s%ee !# Dr"er
11>
Chapter No . LoH pre>>ure >eparator 11?
03uipment 8ryer
Aunction to reduce the moisture contents
Cperation *ontinuous
&ype direct heat rotary dryer
Desi!n data
Alow rate of solid - 2::::.:> !gGhr
7ater removed - ,30.16!gGhr
8iameter -3.0m
9ength - 1?.,2 m
6olume - 133.1?36m
3
<um'er of flight - 2?
"eripheral speed - 20mGmin(or 2 revGmin)
&emperatures. Inlet Cutlet
"olystyrene 20H* 61H*.
)ir 1:1H* :1H*.
Material of
construction
Mild steel
$tilities steam
11?
Chapter No . LoH pre>>ure >eparator 120
FACTORS AFFECTING CHOICE OF PUMP(
Many different factors can influence the final choice of a pump for a
particular operation. &he following list indicates the maDor factors that
govern pump selection.
1) &he amount of fluid that must 'e pumped. &his factor determines the
si/e of pump (or pumps) necessary.
2) &he properties of the fluid. &he density and the viscosity5 of the fluid
influence the power re3uirement for a given set of operating
conditions corrosive properties of the fluid determine the accepta'le
materials of construction. If solid particles are suspended in the fluid
this factor dictates the amount of clearance necessary and may
eliminate the possi'ility of using certain types of pumps.
3) &he increase in pressure of the fluid due to the wor! input of the
pumps. &he head change across the pump is influenced 'y the inlet
and downstream reservoir pressures the change in vertical height of
the delivery line and frictional effects. &his factor is a maDor item in
determining the power re3uirements.
,) &ype of flow distri'ution. If nonpulsating flow is re3uired certain
types of pumps such as simple reciprocating pumps may 'e
unsatisfactory. #imilarly if operation is intermittent a self(priming
pump may 'e desira'le and corrosion difficulties may 'e increased.
120
Chapter No . LoH pre>>ure >eparator 121
1) &ype of power supply. Botary positive(displacement pumps and
centrifugal pumps are readily adapta'le for use with electric(motor or
internal(com'ustion(engine drives5 reciprocating pumps can 'e used
with steam or gas drives.
6) *ost and mechanical efficiency of the pump.
:) &he amount of fluid that must 'e pumped. &his factor determines the
si/e of pump (or pumps) necessary.
>) &he properties of the fluid. &he density and the viscosity5 of the fluid
influence the power re3uirement for a given set of operating
conditions corrosive properties of the fluid determine the accepta'le
materials of construction. If solid particles are suspended in the fluid
this factor dictates the amount of clearance necessary and may
eliminate the possi'ility of using certain types of pumps.
?) &he increase in pressure of the fluid due to the wor! input of the
pumps. &he head change across the pump is influenced 'y the inlet
and downstream reservoir pressures the change in vertical height of
the delivery line and frictional effects. &his factor is a maDor item in
determining the power re3uirements.
10) &ype of flow distri'ution. If nonpulsating flow is re3uired
certain types of pumps such as simple reciprocating pumps may 'e
unsatisfactory. #imilarly if operation is intermittent a self(priming
pump may 'e desira'le and corrosion difficulties may 'e increased.
121
Chapter No . LoH pre>>ure >eparator 122
11) &ype of power supply. Botary positive(displacement pumps and
centrifugal pumps are readily adapta'le for use with electric(motor or
internal(com'ustion(engine drives5 reciprocating pumps can 'e used
with steam or gas drives.
12) *ost and mechanical efficiency of the pump.
122
Chapter No . LoH pre>>ure >eparator 123
"ump consists of two gear wheels which rotate inside a stationary
casing. @ecause the gear wheels rotate they are called the BC&CB# .and the
casing which remains stationary is called the #&)&CB. 7hen the pump is
started up the li3uid enters the pump through the nli3uid inlet
1
and nslugsn of
li3uid are caught 'etween the rotor and the stator and carried to the li3uid outletn.
) com'ination of the high speed of the rotors and the positive
displacement nature of this type of pump produces high pressure pumping.
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE GEAR PUMP(
=CC8 "CI<&# of the gear pump are.
\ .&he pump can deliver li3uid at high pressure.
\ It is self(priming.
\ It gives a smooth flow of li3uid.
\ It is positive acting.
\ it can pump viscous (thic!) fluids ('ut not slurries) since
the pump has no narrow inlet or outlet valves.
B.D P-,NS of the the !ear p*mp are:
\ it cannot 'e used for pumping li3uids which contain suspended solids
(slurries) or li3uids with no lu'ricating properties. &his is 'ecause the
design of the pump re3uires that a close fit of the gears inside the casing
is maintained. &he(action of suspended solids on the materials of the
gears and casing would result in wear and tear which would 3uic!ly
produce gaps 'etween the components.
123
Chapter 10 In>tru<ent and contro= 12,
INSTRUMENTATION
& CONTROL
Measurement is a fundamental re3uisite to process control. 0ither the control
can 'e affected automatically semi(automatically or manually. &he 3uality of control
o'taina'le also 'ears a relationship to the accuracy re(product a'ility and relia'ility
of the measurement methods which are employed. &herefore selection of the most
effective means of measurements is an important first step in the design and
formulation of any process control system.
HE C-NCEP -1 ME.SU'EMEN ,N .U-M.,-N .PPL,C.,-NS:
Measurement is defined as the e4traction from physical and chemical systems
or processes of signals which represent parameters or varia'le. &he performance of
an automation system can never surpass that the associated measuring devices. )
'asic e4ample is a human 'eing. &he output of a measuring instrument that has its
output compared to an ar'itrarily chosen reference of suita'le magnitudes which is
normally assumed to 'e unvarying.
N&ransducerO or N#ensorO is a general term for a sensing device.
12,
Chapter 10 In>tru<ent and contro= 121
TE(PERTURE (E!URE(ENT ND CONTROL
&emperature measurement is used to control the temperature of outlet and inlet
streams in heat e4changers reactors etc.
Most temperature measurements in the industry are made 'y means of thermo(
couples to facilitate 'ringing the measurements to centrali/ed location. Aor local
measurements at the e3uipment 'i(metallic or filled system thermometers are used to a
lesser e4tent. $sually for high measurement accuracy resistance thermometers are used.
)ll these meters are installed with thermo(wells when used locally. &his provides
protection against atmosphere and other physical elements. <ormally the control loops
which are used to control the controlled varia'les are feed'ac! controllers. Cnly 102 of
total controllers are feed forward controllers.
P'ESSU'E ME.SU'EMEN ; C-N'-L
9i!e temperature pressure is a valua'le indication of material state and
composition. In fact these two measurements considered together are the primary
evaluating devices of industrial materials.
"umps compressor and other process e3uipment associated with pressure changes in
the process material are furnished with pressure measuring devices. &hus pressure
measurement 'ecomes an indication of energy increase or decrease.
Most pressure measurement in industry are elastic element devices either directly
connected for local use or transmission type to centrali/ed location. Most e4tensively
used industrial pressure element is the @ourden &u'e or a 8iaphragm or @ellows gauges.
#LO$ (E!URE(ENT ND CONTROL
Alow(indicator(controllers are used to control the amount of li3uid. )lso all
manually set streams re3uire some flow indication or some easy means for occasional
sample measurement. Aor accounting purposes feed and product stream are metered. In
addition utilities to individual and grouped e3uipment are also metered.
121
Chapter 10 In>tru<ent and contro= 126
Most flow measures in the industry areG 'y 6aria'le +ead devices. &o a lesser
e4tent 6aria'le )rea is used as are the many availa'le types as special metering
situations arise. .
Control scheme of a t*0*lar reactor for LDPE
man*fact*rin!:
126
Chapter 10 In>tru<ent and contro= 12:
Beferring to the a'ove figure a mi4ture of ethylene and the catalyst is passed into a
elongated reactor tu'e (10) 'y means of line 11 and a preheat /one 12. conditions are
maintained in the reaction /one 10a of the reactor 10 so that su'stantial polymeri/ation
ta!es place.
8uring the polymeri/ation polymer 'uilds up on the inner walls of the tu'e 10 and
causes variation of flow rate reactor heat transfer rate and product 3uality. Cutlet or let
down valves 1, and discharge line 16 and mi4ture discharge there through is further
processed 'y !nown techni3ues.
) speed thermocouple 1> is provided in the section of the reactor where the
temperature is higher than ,00_A and connected via line 1? to temperature recorder
controller 20. &he temperature controller controls the reaction temperature 'y controlling
an appropriate signal via line 21 to pressure controller 61.
) strain gauge 2, at the reactor inlet is provided 'y means of the reactor pressure
and impulse from the gauge is transmitted via line 21 to pressure controller 61 which on
turns acts on valve 1, via line 2:.
) heat e4changer fluid Dac!et is provided for the preheating /one. #team is a
preferred heat e4change fluid. &he steam enters via inlet 30 and leaves via outlet 31.
+eat e4change fluid (water) is also passed through the Dac!et in cooling /one 13. &he
fluid enters via 3, and e4its via outlet 31. &he main part of the reactor or reaction /one
10a is provided with the heat e4changer Dac!et through which water enters via inlet 32
and outlet 33. &his Dac!et is provided with one or more thermocouples 11 near the water
inlet and one or more thermocouples near a'out the water outlet. &hese thermocouples
are connected via lines 13 and 12 to the temperature recorder controller 1, and the
temperature difference impulse is passed therefrom via line 1? to the computer recorder
60. In the reaction /one Dac!et cooling water inlet 32 is provided with the flow(meter 11
and the impulse corresponding to the reading thereof is passed via line 16 to flow
recorder 1: and also therefrom via line 1> to computer recorder 60.
12:
Chapter 10 In>tru<ent and contro= 12>
In the later there is a computation of the time average of the product of the flow
rate is multiplied to the rise in water temperature and an impulse corresponding to the
magnitude thereof is passed via line 62 to the let down pressure controller 63. *omputer
recorder 60 is connected via line :1 to a low temperature alarm. 7hen the signal from the
computer recorder is 'elow the previously set value.

)t the start of each cycle each of various measuring devices is 'rought 'ac! to
/ero so as to start. )t the start of ne4t continuous operation the outlet valve is reset to
give the operation pressure. "rovision is made for ma4. and minimum cycle times as well
as for ma4. pressures. &he operation may 'e com'ined with other control means e.g5 the
start up and shut down operations. &he operation may 'e controlled manually or 'y
means of an appropriate computer modification if desired.
12>
Chapter 11 H9OP !TUDY 130
HAZOP STUDY
Ha<ar. an. Opera+ili" S*." &Ha<!p'(
) +);C" survey is one of the most common and widely accepted methods of
systematic 3ualitative ha/ard analysis. It is used for 'oth new or e4isting facilities and
can 'e applied to a whole plant a production unit or a piece of e3uipment It uses as its
data'ase the usual sort of plant and process information and relies on the Dudgment of
engineering and safety e4perts in the areas with which they are most familiar. &he end
result is therefore relia'le in terms of engineering and operational e4pectations 'ut it is
not 3uantitative and may not consider the conse3uences of comple4 se3uences of human
errors. &he o'Dectives of a +);C" study can 'e summari/ed as follows.
1) &o identify (areas of the design that may possess a significant ha/ard potential.
2) &o identify and study features of the design that influence the pro'a'ility of a
ha/ardous incident occurring.
130
Chapter 11 H9OP !TUDY 131
3) &o familiari/e the study team with the design information availa'le.
,) &o ensure that a systematic study is made of the areas of significant ha/ard
potential.
1) &o identify pertinent design information not currently availa'le to the team.
6) &o provide a mechanism for feed'ac! to the client of the study teamns detailed
comments.
STEPS CONDUCTED IN HAZOP STUDY(
1. #pecify the purpose o'Dective and scope of the study. &he purpose may 'e
the analysis of a yet to 'e 'uilt plant or a review of the ris! of une4isting unit.
=iven the purpose and the circumstances of the study the o'Dectives listed
a'ove can he made more specific. &he scope of the study is the 'oundaries of
the physical unit and also the range of events and varia'les considered. Aor
e4ample at one time +);C"ns were mainly focused on fire and e4plosion
endpoints while now the scope usually includes to4ic release offensive odor
and environmental end(points. &he initial esta'lishment of purpose
o'Dectives and scope is very important and should 'e precisely set down so
that it will 'e clear now and in the future what was and was not included in
the study. &hese decisions need to 'e made 'y an appropriate level of
responsi'le management.
2. #elect the +);C" study team. &he team leader should 'e s!illed in +);C"
and in interpersonal techni3ues to facilitate successful group interaction. )s
many other e4perts should 'e included in the team to cover all aspects of
design operation process chemistry and safety. &he team leader should
instruct the team in the +);C" procedure and should emphasi/e that the end
o'Dective of a +);C" survey is ha/ard identification5 solutions to pro'lems
are a separate effort.
*ollect data. &heodore16 has listed the following materials that are usually needed.
131
Chapter 11 H9OP !TUDY 132
"rocess description.
"rocess flow sheets.
8ata on the chemical physical and to4icological properties of all raw
materials intermediates and products.
"iping and instrument diagrams ("kI8s).
03uipment piping and instrument specifications.
"rocess control logic diagrams.
9ayout drawings.
Cperating procedures.
Maintenance procedures.
0mergency response procedures.
#afety and training manuals.
132
Chapter 11 H9OP !TUDY 133
133
Chapter 11 H9OP !TUDY 13,
a0le: H.R-P 2*ide Words and Meanin!s
2*ide Words Meanin!
<o
9ess
More
"art of
)s well as
Beverse
Cther than
<egation of design intent
Wuantitative decrease
Wuantitative increase
Wualitative decrease
Wualitative Increase
9ogical opposite of the intent
*omplete su'stitution
*onduct the study. $sing the information collected the unit is divided into study
FnodesF and the se3uence diagrammed in Aigure is followed for each node. <odes
are points in the process where process parameters (pressure temperature change
'etween nodes as a result of the operation of various pieces of e3uipmentn such as
distillation columns heat e4changes or pumps. 6arious forms and wor! sheets have
'een developed to help organi/e the node process parameters and control logic
information.

7hen the nodes are identified and the parameters are identified each node is
studied 'y applying the speciali/ed guide words to each parameter. &hese guide words
and their meanings are !ey elements of the +);C" procedure. &hey are listed in
&a'le(?.1).
Bepeated cycling through this process which considers how and why each
parameter might vary from the intended and the conse3uence is the su'stance of the
+);C" study.
7rite the report. )s much detail a'out events and their conse3uence as is
uncovered 'y the study should 'e recorded. C'viously if the +);C" identifies a not
13,
Chapter 11 H9OP !TUDY 131
impro'a'le se3uence of events that would result in a disaster appropriate follow(up
action is needed. &hus although ris! reduction action is not a part of the +);C" the
+);C" may trigger the need for such action.
&he +);C" studies are time consuming and e4pensive. Qust getting the " k I8ns up
to date on an older plant may 'e a maDor engineering effort. #till for processes with
significant ris! they are cost effective when 'alanced against the potential loss of life
property 'usiness and even the future of the enterprise that may result from a maDor
release.
131
Chapter 11 H9OP !TUDY 136
136
Chapter 11 H9OP !TUDY 13:
13:
Chapter 11 H9OP !TUDY 13>
Ec!n!)ics !# Hi,%-Press*re Pr!cesses(
*apital costs for high(pressure processes are high (,0) in the appro4imate
range of 11 to 20 cents per annual pound of capacity. &he lower value is more
pro'a'le with a very large plant while the higher value is for a smaller plant. )
100(million(l' plant would then cost a'out o:1 million.
9ittle information has 'een pu'lished concerning the costs for operating a
plant. 8e 9es3uien (3:) however has reported some process economics for a
high(pressure plant which uses a tu'ular reactor and is designed to produce
almost 100 million I'Gyear of polyethylene. $tilities re3uired per ton of
polymer include 1000 to 11>0 !7h of electricity 1200 to 2000 I' of steam
and 31000 to ,>000 gal of cooling water. #ome operating costs per ton are o,
for maintenance o1.2: for additives including antio4idants o1.16 for
compressor oils o0.12: for chain(transfer agent o0.0,1 for nitrogen and
o0.01> for o4ygen used as the initiator.
&otal operating costs including polymeri/ation and finishing operations up to
polyethylene storage are li!ely to range from 3 to , centsGl'. &hese costs tend
to 'e lower for large plants as compared to small ones. &he costs also increase
as the pressure is increased a'ove 20000 or 21000 l'Gin
2
since compression
costs are higher and more e4pensive e3uipment is needed. )t lower pressures
which tend to produce polymers of relatively low molecular weight the rates of
polymeri/ation are relatively low (3?) and hence the rate of production for a
given reactor is also fairly low. "roduction costs per pound of product increase
as the pressure is decreased in the low(pressure range (pro'a'ly 1>000 l'Gin
2
or
less).
#ince a 'right future is proDected for high(pressure polyethylenes (1 3> 10)
developmental research continues on the current processes. #omewhat reduced
13>
Chapter 11 H9OP !TUDY 13?
operating e4penses for production of polyethylenes 'y high(pressure processes
are li!ely to 'e reali/ed in the future.
13?
Chapter 12 Co>t E>ti<ation 1,1
COST ESTIMATION
)n accepta'le plant design must present a process that is capa'le of operating under
conditions which will yield a profit.C
)
#ince <et profit total income(all e4penses
It is essential that chemical engineer 'e aware of the many different types of cost
involved in manufacturing processes. *apital must 'e allocated for direct plant e4penses5 such
as those for raw materials la'or and e3uipment. @esides direct e4penses many other
indirect e4penses are incurred and these must 'e included if a complete analysis of the total
cost is to 'e o'tained. #ome e4amples of these indirect e4penses are administrative salaries
product distri'ution costs and cost for interplant communication.
) capitaE investment is re3uired for any industrial process and determination of the
necessary investment is an important part of a plant design proDect. &he total investment for
any process consists of fi4ed capital investment for physical e3uipment and facilities in the
plant plus wor!ing capital which must 'e availa'le to pay salaries !eep raw materials and
products on hand and handle other special items re3uiring a direct cost outlay. &hus in an
analysis of cost in industrial processes capital investment costs manufacturing cost and
general e4penses including income ta4es must 'e ta!en into consideration.
Chapter 12 Co>t e>ti<ation 1,2

C.P,.L ,N)ESMEN
@efore an industrial plant can 'e put into operation a large sum of money must 'e
supplied to purchase and install the necessary machinery and e3uipment. 9and and service
facilities must 'e o'tained and the plant must 'e erected complete with all piping controls
and service. In addition it is necessary to have money availa'le for the payment of e4penses
involved in the plant operation. &he total capital re3uired for the installation and wor!ing of
a plant is called total capital investment.
otal capital in/estment - Ai4ed capital L 7or!ing capital
1i:ed capital in/estment:
&he capital needed to supply the necessary manufacturing and plant facilities is
called fi4ed capital investment. &he fi4ed capital is further su'divided into manufacturing
fi4ed capital investment and non(manufacturing fi4ed capital investment.
Wor4in! capital: &he capital re3uired for the operation of the plant is !nown as wor!ing
capital.
Fi0e. Capial In9es)en(
a% Direct Cost
1) "urchased e3uipment cost
2) "urchased e3uipment installation
3) Insulation *ost
,) Instrumentation and *ontrols
1,2
Chapter 12 Co>t e>ti<ation 1,3
1) "iping
6) 0lectrical installation
:) @uilding including services
>) pard improvement
?) #ervice facilities
10) 9and
.
0% ,ND,'EC C-S
1) 0ngineering and supervision
2) *onstruction e4penses
3) *ontractorns fee
W-'#,N2 C.P,.L ,NCLUDE
1) Baw materials and supplies earned in stoc!
2) Ainished product in stoc! and semifinished products in the process of 'eing
manufactured
3) )ccounts receiva'le .
,) *ash !ept on hand for monthly payment of operating e4penses such as salaries wages
and raw material purchases
1) )ccounts paya'le
6) &a4es paya'le
TYPES OF CAPITAL COST ESTIMATES
)n estimate of the capital investment for a process may vary from a predesign
estimate 'ased on little information e4cept the si/e of the proposed proDect to a detailed
,) *ontingencies
1) #tartup e4penses
1,3
Chapter 12 Co>t e>ti<ation 1,,
estimate prepared from complete drawings and specifications. @etween these two e4tremes
of capital investment estimates there can 'e numerous other estimates which vary in
accuracy depending upon the stage of development of the proDect. &hese estimates are called 'y
a variety of names 'ut the following five categories represent the accuracy range and Designation
normally used for design purposes.
1) Crder of magnitude estimate (ratio estimated 'ased on similar previous cost date
pro'a'le accuracy of estimate over q 302 ).
2) #tudy estimate (factored estimate) 'ased on !nowledge of maDor items of e3uipment5
pro'a'le accuracy of estimate upto q 302
3) "reliminary estimate ('udget authori/ation estimate5 scope estimate) 'ased on
sufficient data to permit the estimate to 'e 'udgeted5 pro'a'le accuracy of estimate
within q 202
,) 8efinitive estimate (proDect control estimate). It 'ased on almost complete data 'ut
'efore completion of drawings and specification pro'a'le accuracy of estimate within
q 102.
1) 8etailed estimate (contractorns estimate). It 'ased on complete engineering
drawings specifications and site surveys5 pro'a'le accuracy of estimate within q
12.
COST INDE/ES
) cost inde4 is merely an inde4 value for a given point in time showing the cost
that time relative to certain 'ase time. #o present cost is estimate from cost inde4 all follows.
1,,
Chapter 12 Co>t e>ti<ation 1,1
*ost inde4 can 'e used to give a general estimate. Many different types of cost inde4es are
pu'lished regularly. #ome of these can 'e used for estimating e3uipment cost5 other apply
specifically to la'our construction materials or other speciali/ed fields. &he most common of
these inde4es are the.
i) Marshall and #wift all(industry and process industry e3uipment inde4.
ii) 0ngineering news(record contraction cost inde4
iii) &he <elson(Aarrar refinery construction inde4
iv) &he chemical engineering plant cost inde4
v) Cther inde4 include monthly la'our view.
C!s Esi)ai!n !# C!)press!r
&otal *ompressor power re3uired - ,210 +p - 316>.> %7
*ost from the graph of car'on steel - 2 M 10
6
o - 1.20 M 10
>
Bs.
&his is the cost of dou'le pipe heat e4changer for stainless steel tu'e shell.
7e have our material of construction which is alloy of ( vanadium chromium and
mole'denum) which is : times ( appro4imately) is cost to that of stainless steel.
#o cost of one loop of heat e4changer- : M 1.20 M 10
>
- >., M 10
>
Bs.
1,1
Chapter 12 Co>t e>ti<ation 1,6
+ost ,stimation -f do"#le .ipe heat e/chan0er
&otal )rea- 3>3m
2
*ost on the 'asis of 10 m
2
area - 11?0o-:1,00 Bs
#o
Aor total area of tu'e -3>3.2M:1,00
-2.:M10
6
Bs
"ressure adDustment factor- 3.2
#o the price of the tu'es - 3.2M2.:M10
6
->.>,M10
6
Bs
&his is the cost of dou'le pipe heat e4changer for stainless steel tu'e shell.
7e have our material of construction which is alloy of ( vanadium chromium and
mole'denum) which is : times ( appro4imately) is cost to that of stainless steel.
#o cost of one loop of heat e4changer- :M>.>,M10
6
- 62.0,>M10
6
Bs
Aor one loop
*ost - 6.20,>M10
:
7e have total <o of loops - 6
&otal cost of the reactor - 6M6.20,M10
:
-3.:22M10
>
Bs
+ost ,stimation of hi0h press"re separator.
"ressure inside separator - 166.6: atm
-2,10.0,? psi
"ressure adDustment factor - >.1
Material adDustment factor - 1
)t 9 - 3.:1 m
8 - 0.>>3 m
1,6
Chapter 12 Co>t e>ti<ation 1,:
*ost of flash drum - 1:00
-1.02M10
1
Bs
@y placing the value of pressure and material adDustment
*ost of high pressure separator - 1.02M >.1 M10
1
- ,.31M10
6
Bs
Cost Estimation of low pressure separator:
"ressure adDustment factor- 1.6
Material adDustment factor- 1.2
9- 3.,2
8-0.:63
*ost of low pressure separator- 1600 o (appro4imately)
-?6000 Bs
- 1.>, M10
1
Bs.
S%ell an. *+e inerc!!ler &#!r c!)peress!r'
Aor area - 31.>2 m
2
"ressure adDustment factor - 1.6
*ost of shell and tu'e heat e4changer-1010o
-1010o - 6.3M10
1
Bs
#o true cost of shell and tu'e heat e4changer - 1.6M 6.3M10
1
-1.0>M10
6
Bs
<o of stages used in the compressor - ,0
<o of intercoolers used in the compressor - 3?
#o total cost of the compressor intercoolers - ,.21 M 10
:
Bs
S%ell an. *+e %ea e0c%an,er & Inerc!!ler' a#er
Hi,% press*re separa!r(
U type
)rea - 31.,? m
2
*ost - 11100 o
1,:
Chapter 12 Co>t e>ti<ation 1,>
- 6.?M10
1
M1.21M1
- ,.3M10
6
Bs
S%ell an. *+e %ea e0c%an,er & Inerc!!ler' a#er l!$
press*re separa!r(
U type
)rea - 31.,? m
2
*ost - 11100 o
- 6.?M10
1
M1.21M1
- ,.3M10
6
Bs
C!s !# R!ar" .r"er(
*ost - 60000 M 9d8d
9ength of dryer - 1?.,2 m
8iameter of dryer - 3 m
*ost - 60000M?.,2M3-3,?1600 Bs
,'TI12TI-3 - T-T24 +2.IT24 I3!,'T1,3T Direct
+ost 5%s6
"urchased e3uipment cost - 3,?1600 L ,.3M10
6
L ,.3M10
6
L ,.21 M 10
:
L 1.>, M10
1
L ,.31M10
6
L 3.:22M10
>
L >., M 10
>

-1.2: M 10
?
Bs
"urchased e3uipment installation - 0.,: M 1.2: M 10
?
G 1.? M 10
>
Bs
Instrumentation k "rocess *ontrol - 0.12 M 1.2: M 10
?
- 1.12 M 10
>
Bs
"iping (installed) - 0.66 4 1.2: M 10
?
- >.3> M 10
>
Bs
0lectrical (installed)( 0.66 M 1.2: M 10
?
- >.3> M 10
>
Bs
@uilding (Including #ervices) - 0.1> M 1.2: M 10
?
- 2.2> M 10
>
Bs
1,>
Chapter 12 Co>t e>ti<ation 1,?
pard improvements - 0.1 M 1.2: M 10
?
->.2: M 10
>
Bs
#ervice facilities (installed) - 0.: M 1.2: M 10
?
- >.? M 10
>
9and - 0.06 M 1.2: M 10
?
- :.62 M 10
:
Bs
&otal direct plant cost - 1.:1 M 10
?
Bs.
,ndirect Cost
0ngg k #upervision - 0.33 M 1.2: M 10
?
- ,.1? M 10
>
04penses - 0.,1 M 1.2: M 10
?
- 1.2 M 10
>
Bs.
&otal 8irect k Indirect *ost - 1.2 M 10
>
L 1.:1 M 10
?
- 6.23 M 10
?
*ontractorns fee - 0.01 M 6.23 M 10
?
- 3.11 M 10
>
Bs
*ontingency - 0.1 4 6.23 M 10
?
- 6.23 M 10
>
Ai4ed *apital Investment - &otal direct L indirect cost L contigency L
*ontractorns fee
- 6.23 M 10
?
L 3.11 M 10
>
L 6.23 M 10
>
- :.16 M 10
?
Bs
<ow
7.* -0.1>n(A.*.I) - 1.2>>> M 10
?
.
&otal *apital Investment - A.*.I L 7.*..
&.*.I -1.2>>> M 10
?
L :.16 M 10
?
- >.,,>> M 10
?
Bs.
1,?
Chapter 12 Co>t e>ti<ation 110
Prod*ct Cost
)ssume that the Ai4ed *apital Investment depreciate 'y straight line method for 20 years.
)ssuming 1 2 #alvage value at the end of plant life.
8epreciation - 8 - (6(6
#
)G<
6 - A.*.I
6- :.16 M 10
?
6
s
- 0.01PA.*.I
6
s
- 3.1> M 10
>
< - no. of years - 20
8- (:.16 M 10
?
(3.1> M 10
>
)G 20
8 - 3., M 10
>
&otal "roduct *ost P- &otal *apital Investment ( 8epreciation
- >.,,>> M 10
?
(

3., M 10
>
- >.1,M 10
?
Bs
Ai4ed *harges (122&.".*) - ?.:: M 10
>
Bs
8irect "roduct *ost (112&.".*) - ,.,: M 10
?
Bs
"lant Cverhead (102&.".*) - >.1, M 10
>
Bs
Manufacturing *ost - 8irect product cost L Ai4ed *harges L "lant
-/erhead Cost Man*fact*rin! Cost = 7(27 S 6?
B
's
2eneral E:penses
2eneral E:penses - )dministrative *ost L distri'ution and selling cost L research and
development cost
.dministrati/e Cost
It is 2(62 of total product cost *onsider
)dministrative cost - 12of total product cost
)dministrative cost - 0.01 M >.1, M 10
?

)dministrative cost - ,.0: M 10
>
Bs
110
Chapter 12 Co>t e>ti<ation 111
Distri0*tion and Sellin! Cost
It includes cost for sales offices salesmen shipping and advertising. It is 2(
202 of total product cost
*onsider that distri'ution and selling costs - 112 of total product cost
8istri'ution and selling costs - 0.11 M >.1, M 10
?
8istri'ution and selling costs - 1.22 M 10
?
Bs
'esearch and De/elopment Cost
It is a'out 1 2 of total product cost Besearch and
development cost - 0.01 M >.1, M 10
?
Besearch and development cost - ,.0: M 10
>
Bs
1inancin! ",nterest% It is a'out 0(102 of total *apital
Investment *onsider interest is 12 of total capital
Investment
Interest - 0.01 M>.,,>> M 10
?
- ,.22 M 10
>
Bs
#o
=eneral 04penses - 2.03 M 10
?
Bs
otal prod*ct cost = man*fact*rin! cost D !eneral
e:penses(
= >.2? M 10
?
Bs
2ross Earnin! income
7holesale selling price of 98"0 per ton - 131000 Bs
&otal income - #elling price M Wuantity of product manufactured
&otal income - 131000 M 666666,.>
&otal income - >.?? M 10
10
Bs
=ross income - &otal Income ( &otal "roduct *ost
=ross income - 3>.?? M 10
10
( >.2? M 10
?
=ross income - >.1: M 10
10
Bs
9et the &a4 rate is ,12
111
Chapter 12 Co>t e>ti<ation 112
&a4es - ,02 of =ross income
- 0.,0M >.1: M 10
10
&a4es - 3.26 M 10
10
Bs
<et profit - =ross income ( &a4es - =ross income P (1( &a4 rate)
<et profit - ,.?1 M 10
10
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'ate of ret*rn
Bate of return - <et profit M 100G &otal Investment Bate
of return

Bate of return - 2:2
112
Re@rence> 11,
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#illa +. N*hemical process 0ngineering 8esign k 0conomicsO
Marcel 8e!!er Inc. <ew por! 2003.
&urton B. @ailie B.*. 7hiting 7.@. k #haeiwit/ Q.).O
)nalysis #ynthesis k 8esign Cf *hemical "rocessesO "rentice
+all International. 1??>.
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*harles =. +ill Q.B. N&he Introduction to *hemical 0ngineering
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9udwig 0.0 N)pplied "rocess 8esignO 3
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"rofessional "u'lishers 2002.
"eters M.#. and &immerhaus %.8. N"lant 8esign and 0conomics
for *hemical 0ngineeringO 1th 0d Mc=raw +ill 1???.
*oulson Q.m. and Bichardson Q.A. N*hemical 0ngineeringO ,
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%ern 8.W. N"rocess +eat &ransferO Mc=raw +ill Inc. 2000.
Mc*a'e 7.9 #mith Q.*. k +arriot ". N$nit Cperations of
*hemical 0ngineeringO 1
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0d Mc=raw +ill Inc 1??3.
"erry B.+ and 8.7. =reen (eds). "erryKs *hemical 0ngineering
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116