CHRISTIAN MINISTRY

Models of Ministry and Training

Jesudason Baskar Jeyaraj
Published by
Theological Book Trust
Bangalore
Table of Contents
PREFACE 7
FOREWORD 9
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 13
ABBREVIATIONS 15
INTRODUCTION 17
CHAPTER ONE
Terms, Definitions and Metaphors of Ministry 21
CHAPTER TWO
Theological, Contextual and Ecclesiological Basis of Ministry 43
CHAPTER THREE
Relating Ministry to Context 55
CHRISTIAN MINISTRY - Models of Ministry and Training
Theological Book Trust 2002
ISBN : 81-7475-040-1
First published 2002 by Theological Book Trust
Reprinted 2006
All Rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any
form, except for the purposes of brief review in periodicals, without
prior permission of Theological Book Trust, P.O. Box 9529,
Bangalore 560095, India.
Printed at : The J & P Print & Allied Industries, Bangalore
CHAPTER FOUR
Models of Ministry in the Bible 81
Priestly Model
Liberation Model
Administration Model
Prophetic Model
Reformer Model
Political Action Model
Wisdom Model
Chronicler Model
Son of Man Model
Evangelistic Model
Missionary Model
Charity Model
Counselling Model
Pastoral Model
CHAPTER FIVE
Priesthood of all Believers 209
CHAPTER SIX
Structures and Partnership for Gods Ministry 235
CHAPTER SEVEN
Developing Leaders for Ministry: Principles of Training 245
CHAPTER EIGHT
Theological Education, Context and Involvement 263
CHAPTER NINE
Models of Theological Education: Case Studies 275
Living and Learning in Villages: Inculturation Experiment
(Arul Kadal Seminary, Chennai)
Off-Campus Programme for Urban Exposure
(Tamilnadu Theological Seminary, Madurai)
Ministerial Training for Church Planting
(Madras Theological Seminary and College, Chennai)
Laity Formation in Secular Colleges: Equipping Women
(Lady Doak College, Madurai)
Vocational and Theological Integrated Training
(ACTS Institute, Bangalore)
CONCLUSION 331
BIBLIOGRAPHY 335
INDEX 345
4 5
6 7
Christian Ministry
Preface
J.B. Jeyaraj has put in a wealth of academic scholarship and
personal experience into this book Christian Ministry. Minis-
try is such a diverse involvement, and therefore no one book
can exhaust all the implications. But here is one that can serve
as a useful textbook with an excellent treatment of the subject.
Many books on ministry have been used in institutions in
India, but mostly from the West and therefore offering Western
perspectives. Some of these are not only irrelevant but also out-
dated. Jeyaraj writes as an Indian and relates ministry to the
Indian context complete with some apt case studies.
When speaking of the Indian context, it is clear that most
treatments of ministry, particularly if coming from a Western
perspective, would lack a contextual grounding. Jeyaraj gives a
whole chapter to help us understand the socio-economic and
religious context of our country. The reader would find this
study very helpful to help make ministry more meaningful in
our diverse situations.
One very useful aspect of this book is its treatment of the
varied forms of ministry. Most times we look at ministry as
either evangelism or social action (including liberation) and some
would bring these two together. This book gives us 14 models of
ministry, and this serves to encourage every member of the
church to consider himself/herself as being engaged in minis-
try.
Jeyaraj pleads for a much needed and relevant curriculum
for ministry in theological educational institutions. The princi-
ples he supplies for theological training are very appropriate. I
fully agree with the writer that we need to look at training peo-
ple for effective ministry and therefore an appropriate curricu-
lum must be developed to assist in this task.
Case studies are included to show different models of train-
ing in Indian context. These case studies are carefully chosen
to present the different ways in which theological training of
ministers and laity is carried on in the Indian context. Com-
mendably, the author stayed in these institutions to study their
8 9
Christian Ministry
Foreword
All ministry is Gods ministry. Every act of God, even that of
creation, is the ministry of God. Gods ministry of word and
deed breaks the silence and ends all speculation about whether
or not there is a God and of how the deity might be disposed
toward us. In responding to the cry of the people of Israel suffer-
ing under bondage in Egypt, Gods ministry revealed the nature
of God as one who cares and acts. Gods ministry is the revela-
tion of God to humans and the basis for all human knowledge of
Gods nature and purpose. All ministry is grounded in Gods
ministry, and all theology is dependent upon Gods continued
ministry as the source of revealed truth. There is no theological
task which has any basis in Gods truth other than the task of
expounding the ministry of God.
In this comprehensive and immensely practical book, Dr.
Jeyaraj, lays a solid theological foundation for Christian Minis-
try which is biblically grounded, contextually sensitive, and ecu-
menically relevant. Here we are reminded that the praxis of min-
istry contextualizes and critically forms our theology even as
Gods ministry precedes and creatively forms the people of God
to carry out this ministry. The divine strategy for ministry is
grounded in Gods gracious intention to reconcile the world
through the life, death and resurrection of Jesus Christ. This
has been accomplished from Gods side and now seeks comple-
tion from the human side, as the people of God have been given
the ministry of reconciliation, . . . that is, in Christ God was
reconciling the world to himself, not counting their trespasses
against them, and entrusting the message of reconciliation to
us. (2 Corinthians 5:19 NRSV)
Jesus Christ, the Son of God, was sent and anointed by the
Spirit of God to carry out and complete his ministry to God the
Father. On behalf of the world, Jesus offers up to the Father a
ministry of prayer, worship, obedience and service. His ministry
is first of all directed to God and not to the world. The needs of
the world are recognized and brought into this ministry, but do
not set the agenda. As he was sent into the world, Jesus took
programme and has collected data for writing the case studies.
More case studies on Indian theological education could be in-
cluded but Jeyaraj has limited the study to 5 patterns. I am
sure students will be encouraged to similarly document their
own case studies.
India today is rapidly changing. Political and religious pres-
sures, changing socio-economic contexts and other forces put
pressure on the church to present a valid response. Those who
prefer to stand on the past will be left to grope in the dark or
perhaps operate in their own limited circles with illusions of
success. Others who dare to change and adapt to the changes
will find ministry to be an exciting engagement. Jeyarajs treat-
ment is a good contribution to those who want to take ministry
in our modern world seriously.
Ken Gnanakan
December 2002
10 11
Christian Ministry
up both sides of the ministry of the Father. Jesus brings to the
world the good news of the gospel of love for the world. At the
same time, Jesus came forward from the side of the estranged
and broken world to reconcile humanity to God.
The Spirit empowers the people of God to continue the min-
istry of God to the world on behalf of Jesus. Jesus served the
Father who sent him into the world. The ministry of Jesus to
the Father on behalf of the world is the inner logic of all minis-
try. Every aspect of the ministry of Jesus is grounded in the
inner relation of mutual love and care between the Father and
the Son. Christian ministry is thus the continuation of the three-
fold ministry of God through the church as the contemporary
manifestation and sign of the Kingdom of God.
The overall strategy of the church is conformity to Christs
coming to the world for the sake of its reconciliation with God.
This strategy must never be abandoned, else the world would
be left to its own hopeless and fatal plunge into the abyss. A
tactic, is a particular maneuver within the overall strategy. While
the church may and must take up and sometimes abandon dif-
fering tactics by which to carry out this ministry, it must never
abandon the basic divine strategy.
The incarnation of God in Jesus Christ was a divine strategy
by which humanity under sentence of death and with its back
turned toward God, could be seized at its most tragic point and
brought back within arms length of the face of God. The strat-
egy was to bring humanity under judgment for the sake of its
liberation from the curse of death and to be renewed in the
image of glory and grace with which it had originally been en-
dowed. This strategy was no mere tactic, to be abandoned when
the cost became too high and the risk too great. Paul saw clearly
the irrevocable commitment involved in the divine strategy when
he said of Jesus, though he was in the form of God, did not
regard equality with God as something to be exploited, but emp-
tied himself, taking the form of a slave, being born in human
likeness. And being found in human form, he humbled himself
and became obedient to the point of death even death on a
cross (Phil. 2:6-8, NRSV). No theology of Christian ministry does
justice to the biblical witness to Jesus Christ without being sol-
idly grounded in this strategy. Once this is the fundamental
theology by which the church defines its existence in the world,
it is then a matter of tactics as to how best to carry through the
mandateto be in the world as Christ is in the world.
The church is not formed by its own efforts, nor is it con-
formed to the world (Rom. 12). Rather, the church is conformed
to Christ, who though he was in the form of God, did not regard
equality with God as something to be exploited, but emptied
himself, taking the form of a slave, being born in human like-
ness (Phil. 2:6. MRSV). The church is the result of Gods mis-
sion to the world. But, at the same time, the church is the agent
of this mission as it proclaims and expounds this gospel and
penetrates into the world in partnership with Gods mission to
the world. The church, as the missionary people of God, con-
nects gospel to mission and mission to gospel.
If the church should become powerlessness and irrelevant to
the world, it is not because it lacks tactical encounter with the
world, but that too often its strategy is one of survival rather
than sacrifice, of success rather than service, of reputation rather
than of responsibility. The temptation for the church has al-
ways been to identify its own existence and institutional life
with the kingdom of God. When that occurs, the existence of
the church tends to take priority over the mission of the king-
dom of God. The church tends to develop its theology by looking
backwards to its historical foundation. The prevailing theology
of the church can easily become historical theology with its
dogmatic theology strongly rooted in the past. The result is that
the church often lacks a vibrant theology of ministry which moves
it toward the future. The church does not drive the Kingdom
into the world through its own institutional and pragmatic strat-
egies. Rather, it is drawn into the world as it follows the mission
of the Spirit. The church is constantly being re-created through
the mission of the Spirit. At the same time, it has historical and
ecclesial continuity and universality through its participation in
the person and mission of Christ Jesus through the Spirit.
The order of the churchs ministry is the way in which the
church carries out the ministry of Christ. This allows for a vari-
ety of different forms and orders of ministry grounded in the
single ministry of Christ. As Paul said, There is one body and
one Spirit, just as you were called to the one hope of your call-
Foreword
12 13
Christian Ministry
ing, one Lord, one faith, one baptism, one God and Father of all,
who is above all and through all and in all (Eph. 4:4-6). The
mandate for the church is to develop models of Christian minis-
try which are focused on the context where people live and work
before those trained for ministry are sent into the world. The
Spirit does not create offices, but rather ministries. The gifts of
the Spirit for ministry results in the creation of the office. There
is a sense in which one can say that baptism into Christ is
ordination into the ministry of Christ. As Christ was called and
ordained to his messianic ministry through baptism, so the bap-
tism of every person can be viewed as calling into the ministry of
Christ. The special ordination which sets baptized persons aside
as representative of the ministry of Christ through the church
is still grounded upon baptism into Christs ongoing ministry.
What makes this book of particular value to local congrega-
tions as well as to ecclesial leaders and academic teachers is the
discussion of leadership development and theological education
for ministry. Five different models of theological training for min-
istry currently in use are discussed, each offering insightful and
valuable suggestions for the renewal of ministry through more
effective training for the praxis of ministry in context. The analy-
sis of the social, economic, and political context of the sub con-
tinent of India, while restricted to one segment of the global
context for ministry, provides an excellent case study in contex-
tual analysis as a critical component of Christian ministry in
every culture. A theology of Christian ministry is a contextual
theology, because it is a theology of the living God who contin-
ues to be present to the world in the context of the historical
reality of the Holy Spirit.
I am pleased to commend this book for its contribution to a
practical theology of ministry as well as a manual for more effec-
tive education and preparation for ministry.
Dr. Ray S. Anderson, Ph. D.
Professor of Theology and Ministry
Fuller Theological Seminary
Pasadena, CA 91182 USA
Acknowledgements
Asian Institute of Theology, a unit of ACTS Academy of Higher
Education, Bangalore organized a workshop inviting a few bibli-
cal scholars, bishops, pastors and educationists to write the cur-
riculum for their theological education in 1998-1999. I am grate-
ful for the opportunity given to me to write a syllabus for the
course on Christian Ministry and Social Issues and teach the
same in their contact seminar classes. Students who attended
the classes encouraged me to write my lectures in a book form.
The interaction with these men and women who came from dif-
ferent walks of life contributed to shape the content of this book.
The need for the study material combining Christian Ministry
and Social Issues led me to work on this book. The original plan
is to discuss the ministry as the first part and the social issues
as the second part of the book. Only after start writing this book,
I realized, that it would take longer time to write both the parts.
I changed the plan and decided to publish the first part as a
book now and write the second part on social issues later.
I thank Dr. Ken Gnanakan for working out the scholarship
for me to go to the Global Research Institute in Fuller Theologi-
cal Seminary and spend a year (Fall 2000 to Summer 2001) to
write this book. I appreciate his willingness to write the preface
to this book. I am glad that the Theological Book Trust has come
forward to publish this book.
My sincere thanks to Dr. Walter Hansen, Director of the Glo-
bal Research Institute and Keith Casey Cobell Jr., Associate
Director for the financial support. Ms Evelyn Dimados help in
proof reading and editing the draft is very much appreciated.
Dr. Ray S. Anderson, Professor of Practical Theology at Fuller
Theological Seminary went through my draft and gave valuable
suggestions. I am grateful to him for his interest in this book
and writing the foreword.
The Tamilnadu Theological Seminary where I taught as
fulltime faculty for the past twenty years has enriched my theo-
logical thinking and teaching skills and provided opportunities
for involvement and to gain wider experience. I thank the semi-
14 15
Christian Ministry
nary for granting me leave for one year to do this Post-doctoral
research and writing.
I express my thanks and appreciation to the five institutions
listed in the Case Studies. Their materials are valuable informa-
tion on the new patterns of education in relating Christian faith
to the context. Continuous encouragement and prayer support
from my wife, daughter and son enabled me to complete this
book. I dedicate this book to my parents who taught me to love
God and people. I believe, this book can be used as a valuable
resource material in theological seminaries, workshops, semi-
nars and Bible Studies in churches.
I am thankful to the Editors of TBT for printing the second
edition. I am hearing good response for the readers of the first
edition. My appreciation goes to Dr. Ken Gnanakan and his
team of staff in TBT in publishing and marketing this book at an
affordable price for Indian Christian leaders, students in theo-
logical colleges and lay people.
Abbreviations
AAHE - ACTS Academy of Higher Education
ACTS - Agriculture, Crafts, Trades and Studies
AIT - Asian Institute of Theology
AJTR - Arasaradi Journal of Theological Reflection
AK - Arul Kadal
AMA - Asia Missions Advance
ATA - Asia Theological Association
ATC - Asian Trading Corporation
CISRS - Christian Institute for the Study of Religion and Society
CLS - Christian Literature Society
CNI - Church of North India
CSI - Church of South India
ECI - Evangelical Church of India
ELS - Evangelical Literature Service
FTS - Fuller Theological Seminary
HIALS - Haggai Institute of Advanced Leadership Skills
ISPCK - Indian Society for the Propagation of Christian Knowledge
ITC - International Theological Commentary
IVP - Inter-Varsity Press
LDC - Lady Doak College
MTSC - Madras Theological Seminary and College
NBD - New Bible Dictionary
NCB - New Century Bible
NCCI - National Christian Council of India
SSC - Senate of Serampore College
TBT - Theological Book Trust
TELC - Tamil Evangelical Lutheran Church
TDNT - Theological Dictionary of the New Testament
TDOT - Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament
TNTC - Tyndale New Testament Commentary
TOTC - Tyndale Old Testament Commentary
TRACI - Theological Research And Communication Institute
TTS - Tamilnadu Theological Seminary
WBC - Word Bible Commentary
WCL - William Carey Library
WEF - World Evangelical Fellowship
16 17
Christian Ministry
Introduction
Christian ministry is a vast subject. Thousands of books have
been written on this subject. Early Church Fathers, Martin
Luther and Calvin have expressed their views on ministry. Many
theologians, specializing on Practical Theology, follow the writ-
ings of Karl Barth. Theologians from Roman Catholic and Prot-
estant churches in various parts of the world are writing articles
on ministry in journals and publishing books. Many doctoral
dissertations written on the ministry add their valuable contri-
bution for further research and writing. A broad analysis of the
books written on ministry could show that these books deal
with one or more aspects of ministry such as the theology of
ministry, qualities of Christian ministers, the history of Chris-
tian ministry, contextual problems and issues, planning goals
and strategies, theological education, training and skills, the
role of prayer and fund-raising for ministry. The voluminous
resources available on Christian ministry indicate the complex-
ity of the subject. Publications on this subject will continue to
explain the nature and role of ministry and yet cannot exhaust
the subject. My concern in writing a book on Christian ministry
is to provide a basic study material for those who are interested
in serving God. I do not claim that my book deals with all the
issues and gives solution to the problems. It is only an introduc-
tion to Christian ministry with the purpose of enabling readers
to understand the true meaning of ministry, the different mod-
els of ministry, theological and contextual issues, patterns of
training and to encourage each member of the church to be
involved in ministry.
The First chapter discusses the definitions of Christian min-
istry, nuances of the terms used in the Bible to refer to ministry
and the images of servanthood. This chapter emphasizes disci-
pleship as an indispensable aspect of ministry. The definition,
terms and images alone are not enough to explain the depth of
ministry. So Second chapter deals with the foundation of Chris-
tian ministry and how theological, contextual and ecclesiological
reasons are inter-connected. This triangular model functions
18 19
Christian Ministry
as the basis of ministry. The relation of ministry to the context
is discussed in the Third chapter. Although this chapter is de-
voted to explaining the socio-political, religious and economic
contexts of India, readers in the Indian sub-continent could find
similar situations in their own countries. This chapter is in-
cluded mainly to emphasize the importance of analyzing and
understanding the society, re-reading scriptural texts and mak-
ing ministry relevant to the context. The more we relate minis-
try to the context, the more we realize its challenges. Such ef-
forts and challenges help us to develop new theological insights,
new goals, strategies, indigenized approaches and to achieve
greater results. The Fourth chapter is on models of ministry.
Metaphors of ministry explain the relation and task of ministry,
but Models explain the kinds or patterns of ministry. Although
there are many models, only fourteen models are identified here
as key models. Their significance is highlighted. The theological
and contextual issues related to the models are mentioned with-
out discussing them in detail. Readers could take note of the
issues raised and could read reference literature mentioned for
further exploration.
Christian Ministry is imperative to all the members of the
body of Christ. It is an obligation for Christians. This fact is
explained in theological terms of Priesthood of all believers in
the Fifth chapter. This doctrine counters the notion that minis-
try is only for certain persons. The theology of the priesthood of
all believers emphasizes corporate responsibility and account-
ability as well as challenges the accumulation of power and au-
thority in ministry in the hands of a few individuals. The Sixth
chapter, which is on the structure of and partnership in minis-
try and which was published as an essay earlier on is included
in this book to emphasize the need for partnership and co-op-
eration between churches and para-church organizations. We
must understand historical developments in ministry and rec-
ognize the need for sodalities and modalities. This chapter pleads
for a closer tie between churches and organizations to enhance
ministry.
Training is important for ministry. Chapter Seven deals with
the principles of training and developing leaders for ministry.
Chapter Eight discusses the importance of theological educa-
tion and involvement. Instead of explaining how to do ministry,
I felt, it is better to provide case studies of training and equip
believers for ministry. Five case studies are included in the
Nineth chapter because they bear witness to different patterns
in theological education and efforts in relating to the context.
Out of these five, three examples are on training clergy to work
within rural and urban contexts. The other two case studies are
on equipping the laity to witness and bring changes to their
immediate environment like family, schools, colleges and work
places. I have selected these five case studies because I know
these institutions and I have involved in their training pro-
grammes. Case studies are not to glorify the institutions but to
appreciate their concern in equipping people and their courage
in experimenting with innovative approaches in doing ministry.
These institutions have their own limitations and have faced
difficulties yet they pursued their goals. Due recognition must
be given to these institutions for developing new patterns of
training for leaders of churches and society. Writing a conclu-
sion on Christian ministry is difficult. However, it must be reit-
erated that the important dimension in ministry is the minis-
ter. Servanthood is not merely a relationship, task and skill. It
is also result -and -life oriented. The faith, motive, vision, holi-
ness, credibility and suffering of believers matter much in the
service of God and people. The Conclusion re-emphasizes the
need for renewal in understanding the concept of the Church,
Ministry and Training if Christian ministry is to continue as an
effective service to God and Creation. This book is a small con-
tribution towards an understanding and exploration of the sub-
ject of Christian ministry.
Introduction
20 21
Christian Ministry
Chapter One
Terms, Definitions and
Metaphors of Ministry
Ministry is pluralistic. Any reader of the Bible could notice
the different kinds of ministry done by different people in dif-
ferent periods of history. Scholars have classified the different
periods of biblical history as the Primeval period of creation
(Gen.1-11), the period of the Ancestors of Israel (Gen.12-50),
the Exodus and Wandering Period (Ex, Lev.Num. Dt.), the Set-
tlement period in Canaan (Josh. Jud.), the Monarchical period
(1,2 Samuel, 1,2 Kings and some prophetic books), the Exilic
period (Isa.40-55, Ezek.), the Return and Restoration in the Post-
exilic period (Isa.56-66, Hag. Zach, Mal.), the Maccabees Period
and the Hasmonean Rule (Inter-Testamental Period literature),
the Romans, the Herods and the time of Jesus (Gospels), the
Apostolic period and the expansion of the churches in West
Asia (Acts, Epistles) and the period of severe persecution and
survival (Revelation). The history of Christianity from the time
of the Apostles till this modern day is divided into major periods
such as the period of the Early Fathers, the Medieval, the Refor-
mation, the Enlightenment and Ecumenism and has seen great
developments in the ministries of the Church.
Ministry is a comprehensive word meaning service and gen-
erally referring to all sorts of service. This word is used quite
often in secular professions, particularly to refer to different de-
partments of government such as the Ministry of Home Affairs,
the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Ministry of Defense, the Min-
istry of Employment and Human Resources, the Ministry of Fi-
nance, the Ministry of Trade and Commerce, etc. Some leaders
who are elected to represent their constituency, either in the
local Assembly of the State or in the Parliament also join the
cabinet and are called Ministers of a certain portfolio. Next to
22 23
Christian Ministry
the political context, the word ministry is widely used in the
ecclesiastical context e.g. the Pastoral Ministry, Youth Ministry,
Childrens Ministry, Literature Ministry, Evangelistic ministry,
etc. Missionary work, Social Service and Charitable activities of
churches are also different kinds of ministry but, the word min-
istry is applied to these activities with hesitance for some rea-
sons. Today, the danger of losing the original meaning of min-
istry as a service, both in the ecclesiastical and political realm,
is obvious. Politicians elected to serve the public are bossy and
bureaucratic. They exploit the electorate and are rarely seen to
be serving them after they get elected. Some Christian minis-
ters have also forgotten the original meaning of the word minis-
try as service and are behaving like the executives of industries
and companies, as landlords or as owners of a large estate. It is
better to remember the basic meaning of the word ministry as
service and to notice the meaning of different terms and meta-
phors used in the Old Testament and New Testament to refer to
ministry.
The study of Gods activity through the ministry of Jesus and
the Church in theological institutions is called Practical Theol-
ogy. This phrase conveys the idea that theology and praxis
should go together. Otherwise, theology becomes theoretical.
Practice without theology cannot be regarded as Christian. The-
ology and practice are inter-related. On the relation between
Theory and Practice, Ray Anderson writes, At the center of the
discussion of the nature of practical theology is the issue of
relation of theory and praxis. If theory preceeds and deter-
mines practice, then practice tends to be concerned primarily
with methods, techniques and strategies for ministry, lacking
theological substance. If practice takes priority over theory, min-
istry tends to be based on pragmatic results rather than pro-
phetic revelation (2001:23-34). The integration of theology and
praxis gives ministry a Christian identity. Titles such as Pasto-
ral Theology, Pastoralia, Mission and Evangelism, Care and
Counselling limit the comprehensive meaning of Christian min-
istry to a specific ministry. I prefer to use the comprehensive
title Christian Ministry rather than Pastoralia or Pastoral The-
ology or Mission.
CHRISTIAN MINISTRY: DEFINITION AND UNIQUENESS
Definition
Christian ministry can be defined as the ministry done by
the church believing, worshipping and following the message
and the model of the Father, Son and the Holy Spirit, the Tri-
une God. Christian Ministry includes various ministries of the
Church as explained by the Scripture. Many consider texts
such as Eph.4:11-13 and 1 Cor.12:28-31 as appropriate to de-
fine Christian Ministry.
The gifts he gave were that some would be apostles, some
prophets, some evangelists, some pastors and teachers, to
equip the saints for the work of ministry, for building up
the body of Christ, until all of us come to the unity of the
faith and of the knowledge of the Son of God, to maturity, to
the measure of the full stature of Christ (Eph. 4:11-13)
And God has appointed in the Church first apostles, sec-
ond prophets, third teachers; then deeds of power, then gifts
of healing, forms of assistance, forms of leadership, various
kinds of tongues. Are all apostles? Are all prophets? Are
all teachers? Do all work miracles? Do all possess gifts of
healing? Do all speak in tongues? Do all interpret? But
strive for the greater gifts. And I will show you a still more
excellent way (1 Cor. 12: 28-31)
It is true that these texts give us a framework to understand
the various ministries of the Church. By the time Paul wrote
these texts, the early Church, under the authority of the apos-
tles had come to recognize these ministries as the essential to
the Church. However, neither Paul nor other apostles have closed
the list of ministries or finalized it. Paul asked his converts and
the elders of the churches in Jerusalem, Antioch and Asia to do
charity, express hospitality, collect money for the poor, heal the
sick and pray for the suffering. Although the priestly ministry
mentioned in the Old Testament is fulfilled by Jesus Christ and
replaced by pastor-teacher ministry in the New Testament, many
other ministries narrated in the Old Testament are neither ques-
tioned nor invalidated in the New Testament. Ministries such as
the liberation, prophecy, counselling and guidance based on
the wisdom approach, recording and interpreting history as done
by the chronicler and political activism found in the Old Testa-
ment are not regarded as obselete or rejected by Jesus Christ
Terms, Definitions and Metaphors of Ministry
24 25
Christian Ministry
and apostles. They are given validity and find expression in the
New Testament. Jesus and the apostles built the ministries upon
the teachings of the OT. But, they modified them to fulfill the
plan of God and to suit the context of their period. Christians
who regard both OT and NT as their Scripture cannot define
Christian ministry only in terms of what Paul has listed in his
epistles. If we limit our understanding of Christian ministry
only to the ministries found in the Gospels or to the writings of
the apostles, we miss the holistic dimension of the Bible on the
ministry of the people of God. The Bible is our basis upon which
Christian ministry is defined.
Christian ministry is directed towards the congregation as
well as the society outside the Church. It has two foci viz. Chris-
tians in the local church and the people in the society. Chris-
tians need to be ministered to and they need to minister to the
society. All the work done by Christians need not necessarily be
regarded as Christian ministry. Some theologians have ques-
tioned the distinctions made between Christian ministry and
secular ministry. They regard all work as sacred and reject the
distinction between the sacred and the secular. Gordon Smith
points out that every Christian has Gods calling (1999:9-11).
One is the general call to accept Jesus Christ as Lord and Sav-
iour and follow the teachings of Gods word. Second is a specific
call for a vocation in the world. This could be a ministry in the
local church or in the society. God could call some people to
enter into education, the arts, public office, business, engineer-
ing, medicine and the service professions. God desires that hu-
mans work. Work is Gods gift as we notice in the Creation ac-
count. All work is, therefore sacred. Thus he, argues against
distinction made between the sacred and the secular. We could
agree with his argument if God has called some people for a
specific task in the secular world. Realizing such a specific call,
they work in different aspects of human life in the society. But
this does not happen always with all Christians. In a world of
unemployment, many try to get any job to make a living to sur-
vive than starving. People may not be satisfied with their jobs
but they may have no other choice except to continue in the
job. A well educated Christian youth had to be a coolie in a
railway or bus station and live in poverty in the world of unem-
ployment and competition. Some Christian girls had to work as
domestic servants, enduring all ill treatment because they could
not get education. Orphans and widows are picking up rags and
garbage in spite of having skills and talents. These people do
not regard their jobs as the vocation of Gods call. They look at it
as their fate. It is their struggle for existence in a corrupt world.
They do not consider it as Gods will for them. How could we
speak of their jobs as sacred even though all good works are
from God? If we regard all work as sacred, then, we approve
some to work as bonded slaves and others as executives. We
justify injustices and poverty and uphold the caste system in
employment structures. We need to be careful when we recog-
nize all the occupations as sacred. The occupation which exists
today in the world need not necessarily be sacred because some
of them such as smuggling, atomic research and producing bombs
and nuclear arsenals and running sex business and gambling
bars are oppressive and inhuman. Even good jobs are not given
to those who are called to such vocations because of racial and
caste discrimination, bribery and envy.
A distinction between sacred and secular jobs exists defi-
nitely in pluralistic context like India. Some Christians work in
institutions, offices and businesses owned by the Hindus, Mus-
lims, Jains and Buddists. Neither of these owners recognize the
work of Christian employees as a Christian ministry. Nor do
these Christians who work in such establishments tell their
bosses and colleagues that they are doing Christian ministry
through their jobs. Sometimes they are fired because of their
faith, for sharing their testimony and for not participating in
weekly poojas and rituals offered to gods and goddesses. Chris-
tians in secular jobs have proved their honesty, integrity and
efficiency out of their faith in Jesus Christ and commitment to
the teachings of the Bible, for which they are appreciated in
some places. Their work in the secular world could only be re-
garded as Christian Witness or Presence rather than Chris-
tian Ministry. This does not mean that a Christian employed in
a secular job is denied the privileges of being involved in minis-
tries like preaching, evangelizing or the teaching of biblical truths
or some social service in the local church and neighborhood.
Christians employed in secular jobs have a dual role to play.
They could be involved in the ministries of the local church as
well as witness and glorify God through their jobs. We need to
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26 27
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accept the fact that there is a problem regarding what all could
be recognized as Christian ministry. We cannot prepare a final-
ized list from the Bible. We can only select and highlight some
of the ministries mentioned in the Bible. We need to be open
for the Holy Spirit to lead and use the Church in developing
different forms and models of ministry according to the differ-
ences in cultural context across the world. Christian ministries
should however, be in conformity with the principles of the Bi-
ble. They should be rooted on theological, contextual and eccle-
siastical basis.
Partners in Christian Ministry
Who can do Christian ministry? A disciple of Christ is eligi-
ble and expected to do Christian ministry. He or she, as a disci-
ple, stands and functions in relation to the body of Christ. Dis-
cipleship is defined differently in other religions, political par-
ties and ideological groups. The Biblical image of discipleship is
known from the teachings and model of Jesus. Following Jesus,
the apostles showed remarkable discipleship and called others
to follow their example. A few characteristics of Christian disci-
pleship can be pointed out. First, a disciple is a believer of the
God of the Bible. He or she believes the Father, Son and the
Holy Spirit. A disciple believes in the personality, attributes
and the works of this Triune God and not just the rituals and
traditions of his/her church. Jesus is the true revelation of God.
His death and resurrection are the true salvational acts for fallen
humanity. The personal experience of forgiveness, assurance of
reconciliation with God and receipt of eternal life offered by Je-
sus, enables the disciple to enjoy a more intimate relationship
with God. Discipleship does not stop with believing but contin-
ues in following Jesus Christ, the true model. A sustained rela-
tionship with God is an important aspect in the life of the disci-
ple. Second, the status of the disciple is that of a student. Chris-
tian discipleship is a life-long learning process of the teachings
of Jesus under the guidance of the Holy Spirit. Learning is not
simply acquiring theoretical knowledge but includes practising
the teaching at any cost. Jesus said, If you hold to my teach-
ing, you are truly my disciples (Jn.8:31). Third, a disciple de-
pends on God in order to bear fruit. The parable of the vine and
its branches in the teaching of Jesus makes this aspect vivid
(Jn. 15:8). The disciple is like a branch attached to the vine for
existence and production. Total dependency on God is expected
of the disciple. Four, the identity of a disciple is one of a servant.
Discipleship is servanthood. Jesus came to this world to serve
and not to be served. He desires that his disciples be servants
and slaves to all (Mk. 10;45). The two words, diakonos and doulos
used by Jesus to express the idea of servanthood will be dis-
cussed later in this chapter. The idea of servanthood is also
expressed through other metaphors such as shepherd, work-
ers, followers, priest in the NT. Five, the mark of a disciple is to
bear the cross. The disciple is required to deny himself or her-
self and take up the cross and follow Jesus (Mk. 8:31-38). Bear-
ing the cross is not in anticipation for a reward but for suffering.
As Jesus was a suffering servant, his disciples are suffering serv-
ants. Disciples are required to relinguish all attachment to the
world and totally surrender to Jesus Christ. If Jesus is the
supreme Guru, then the mark of the disciple is to adopt the
lifestyle of the teacher. Six, Christian discipleship demands
genuine love for God and humanity. A disciple is basically a
lover of God. The first commandment in the OT is to love God
with soul, mind, strength (Ex.20:1; Dt. 6:4) and in spirit and in
truth. The rest of the Commandments require that the people of
God love their neighbours. Jesus summarized all the command-
ments thus, ........ love your God and love your neighbour (Mk.
12:28-31). Loving God should motivate and lead disciples to love
others even their enemies (Mt. 5:44). The vertical and horizon-
tal relationship of the disciple is important. Christian ministry
cannot be done effectively without genuine love for God and
fellow human beings. Seven, Christian discipleship does not
entail passive admiration of Jesus Christ but, has a focus. It
involves a variety of ministries. Discipleship has a goal and func-
tion to fulfill in the Church and Society. A disciple cannot avoid
his or her role in the tasks set by God.
In summary, the nature of Christian discipleship, consists of
two important aspects namely, relationship and task. It is a re-
lationship with God, fellow believers and neighbours. It is with a
task of transforming the Church and society. Although all the
members of the Church could be called as disciples of Christ,
many of them are nominal Christians. Only a few of them fulfil
the above qualities of discipleship and contribute to the growth
Terms, Definitions and Metaphors of Ministry
28 29
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of the life and ministry of the Church. Christian ministry is
done exclusively by those who observe the salient features of
discipleship, mentioned above. However, it does not exclude the
co-operation and participation of people of other faiths. We need
the help of people of other faiths and ideologies in our endeav-
our. But their help and co-operation could be accepted without
compromising our faith and uniqueness of ministry. The true
partners in Christian ministry are God and disciples. They are
united on the cross of Christ.
Uniqueness of Christian Ministry
Christian ministry is unique for various reasons. In a plural-
istic context, it is difficult to speak of Christian ministry as su-
perior to ministry done and services offered by people of other
faiths and secular movements. Whether it is superior, inferior
or equal to other ministries is not the question. In what respect
could Christian ministry be referred to as unique. It is unique
in terms of the nature of the corporate body which does the
ministry, its close link with worship, the theological basis of
Gods revelation, actions and goal of transformation.
Ministry by One Body
The Christian ministry belongs to God. God has called the
Church to ministry and has endowed the Church with author-
ity, gifts and a promise to be with this Body always till the end
of the earth. The relationship between God and his disciples
as partners in growth and service makes Christian ministry
unique. It is brought out by the metaphor of Body of Christ in
the NT (Rom. 12:4-6; 1 Cor. 12:4-14, 27-31; Eph. 5:25-33). The
image of the Body of Christ is described vividly in 1 Cor. 12. It
emphasizes the unity and diversity in the nature and function
of the Church.
For just as the body is one and has many members, and all the mem-
bers of the body, though many, are one body, so it is with Christ. For in
the one Spirit we were all baptized into one body-Jews or Greeks, slaves
or free- and we were all made to drink of one Spirit. Indeed, the body
does not consist of one member but of many. (1 Cor. 12:12-14)
These verses explain some important truths about the na-
ture of the Church. The church of Christ is a corporate body
made up of several members. The term body is used in the
secular world to denote a society, organization, community and
institution, but, what makes a difference in the usage of this
metaphor in the NT, is its reference to the body of Christ. First,
it is the human body of Jesus crucified and raised. This human
body represents fallen humanity to God. It also represents all
the victims of injustice. Through the death on the cross, it brings
forgiveness and reconciliation. The resurrection of the body of
Jesus brings hope to humanity. The event of the death and
resurrection of the body brings together all those who respond
positively as a redeemed community. The spirit of Jesus bap-
tizes and unites them as one body. Second, the body of Christ
transcends geographical boundaries, race, caste, colour and
class. The members of this body could be anyone in Christ. He
or she may be a Jew or Gentile; a slave or free citizen; black or
white, upper or lower caste, rich or poor (v. 13). The body has
diversity and at the same time unity in Christ. Third, the factor
that makes all of them into one body is the baptism of the one
Spirit (v.13). The work of the Spirit unites all the members into
this body of Christ, one corporate universal Church. As such,
Christian ministry is universal and is carried out by local mem-
bers of the body of Christ. Fourth, the parts of the body are
endowed with spiritual gifts and capacities for the ministry of
the Church. It is a sort of authorization and recognition of the
members. They exercise the gifts and capacities for the welfare
of both the body and the people outside of the Church. Fifth.,
the parts of the body are inter-dependent. There is no rivalry
among the parts of the body such as to regard one part of the
body as supreme or more significant than the other. Each part
is needed to make the body function properly (vv.14-20). Cor-
dial relationship and co-ordination make the function of the
body more effective. If one part of the body suffers, the rest of
the body is affected. The parts of the body suffer together, re-
joice together and progress together (v.26). Sixth, while the parts
of the body are inter-connected, all the parts of the body are
linked to the head of the body. The headship of the body is
Christ. Paul emphasizes this idea in Eph. 4:15-16 which speaks
of Christ as the head and source of growth and in 5:29 as the
authority of the Church. He develops this idea of headship of
Christ further in Colosians 1:18 and 2:10, describing Christ as
the head over every power and authority and creation. Seventh,
the headship of Christ over the body demands obedience and
Terms, Definitions and Metaphors of Ministry
30 31
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accountability. David Bennett, drawing insights from various
scholars such as Paul Minear, Wayne Meeks, Colin Brown and
other commentators, has discussed the image of the body of
Christ in his book, Metaphors of Ministry. He summarizes the
link between the headship and accountability thus, The image
of the body with Christ as the head thus stresses the total au-
thority of Christ in the community of disciples, and the total
dependence of the disciples on Christ for life and growth. The
headship of Christ also puts human leadership in right per-
spective, for no human being is ever called head of the Church;
Christ is the authority to whom all human authority is respon-
sible (1993:168).
Ministry is linked to worship
The body of Christ is not merely a social organization but it
is a community of faith and worship. Members of the body of
Christ are united in worship. The Worship of God takes a cen-
tral place. It is indispensable in the life of this community. The
People of Israel as a kingdom of priests (Ex.19:5-6) are worship-
pers of God. The disciples of Jesus worshipped Him before re-
ceiving the Great Commission (Mt. 28:17-20). After the Pente-
cost, they acknowledged Jesus as the Lord and Saviour and
continued in worship. Worshipping the Lord Jesus Christ is not
only acknowledging what God has done for humanity but also
acknowledging what God has asked the body of Christ to do for
humanity. Worship helps them to realize the teachings of God,
renew the vision of God and receive the guidance of the Holy
Spirit. It provides the opportunity to share the needs of minis-
try. Worship context enables members to listen to the Word of
God, repent, reconcile with other members of the body and re-
establish relationships within the body of Christ. Christian min-
istry cannot be done in isolation. It is done in relation with
others. Broken relationships within the body of Christ could
hinder the witness and ministry of the body. Worship provides
the forum for call, ordination and sending of ministers. In wor-
ship, members pray together for power to do ministry and ex-
press their solidarity with their leaders. Worshipping continu-
ously keeps the Church in existence and ministry. Where the
worship stops, the members scatter and the ministry of that
particular church stops. The early Church in Jerusalem, Antioch
and in different cities in Asia continued to worship whether
they were able to achieve much in the ministry or not. Unlike
other ministries and services of some organizations and offices,
Christian ministry is closely linked to worship for its spiritual-
ity, human resource, guidance, power and achievements. Chris-
tian ministry cannot be separated from the worship of the
Church. However, the people of other faiths who receive the
benefits of Christian ministry may or may not join the body of
Christ. Those who do not wish to join the body of Christ should
not be compelled to worship the Lord Jesus Christ but could be
persuaded, as Paul says in 2 Cor. 5:11, to join the discipleship,
worship and work for the Kingdom of God.
Ministry is based on faith
The uniqueness of Christian ministry is based on its faith.
In Christian ministry, faith is defined most often as trusting
God for our needs like financial support or power to do miracles
and wonders. Trusting God for needs and power is important,
but, faith is much more than such experience. Faith could be
defined as a set of beliefs. One of the important beliefs is that
the ministry belongs to God. God did the ministry first for hu-
manity and set the model. As such, it is divine and theological.
The theological basis of ministry will be explained in the next
chapter. Those who want to be involved in Christian ministry
should have faith in God and accept the theological basis of
ministry.
Ministry has goals
There are a number of ministries in the world with the goal
of making large sums of money, accumulating wealth and prop-
erties and spreading political empire or extending political, ideo-
logical and commercial influence and control. However, the goal
of Christian ministry is people-oriented. It is a service to hu-
manity and the rest of creation. The uniqueness of ministry lies
in what it offers to people and society. It touches the lives of
individuals and society. Transforming people and society is the
task of Christian ministry. Those two aspects are expressed in
the message and ministry of Jesus. The central message of Je-
sus is the kingdom of God. He called his disciples to go and
preach the Kingdom of God and invite people to repent and
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32 33
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accept this Good News. His healing ministry and miracles mani-
fested the power of the kingdom and gave assurance of peace,
justice and hope. He trained the disciples to perform such heal-
ing and liberation from sickness, evil spirit, disabilities and ena-
bled people to enjoy wholesome lives. Jesus commanded them
to go and make disciples, baptizing and teaching the followers
to obey all the commandments. Their proclamation of the Gos-
pel of Jesus is to make known the forgiveness of sin, assurance
of redemption and reconciliation with God and invite people to
respond to the Gospel. The inter-action of the Gospel with the
listeners and the response of the people to the message of the
Gospel bring changes in people. It touches their personality,
spirituality, attitude and values. The values of God replace the
values of the world. The thinking and actions of individuals
change in accordance with the will of God. Personal transforma-
tion begins at the inter-action. The believer gets a new meaning
of life and is moved to transform the society. Jesus called his
disciples salt to permeate the society and light to clear the
darkness of evil (Mt. 5:13-14). Transforming the society is the
task of the disciples as individuals and as a corporate body of
Christ.
TERMS FOR MINISTRIES IN THE BIBLE
In the OT, those who offered the cultic services of Yahweh by
conducting worship, offering sacrifices and performing other ritu-
als connected to worship were called Cohen meaning Priest.
Those who received and proclaimed the Word of God were called
Nabi derived from the verb nabi to prophesy. God raised
Judges in Israel to govern and judge the twelve tribes settled in
Canaan. They were called sophetim meaning to judge or to
govern or to execute judgement. Slightly with an overtone of
authority and power is the word malak which means to rule.
Kings were called melekim. They were the rulers of the people,
but, they were also called servants of the people. Jeremiah
listed priests, prophets, kings and the Levites, who were ex-
perts in teaching the Torah, as the key leaders of Israel and
used a common word, shepherd, to refer to them all (Jer. 2:8-
16). Some scholars consider the word shepherd, used in Jer-
emiah and Ezekiel, as referring only to political leaders like kings
and royal court officials and not religious leaders. In my opin-
ion, Jeremiah regarded all of them as shepherds, leaders in
their own capacity and he held the entire leadership of Israel
responsible for their failure. All of them whether they were in
religious or secular services were shepherds with a high respon-
sibility for true service to their community. The common and
widely used Hebrew word is abad. This is a comprehensive
term meaning service whether secular or religious. Jacob, in
pasturing of the flocks of Laban for seven years, was regarded as
abad (Gen.29: 27). Working in the field or a farm of another
person is also abad (Lev. 25:39). The Israelites who lived in the
northern region, breaking stones to build the temple in Jerusa-
lem were also doing abad. In the religious life of the Israelites,
it is used to refer to worship and other cultic services of the
priests and people. Serving Yahweh and not other gods is em-
phasized and demanded again and again in the OT (Ex. 3:12,
16; 5:3,8; 8:4, 21, 22, 23-25; 20:5, Dt.5:9). The main motif run-
ning through the book of Deuteronomy is serving Yahweh only.
Serving Yahweh does not stop with worshipping or offering sac-
rifices and celebrating festivals. The vertical relationship with
God should be expressed horizontally with other human be-
ings. Obeying the commandments and practising the values of
God are closely linked together in worship of the Israelite. This
means, people who worship Yahweh should fulfill the command-
ments. Serving God, therefore, means serving the people. The
religious dimension of serving God was integrated with the socio-
political and economic context of the people. Religion and soci-
ety could not be separated in the lives of the Israelites.
The New Testament also emphasizes the importance of min-
istry as a service. A number of Greek terms such as apostolos,
prophetes, evangelistes, episkopon, didaskalos, poimena are used
to refer to a specific task of the Church. The term, apostolos
means sent by another for a task. It is used, in a restricted
sense in the NT, to refer to the twelve apostles (Acts 1:226; 6:2;
8:1; Rom.1:1; 11:13) and not to all the followers of Jesus Christ.
To be qualified as an apostle, the person should have been called
and appointed at the command of God (Rom 1:1; 1 Cor.1:1;
1.Tim.2:7; 2 Tim.1:11). The person should have seen the risen
Lord (1 Cor.9:1; 15:7-9; Acts 1:21-22). He should perform signs,
wonders and manifest the power of the Spirit (2 Cor.12:12). An
apostle is one who willingly suffers for Christ (2 Cor.11). An
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34 35
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apostle is the one who has been given the authority of leader-
ship, to lead the Church soon after the ascension of Christ.
David Bennett writes, it is clear that apostolos is not one of
those terms that is, or should be applied to every follower of
Jesus. Rather, it describes a particular initiating leadership role,
a specific pioneering function, as well as a distinctive divine call-
ing, which go beyond the general mandate for every disciple to
bear witness to Jesus (1993:135). While apostolos is restricted
to the twelve disciples, the term episkopos (overseer) is applied
to leaders within the Church. In secular Greek, episkopos means
an active and responsible care . It is used to describe the func-
tion of a deity watching over a country or officials with the re-
sponsibility of supervision and administration of communities.
Paul encourages the Philippians to desire this noble service (1
Tim. 3:1) of supervision, ordering, evaluating and setting of di-
rection and describes the qualifications to minister as an over-
seer (Titus 1:5-7). Another term used frequently is presbyteros
(elder). The role of elders is not new to the Jews because their
society had elders from the period of the ancestors. The twelve
tribes of Israel in Canaan functioned under the leadership of
elders. Elders, as the representatives of families, clans and tribes,
functioned as a team. They were responsible for sorting out the
judicial, political, military and social problems of their commu-
nities. The role of elders did not cease with the development
and spread of Christianity. We read in the NT that the local
churches in Jerusalem, Antioch and Asia had a team of elders
to sort out the problems of the members (Acts 11:30; 14:23;
20:17; James 5:14; 1 Pet.5:1-3). Teaching Gods word is an
important ministry in the Church. The word didaskalos (teacher)
refers to those regularly engaged in the systematic teaching of
subjects or technical skills and in the imparting of knowledge.
Its use is restricted in the NT to refer only to those who are
gifted in teaching Gods word and appointed specially for this
task (Acts 13:1; 1 Cor.12:28; Eph.4:11; 1Tim. 2:7; 1 Tim. 1:3-7).
Since teaching wrong doctrines and values could ruin the lives
in audience and the community as a whole, the NT warns not to
become teachers unless called and endowed with the ability
and knowledge to teach. Above all, a teacher must practice what
he or she teaches (James 3:1; Mt. 7:24-27). Prophecy is men-
tioned as an important service in the writings of Paul (1 Cor.
14:29-31; 12:28; Eph.4:11). Ancient Israel witnessed the pow-
erful ministry of various prophets over a period of thousand years.
They were eye-openers and functioned as the conscience of
the society. Their ability to critically evaluate a situation, their
courage to speak against injustice and their concern to pro-
claim salvation oracles contributed to the social, religious and
political growth of the community. The early Church had a
number of prophets as revealed in the book of Acts 11:27-28;
21:10; and 15:32. Their functions included encouraging,
strengthening, comforting and instructing believers (Acts 15:32;
1 Cor.14:3, 31), warning them against false teaching (Acts 11:28;
21:10-11; 1 Cor. 14:24-25) and teaching them to be effective in
Gods service (Eph.4: 11-12). We will discuss this ministry in
detail later in this book. The term poimena (to shepherd) is used
to refer to the leaders and not to all the members in the church.
It expresses the function of taking care of the flock. The meta-
phor of shepherd will be discussed in detail elsewhere in this
book. However, it is important to mention here that it refers to
the service of feeding, leading, nurturing and protecting (Isa.
41: 10). A shepherd is a servant of God as highlighted by Jesus
(Jn.10) and Peter (1 Pet.2:25; 5:4).
Other words such as oikonomia, leitourgeo, latreuo and
diakonia referring to secular services are used in the NT. For
example, oikonomia which means stewardship with regard to
household administration, is used in 1Cor.9:17, Eph.1:10; 3:2,9
Col.1:25; 1Tim.1:4. Jesus used the word oikonomous (manager
or steward) in his teaching to emphasize the importance of faith-
fulness and accountability in managing the material posses-
sions of the master (Lk.12:42-44). The manager is a servant and
should not abuse other men and maid servants. His service
should manifest a high standard of responsibility. Paul and Pe-
ter used this term in connection with the leaders in the
churches, beseeching them to be faithful to God and people
and to be efficient in the use of the gifts and opportunities given
by God to the growth of the ministry (1 Cor.4:2-4; Titus 1:7; 1
Peter 4:10). Leitourgeo means services undertaken by a citizen
for a community (Rom.13:6; Lk.1:23, Heb.9:21, 10:11, Phil.2:17).
In the Greek society, the service offered by the upper class for
the communities is regarded as public service. Usually such serv-
ices were voluntary and not paid for. Through their public serv-
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36 37
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ice, they gained honour and respect. Paul applied this secular
term to refer to the public service of Epaphroditus (Phil. 2:25,
30). He claimed his own ministry among the Gentiles as a pub-
lic service (Rom. 15:16). Latereuo refers to the services done to
God. (Heb.8:5; 9:9; 10:2) and the worship of the Lord by Chris-
tians (Matt.4:10, Lk.1:74, Acts 24:14). Paul used this term to
refer to worship as real religious service to God (Rom.12:1; 1:9).
It is used in the eschatological sense in Rev. 7:15 and 22:3.
John, the author of the Book of Revelation, emphasizes that
worship, as a service of Gods people will not end even after the
completion of all earthly ministries. Worship will go through
eternity.
Diakonia, another comprehensive term to mean service,
originally meant to wait on or to serve at a table and thus,
earn a living (Matt.8:15, Lk.10:40). Diakonos, the noun derived
from the word diakonia originally referred to people who served
meals in the Church but, was later used to refer to persons
involved in the ministries of the Church. It could mean work
with or without salary. Diakonia, however, got a new meaning
in the NT as the service of caring for needy people or a charita-
ble service (Acts.6:1, 11:29, 12:25, Rom.12:7, 15:25, 2Cor.8:4,19;
9:1,12). This word is applied to the ministries of teaching the
Word and praying for people (Acts.6:4). The real meaning of the
word diakonia is brought out by Jesus in Mark 10:43-44:
But it is not so among you; but whoever wishes to become
great among you must be your servant (diakonos), and who-
ever wishes to be first among you must be slave (duolos) of
all.
Diakonos is the opposite to ruler or lord. James and John
assumed that Jesus will sit on the throne of David and rule the
Israelites in Palestine. They came and asked Jesus to grant a
position to sit next to Him at the right and left side of the throne,
respectively. They were looking for the status, power and glory.
This caused ill-feelings among the rest of the disciples. Jesus
knew that James and John had misunderstood His messianic
mission to suffer and die. Jesus told the disciples not to seek
status or become rulers and lords but become servants to one
another and a slave to all. Being a servant does not only apply
to religious service but to day-to-day life. It implies serving an-
other person, not with the intention of earning money or a re-
ward but as a voluntary submission to help others. When this
term, diakonia is applied to ministries in the Church, it means
a function of useful service to the people and not a status in
the Church. Jesus used this word diakonia often to emphasize
the attitude of humility in contrast with the attitudes of pride,
honour and fame sought by some of his disciples (Mk.9:35;
Mt.20:26) and the Pharisees (Mt.23:11-12). It has not been lim-
ited to the service of conducting worship and performing ritu-
als. It means the service to the community of believers in the
Church as well as service of this community of believers to the
people outside the Church; service based on the message and
ministry of Jesus; service for the people without expecting any
reward but risking ones own life. It is a voluntary self-denial,
self-sacrifice and submission to serve a person or a group of
people. Jesus further describes another dimension of service,
which is to become a slave (duolos) to another person by serving
relentlessly without expecting any reward. Like a slave who loses
his identity, freedom and status to the service of his master,
Jesus wanted His disciples to serve others. The emphasis of this
term duolos is more on the task and faithful allegiance of the
slave to the authority of the master. Peter calls the community
of believers slaves of God (1 Pet.2:16). The Book of Revelation
addresses believers as slaves (1:1; 2:20; 6:11; 7:4; 19:2; 22:3, 6).
Paul addressed himself as a servant and slave of God in serving
the people and asked Timothy to appoint persons with the atti-
tude and willingness to be servants and slaves as ministers in
the local churches (1Tim. 1:12; 3:8,12; 4:6; 2 Tim. 4:5). The
qualities of humility, self denial, obedience to the authority of
God and suffering for the sake of others are brought out by
combining these two terms. Complementing each other, these
terms emphasize the real meaning of servanthood.
IMAGES OF SERVANTHOOD
Even though, various terms listed above convey the idea of
servanthood, the image of servanthood needs further explana-
tion with some examples from the Bible. One of the key pas-
sages on the servanthood is found in Isaiah 52:13-53:12. Schol-
ars have identified a few texts in Deutero-Isaiah (42:1-4; 49:1-6;
50:4-11; 52:13-53:12) as Servant Songs. Some of them were
written during the period of exile in Babylon. The People of
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Israel had lost their land to the attacks of the Babylonians.
Priests, prophets, men and women with their children were de-
ported to Babylon and kept under captivity for more than 50
years (597-537 BC). They raised doubts about the power of
Yahweh and lost their hope of return. They evaluated their his-
tory. They questioned the way they had been reduced to serv-
ants of the Babylonians from the citizenship in their promised
land. One of the purposes of the Servant Songs is to remind the
Israelites that they have failed in their servanthood. They served
other gods and goddesses and committed all sorts of injustice.
They broke the covenant and commandments in spite of several
messages from the prophets. Deutero-Isaiah proclaimed the
message of Yahwehs salvation for them. He predicted their re-
turn to their land. He gave them the hope that they will be used
as a light to the nations. He assured them that they will serve
Yahweh once again in the promised land. The purpose of the
Servant Songs could have been for singing and in reminding
the exilic community and their generations returning to the
land to be true servants of Yahweh.
First, a model of true servanthood of an individual is por-
trayed in the song in Isa. 52-53. Scholars have expressed vari-
ous opinions regarding the date of the compilation of the song
and the identity of the servant mentioned in this song. It could
have been written during the last part of the exilic period or
after the Israelites started returning to the land in different
batches and restoring the temple. Some assume that it refers to
the prophet as the suffering servant. Others consider the iden-
tity of the servant as the people of Israel suffering for the sake of
Yahweh. Many readers of this song relate the servanthood to
the ministry, trial and death of Jesus. Although the identity of
the servant still remains a mystery, this song expresses the na-
ture and role of servanthood. Analysing this song, the com-
mentator John Watts identifies two servants namely Darius the
Persian King, who rose after Cyrus (52:13) and Zerubbabel who
returned to Jerusalem and started the rebuilding of the Temple
(WBC: Vol.25:1987:222-229). Drawing evidences from the ac-
counts of Ezra 3-6, Haggai and Zachariah 1-8, John Watts points
out that Zerubbabel was the suffering servant. He was misun-
derstood and executed by the Governor Tattanai for rebuilding
the temple in Jerusalem. Rebuilding the temple was regarded
by the governor as uniting the people of Israel and preparing
them for rebellion and war. But Zerubbabel started the rebuild-
ing with the permission of Cyrus. His service to reform and re-
store the devasted community of Israel was even misunderstood
by many in Jerusalem. They did not express enough solidarity
with Zerubbabel (53:3). Only after the execution of Zerubbabel
and the resistance of the Governor and neighbouring nations
against their restoration, did the people of Israel understand
the value of the servanthood of Zerubbabel and start to sing this
song. The prophet brings out the sufferings of Zerubbabel and
make him an example of a Suffering Servant. A servant who
works for people could easily be misunderstood as a political
rebel and be despised (53:3). Without proper enquiry and fact
finding the servant suffered death at the hand of the governor.
The body was mutilated such that many could not recognize
him (52:14). Although the servant had not been violent or com-
mitted injustice, he was regarded as a criminal. Honour was
denied for the service he had offered the society. His body was
buried with other criminals (53:9). His suffering and death were
for the sake of the people. This is expressed in 53:4-6. The sing-
ers realized that the servant had borne their iniquities. He was
wounded for their transgression of not supporting his service.
He faced the punishment of execution because they were silent
on his arrest. A servant of God working for the people may not
feel the pain of his work much. The achievements override the
sufferings, but, it will be so painful for any servant when the
community for which he works brand all his sufferings as pun-
ishment from God (53:4,6). The Israelites realized this callous-
ness and gave due credit to his vicarious suffering and death.
Another aspect of servanthood could be pointed out from the
side of Darius, who was unaware of the execution of Zerubbabel.
Darius could not undo the injustice done to Zerubbabel, but,
he made the effort to vindicate the action of Zerubbabel by con-
firming the permission granted by Cyrus and extending sup-
port to complete the construction of the temple. Instead of main-
taining the status quo with the governor and justifying the ex-
ecution, Darius removed the stigma of criminal offence placed
on Zerubbabel and restored the rights of the inheritance of the
Israelites (53:12). Darius certified Zerubbabels death as an in-
justice and praised him for dying on behalf of people. Other-
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wise, the governor could have massacred many Israelites who
joined in rebuilding the temple. The entire population of Jeru-
salem could have been regarded as rebels and could have be-
come victims of violence and bloodshed. A servant achieves rec-
ognition when he is considered as the real representative of the
people and is targeted for persecution. In this respect, Zerubbabel
was a true servant of the people. His vicarious death prevented
the death of many. Realizing the injustice that has been done
and restoring justice are important qualities of servanthood
Darius should be appreciated for such qualities. But, the focus
of the song is on the Suffering Servant. It justifies the vicarious
death of the servant as if it has happened with the permission of
Yahweh (53:10-11). A servant faces death when the administra-
tion and people fail to support his work and question the injus-
tice directed against him. Yahweh expects the community to
help the servant and to stand in solidarity with his actions. When
people fail, Yahweh permits some of His servants to suffer ex-
tremely and die for injustice in order to save the lives of others
and make them righteous. They could enjoy the fruit of the
labour of the suffering servant.
Second, the suffering and death of Jesus reflects the fea-
tures of the Suffering Servant in Isaiah 52-53. Many, therefore,
assume that the song is a direct reference to Jesus Christ. The
prophecy foretold several years ago got fulfilled in the ministry
and death of Jesus. A typological similarity could be found be-
tween the Suffering Servant in Isaiah and Jesus in the Gospels.
Like Zerubbabel, Jesus was a servant chosen by God and sent
to this world with a specific task. He came to this world to serve.
He reiterated this truth saying, For, the Son of Man came not
to be served but to serve and to give his life a ransom for many
(Mk.10:45). He was a model of a true servant, for Jesus served
the people by healing, feeding and liberating them. He showed
them how to obey the authority of God and fulfil His will in
ministry. He never expected any recognition or reward for his
service. He even washed the feet of his disciples, teaching them
humility. Through his non-violent approach to his betrayers and
the soldiers who came to arrest him, Jesus showed how to relin-
quish power and be submissive. Through his death on the cross,
Jesus saved the life of mankind from eternal punishment and
made them righteous. His death on behalf of the people was
vicarious and expresses his true servanthood.
Third, following the model of servanthood of Jesus, the apos-
tles learnt to prove themselves as true servants of God. Their
sufferings in the ministry is evidence. Paul enumerates his tri-
als and sufferings in 2 Cor.11. He faced physical hardship,
betrayal from the people, trials in front of authorities, strain in
travel, anxiety for the welfare and progress of the churches
planted and later, imprisonment in Rome. That is why he could
call himself as a servant of Jesus Christ (Rom.1:1; Phil.1:1) He
never regretted to be a servant of God. He could express a sense
of accomplishment and satisfaction (Phil.3:12-16; 4:1, 10; 2
Tim.4:7-8. ). Since Peter suffered obeying God and serving peo-
ple, he encouraged Christians to face persecution and suffer for
the sake of justice (1 Pet. 3:8-12; 4:12-19). Johns imprison-
ment for preaching Jesus Christ and teaching the Word of God
is an evidence for his servanthood (Rev. 1:1-2).
Four, the people of God were spoken of as suffering servant
in the OT (Isa.40:1-2; 49:1-6; Dan. 7:1-14). Believers, as a
corporate body of Christ, are servants of God and are called to
suffer for the sake of others. The Book of Revelation highlights
the sufferings of Christians. They were persecuted in different
periods of history for their beliefs, identity and witness by Ro-
man Emperors such as, Nero, Vespacian, Titus and Domician.
The corporate worship and ministries of the body of Christ were
misunderstood in many parts of the world. Their church build-
ings, homes and businesses were destroyed because they were
servants of Jesus Christ. Their remarkable servanthood will be
recognized and vindicated when they come from different re-
gions of the world and stand in front of the Lamb of God (Rev.
7:9-11). The body of Christ has the hope of continuing
servanthood by worshipping God, even after the second coming
of Christ. Others lose this privilege of serving God eternally.
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Chapter Two
Theological, Contextual and
Ecclesiological Basis of Ministry
Any service or action ought to have a reason, ideological ba-
sis or a philosophy. The justification for Christian ministry is
found in its theological, ecclesiastical and contextual reasons.
Instead of combining these three aspects as one Scriptural ba-
sis, I have listed them separately. One reason is to give each
aspect a separate identity and emphasize its importance in Chris-
tian ministry. Another is to uphold the fact that the actions of
God and the birth of the Church have preceeded the writing of
the Bible. Both the OT and NT testify to what has happened in
the history of mankind. The books of the OT and NT narrate the
events after they had happened. God and his actions are more
important than the recordings. However, the members of the
body of Christ come to know Gods revelation and actions through
the written Scripture. The Scripture holds validity for the life
and ministry of Christians because it is the inspired and infalli-
ble Word of God. Reflecting on what has been written as the
normative and infallible truth of Gods revelation, Christians
could draw the theological basis and competence for ministry.
TRINITARIAN FOUNDATION
The biblical God is the Trinity the Father, Son and the Holy
Spirit. We need to know the way God, the Father acted in the
history of mankind, through His son Jesus Christ and the Holy
Spirit. Focussing on the actions of only one person in the Trin-
ity cannot provide a holistic foundation for Christian ministry.
Pentecostals emphasize the work of the Holy Spirit more and
explain the ministry from the perspective of the role of the Holy
Spirit. Adventists developed their ministry according to their
emphasis on the work of God, the Father. Some denominations
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emphasize the ministry of Jesus and work out their ministerial
programmes accordingly. Consciously or unconsciously, denomi-
nations emphasize the ministry of one of the persons of Trinity
more and fail to give equal importance to the ministry of all the
three persons in the Trinity. Studying the person and work of
the three persons in One gives a Trinitarian foundation for Chris-
tian ministry. Our purpose here is not to explain the doctrine of
Trinity. Theologians have written so much on the doctrine of the
Trinity. My aim is to discuss the way in which the Father, Son
and the Holy Spirit function and set the foundation for the min-
istry of the Church.
God serves humanity by acting in their history. God decided
how the history of the Israelites should be directed in accord-
ance with His will and purpose for the whole of humanity. Even
though the Israelites failed God several times in carrying out
his purpose for the salvation of humanity, God over-ruled and
led the salvation history. Gods action in history is acknowl-
edged by the Israelites in their worship and writings. Their con-
fessional statements written in the OT are their experience of
how God has acted in their lives. God planned to carry out the
history of salvation through Abraham by choosing and giving
him the promises of posterity and the land (Gen. 12:1-3). He
made a covenant with Abraham assuring the fulfillment of the
promises. The accounts of Genesis narrate the way God acted in
the history through Abrahams life and later through Isaac, Jacob
and Joseph. The situation of bondage in Egypt for 400 years
was a long history in the lives of the people of Israel. They lost
all hope of deliverance from this bondage. It looked almost cer-
tain that the plan of God to redeem the people was impractica-
ble. God seemed not to have been active for four hundred years
and the salvation history seemed to have come to an end but,
God neither forgot to act in history nor failed to fulfil his plan
for humanity. God changed the history of bondage by liberating
them from oppression and leading them to the land of freedom
and self-governance. One of the principles of the God of crea-
tion is that human beings should not be slaves to one another
or to nations. Whenever the Israelites were attacked and ex-
ploited by neighbouring nations, God liberated them from the
hands of their oppressors. This is seen as Gods dynamic in-
volvement in their history. Psalm 105 begins with a call to give
thanks to Yahweh who makes known his actions among the
people. The Psalmist writes about Gods actions in the history of
Israel beginning from Abraham (105:7-11) to the sojourning
period in Egypt as slaves, the liberation through Moses, the
journey through the wilderness and the settlement in the land
of Canaan. The history narrated in Gen. 12 to the end of Deu-
teronomy is acknowledged and repeated in their singing of this
Psalm. Whenever the different generations sing this psalm, which
bring out the Pentateuch in 45 verses. They realized the dy-
namic involvement of God in their history. Other psalms which
express similar acknowledgement of Gods action of liberation
are Ps.106 and 136.
Gods action has been proved not only in liberating them
from Egypt but also from the exile in Babylon. Gods activity
never ended with their first exodus but continued throughout
to the Cross of Calvary. God raised Persian kings like Cyrus and
Artaxerexes outside the community of Israel to save the Israel-
ites. Psalm 137 expresses their situation during the captivity in
the exilic period in Babylon. Gods action in redeeming the
Israelites from exile and enabling them to go on second exodus
from Babylon was taken up by the prophets. The second Isaiah
of the exilic period encouraged the Israelites in captivity not to
lose their faith in Yahweh but to be hopeful of being liberated
again from Babylon and returning to their land (Isa. 40:1-5;
43:14-21). God used Cyrus, the Persian king as his anointed to
liberate the Israelites. To fulfill the plan of salvation history,
God could use a person of other faith like Cyrus or Ahasuerus.
These Persian kings did not necessarily acknowledge the work
of Yahweh in raising them up as powerful kings to defeat the
Babylonian empire or in using them to play a major role in
Gods plan for humanity. But, the Israelites acknowledged the
fact that their God had no discrimination against race, colour or
religion, when in choosing a person to accomplish his plan (Isa.
45:1, 13-17; Esther 8:3-17). The OT gives the impression that
God was interested in liberating and helping the people of Is-
rael only and that was why he was actively involved in their
history of salvation. However, Gods involvement in the history
of Israel was also purposed to redeem the whole world.
The Study of Gods action in history shows that God is a
partner with leaders and people in accomplishing the mission.
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When they struggled and suffered to carry on the ministry as-
signed to them, God also struggled and suffered with them. Moses
found it difficult to liberate the Israelites and leading them
through the wilderness for a period of forty years. He had to
struggle between the people and God but, God was with him
throughout his ministry and helped him to fulfill his mission.
Jeremiah is another example who had difficulties in fulfilling
his prophetic ministry. He was beaten by the priest and left in
custody for trial. He was mis-represented by false prophets and
misunderstood by the people. Jeremiah felt like leaving the min-
istry but, God enabled him to carry it out. God shared the pains,
misery, feelings of frustration and rejection of those leaders and
he did not let them down. God guided, strengthened, motivated
and empowered them to serve the people. Gods promises such
as I am with you or I will be with you always or I will lead and
guide you given to the selected leaders showed His partnership
with them. These assurances and promises are to enable the
human partner to persist in the mission. When the promises
are addressed to the community of Israel, it means, the partner-
ship of God is with the community to do service. Many people
like such promises and assurances and interpret them to mean
security or protection rather than understanding it as partner-
ship in service. Their understanding is narrow and benefit ori-
ented but, Gods promises of His presence and partnership are
always for service. When Jesus gave the Great Commission to
the disciples, he also told them that his presence will be with
them till the end of the earth. This promise shows how much
God loves to partner with humans beings in ministry
Gods special relationship with the leaders and the commu-
nity in service is established not only by giving promises and
assurances of his presence, but also by a special call, initiating
a covenant, imparting his spirit and endowing with extraordi-
nary wisdom and power. We notice these elements of Gods part-
nership in the lives of Noah, Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Moses,
Judges, Kings, Prophets, Reformers and the twelve disciples.
We need to watch our language when we tell others that God is
using so and so mightily and wonderfully. Of course, God only
uses them by endowing them with his call, wisdom, talents,
gifts and strength but, this kind of language gives the impres-
sion that God is using people for his own glory. This conception
is held by congregations and has created negative results. One
such result is that people lose interest in serving others. They
think that God works only through some people, whom he calls
and endows with gifts and strength to carry out the ministry.
Service is therefore, their responsibility and not that of all of us.
It has left an impression that those who are not called are to
mind their business, earn their living and lead a happy life as
far as possible. We need to use a proper language to change this
opinion prevalent among Christians by presenting God as an
enabler and a servant of mankind. His interest is not to benefit
himself but to benefit the society through these leaders. By
calling, enabling and serving with these leaders, God proves
himself a true servant of humanity.
God so loved the world that he sent his only begotten son
Jesus to serve fallen humanity. The incarnated God, in the hu-
man form of Jesus who died on the cross, is for all people irre-
spective of their race, colour, culture and geographical locations.
This is revealed in the words of Jesus as recorded in the Gos-
pels (Mk.1:15; 10:45; Lk.4:43; 19:10; Jn.12:44-50). Jesus dis-
ciples clearly related the OT passages to Him and pointed out
boldly the fulfillment of such passages in the event of the cross
(Acts 2:1-36; 8:32-33; 17:1-4). Peter firmly believed the
fulfillment and preached the good news of salvation through
Jesus (Acts 4:10-12). Paul tried to convince the Jews to see the
fulfillment of the OT in Jesus. Narrating their ancient history
and quoting the texts from the OT, Paul argued with the Jews to
accept the actions of God through Jesus in his letter to the
Romans (chs.9-11). The redemptive work of God through Jesus
Christ is very much emphasized in other writings too (2 Cor.
5:17-21; Eph.1:7; Col.1:13-28; 1. Tim.2:4-6). Paul brings out
the significance of the incarnation through his message of kenosis
(emptying) in his letter to the Philippians (2:6-11) and instructs
the Church to follow the kenotic model of Jesus as the basis for
their life and work (2:4, 13-14).
The writings of the apostles emphasize the doctrine of the
incarnation as an important foundation for ministry. The incar-
nation of Jesus as the Son of God relates God to humanity and
vice versa. On the one hand, he was sent into the world on
behalf of the Father to redeem and reconcile fallen humanity
with God. As the Son of God, Jesus obeyed the Father and ful-
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filled the ministry. On the other hand, he identified himself
with humanity, as the Son of man ministered to the people by
preaching the Good News, taught, prayed, fed the hungry, healed
the sick and liberated people from the power of evil spirits. He
stood as their representative to God and died on their behalf.
The ministry, on behalf of the Father and of men, was fulfilled
in the incarnation of Jesus. The incarnation theology empha-
sizes the vertical and horizontal relationship. In a world where
humanity is divided and turned against itself, disorder prevails.
Relationships between people are broken. People long for jus-
tice, reconciliation and peace. The Incarnation of Jesus recon-
ciled man and created a new order in the world. This new order
is peace, justice and welfare, as Paul points out in Eph.2:14-16.
If so, then, the incarnation of God becomes the theological basis
for the ministry of liberation, social justice and reconciliation of
humanity. The ministry of the incarnated Jesus continues after
his resurrection, through the gift of the Spirit. The work of the
Holy Spirit after the Pentecost is the continuation of the minis-
try of Christ on the earth through the body of Christ. The incar-
nation makes the ministry Christo-centric. In the incarnational
ministry of Jesus, we could realize the powerful theological foun-
dation for Christian ministry.
The third person in Trinity is the Holy Spirit, known as the
paraclete in the NT. The gift of the Holy Spirit is for the Church
to continue the ministry started by the Father through Jesus
Christ. From the Gospel of John Chapters 14-16, we come to
know the nature and role of the Holy Spirit. Jesus asked his
Father to give the gift of the Holy Spirit to the disciples (14:16).
Jesus wanted his presence to continue with the disciples after
he had ascended to his Father (16:7). The Holy Spirit symbol-
izes Gods continuing presence with the believers of Christ
(14:26). This Spirit of truth coming in the name of Jesus bears
witness to Him (15:26) and will teach and remind the disciples
all that Jesus has taught them (14:20). The work of the Holy
Spirit is not limited to the disciples alone. It continues in the
world, convincing people of their sin, righteousness and judge-
ment (16:8), whether the world is willing to understand and
accept the work of the Holy Spirit or not. Enabling the disciples
and convicting the world of its evil are two sides of the work of
the Holy Spirit. The sphere of the work of the Holy Spirit, is on
the one side, with the disciples of Christ and, on the other side,
with the society. Otherwise, the effort, energy, strategies and
communication skills of the disciples used in ministry would
become ineffective and would not bring the expected transfor-
mation in society.
The apostles realized the truth of what Jesus said about the
Holy Spirit at the Pentecost. They were filled with the Holy Spirit
(Acts 2) which empowered them to face opposition and preach
the Good News of the Kingdom with power. They performed mira-
cles, healing and delivering from evil spirits to show the mighty
power of God. As they preached, the Spirit convicted their audi-
ence of their sin. Those who responded to the conviction of the
Holy Spirit were led to realize the forgiveness and reconciliation
brought by Christ. The Holy Spirit united those who responded
positively to Christ and as One body of Christ. The Spirit con-
stantly renews the mind and spirit of believers that they may
continue to become new creations in Christ. The enabling, em-
powering, uniting and renewing functions of the Holy Spirit are
indispensable to the continuation of the ministry in the Church
and society. Christian ministry cannot go on without the role of
the Holy Spirit.
God acts in human history and also in the creation of the
natural world. God created the earth, other planets, trees and
plants, birds and animals and also constantly takes care of them.
The Creation of this world did not emanate from his body. Nei-
ther did he neglect it since it was a separate entity outside of
him. Some religions talk about separate gods for creation, tak-
ing care of it and destroying it on the last day of consummation
respectively. The engaging activity of the one who created dis-
continues and shifted to another god. Some others believe that
gods have nothing to do with this world except to have celestial
activities with other heavenly bodies. Some mythologies speak
of the cessation of Gods creativity after forming the earth and
heavens. Festivals of such religions remember their gods old
activity of creation but, biblical accounts affirm Gods care for
creation. They affirm that God did not alienate himself from his
creation (Ps.104, Jer. 31, Hos.2) God is actively involved in the
continuous process of creation. Jesus called his audience to
look at the birds of the air and the lilies of the valleys and the
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way God takes care of them. (Mt. 6:26-30; 19:28) The New Tes-
tament speaks of Gods creation in terms of changing the old
man into a new man in Christ (2 Cor. 5:17; Gal. 6:15; Eph.4:22-
24), renewing the life of the Church ( 1 Cor. 3:6; 12:4-11) and
renewing the human nature (Mt. 5:45). That creation affected
by the fall of humanity will be redeemed by God (Rom. 8:20-23)
is a clear evidence of Gods continuing relationship with crea-
tion. Paul Hanson writes, Each mighty act of creation or libera-
tion in the Bible was drawn into a chain of divine acts as prepa-
ration for new creative and redemptive activity by Israels God.
Taken together, the great events of exodus, covenant, inherit-
ance of the land, anointment of David, exile, second exodus,
and the life of Christ did not constitute the frozen scenario of a
primordial myth, but were the unique historical events which
set in motion a creative and redemptive process which was char-
acterized by the newness in every age (1978: 62).
CHURCH: INCARNATIONAL COMMUNITY IN SOCIETY
Sociologically, the Church is part of the society. First, the
members come from the society. They live in the social context,
face problems and try to cope with the changing world. Famine,
drought, earthquake, pollution, disease and accidents affect
Christians as well. Members of the churches cannot escape the
problems of life. They too are under financial difficulties and
undergo psychological trauma. We draw strength from our spir-
ituality and face these problems. We cannot run away from the
society and lead a secluded life. Christians who tried to seclude
themselves from the society and live as a puritan community
ended up as a cult group and ruined themselves. God has placed
churches within the society. Second, the Church is a fellowship
of people who believe in Jesus Christ. The nature of the fellow-
ship as the body of Christ has been explained already in the
first chapter. These people have their own limitations. They are
not perfect. The fellowship of believers gather to worship and
profess their faith. Worship and confession create solidarity
among the members and remind them that they are part of this
society but not of the world. They are drawn out of the world.
This fellowship is placed in the world. The nature of this fellow-
ship is to transcend the racial, gender, caste and class barriers
which divide and oppress people. Paul brings out the nature of
the church in Gal. 3:26-28: for in Christ Jesus you are all chil-
dren of God through faithThere is no longer Jew or Greek,
there is no longer slave or free, there is no longer male or fe-
male; for all of you are one in Christ Jesus. The early Church
learnt this lesson and reshaped the nature of the faith commu-
nity to include Gentiles, poor, women and disabled. The Church
should be a composition of men, women and children, masters
and slaves, rich and poor, Jews and Gentiles. The Church is
expected to cross these barriers and show acceptance and toler-
ance and also to mix as one community and share their re-
sources with other members. The nature of the Church is seen
in the composition of its members as well as in the way it func-
tions as a sharing community. Third, the Church which is part
of the society is to exercise fellowship and share resources among
themselves as well as to be a suffering servant. The Church has
a role to play in the society. It is not to limit its activities within
the four walls of the church building. This community of believ-
ers is required to serve the society. Coming together as a fellow-
ship is for worshipping, confessing faith, experiencing solidar-
ity and sharing in the service of the society. The purpose of
being a faith community is to function as an instrument of God
to transform our society. The sociological bond between the
Church and society demands that ministries be related to the
context. Finally, more than the sociological bond between the
Church and society, the bond between Jesus and the Church
as an incarnational community demands ministry in the world.
Ray Anderson draws our attention to this theological dimension
of the nature of the Ecclesia. He writes, Incarnational commu-
nity means that community in which the life of Jesus continues
to exist through the ontological reality of his indwelling SpiritAs
Jesus exists in a community of relation with the Father charac-
terized by self-emptying, or kenotic presence, in the world. It is
this nature of the church, as we shall see, that determines the
form of its ministry (2001:116). The understanding of the body
of Christ as the incarnational community provides the theologi-
cal and ecclesiastical foundation of ministry.
CHANGING CONTEXT
The socio-political and economic context of the above histori-
cal periods were not the same. They changed dramatically due
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to wars and political domination of powers, the influence of reli-
gions, the effects of natural calamities such as famine, drought,
flood and fire, the persecution policies of some kings, the move-
ment of people from one region to another, the contribution of
literary works of some intellectuals and the dealings of the lead-
ers of religion and politics. All these factors which brought
changes to the socio-political, economic, religious and cultural
context of different periods determined the need and the na-
ture of ministry. These factors changed not only the ancient
society but are also changing contemporary society. Large scale
industries, international travel, satellite communication and
modern science and technology are speeding up the changes
for both good and bad. The consequences are evident in differ-
ent realms of society and has shaped the nature of ministry.
Leaders and other people have attempted to address these prob-
lems within their contexts and sought for solutions. They made
their efforts and service relevant to their own historical context.
The interrelation of the context and nature of their ministry will
be noticed in further discussions of the different models in this
book. This does not mean that society sets the agenda for God
to do ministry. God, the Father had already set the agenda of
redeeming fallen humanity and carried out the mission through
Jesus. The initiative for ministry came from God out of his love
and grace for mankind. God worked out his own way of redemp-
tion and reconciliation and showed the model through Jesus.
The Church as a community, bears witness to what God has
done and carry out His ministry, realizing the challenges of the
change in contexts. Modern society needs the service of the
churches more now than ever before. People of every continent
face problems of growing fundamentalism, ethnic violence, eco-
logical degradation, accumulation of wealth and power in the
hands of a few rich families, political instability, racial and gen-
der discrimination, terrorism, unemployment, terminal diseases
and psychological trauma. The world, today, needs the relevance
of the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ. People are look-
ing for meaning in life. The changing context of modern society
demands of Christians to recover the biblical models of minis-
try, modify and make them more effective to address problems
and shape the future of humanity and the environment.
SCRIPTURE DEMANDS FAITH AND ACTION
The Bible speaks of faith and action as necessities for Chris-
tian life. To do ministry, faith in the work of God through Jesus
is imperative. Faith is defined and explained in several places
in the NT. Jesus told his disciples and the following crowd to
have faith in him, that he has been sent by God to fulfill the
mission. Peter and Paul preached the crucified Jesus and asked
the people to repent and believe Jesus as the Lord and Saviour.
Forgiveness of sin and justification as righteous are not by hu-
man works. Since Jesus has died on the cross for the forgive-
ness of humanity and God is willing to declare all those who
believe the person and work of Jesus, as righteous, our faith is
important. However, faith in Jesus is not enough. Our faith in
God is not static but dynamic. The writer of the epistle to the
Hebrews describes how the faith of the people was dynamic in
action (Heb.11). The Faith of the converts mobilized the early
Church to be involved in various activities of the society, as could
be seen in the narration of the Acts of the Apostles and the
Pauline epistles. The Gospels too emphasize that our faith should
be related to the society. The community of faith is the salt of
the earth and light to the world (Mt.5:13-15). The salt has to
penetrate to create a chemical reaction. The light should not be
covered if its radiant rays were light the society. Jesus pen-
etrated his society by going to the poor people, eating with the
sinners, healing the disabled and deserted and accepting the
discriminated women and children. He crossed cultural, reli-
gious, economic and social barriers. He trained his disciples to
cross these borders and be closely related to the society. The
teachings of Jesus demand of us, not to be worldly but to be
people of the Kingdom of God and work for the spreading of the
kingdom values. Paul taught Christians not to be conformed to
this world but to be transformed to discern the will of God and
what is good and acceptable (Rom. 12:1-2). Knowing the perfect
will of God is mainly to lead a witnessing and contributive life in
the world. James made it clear in his definition of true religion
by writing, Religion that is pure and undefiled before God, the
Father, is this: to care for orphans and widows in their distress,
and to keep oneself unstained by the world (James 1:27). Reli-
gion should address the problems of the world but at the same
time should never become corrupted by evils of the world. In his
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letter to the Christians in the Dispersion, James taught that
Christian faith without works is dead (2:14-17). If their faith
fails to relate to the context and exhibit its usefulness to people,
then such a faith is barren. It has no great significance without
actions in the context. Such pietism is meaningless. John speaks
of believing and loving God, which means relating the faith to
the world and conquering the evil powers of the world. To him,
Christian faith is powerful to overcome evil, contribute good-
ness to people and transform society (1 Jn. 5:1-5). The scrip-
tural demand of faith and action could be realized and renewed
constantly if only the Church as a hermeneutical community re-
flected on the teachings, interpreted and submitted to the au-
thority of the Bible.
Chapter Three
Relating Ministry to Context
Ministry is always done within a certain context, but how
effectively the ministry of the church is related to the context is
the question challenging each generation. Every country has
two kinds of context. One is the socio-political, economic and
cultural context. The other is the ecclesiastical context.
SOCIO-POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC CONTEXT
India is the second largest country in terms of population.
Next to China, Indias population had crossed over one billion
by the year 2000. Four major regions are the north, northeast,
central and the south. Historical studies show that the original
natives of India were tribals and dravidians. Due to the infiltra-
tion of the Aryans from Persia to the western and northern part
of India, the western and northern regions are now dominated
by the people of Aryan race and culture. Eastern India, beyond
West Bengal was infiltrated by the Mangolians of China. The
present inhabitants the north-eastern states are a mixed race
of the Mangolians. Central India, stretching from Maharashtra
to West Bengal and Madhya Pradesh to the borders of Andhra
Pradesh and Karnataka features, different tribes, each with their
own dialect but the tribal groups of the central region are domi-
nated by other people. The four southern states, namely,
Taminadu, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala and Karnataka are Dravidian
states with their own Dravidian languages and culture. The his-
tory of India also points out that there has been regular at-
tempts of attacks from the rulers of the north to subdue the
central and southern regions. The rulers of the southern re-
gions had to fight against the Aryan domination. India wit-
nessed several internal and foreign battles over the years
(Thapar:1966:Vol.1; Spear:1968:Vol.2). It is important to keep
in mind that India was under foreign domination and exploita-
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tion for many years. A new India was born at independence
from the rule of the British Empire in 1947. The 50 year post-
independent period has been a significant period in terms of
political democracy, scientific and economic progress, interac-
tions between religions and culture, transport and mobility of
people and education. The political, social, economic and reli-
gious context of post-independent India is highly pluralistic.
This shall be the focus in the following pages.
Political Context: Stability, instability and degeneration
India has adapted the democratic system of government both
in the centre and in the states by electing representatives
through public voting. There is a multi-party system. Gandhi
was in favour of democracy and the panchayat system of gov-
ernment but opposed the party-oriented political system due to
the inbedded evils in such systems. He discussed the evils of
party-oriented political systems in Britain in his two books, Hindu
Swaraj and Trusteeship. Gandhi pleaded the new independent
India to avoid the evils of the party political system and adapt
the panchayat system and trusteeship to give more power to
the people, develop local skills and team leadership and hold
the community to be accountable. He suggested the dissolution
of the National Congress movement of independence once the
goal had been achieved, instead of making it a political party
vested with power to rule the country. His ideals had limitations
and could not materialize. The National Congress, which be-
came the main national political party, won the election with
the highest percentage of votes and formed the government in
the Centre as well as in the states. Being a one-party rule, both
at the Centre and state, the relationship between the central
and state governments was smooth. Another advantage was the
political stability it provided in the Centre and within states.
Political stability and cordial relationship between the Centre
and States are so important for a country like India. However,
the regionalism and communalism developed in the 1960s due
to various factors affected political stability and the Centre-State
relationship. Many states fell into the hands of regional parties
in the 1970s. The Congress Party was divided into factions. A
new trend has developed in the last two decades. Elections have
been won and a united government has been formed through
an alliance and understanding to share power and positions
among the co-operating parties. This trend developed as a re-
sult of dissatisfaction among opposition parties, caste and com-
munal factors and the growth of religious fundamentalism. How-
ever, the main reason for the alignment was to present front
which would win the election and rule the state or the Centre.
Today, the ugliness of this trend of political alliance and bar-
gaining power, the destabilization and dissolution of govern-
ment until the opposition got what they wanted is so obvious.
The late 1990s and the new millennium witnessed a degenera-
tion in the structure, leading to political corruption, communal-
ism, favouritism and nepotism, misuse of power and authority,
political vendetta, neglect of economic progress and fleecing of
the nation. Under this trend, Christians came to a crossroad,
not knowing what to do, whom to vote for or how to educate the
congregation on politics. Some of Christian leaders either try to
please the ruling government for benefits or ignore politics and
fail to take a stand. It is only when churches are burnt, institu-
tions are affected, activities and funds are curbed by the ruling
government that they think about politics and organize protest
march of some sort. A few leaders who try to relate the Bible to
politics and arrange critical discussions on contemporary politi-
cal trends or who issue memoranda and solicit the signature of
Christians are often misunderstood. Has the Christian ministry
any relevance to political context of a nation? Could three per-
cent of Christians effect a major political change?
Social Context: Caste, Class, Tribe and Patriarchy
The nature and structure of society is not only pluralistic but
also complex. The composition of people, in terms of race, col-
our and language is varied. Beneath this composition lies the
important factor of caste and tribe. While ethnic groupings and
tribes are found in many countries, identifying people accord-
ing to caste is unique to the Indian society. It is not known to
what extent the caste system has spread over the country, but
this social system is in practice for ages. Society is affected by
the evil of segragation through the caste system. The origin of
the caste system, varnashrama, is linked to the religion of Hin-
duism since their religious scripture and codes of conduct speak
of it (Klostermier:1989:317). Many Hindus believe that the ori-
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gin of the caste structure is associated with the act of creation
and that people are born in to and die within a particular caste.
There is no other way to detach oneself from the caste identity
assigned at birth than to practice caste system as demanded by
the religion.
The four original castes called varna are the Brahmins who
are believed to be created out of the mouth of god, the Ksatriyas,
from his chest, the Vaisyas, from his belly and the Sudras, from
his feet. The theory behind varna, the hierarchical structure is
that people were differentiated on the basis of the colour of the
skin i.e. fairer, moderately fair or dark-skinned people. The
Brahmins, who have fairer skin colour due to their descent from
the Aryan race are regarded as the highest in the heirarchical
structure of the varna, while the Sudras, with dark-coloured
skin, are at the bottom of the structure. On the basis of colour
differences people were regarded as superior or inferior. In this
respect, varnashrama is racial. Since mixing of race and colour
could invalidate this theory, another theory of dominance was
introduced and practised to maintain the varnashrama on the
basis of the division of occupation. The fair-coloured Brahmins,
who came out of the mouth of the Divine one, were to be the
priests who conducted worship and rituals, pronounced the sa-
cred slogans and advised the society. The Ksatriyas, from the
chest, were to be the warriors, defenders, rulers and adminis-
trators. The Vaisyas were the merchants and farmers to con-
tribute to the economy of the society. The Sudras, the large
mass at the bottom of the hierarchy of the varnawere the la-
bourers, servants and menials. Apart from these people, a vast
majority of the people in the society were left out to be included
in these four varnas. They were not at all considered as hu-
man beings to be included in any of these four classifications.
They were treated as outcasts and untouchables because of their
colour and association with the menial work which was consid-
ered more inferior to the work of the Sudras. They were
untouchables because they were polluted by their work. This
fifth category of people outside the varnashrama were later called
Harijans by Gandhi to refer to them as children of God. Reject-
ing this term harijan for the untouchables on religious and
social grounds, Dr. Ambedkar called them Dalits The term dalit
stems from a semitic root dal which means underprivileged,
oppressed and marginalized. The secular Dalit Literature and
Christian Dalit Theology discuss these issues in detail.
How these four divisions and later, the fifth division were
further sub-divided into numerous main and sub-caste groups
is another complex subject. For example, two major sub-divi-
sions, the Iyer and the Iyangar among Brahmins in Tamilnadu
feature prominently. Iyangar are regarded as superior than
Iyer and every effort is made to keep marriage alliances within
this sub-division. Main caste groups like Vellalas, Thevar, Nadar,
Vanniyar, and Gounder are further divided into three or more
sub-castes. So many sub-caste groups were developed within
Ksatriyas, Vaisyas and Sudras. The British adminstration clas-
sified some castes as Scheduled Castes. Even the fifth group
called the Dalits is divided into sub-castes and a hierarchical
structure is maintained among them when it comes to the issue
of marriage and benefits. On what basis the caste groups were
further classified as belonging to Forward Community (FC), Most
Backward Community (MBC), Backward Community (BC) and
Scheduled Caste (SC) is another subject for research and dis-
cussion. What immediately draws attention is the following con-
sequences of the caste system which challenge the nature and
ministry of the Church. First, the theories of varnashrama are
discriminating, divide the society and promote hierarchical struc-
tures. Second, the caste system promotes economic and social
inequalities since it speaks of occupation based on varna. This
caste system binds the people to a particular occupation and for
example a Sudra or a Dalit could not be accepted to be the
priest of a temple or to perform the duty of a ruler, administra-
tor or a business man, to run a shop or hotel. Thus, this system
perpetuates economic inequality and social discrimination. Third,
the local legal system like panchayat or village administration
discusses the justice and rights of low caste people, not on their
value as human beings, the virtues of the victims or on the basis
of human rights and equality but on the basis of the varna and
caste to which the victims belong. The administrators or the
offenders belonging to the upper caste often deny justice and
equal rights to the sudras and dalits. Justice based on varna
and sub-caste classifications is a great violation of ones right.
Fourth, the caste system divides people by virtue of their colour
and occupation and sub-units breeds ethnic conflicts and vio-
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lence. Fifth, politics, political parties and elections are struc-
tured according to the caste system. This evil, which is now deeply
rooted in the life of Indians, has permeated all spheres of the
nation and its churches. How, then, could ministry be related
to society and churches which are affected by the caste system?
Other Tribes in India also face similar difficulties. Tribals are
regarded as a separate category. Within this special category,
there are a number of tribal groups, each with their own dialect,
culture and belief systems. They are deliberately denied their
identity as tribes and are drawn into the fold of Hinduism and
discriminated against as the outcasts. Advocates for the rights
of the tribes to be allowed to keep their religious beliefs, culture
and customs, dialects, identity and natural environment are in-
creasing. They have even suggsted certain geographical territo-
ries as separate state for the tribes. The Chipko Movement and
Narmadha Bachao Andolan (NBA) promote support for the tribes.
Christian Tribal Theology developing in the north-eastern states,
central region and the east coast region are trying to address
the problems of tribals in India.
Another social system dominating the Indian society is the
patriarchy. Although the Indian Constitution in principle does
not discriminate against women and ensures equality before
the law, women are discriminated against in their families, work
places and in the churches too. Gerda Lerner, in her book The
Creation of Patriarchy, defines patriarchy as the manifestation
and institutionalization of male dominance over women and chil-
dren in the family and the extension of male dominance over
women in society in general. It implies that men hold power in
all the important institutions of society and that women are
deprived of access to such power (1986:239). The origin and
development of patriarchy in each society demands a separate
study. Social, political and religious factors have contributed to
the development and sustenance of patriarchy in the Indian
society. Gerda Lerner points out that the system of patriarchy
could thrive in society only with the co-operation of women and
writes, This co-operation is secured by a variety of means: gen-
der indoctrination; educational deprivation; the denial to women
of knowledge of their history; the dividing of women, one from
the other, by defining respectability and deviance according
to womens sexual activities; by restraints and outright coer-
cion; by discrimination in access to economic resources and po-
litical power; and by awarding class privileges to conforming
women (1986:217). It is not that women are willingly co-oper-
ate with the domination of the patriarchal system. Most of them
have accepted the patriarchal system as a long-standing tradi-
tion of the society, which cannot be changed without the co-
operation of men. Some women co-operate with patriarchal sys-
tem out of ignorance, tolerating all the injustice done to them.
For other women it provides paternalistic protection, a sense of
belonging to a male, sustenance for their lives, marriages and
children. Paternalism and male dominance is perpetuated
through the institution of Patriarchy. The minds of Women have
been psychologically conditioned over thousands of years to in-
ternalize the idea of their own inferiority and to submit them-
selves to male dominance without questioning the patriarchal
system.
Although the percentage of women compared to men in terms
of population size in each state differs, statistics show that 49
percent of the total Indian populations are women. They play a
vital role in society. On the one hand, some religious and secu-
lar literature and media adore women and speak highly of them
with respect and honour. On the other hand, what persists in
reality is the suppression of women. The consequences of the
patriarchal system on society are so serious that it is impossible
for Christian ministry to ignore this marginalized and oppressed
group of the society. First, women are treated as inferior to men
because of misconceptions on their sex and gender. Many are
not aware of the difference between the two. Sex is a biological
factor. It is the creation of God. Although God created some as
men and others as women, all are created in the image of God.
Sexual differences have biological functions. God has created
the bodies of women in such a way that they could bear chil-
dren and perpetuate the human race. This is a noble function
and a valuable contribution which women make society. Con-
sidering the biological processes of mensuration and menopause,
which they go through, it would be unfair to treat women as
inferior sex. Instead of regarding them as pollutants and infe-
rior, they should be appreciated for their biological role and
must be supported and held in a high esteem for their contri-
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bution. There is nothing wrong with being a female, but gender
discrimination has been created by men. It is not biological but
sociological. To refer to the masculine gender as superior and
the female gender as inferior and to attribute status and roles
accordingly has been a conception of men. The gender discrimi-
nation is a social concept; it is wrong and must be challenged.
(N. Jeyaraj, Women and Society : 2001: 1-10)
Second, women are treated as sex objects and subjected to
domestic violence oppression like rape, sexual harassment pros-
titution, drug trafficking. This is sexual exploitation by men for
their own pleasure and profits. Quite often women who are sub-
jected to one kind of oppression or the other, are not compen-
sated. They are exposed to situations, which pose a threat to
their lives. Christian preachers condemn such victims as sin-
ners but fail to condemn the social structure and system, which
forced them through the plight of exploitation. Jesus, in forgiv-
ing the woman accused of adultery, made an effort to address
the problem during His period (Jn.8:1-11). His response to those
who accused her was a way of condemning the social structure
of His day. Forgiving and accepting her was the best way to
restore her to humanity. Jesus gave a new definition to adul-
tery; He condemned it but He did not fail to relate His ministry
to the correction of this social evil.
Third, women are traded as commodities in marriage through
the payment of the dowry to the grooms family. The dowry sys-
tem is part of the patriarchal system. Demanding dowry has
become a tradition in society although it is banned legally. It is
very well known that without paying a large sum of money, ar-
ranging for the marriage of daughters is difficult. It is a big bur-
den which has led many families to borrow money with high
interest rates and to fall prey to a vicious cycle of debt. In addi-
tion to the paying of dowry at the time of marriage, women are
expected to bring some wealth from their parents to meet the
needs of their husbands family or face torture, separation, di-
vorce or murder.
Fourth, since the female sex is regarded inferior and women
have had to face discrimination and undergo difficulties in fami-
lies, the female child is not wanted or cherished much. This has
increased the occurrence of female feticide and infanticide. Since
girls are regarded as financial burden, many families are not
interested in educating them beyond elementary level. The Fe-
male literacy rate is only 39.28 percent, according to the 1991
census. Very few girls go to high schools and colleges, or pursue
higher education or professional courses. Girls are not encour-
aged to pursue higher education because they are looked up on
as future housewives, whose main role is to bear children, cook
and take care of family.
An analysis of the social structure of India reveals the posi-
tion of people in society. Industrialists, bankers, large estate
owners and some politicians are at the top of the social hierar-
chy because of their wealth and power. It is estimated that the
richest on the hierarchy constitute only 5 to 8 percent of the
population and this group controls the political parties, govern-
ments, natural resources, trade and labour force. Those who
are employed in the service of the central and state govern-
ment, industries and banks and educational institutions form
the middle class and constitute 30 to 35 percent of the popula-
tion. The landless peasants, agricultural laborers, coolies and
daily wage workers in unorganized sectors are at the bottom of
the hierarchy and living in poverty. They represent the vast
majority, i.e.60 percent of the population. Although this statis-
tics is a rough estimate, many Indians (approx.55%) live below
the poverty line, struggling to meet their basic needs of food,
shelter and clothing.
This kind of hierarchical structure is noticeable not only in
terms of economic power but in terms of caste and gender. The
high caste groups are found at the top of the social hierarchy
where as people belonging to low caste and tribals are at the
bottom of the structure. From the point of view of gender, men
are at the top whereas women and children are at the bottom of
the social order. It is still worst in the case of the Dalits and
tribal women and children. The pyramid type of social structure
reveals the lack of sharing of resources, power and authority
with the vast majority of the poor. This structure perpetuates
poverty and widens the gap between the rich and the poor. Should
the poor continue to be poor and the rich continue to be rich?
How are these people ministered to? What is the role of the
church in changing the structure of the society?
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Economic Context: Resources, Poverty and Policies
Indias natural resources of land, water, forests and minerals
are enormous compared to some other countries. Yet the peo-
ple in India are poor. Poverty has persisted for many years. One
of the main reasons for this has been the accumulation of wealth
in the hands of a few rich people. Although 60 % of the popula-
tion live in villages and are involved in agriculture, the land in
the villages are owned by a few rich people. The land tenure
system which has prevailed for centuries helps the rich to accu-
mulate more land. Continuous upraising of the landless peas-
ants and struggles of their movements in protecting agricul-
tural land from being turned into industries or real estates, high-
ways and their protest for proper wages, welfare and re-distri-
bution of land are suppressed jointly by the landlords, politi-
cians and government officials. Large-scale industries are owned
by a few richest families. Mass production of large and small-
scale industries not only threatens the traditional skills and
employment of many people but also destroys the environment.
Although Industrial Acts and Labour Laws deal with employ-
ment conditions, rules and wages, profit-sharing, inviting the
labourers to be share-holders of the industries and providing
welfare, medical and other benefits are not much emphasized
or implemented. Trade Unions are controlled either by the in-
dustrialists or political parties. Most of the leaders of the Trade
Unions are corrupt and play in the hands of the executives of
the industries and politicians. Many Unions are not able to func-
tion effectively on behalf of the working mass. In the unorgan-
ized sector, the condition of the workers are the worst. They are
not given appointment orders. Wages are not properly fixed.
Benefits and compensations are ignored. Women and children
are preferred as cheap labour to work in unhealthy and danger-
ous conditions. Both organized and unorganized sectors which
employ women and children include the Match and Fire Works,
Carpet, Garments, Automobile and Scooter Workshops, Con-
struction Contractors and Dye industries. Men and women who
are self-employed such as vendors of fruits, vegetables, flowers,
plastic and aluminium goods face threats from money lenders
and the police for transacting business on the streets. In spite
of their hardwork at the mercy of the weather and at the ex-
pense of the welfare of their children, these street vendors live
in a vicious cycle of debt, family and health problems.
Religious Context: Superstitions, Fundamentalism, Conflicts
The religious context of India is pluralistic. The Major reli-
gions in India are Hinduism (approx. 82% of the population),
Islam (11%), Christianity (3%), Sikism (2%), Buddism (0.7%) and
Jainism (0.5%). In addition to these religions, the other tribes
in India are basically animists (3%) who worship nature and
spirits. Some of these religions are superstitious and practise
human sacrifice occasionally, depend on astrology, numerology
and palmistry, worship of sex organs and faith in fatalism. These
beliefs and practices hinder the progress of the people. They
are oppressive. They continually dehumanize the followers.
The presence and practice of many faiths in the land shows
the positive aspect of the freedom of religion and worship. The
teachings of religions contribute to the spiritual and moral life
of the followers. However, the history of religions in India tells of
conflicts between different faiths, hatred turned into religious
violence, burning of worship places, destruction of villages and
persecution in different regions. Conversions and re-conversions
are given priority. Very little effort has been made towards un-
derstanding the different faiths in recent years. Instead, each
individual defends their own religion at any cost and that has
become the top priority among the people. Peace and religious
harmony are at the highest threat today. Growing religious fun-
damentalism like Hindutva and Islamic Jihad, Kalistan and
Bodo Land fuel violence against people of other faiths. These
fundamentalist groups are trying to religionize politics and so
doing then endanger the secularism and democracy of India.
ECCLESIASTICAL CONTEXT
Understanding the origin and development of churches in
India and the contemporary situation of these churches is es-
sential in order to relate the ministry of the Church to society.
Studying the ecclesiastical context includes the following major
areas such as the nature of the Indian Church, theology and
doctrines, governance and leadership, service and contributions.
These details have been discussed by historians and theolo-
gians in their writings. I have no intention of repeating such
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details except to point out certain aspects worth remembering
when relating the ministry to the people inside and outside the
Church.
Denominations and Cultural Alienation
One of the traditions dates the arrival of Christianity in India
as early as to 52 AD. It is believed that St. Thomas, a disciple
and an apostle of Jesus brought the good news to South India
in 52 AD, planted churches in Kerala and died as a martyr in
Madras. The migration of Christian refugees from Syria and
Mesopotamia in the fourth century AD brought the Syrian and
Chaldean tradition of Christianity to Kerala. The Franciscan and
Dominican missionaries established Roman Catholic churches
from the 13
th
century AD onwards. Protestant Christianity and
the planting of churches of Lutheran tradition began with the
arrival of Bartholomew Ziegenbalg and Henry Plutschau in
Tranquebar in 1706. Following them was Christian Schwartz,
the Anglican missionary of SPCK, who worked in Tamilnadu
and contributed to the growth of Anglican churches. William
Careys missionary work in West Bengal from 1793 through the
Baptist Mission, the founding of churches and the Serampore
College and the translation of the Bible is another landmark in
the history of Christianity in India. In addition to the work of
these major missions belonging to the Roman Catholic and Prot-
estant traditions, several other missions such as the Methodist,
Baptist, Mennonite, Christain Missionary Alliance, Presbyterian
and the Nazerene too founded denominational churches in the
North-eastern region, Central and West regions of India. From
the beginning of 20
th
century, Pentecostal missions gained mo-
mentum and established several churches in South India. The
charismatic churches are growing and spreading to many vil-
lages, towns and cities. World Christianity: South Asia, edited by
Roger Hedlund lists several major denominations, sub-divisions
and churches within these denominations in India
(MARC:1980:45-53). Since 1980, many new denominations and
autonomous churches have emerged. Two major situations which
emerged out of denominationalism are as follows.
First, Christianity in India is divided under several denomi-
nations as in other countries mainly because of the arrival of
different missions from the West. Divisions on the basis of de-
nominations are unavoidable. To rectify this weakness, western
missionaries with the help of Indian leadership, made the effort
to unify the churches and denominations. The formation of CSI
and CNI is a historical achievement. Other denominations like
the Lutherans, Methodists and Baptists opted for federal union
and formed their own Council or Federation or Association. Many
independent churches have formed a Federation of Evangelical
Churches of India (FECI). These attempts and achievements re-
veal the awareness of divisions among Christians and the inter-
est to unite for fellowship. Yet, denominationalism is promoted
by doctrines and administrative systems. Quite often, congrega-
tions pride themselves in their denominations, traditions, ritu-
als and doctrines. They do not readily establish relationships
with Christians of other denominations. Sometimes this has led
some Christians to criticize and condemn other denominations
than their own, openly. Some pastors refuse to help members
of other denominations. These divisions among Christians and
the plurality of worship patterns and doctrines puzzles and con-
fuses the non-Christian community about the ideals of Christi-
anity. Some of them become critical and negative towards
churches. Doctrines, denominationalism and administrative
policies have caused segregation among Christians and has hin-
dered unity and co-operation among the denominations thus,
weakening the structures of Christianity.
Second, westernized Christianity has created cultural aliena-
tion. Worship in the churches of mainline denominations is set
in traditions of the West. The order of worship services, songs,
vestments, pulpit and furniture and musical instruments like
organs, pipe organs, piano and guitars and the architecture of
the buildings of churches are replication of westernized struc-
tures of Christianity. Indigenization of worship in mainline
churches did not go far enough even after 50 years of Independ-
ence. However, house fellowships and independent charismatic
churches have shown signs of developing simple Christianity
adapting free order of worship, singing more Indian lyrics and
bajans than western hymns, using local musical instruments
like the harmonium, flute and tabella. They use native, cultural
clothes than the western cassock or other vestments. This trend
must be encouraged. It is, however, sad to notice that some of
the churches, which began with this kind of indigenization are
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now falling prey to the western systems of episcopacy, dress-
ings, organization and worship.
Caste, Class and Social Alienation
Three percent of Christians are divided into denominations
and also castes. The mass conversion of low caste people to
Christianity has been due to caste discrimination in the soci-
ety, so, Christians are pre-dominantly Dalits and Tribals. They
are from poor class. A very small percentage of converts are from
the middle and upper caste. Churches in some towns and cit-
ies have congregations of mixed composition but, in reality,
members maintain their caste identity and arrange marriages
within their own caste. Although they worship in church and
take part in the Holy Communion, they are divided socially ac-
cording to the hierarchy of caste system. Instead of coming to-
gether as one church, some caste groups have created churches
for their caste. They worship and function as caste churches.
This trend is more common in South India. Whether churches
are of mixed congregation of different caste or congregation of a
particular caste, they are discriminative in rendering welfare
benefits, employment opportunities and in the sharing of power
and resources. Instead of creating real fellowship and unity among
the congregation, the caste system is creating tension and divi-
sions in the local church. Today, the caste system plays a major
role in the election procedures of churches and dioceses. Very
few Christians have crossed the racial and caste border. They
condemn the caste system and long for unity and justice. They
encourage their sons and daughters to have inter-caste or in-
ter-cultural marriages. Such Christians are exceptional.
While social alienation within the local church persists, con-
version to Christianity has alienated converts from their rela-
tives and culture. Converts were persecuted by their own rela-
tives and driven out of homes and villages for accepting Jesus
Christ as their God and Christianity as their religion. They sought
asylum with the missionaries. The missionaries had no other
choice but to accommodate them in the compound of their resi-
dences and provide, employment for them in the churches,
schools and hospitals as well. This was in addition to nurturing
them in Christian culture. The net result has been that con-
verts to Christianity have lost their social relationship with the
rest of their communities and have been alienated permanently
on the one side. On the other side, they are living as caste groups
within the church alienating themselves from the others and
failing to become one unified Christian group. They are neither
able to relate themselves with their own communities outside
the church nor with the rest of the Christians within the church.
Failing to understand the existence of the caste and the eco-
nomic class system among Christians, the government of India
has denied certain privileges and benefits eligible to them, as
well as to the economically poor while such benefits are given to
similar caste groups in Hinduism. The Christians in India, there-
fore, find themselves socially alienated, economically deprived
and politically discriminated.
Theologies
It is necessary to understand the different thrusts and trends
of theology in Indian churches in order to do ministry effec-
tively. Sometimes, it becomes essential to be apologetic towards
heresies. Other times, it becomes necessary to make use of cer-
tain theologies to do specialized ministry with in the socio-po-
litical context. The knowledge of spiritual theology could en-
hance the pietism of the congregation. For convenience sake,
the different theologies in the churches could be categorized
into three major groups viz. Doctrinal, Socio-Political or Contex-
tual and Indian Christian Theologies. Doctrinal theology is
used very much by the churches belonging to the Adventist,
Salvation Army, Baptist, Pentecostal and Brethren denomina-
tions, respectively. They preach and teach doctrines such as
the observation of the sabbath day, immersion baptism, tongues
speaking, washing of feet, supremacy of men over women and
the salvation of soul. Of course, teachings on Christian doc-
trines are important, but, the doctrines on which emphasis placed
is selective and promote legalistic Christianity. Emphasis on other
doctrines such as creation and environment, the image of God
and justice are ignored. Many of them are ignorant of socio-
political theologies like Liberation, Human Rights, Dalit, Tribal,
Gender equality, Community and Development. Although these
contextual theologies are accepted by leaders and preached in
mainline churches, they have not penetrated the congregation
enough. Sometimes, these theologies are opposed by Chris-
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tians, but, they are biblical and contextual and needed for the
ministry of the church. Theological exploration and articula-
tion were taken up by the early converts mainly with the view to
indigenizing theology and making it relevant to the context.
Robert de Nobilee could be mentioned as one of such pioneers
among the western missionaries. There are a lot of details about
the efforts of Indian converts from the book, Indian Christian
Theology, written by Robin Boyd. Among the first generation
converts to Christianity were a few noted theologians like
Brahmabandhav Upadhyaya, Sadhu Sunder Singh, Nehemiah
Goreh, Henry Albert Krishna Pillai, Vedanayagam Shastriar of
Tanjore, Pandita Ramabai, Vengal Chakkarai and Narayan Vaman
Tilak. Some of them re-defined the biblical concepts and doc-
trines, such as would relate to their context. Their articulation
was more similar to Indian Philosophy. Their theologies were
regarded philosophical and based on the Brahminical approach,
which is useful in Inter-faith Dialogue. They have ignored the
criticisms raised against their theologies, concerning the socio-
political liberation of the people. In an effort to fill the gap, fol-
lowing the Latin American Liberation Theology, some leaders
conceived the theology of liberation and secular humanism.
Focusing on the issue of the Dalits and tribals, scholars such as
Arvind Nirmal, M.E. Prabahar in the south and James Massey,
Nirmal Minz, R.L.Hnuni and others in the north have propounded
Dalit and Tribal theologies. The Feminist theology is also devel-
oping fast. The theological explorations in India have been ap-
proached from the biblical, philosophical and contextual points
of view. There are so many theologies that it is impossible to
speak of one Indian Christian Theology any longer. Instead,
there are Indian Christian theologies and credit is given to each
of them in order to understand their merits and demerits. Though
there are enough theologies, they lack praxis. Since the ecclesi-
astical context is enriched with theologies, ministry demands
that they be understood intellectually, of them, their careful
application be made to the particular context and their continu-
ous articulation be made to suit the changing context.
Social Service
Churches are appreciated for their social service. Missionar-
ies who came from the west combined evangelism, church plant-
ing and social service in holistic ministry. They established pri-
mary and high schools, colleges and teacher training institu-
tions. The converts and other poor people were trained in Voca-
tional careers such as carpentry, printing technology, automo-
bile mechanism, tailoring and weaving to assist them earn a
living. They could not ignore the plight of women, children and
old people and so established orphanages, old peoples homes
and rehabilitation centres for widows and the deserted. They
started special schools for the blind, deaf and dumb. They pio-
neered in providing medical service through the establishment
of hospitals. India is experiencing the fruits of these social serv-
ices. The services of these Christian institutions were liberative
and transforming. Service to society was an important agenda.
The leaders of other religions were challenged by the excellent
social service of the churches and were urged to initiate similar
social services. The Missionaries managed these institutions but
also trained Indians to take over the management of the social
services. Christians employed in these institutions were moti-
vated constantly to keep the service and sacrifice in focus and to
give of their best in order to sustain high standards in the provi-
sion of social service.
Over the past few decades, three major problems confronting
the churches in their provision of social services have been iden-
tified. One is the problem of funding these services. Institution
like schools, colleges, vocational training centres, hospitals and
social action programmes depend largely on foreign funds. Al-
though some of the schools and colleges receive aid from the
local government for the salaries of the approved teachers, they
depend on funds from overseas churches and missions for the
development of infra-structure. Hospitals try to generate some
income to defray cost of expenditure but it is not enough unless
they increase service charges to their patients. This means, they
have to become like any other commercial institution, not quite
satisfying their desire to provide service to the poor. Some de-
nominations are struggling to maintain educational and medi-
cal services in spite of financial problems, heavy property taxes,
labour disputes and court cases. Lack of planning, development
of skills and dedicated management also contribute to the clo-
sure of such services in some parts of India. Second, is the prob-
lem of rules and restrictions of the state and central govern-
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ment. Government has laid down several rules and conditions
under which institutions could receive foreign funds and aid.
On the one hand, these rules regulate the management of the
institutions, provide some security to those employed and de-
mand accountability for the money received and spent. On the
other hand, they create delays in the receipt of funds, affect
employment policies or taking disciplinary action, encourage
Labour Unions to interfere and restrict evangelistic activities and
the teaching of the biblical truths in schools and witnessing in
hospitals. Third is the issue of the relationship between these
services and the church. Bishops and pastors are appointed as
the chairpersons, correspondents, superintendents or manag-
ers of schools, colleges, printing presses, technical institutions
and hospitals in some denominations. Although the church and
the institution should have some relationship, handing over the
management and administration of these services to the clergy
adds extra burden to ecclesiastical responsibilities. Their time
and energy is not given fully to the pastoral ministry. Some of
them do not have vision, neither do they understand the social
service nor the ability to manage and willingness to apply the
rules of the government. They incorporate church politics into
the administration of these institutions and cause damage to
social services. Recapturing the vision, reasserting the biblical
basis and developing committed and well-trained leadership is
needed at present.
Power and Authority
Church is not only a community of believers but also an in-
stitution with infra-structure, positions of power and authority
and human and financial resources. Some of the denomina-
tions have properties of land such as paddy fields, coconut farms,
gardens, plantation estates; shopping complexes, multi-story
buildings rented out for banks and offices, housing complex
and institutes. If managed properly, they generate good income
for the churches. Some churches own and manage a number of
schools, colleges and hospitals. It is easy to notice at present,
the struggle for power to become bishops, chairpersons, secre-
taries, treasurers of the dioceses or members of committees.
Obtaining positions to be the head or managers of the institu-
tions was mainly to provide employment to their own family
members and relatives and promote them to positions of power
and this is the politics going on in many churches and institu-
tions. In order to attain the positions of power, people are pre-
pared to give money as donation or bribes and to spend large
sums in campaigns for elections. Caste groupings play a major
role in elections and appointments. Able and deserving mem-
bers who cannot offered to give donations, gifts and bribes or
spend money in elections or identify and organize a group for
themselves are marginalized. It is difficult for them to get em-
ployment or positions in churches and institutions.
Another area of power and authority is seen in the victimiza-
tion of those who ask for justice or point out weaknesses in the
administration or who provide constructive criticism with good
intention. Victimization goes to the extent of transferring such
people to remote places, removing them from positions and re-
placing them with their own relatives, creating unwanted con-
trol to make such persons unable to function effectively or threat-
ening them with disciplinary action and punishments. The mis-
use of such power and authority is becoming a fast growing
trend in churches, institutions and para-church organizations.
This has caused divisions in some churches and institutions,
resulted in court cases, de-motivated workers and enhanced
caste feelings and communalism. How, then, could ministry be
done and social service provided when power and authority is
misused to threaten the rights and justice of people in the
churches, institutions and society? Biblical understanding of
the power and authority is needed today. The leaders of
churches, institutions, organizations and movements could use
power, authority and resources properly to establish justice,
welfare and progress. Christians have the power of the Gospel,
the Holy Spirit and other resources to transform nations if they
are directed properly.
REQUIREMENTS FOR RELATING TO CONTEXT
It is important to know the wider social, political, economic
and religious context of a country as well as the ecclesiastical
context within this wider context as it is also equally important
to be well-equipped to relate the ministry to the context. Follow-
ing is a list of some requirements for relating the church to the
wider context of a nation.
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Understanding the society
How possible is it to understand society? First of all, Chris-
tians should have the conviction that ministry is not limited to
the four walls of the church building and that the congregation
must be helped spiritually and socially. The Church is expected
to relate ministries to the society. The contextual and theologi-
cal reasons for ministry were discussed at the beginning pages
of this book. Having such a theological conviction helps to un-
derstand the society. Second, in order to understand society,
people ought to be accepted for who or what they are and not
condemned. Cursing the poor as sinners, lazy and useless; the
different religions of the land, leaders and the government does
not help us to understand our society. A Critical examination of
people, ideologies, policies, philosophies and rituals is needed.
Criticism should be commensurate with compassion and sym-
pathy. Otherwise, we make ourselves spiritual heroes and hypo-
crites like the Pharisees and Sadducees. Third, understanding
society requires a lot of search for information and this includes
reading newspapers, case studies, watching TV programmes and
attending discussion. The Media usually present the news with
some bias and interpretation so, it is important to read newspa-
pers and magazines with different perspectives and ideologies.
Many Christians read only one type of newspaper or magazine
and tend to believe the presentation as fact. Reading the pres-
entation of a Marxist or Socialist is considered wrong but, these
newspapers give their critical evaluation of events and policies,
helping to elaborate on the other side of the story. There is
nothing wrong with reading such papers and knowing the dif-
ference of opinions on issues. Feeding the mind with critical
information is necessary to understand society. Fourth, visiting
the villages, slums, orphanages, mentally retarded homes,
prison, old peoples asylums, juvenile correction centres and
areas affected by natural calamities or ethnic violence gives first-
hand experience with society directly. What the newspapers and
journals or even TV cannot do is to touch emotions and minds,
while visiting places and staying with people can. It helps to
understand the context more realistically and personally. In
addition to praying for these people, Christians should be the
first to visit these places. Churches can organize teams of mem-
bers to visit and be involved with the people. Church should
come out of the four walls to the streets to understand the soci-
ety. Fifth, many have a negative attitude towards society. They
have become nonchalant to the needs of society and have left it
to its own fate or degradation. They have withdrawn from social
activities yet find contentment worshipping on Sundays. While
it is necessary to be critical towards society, it should not be a
pessimistic attitude. There must be optimism that the society
can be changed so that the hope of ministry is not lost.
Analyzing the Society
Information through the media alone is not enough. A criti-
cal analysis of the structures of society should be of major con-
cern because society is not merely made up of individuals but
also of structures and institutions. Human beings create the
social, economic and political structure. These structures, in
turn, affect the people and shape the society. In the process of
interaction, human beings are the object and subject of the
society. A Study of the social sciences could help in using meth-
odological approaches in analyzing society. Reading books writ-
ten on social analysis is important but not everyone may have
the opportunity to study social sciences or afford to buy books
on social methods. Two general exercises, however, could be
suggested in analyzing society. One is the method of raising
some basic questions, for example, what are the various forces
at work in society? How does society function? Which are the
social, political and economic institutions? Who holds the power
in these institutions? Which are the oppressive policies? How
are these policies implemented? What are the reasons for peo-
ple becoming poor or rich? Who benefits and by how much?
What should be the role of religions? What are the responsibili-
ties of institutions like families, schools and colleges and banks?
How does international trade, commerce and globalization af-
fect our society? Another exercise is to listen to the personal
experiences of the people in the local communities. Listening
to the poor and victims of violence is not intended to criticize
them but to learn from them. Under-estimating their potential
or the way they interpret events or their situation obstructs
wholistic understanding. Allowing them to freely express the
reasons for their plight or failure, their understanding of who
God is, religion and society, facilitates our inquiry.
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Raising such critical questions and listening to the opinion
of the people in the local communities is not enough. It is nec-
essary to have a goal or ideology about how society should be
shaped. People who believe in capitalism would certainly keep
profit and accumulation of wealth as their goal. Such people
may not bother about the poor, poverty, the exploitation of natural
resources or ecological crisis. They promote privatization of re-
sources, business and institutions and cuts on income taxes so
that they could own more businesses. The justification for profit
and tax cut is that the rich will invest in industries and create
more jobs for the people and propel the nation towards indus-
trialization. With the power of their business and finance, they
control politics, the economy and cajole the government to make
plans and policies in their favour. Industrialists, bankers and
the business community would continue as the rich and power-
ful ruling class. On the other hand, those who oppose capital-
ism to the extreme, prefer to have a Marxist-based society. The
means of production such as land, labour and capital is to be
under the control of the state rather than accumulating in the
hands of a few rich people. Controlling the means of produc-
tion means controlling rich people becoming owners of the re-
sources. Controlling the means of production will also help in
distributing the benefits of production widely among the peo-
ple. The working class could benefit the more under the system
of Marxism. Socio-economic structures could be shaped to ben-
efit the mass than the few rich people in the society. Adherents
of Marxism believe that socialism will prevail. To implement Marx-
ism, Russia, China, Cuba and East Germany preferred the po-
litical system of Communism. The Marxist ideology is not with-
out its own demerits. According to followers of Gandhi neither
capitalism nor Marxism is good. They suggest the sarvodaya
and the means to achieve sarvodaya is to have Panchayat
system, Community Development Programmes and Trusteeship
form of government. It is closer to the ideology of democratic
socialism. The means to achieve the ideals of Gandhian is non-
violence. The emphasis is on giving less priority to technologies
of mass production and more importance to the development of
traditional skills, conservation of natural resources, natural
medicine, agriculture and rural life. The goal of Christians
should be to evaluate these ideologies and see how the values of
the Kingdom of God could be promoted for the improvement of
society.
Re-reading the Bible
Knowledge of context and evaluative approaches help us to
identify issues and problems. But, Christians ought to find out
what the Bible says about these issues. It is only then that con-
gregations would realize the importance of relating ministry to
the context. Applying Scripture to the context challenges
churches to be effective in ministry. In order to search for the
biblical basis and apply the truths of Scripture, it is essential to
enhance the knowledge of Scripture. This provides awareness
among the members and raises both financial and human re-
sources. Preaching in Sunday services could impart knowledge
from the Bible. But, more than preaching, Christians need solid
teaching. Some churches have ignored the ministry of teaching
and have limited themselves to worship services, weekly prayer
meetings and annual evangelistic meetings. Some others who
take teaching serious focus only on the doctrines of their de-
nominations. Teachings on socio-political issues like poverty,
wealth, family planning, abortion, the environment, sexuality,
gender issues, wages and welfare of labourers, ownership of land
and properties, justice, capital punishment, human rights, etc.,
are not at all taken seriously. Little effort is made to address
the problems of society in relation to the teachings of the Bible.
Over the years, biblical texts have been read and interpreted
in a particular way, either in consolation or in support of views
and ways of life or in condemnation of others. Quite often, read-
ing is simplistic and selective. The texts have not been critically
examined or read from a social, economic and political perspec-
tive. For example, the creation account in Gen. 1-3 is read in
appreciation of the power of God and the application of such a
text to preach and teach that the Lord of Creation can solve all
our problems is practicable. It could also be used to prove the
superiority of man over woman. However, these accounts speak
of the image of God, population, gender and sexuality, sabbath
rest, labour, family, taking care of the earth, vegetarianism, lib-
eration and setting order to a chaotic situation. These issues
are over-looked when reading the narrative of Creation. Jesus
challenged the way the Pharisees and Sadducees read and in-
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terpreted the Scripture. These groups made the sabbath rest,
which is beneficial to humanity, a legalistic burden. Jesus had
to tell them that sabbath was made for human beings and not
humans for the sabbath. He challenged their legalism of out-
ward cleansing and emphasized inward purity in thought and
deed. Jesus re-interpreted and gave a new meaning to prayer,
fasting, adultery, divorce, judging others, forgiveness and venge-
ance (Mt.5-7). He invited His audience to grasp a new under-
standing on spiritual and social issues based on his vision and
understanding of God. Re-reading of the writings of Paul on the
community, the body of Christ, love, suffering and the resurrec-
tion provides us some answers to our social and political prob-
lems. With this, leaders could organize bible studies, work-
shops and seminars on a particular issue and teach the congre-
gation what the Bible says and its application to teachings in
life and ministry. Teaching and action should be liberative and
should promote the welfare and justice of the people.
Developing the Training
Relating ministry to context could be done effectively if the
ministers and volunteers were given theological education and
training and skill in management. Mainline denominations re-
quire proper theological degrees to be ministers. However, a
number of smaller denominations and independent churches
hesitate to emphasize theological education because they do
not see its necessity and importance. Some of them have nega-
tive opinion that theological education robs the faith, dynamism
and commitment of the candidates. They believe firmly that the
call of God is enough for ministry and participation. Its true
that prolonged theological education has its own merits and
demerits. However, to have negative attitude towards theologi-
cal education and to ignore training is dangerous. All the secu-
lar professions in todays modern context require education,
proper training and constant up-dating on skill and manage-
ment. Education and training provide solid foundation in their
field of specialization and enables them cope with the changing
trends. To do ministry in the church as full-time pastors, mis-
sionaries, evangelists, youth workers or teachers of Christian
Education, theological education is a necessity. Although semi-
naries and bible colleges teach courses on the Bible, Theology,
Church History, Missions, Religions and Counselling, their cur-
riculum is mainly inward looking designed to equip the candi-
dates yet limit their ministry to the congregation only. The im-
plication of such curriculum design is that the ministry is sup-
posed to serve the members of the church only. It lacks focus on
the society. Very few seminaries and Bible colleges teach courses
on society, history, economics, politics, science and technology
and train the candidates to relate the ministry beyond the four
walls of their churches.
Another kind of training needed for full-time ministers and
volunteers is on how to develop communities outside the church.
Communities around the local churches are in need of help.
They have problems of poverty, unemployment, alcohol and drug
addiction, debts, misunderstanding within families and neigh-
bours and violence resulting in murder. They need the support
of the local church in the struggle to demand their rights and
justice from local government officials, the police force, politi-
cians and rowdies and thugs employed by the rich business-
men. In order to be conversant with the rules and regulation of
governments, to work out strategies and to implement schemes
to develop the local communities, churches need the expertise
of lawyers, economists, politicians and social scientists. Train-
ing programmes need to be designed with the help of these
experts. In order to relate ministry to the context, there is the
need to rely on and to make use of their knowledge and experi-
ence in training the churches.
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Chapter Four
Models of Ministry in the Bible
The contextual and theological reasons for ministry demand
a closer look into the different models of ministry. The word
model is often used in the general sense of an example, symbol
and image. We find various definitions for the term model. It
has a loaded technical nuance in some disciplines of study such
as social sciences, psychology and engineering. Ideas, symbols,
relationships, structures and functions can be communicated
efficiently through the means of models. Harold Ellens describes
a model as a descriptive and symbolic rendering of the essen-
tial characteristics of an idea, process or structure (1974:9).
Models describe what is happening or has happened in an in-
stitution or a community and are representations of reality.
Therefore, models are not perfect and permanent but they
emerge in a particular context to achieve a goal. They could
become ineffective, static or obsolete over a long period of time
or could be useful to society. Models can be modified and ener-
gized to suit to changing contexts. Models of the real world give
instructions on the merits and demerits of ideas, achievements
and failures of persons, institutions and structures. Models of
the ideal world, however, are a challenge to new levels of effec-
tiveness. I prefer to use the term model to describe what has
been going on in the society of Israel, with particular reference
to the ministry. Models make a great impact on the lives of peo-
ple. Christians have their own favourite model of ministry. The
most popular are the pastoral and evangelistic models of minis-
try. Some Christians do not regard the ministries narrated in
the Old Testament as important or valid for today. A few others
assume that the ministries in the Old Testament are replaced
in the New Testament. Studying the different models of minis-
try, their development over the years and their contribution to
the church and society, is rewarding. This chapter will focus on
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selected models of ministry in the Bible and highlight a few
contemporary issues connected with each model.
PRIESTLY MODEL
The Priestly model is an ancient one and common to many
cultures. Priests are closely linked to the cultic function as reli-
gious professionals and a medium to approach God. They are
held in high respect in many societies. Some of them are full-
time professionals and others are part-time or assume the role
of a priest during festive seasons. Abraham, Isaac and Jacob
lived a pastoral life but performed the cultic function of offering
sacrifices and leading their families and servants in the worship
of Yahweh. They performed circumcision. They functioned as
the elders of the family and clan, combining the role of leader-
ship in the social and religious life of their groups. Not much is
known about the priestly function of the Israelites during their
time in bondage. It is only assumed that the elders of the family
could have fulfilled the cultic function in their respective settle-
ment in Egypt. The request by Moses for the release of bonded
Israelites, that they may go and worship Yahweh in the wilder-
ness, could infer that organized worship of the entire commu-
nity in one place was prohibited by Pharaoh. The organized and
professional priestly model developed in ancient Israel after the
exodus from Egypt. Liberation from bondage, the covenant at
Sinai and worship are closely linked. The liberated community
which entered into the covenant relationship with Yahweh with
an obligation to obey the commandments (Ex.20-23) needed to
be united and rooted in the worship of Yahweh by a group of
selected and specially trained professionals. This establishment
of priesthood continued to perform the cultic function from gen-
eration to generation. This priestly institution continued to re-
mind the liberated community and their generations on how
God liberated them, instructed them on Gods commandments
and statues and encouraged the people to lead an ethical life; to
accept and offer sacrifices from the worshippers and to inter-
cede for them. Without the organized cultic function, thousands
of Israelites settling in different parts of Canaan could not be
reminded of their identity as people in covenant with Yahweh,
an obligation to express faith in Yahweh, worship and obey the
commandments and to be used as an instrument in bringing
the salvation of God to the rest of humanity. God selected the
tribe of Levi for full-time priestly work (Ex.28-29; Lev.8-9). The
separation and consecration of Aaron and his sons indicated
their full-time service to Yahweh as holy servants. They were
not admitted to a school in the wilderness to be trained by a
group of scholars. The families in the tribe of Levi received their
training by assisting, living and moving with the pilgrim people
at the instruction of Moses. Training and service went on simul-
taneously.
When the Levite families were scattered among the other
tribes after entering the land of Canaan, they continued their
priestly ministry for the communities living in the villages. By
this time the priestly function had started to become an institu-
tion and the sons of Levite families were trained by their fa-
thers. Some of the descendants of Levite families did very good
ministry. Others, like the sons of Eli, did not prove good. It is
not my purpose to go into the minute details of the develop-
ment of the priestly model in the different periods of history.
The main concern is to show the different roles this institution
has played in Israel. The first and foremost, the priestly minis-
try fulfilled the cultic duties of accepting the animals and sacri-
ficing them. The priest sprinkled the blood of the sacrificial ani-
mal around the burnt offering or poured it out at the foot of the
altar (Lev. 1-3). He was responsible for the fire which burnt the
offering on the altar, removal of the ashes and keeping the altar
ready for offerings any time. In performing the ritual of first
fruits, the priest listened to confessions of faith, placed the bas-
ket of the produce as an offering before the altar and blessed
the worshipper (Dt. 26:1-10). Some Levites were not involved
directly in performing the rituals but assisted the priest in pre-
paring the animal, other physical arrangements and in guard-
ing the cultic centres. Second, dispensing the oracles of God
was done by the priests. This is slightly different from the pro-
phetic ministry of proclaiming Gods oracles of judgement on
people or a nation. The ministry of the priests was to declare the
will or plan of God mainly in the matters of individuals or fami-
lies, in relation to the cultic context, using the technique of
casting the lots by Urim and Thummim (Num.27:21). The Levite
priest hired by Micah inquired of Yahweh and told the oracle to
the five Danite men who approached him (Jug.18:5). Ahimelech,
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the priest at Nob, pronounced the decision of Yahweh when
David inquired of him the will of God in his life. (1Sam. 22:10).
As the priestly ministry underwent some changes in the later
period and as the ministry of the seers and prophets became
more popular , Urim and Thummim started losing its impor-
tance. Third, teaching the Word of God was another important
responsibility of the priests. Deut. 31:9 infers that Moses en-
trusted the law to the priests so they could teach the people. No
details of their methods of teaching the law was given. Most
probably, the priests recited the blessings, recited the Com-
mandments from memory, read sections of the law and explained
it to the individual who brought the offerings or to the commu-
nity which came to worship Yahweh. In the later period, some
cultic centres could have had a copy of the law to read regularly
in the worship. Among the purposes for teaching the law to the
people were to instruct them in godly values, to direct the soci-
ety to be rooted in the law and to encourage them to practise it.
Another purpose of teaching, as Ezekiel and Haggai pointed
out, was to show the difference between the holy and the un-
clean foods, habits, and practices (Ezek. 22:16; 44:23,
Hag.2:11f) which could affect not only their cultic life but also
their everyday life. To carry out this function, the priests were
required to have a good knowledge of the law and a firm com-
mitment to it. In their own personal lives, they were expected to
be role models. Ignoring the law or failure to teach the law to
the people was considered as great sin on the part of the priests.
Prophets held such priests accountable for the failure of the
society. Hosea castigates both the priests and prophets for re-
jecting the knowledge and teaching of God (Hos. 4:4-8). Micah
severely reprimanded the kings, priests and prophets for pass-
ing the judgement, teaching the law and proclaiming the ora-
cles at the expense of the people (Mic.3:11). This implied that
they were not fulfilling their duties to the people through serv-
ice but were making their profession more commercial. Jer-
emiah criticized the priests who taught the law but did not know
Yahweh in their personal life (2:8). Four, the priests played a
role in politics. They prepared the warriors by offering prayer
and bearing the ark of the covenant and led the battle during
the period of the Judges. But this particular role in the battle of
the Israelites has a political overtone. It is not clear whether the
priests actually took the sword and fought but their association
and active role in the battle of liberating the tribes of Israel from
the hands of the Philistines or Midianites is certainly a political
involvement. They supported the militancy not simply for terri-
torial expansion and making them a super power but for the
cause of liberation from the oppression of their enemies and
defending their rights to exist and progress. Priests ministering
in the central sanctuaries had a close relationship with the mon-
archy and played a major role in anointing kings with oil and
installing them at cultic ceremonies. David was anointed by the
elders at the cultic centre in Hebron. Priests at Hebron should
have played a role in performing the cultic function at the anoint-
ing of David. (2 Sam.5:3). Abiathar, the priest associated with
the sanctuary in Jerusalem and Davids family went with the
group to anoint and enthrone Adonijah (1 Kings.1:22-27). Zadok
went with Nathan and anointed Solomon (1 Kings. 1:45). In
addition to performing cultic duties, Amaziah, the priest at Bethel
also worked as an agent of the king and vehemently opposed
Amos preaching the prophecy of judgement on the northern
kingdom. In Jerusalem, the priest Pashur with his political
involvement, had beaten and arrested Jeremiah. The priests
involvement in national politics became unavoidable and mani-
fested explicitly at certain times of their history.
The institution of priesthood continued in spite of changes
in history. In Babylon, from 587 to 537 BC, priests continued
their cultic function but without offering sacrifices. They taught
the law, performed rituals like circumcision and encouraged the
people to continue in the faith of Yahweh. They played an im-
portant role in the compilation of the Pentateuch, Psalms and
Historical Books. The priests gained their importance once again
after the return and construction of the Second Temple and the
office of the high priest ( Heb: hakkohen haggadol the great
priest) developed. Joshua, the contemporary of Zerubbabel, was
the first one to be called as the high priest (Hag.1:1,12,14; 2:24;
Zech.3:1,8; 6:11). As in the days of Aaron, the high priest en-
tered the most holy place alone once a year on the Day of Atone-
ment and offered the sacrifice for the remission of the sins of
the people. The priestly institution continued in the time of
Jesus. Zechariah, the priest ministering in one of the sanctuar-
ies in a town in Judea, received the message of the birth of
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John the Baptist. While several priests like Zechariah were min-
istering in different sanctuaries in Judea and Galilee, Annas
and Caiaphas were the chief priests in Jerusalem. They were
actively involved in the cultic affairs of the temple in Jerusalem
and in the trial of Jesus.
Jesus never addressed himself as a priest. Neither did he
perform the cultic role of sacrificing animals either in the tem-
ple in Jerusalem or in any of the cultic centres in the country.
The writers of the Gospel also, never described him as fulfilling
the ministry of a priest. But after His death and resurrection,
the author of the epistle to the Hebrews noticed the fulfillment
of the priestly ministry of the OT in Jesus. He compared and
contrasted the priestly model of the OT with the priestly model
of Jesus Christ. The priestly model of the OT was Aaronic and
had a lot of limitations. The high priest is human with his own
sinful nature and failures. Needing an atonement for his sins,
the priest was required to offer sacrifices first for himself. His
priestly office could not provide salvation to others. The Old Cov-
enant, which is tied up with the sacrifices required the priests
and the people to fulfill the law. Any number of animals could
be sacrificed though it could not forgive a mans sin or trans-
form his life. The sacrifices seemed useless and expensive to the
people. Obeying the laws of the covenant was necessary, but
practising only a set of laws made human life legalistic and bur-
densome. Sometimes, fulfilling all the laws, all the time became
impossible. The law was not faulty but human experience in
implementing all the laws perfectly was faulty. The law, moreo-
ver, could not be the complete answer to human need. A new
covenant, holy and blameless, a priest of higher order than Aaron
and an end to animal sacrifices, therefore, became a necessity.
Jesus Christ, as a holy and blameless person, put an end to
animal sacrifices by offering Himself as a pascal lamb, on the
one side and performed the duty of the sacrifice as the high
priest, on the other side (Heb.7-9). The sacrificer became the
sacrifice. Jesus not only reconciled humanity with God but
also represented the powerless, a victim of the sins of others.
The priest who became the lamb has a great significance in
ministry. It is impossible to hold a position and continue to serve
without submitting oneself for the sake of others. The transcend-
ence from being the mediator to a medium and thus, combining
priestly functions, made Jesus great. His death on the Cross
created a new covenant with humanity, offering forgiveness and
eternal life. Fulfilling the priestly office through his death and
resurrection, Jesus Christ brought an end to the old priestly
model. While Judaism continued the old priestly model, the
early Church continued the new pastoral model, which will be
discussed later.
Unfortunately, present day churches have given importance
to the old priestly model than to the new pastoral model. The
old priestly model dominates the thinking of the congregation.
Most of them are not aware that they are continuing the old
priestly model in the name of the new pastoral model. Although
the animal sacrifice no longer takes place, the altar is given
importance as the centre of the church. Altars in some churches
are decorated with colourful fabrics and mini serial lights. Sac-
raments and rituals are given the central place than the Word of
God. The colourful vestment worn by the clergy in Roman Catho-
lic, Orthodox. Lutheran and Anglican churches add to the im-
pression of pursuing the priestly model than presenting the
bishop and clergy as shepherds. Confession of sin and procla-
mation of absolution promotes the idea of propitiation or expia-
tion than drawing the congregation to identify themselves with
the suffering poor who are victims of both individual and corpo-
rate injustice. People receive the consolation of being forgiven
but not the motivation to heal the wounds of the victims. They
can repeat the injustice and get the pardon and consolation
ignoring the need of restoring the justice to the victims. Church
liturgy needs to play down the old priestly model and bring out
more the pastoral model. To achieve this paradigm shift, Chris-
tians should take the indigenization of the church seriously
particularly the architecture of the building, liturgy, songs, sym-
bolism, dress of the ministers and choir, sacraments and infra-
structure, programmes and activities. Otherwise, churches would
fall prey to the old priestly model of institutionalism and lose
the dynamism of the pastoral model. Continuous attempts to
transform the priestly model into pastoral model should go on
in Christendom.
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LIBERATION MODEL
According to the narratives of the OT, the liberation of the
Israelites from the bondage of Egypt precedes the development
of organized worship with ark, tent, fulltime priesthood and dif-
ferent sacrifices. This does not mean that worship of Yahweh
and cultic functions did not go on before the liberation. Abraham,
Isaac and Jacob worshipped Yahweh and performed cultic func-
tions and tribal duties together. Abraham was even involved in
pursuing the enemies as far as Damascus, fighting and freeing
Lot, his family and servants. The warriors of the kings of Sodom,
Gomorrah and Salem (Gen.14) were freed in the battle by
Abraham. The kings of Sodom and Salem were grateful to
Abraham. Although this act of freedom from the hands of the
enemies could be recognized as liberation to a certain extent, it
could also be criticized because of its kinship affinity. What
Abraham did was just a fulfillment of his responsibility as a
kinsman, using militancy. It lacked the involvement of God. On
the other hand, the exodus from Egypt is regarded as a libera-
tion model, not necessarily as the perfect model, but as a his-
torical model. It is a challenge to apply the theology of this model,
found in the narratives of the Book of Exodus, to the local com-
munities suffering oppression and injustice. The Liberation
model of the Exodus has the dimension of community, involve-
ment of God and universal validity.
People are trapped into oppression and bondage without en-
visaging its dangers and power. By the time they realized the
evils of bondage in their own lives, it had become too late to
come out of it. They became powerless to challenge their op-
pressors and many, therefore, internalized this situation as their
fate, accepted it and continued to live miserable lives. The se-
vere famine in Canaan forced Jacob and his descendants to
move to Egypt for survival. They never expected that their gen-
erations would be oppressed and forced to bonded slavery. Exo-
dus 1: 8-14 narrates the deliberate actions of Pharaoh to en-
slave the Israelites instead of treating them as free citizens. From
these verses, Therefore they set taskmasters over them to op-
press them with forced labour. They built supply cities, Pithom
and Rameses, for Pharaoh.The Egyptians became ruthless in
imposing tasks on the Israelites and made their lives bitter with
hard service in mortar and brick and in every kind of field la-
bour, the cruelty of the oppressive policies and actions of the
Egyptians and the sufferings of the Israelites are noticeable. In
addition to these cruelties, the Egyptians wanted to kill the male
children born to the Israelites (Ex.1:15-22) to avoid the future
uprising of their men against them. If they had a totally female
population, the labour force could be easily controlled. The Egyp-
tians, moreover, deliberately denied the rights of the Israelites
to come together and worship their God. Moses insisted that
the Israelites had their religious freedom to worship their God
as a community. Pharaoh knew the power of getting united in
worship and the consequences of the people coming together in
solidarity against his oppressive policies and actions. The op-
pressors did not like the poor to get together, to organize them-
selves on the basis of faith or ideology and to fight for their
justice.
The various reasons for oppressing them were clearly politi-
cal, economic and social (Ex.1:8-9). The Egyptian authorities
were afraid that the Israelites could capture political power by
joining with their enemies, to overthrow Pharaohs dynasty and
that they could rule the country. They were suspicious of the
loyalty of the Israelites because they saw them as immigrants
who were growing in population. Israelites were spoken of as a
threat to their security. The majority of native rulers always raised
this political reason to oppress the immigrants. But this was an
unwarranted fear on the side of the Egyptians. Josephs story
clearly showed that he never promoted his own brothers to have
some positions in the kingdom, neither did he pave the way for
his own sons to be in power. Joseph gave freedom to his father
and brothers to survive the famine and a permission to sojourn
in the land of Egypt as long as they wanted. The Egyptians also
controlled the economic progress of the Israelites. Having stayed
in the regions of the river Nile, the Israelites benefited from the
water of the river and progressed well in their farming of cattle
and sheep than the other Egyptians in rural areas. Pharaoh
and his court officials could have assessed the increasing eco-
nomic prosperity of the Israelites and taken a step to make them
economically poor by forcing them to be scattered in the land
and engaging them in the construction of buildings in different
cities of the land. This eventually would have led them to ne-
glect their farming profession and to depend on the government
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of Pharaoh for their food and survival. Controlling their eco-
nomic independence was an important step in making the peo-
ple poor and dependent on their oppressors. The Israelites,
socially, belong to another race and culture. They followed the
faith of Yahweh, the God of their fathers. Racial and religious
discrimination can be made effective only by forcing other eth-
nic groups to build the cultic and cultural centres of the ruling
group and denying them their rights to worship their own god
or goddesses. The Egyptians showed the same kind of racial
discrimination towards the Israelites. The above political, eco-
nomic and social reasons of Pharaoh forced the Israelites to serve
as bonded slaves. Their policy not only did enslave them but
dealt with them cruelly without any human concern.
Unable to bear the oppression and exploitation of the Egyp-
tians, the Israelites raised their cry and groaning to Yahweh.
Ex.2:23-24, The Israelites groaned under their slavery, and
cried out. Out of slavery, their cry for help rose up to God. God
heard their groaning, and God remembered his covenant with
Abraham, Isaac and Jacob. God looked upon the Israelites, and
God took notice of them. This brings out vividly the way they
expressed their pain and misery. This text plays an important
role in the liberation theology. Four words, namely, groaning,
crying out, crying for help and slavery in v.23 reveal their pa-
thetic situation in Egypt. Groaning means to be in constant
pain. Crying out refers to their shedding of tears, in the literal
sense. Crying for help expresses that they lost all hope of
freeing themselves and they looked for someone to liberate them
from the hands of the Egyptians. They were so sure that the
help was not going to come from Pharaoh or a group of the
public. They longed to be freed and their need was desperate.
They expected divine intervention by crying out to God. Their
slavery went up to God expresses that their cry, groaning and
tears of their plight reached God. If their misery could reach
God, then it should have reached Pharaoh and the Egyptians,
but they deliberately ignored their cry. Walter Brueggemann
interprets their cry, groaning and calling for help, not as a re-
treat to accept the bondage as their fate but as their struggle
against the injustice. These expressions were their protests
against slavery (1982:21-23). The response of God to the cry
and groaning of the suffering people is narrated very well. Verse
24 tells us that God heard their groaning, remembered his
covenant, looked on the Israelites and was concerned about
them. This does not mean that God took pleasure in the suffer-
ing of the people or acted slowly. The God of creation was listen-
ing to the cry and groaning of the suffering Israel. He expected
that the oppressors would listen to the cry of the people and
make necessary changes to establish their justice. When the
oppressors were not willing to restore the rights of the people,
God intervened and took necessary action. He selected the lead-
ers to work on His behalf and gave them vision for people. The
call of God to Moses came in the vision of the burning bush.
This vision was not just to attract Moses or to make him to won-
der about the burning bush. It was a vision of the real situation
of the Israelites in Egypt. It was a vision of the history of the
suffering people. Scholars interpret the burning bush as a meta-
phorical expression of the suffering of the Israelites in Egyptian
bondage. They were burning in the fire of injustice, oppression
and exploitation and yet, not totally annihilated. The bush burnt
but was not destroyed into ashes. It would have been better to
be burnt to death rather than to burn and not die. That would
have been the worst situation in the lives of human beings.
Moses understood the meaning of the vision of the burning bush
and the mission of God to go and liberate the people in bond-
age. He knew that it was a hard and most difficult job and so
gave excuses. By obeying Gods call, Moses committed himself
to the mission of liberation and identified with the suffering
community by living and suffering with them and leading them
out of Egypt to the promised land. The Letter to the Hebrews
11: 23-28 appreciates this aspect in the life of Moses. Today
leaders do not want to identify themselves with the suffering
community and to join in their struggles yet, they want them to
be liberated. In the struggle for liberation, God wants commit-
ted leaders who understand the significance of the burning
bush and would risk their lives for the sake of others. Only
such people can know the real meaning of the name of the God
of the Fathers as Yahweh. The tetragrammatan of YHWH a to
be verb in Hebrew could simply mean I am that I am. But, it
has a very deep meaning for those who are suffering and those
involved in liberating them. The eternal existence of God, as
the verb means, gives them hope that God the creator is not
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dead. He existed in the past, is existing at present and will exist
in the future. He is a living God and He listens to the cry of
people, sees the plight of people and understands what is to be
a slave. The to be verb also means the power of God. To be
means to be active and powerful. Yahweh is so powerful that
liberation is possible. Such theological understanding of God
cannot be theoretical but it is experiential.
The vision of the burning bush, the call of God and the di-
vine revelation of the name of God, strengthened Moses to chal-
lenge Pharaoh and his injustice to the Israelites. Instead of
repenting, restoring their rights and releasing them from slav-
ery, Pharaoh hardened his heart. Our experience in the libera-
tion struggle also tells the same. The more oppressors are chal-
lenged, more they become hardhearted and oppress the poor
severely. This is a phenomenon noticeable in the liberation
struggle of people. By punishing them severely, the oppressors
forced them not to listen or co-operate with the liberators. They
used this strategy to terrorize the poor and fizzle out their strug-
gles. Pharaoh did the same. He increased the burdens of the
Israelites (Ex. 5:1-21). The legitimate right of the labourers to
have the raw materials to produce bricks was denied. Moses saw
the dangers threatening to make the struggle a failure and he
prayed for the people as well as for the struggle to succeed ( 5:
22-23). Intercession for people is important to achieve the lib-
eration. Miracles do not happen without suffering and prayer.
Many Christians understand the plagues simply as miracles to
show Gods power to Pharaoh through Moses so Pharaoh would
believe Moses and release the Israelites out of fear. Oppressors
are not afraid of God or such wonders unless they affect them
personally. These plagues were natural calamities which affected
the economy of Pharaoh. Ordinary people who were not in the
ruling class should have felt the impact of these calamities and
could even have secretly expressed their ill feelings about Phar-
aoh. Economic sanctions usually affect the political side of the
rule. But Pharaoh did not worry about these economic and po-
litical consequences. More severe action was needed to make
Pharaoh, the symbol of absolute power, to surrender. The death
of the first born in Egyptian families has raised several ethnical
questions. Why was the first born of an ordinary Egyptian killed
because of the oppressive rule of Pharaoh? Well, it was the
responsibility of the Egyptians to challenge the injustice of Phar-
aoh and work for the freedom of the Israelites. As long as they
failed to question the oppression, they were also part of the
injustice done to the Israelites. The structural injustice brings
corporate punishment. According to the primogeniture theory,
the first-born were the rulers in some cultures. They decided
the family matters, sorted out problems in the village, sat in the
royal court and inherited the throne. In the case of Egypt, as
some scholars suggest, this could have been the practice. So,
the target of death was not directed on all the males or at ran-
dom but towards the ruling class who made decisions and op-
pressive policies. The death of the first-born was a judgement
on the ruling class of the Egyptians. It was a signal that by
ending the ruling class from Pharaohs palace to the families in
villages, God had ended the injustice and oppression of the rul-
ing class in the history of the bonded Israelites. This does not
suggest the killing of the ruling class as some Marxists or mili-
tant groups and terrorists have advocated. What happened with
the Israelites is the way God expressed His anger against all
sorts of discrimination and exploitation and took the side of the
poor and oppressed. God wants the justice, freedom, peace and
progress of all peoples to prevail always. Later, in Isaiah 19: 24-
25 it is evident that God took the side of the Egyptians when
they were oppressed by others and called the Egyptians and
Assyrians as His people. His universal principle is to offer sha-
lom to all the suffering communities. The four salient features
of the liberation of the Israelites as narrated in Exodus are,
namely, that God takes the side of suffering people, initiates
and continues the mission of liberation. He expects suffering
people to co-operate with Him and the liberator He sends; and
He brings the oppressors to justice. These ingredients are im-
portant for the theology of liberation.
Another dimension of the liberation model is seen in the
situation of oppression of the Israelites by their neighbours such
as the Philistines, the Edomites and the Midianities when they
settled in the land of Canaan. The Deuteronomistic history of
the book of Joshua and Judges points out the reason for the
defeat of the Israelites and the control of some of their territo-
ries by the Philistines or Midianites. Their own failures resulted
in oppression. Bondage to other nations was due to their wor-
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ship of Baal (Judges. 8:33; 10:6-8). Many Christians who read
the book of Judges generally over emphasize the sin of worship-
ping Baal and the practice of idolatry of the liberated Israel.
They miss an important insight given by this book which is, the
liberated people themselves could easily become oppressors.
They could oppress members within or outside of their own com-
munity. Baal, a nature deity represented the plants and trees.
Joining with his female counterpart, Astaroth, in sexual rela-
tionship, they were supposed to bring out the fertility of the
land by yielding grains, fruits and vegetables. The prosperity of
the land, in terms of cultivation, the Canaanites believed, de-
pended on worshipping these deities, offering sacrifices, cel-
ebrating their festivals regularly and indulging in sexual rela-
tionships with the prostitutes in the cultic centres. The fertility
cult was usually symbolized by idol worship, particularly wor-
shipping the male and female sexual organs and approval of
adultery. The God of Israel, who is the creator, condemned such
worship of nature and practice of the fertility cult. First of all,
the Israelites are a covenanted community committed to wor-
ship of the Creator and not the creation. It was demanded of
them to value the lives of human beings and not to degrade it by
promoting human sacrifices, walking on fire or giving their
daughters up for cult prostitution. These are activities which
dehumanize the society. God could not tolerate or allow such
dehumanization to go on in Israel. Secondly, the effect of the
fertility cult led the worshippers to attain more and more pros-
perity in terms of food, children and accumulation of wealth,
slaves, animals and other properties. The drive for prosperity
led them to use all sorts of oppressive measures to justify ex-
ploitation, ignore the rights of others and curtail the sharing of
resources with others. Israelites who learnt to worship Baal fell
prey to the evils of the fertility cult and ignored the values of
human life set by God. The fertility cult of the Canaanites was
not simply idolatry or adultery but more of dehumanization and
creating the class society. The Israelites were handed over to
their enemies, as the book of Judges narrates, to be reminded
of these failures to undergo the experience of being oppressed
and to provide them the opportunity to realize the miserable life
of being bonded. In the bondage of Egypt, the Israelites had to
cry out for liberation but in the bondage at the settlement pe-
riod, they had to repent of their sins. The Liberated community
could not take the liberation for granted. They had to enjoy the
liberation with greater responsibility towards others and were
obliged to work for the liberation of others. This principle of the
liberation tradition is brought out in statues such as You shall
not wrong or oppress a resident alien, for you were aliens in the
land of Egypt. You shall not abuse any widow or orphan. If you
do abuse them, when they cry out to me, I will surely heed their
cry, my wrath will burn and I will kill you with the sword, and
your wives shall become widows and your children orphans.
(Ex. 22:21-24; 23:9). Israelites were reminded again and again
of their exodus from bonded slavery, painful life and the libera-
tion. Joshua reiterated this message to the Israelites at the
time of renewing the covenant across the river Jordan (Josh.
24:14-21). They were warned not to practise the fertility cult or
oppress others (Jug. 6:7-10). The Judges raised by Yahweh were
charismatic leaders who liberated the Israelites by defeating the
enemies in battle. Their role as liberators was important but
more important was their role in leading the tribes. Adminis-
tration and self-governance of the tribes would be discussed as
a separate model.
In spite of repeated warning, the generations of the Israelites
went after Baal and practised injustice. The monarchical period
in the history of Israel revealed increased worship of Baal and
the rendering of untold injustice to the people by the ruling
class. Teaching and practising the Commandments and stat-
utes were ignored. Continuing in the covenantal relationship
was not taken seriously. Kings and priests who are supposed to
guide the people joined the group of oppressors and exploiters.
The rich became richer and the poor became poorer. Righteous
people were not able to get their justice. Widows, orphans, eld-
erly and peasants suffered and struggled to survive. God had to
intervene when the leaders of the society became corrupt and
wicked. The northern kingdom was destroyed by the Assyrians
in 722 BC and the southern kingdom was destroyed by the
Babylonians in 587 BC. The Israelites were taken captive to live
in Babylon. Losing their land, living in exile, serving the
Babylonians and confronted by the religions and culture of a
foreign land, led them to realize their failures and to repent.
After 50 years of exile, God raised Cyrus, the Persian king to
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defeat Babylon and allow the Israelites to return to the land of
Israel. This kind of war, defeat and political change may relate
more to history and seen insignificant in present day. It is easy
to criticize the release of the Israelites as the political diplomacy
or a kind gesture of Cyrus to keep his kingdom in law and or-
der. But the Israelites described their return as a second exo-
dus and regarded it as another liberation which would have
been impossible for them to attain. They lost all their hopes of
returning and continuing as a covenant community, worship-
ping God in the land He had given to them. Second Isaiah calls
the return a liberation and second exodus (Isa.40:3-5; 51:9-11)
in describing Cyrus as the anointed servant of Yahweh chosen
to fulfil this task of liberating the Israelites from their exile. The
prophet regarded his raising and defeating the Babylonians as
his liberative task on behalf of the Israelites, in comparison with
the earlier exodus tradition (Isa.45:1-7, 13). Another dimen-
sion in the liberation model is of a man of another faith fighting
with the Babylonians and working out policies and edicts for
the liberation of Israelites. The God of Israel can use anyone in
liberating His people. Since the Israelites in exile had none like
Moses or the Judges from their own community to challenge
the power of the Babylonians, God had to use an external force
like Cyrus. This raises questions: Can we, today, claim and in-
terpret like the Israelites, that our God has raised leaders of
other faith to work for the liberation of people? Can we see the
work of the Holy Spirit outside the church? These questions
raised by many Christians will be discussed later. The ministry
of Jesus in healing the sick and liberating the people from the
possession of evil spirits and disabilities also belongs to the lib-
eration model but is mainly directed towards the individuals.
His death on the cross and his resurrection was to liberate hu-
manity. The liberation ministry of Jesus will be discussed later
as the model of the Son of Man.
It is not enough to present the liberation model without ad-
dressing some of the contemporary criticizms against the model
and its theology. First, many Christians criticize the liberation
model is an idea of Marxism. To support liberation is to support
Marxism and help the spread of Communism which banned the
freedom of religion, persecuted Christians and closed down some
churches and forced others to go underground in USSR, China
and East European region. Certainly, what Marxism or Commu-
nism did against Christians as a political system was wrong.
They advocated suppression and control of people. Human rights
were violated in those countries. But, to criticize Marxism and
Communism is one thing and to describe liberation as Marxism
or Communism is another issue. This kind of criticizm comes
from the rich and ruling class. The Liberation of the poor and
oppressed is a human concern. The Liberation Theology uses
Marxism as an instrument to analyze the society. Leonardo Boff
and Clodovis Boff point out that, Marxism is never treated as a
subject on its own but always from and in relation to the poor
in liberation theology. These Liberation theologians are critical
of Marxism and write, Liberation theology, therefore, maintains
a decidedly critical stance in relation to Marxism. Marx (like any
other Marxist) can be a companion on the way, but he can never
be the guide, because You have only one teacher, the Christ
(Mt.23:10) (1999.28). It is important to note that liberation pre-
ceded in the history of Israel thousands of years before Marxism
or Communism developed. Liberation is biblical because God,
who created people, is interested in the liberation of the op-
pressed. Liberation is not mans idea but it is the will of God
that no one should be oppressed and live in bondage. God has
given us the right of freedom with responsibility. Gods design
for humanity is to enjoy freedom, welfare and dignity. There-
fore, God is interested in the affairs of human beings and is
involved in the liberation of oppressed and exploited people.
God initiates and supports the liberation of suffering people.
The second criticism against the liberation model is the is-
sue of relationship between the oppressor and the oppressed.
People fear that the efforts to liberate the oppressed from their
exploiters would create tension, backlash, vengeance and even
divisions in communities. The alienation between the oppressor
and the oppressed becomes permanent. They live in enmity in
villages, industries, offices and institutions. This kind of criti-
cism perpetuates the status quo. Those who fear such conse-
quences want people to live in oppression and tolerate the in-
justice than to create tensions, enmity and divisions between
the oppressors and the oppressed. Would it be justifiable to
sacrifice liberation and the long term fruits of being liberated
for the sake of avoiding tension and division? In the pursuit for
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liberation, tension, vendetta and divisions are unavoidable be-
cause the very idea of liberating the oppressed, who have been
serving their masters for years, hurts their oppressors. They do
not want the oppressed people to question their injustice and
cruel treatment or to demand freedom and justice. Liberation
affects the oppressors economically, politically and socially.
Pharaoh reacted to the efforts for liberation of the Israelites from
bondage. The Philistines, Midianites, Assyrians, Babylonians and
Antiochus Ephiphanus reacted and persecuted the Israelites.
Since the ruling class neither liberated the oppressed Israelites
voluntarily nor restored justice to them, the relationship be-
tween Israel and her neighbouring nations was broken and the
Israelites had to live under constant tension and threat. When
the Israelites did the same injustice to the Canaanites in the
land, the relationship between them was not so good. There are
no records of the cry of the Canaanites in the Old Testament
since it was written by the Jews to present their side of history.
But, the reminder do not oppress the people in the midst of
you helps to understand the feelings of the Canaanites. David
tries to do justice to the family of Saul by supporting
Mephibosheth (2 Sam. 9). Jesus teaching in Mt. 5-7 paves the
way for reconciliation. Paul noticed this problem of tension, bit-
terness and enmity between the masters and slaves and ad-
vised masters to render justice to servants and build a good
relationship (Eph.6:9; Col. 4:1). It is difficult for liberation and
reconciliation to go together but it is not an impossibility if the
oppressed understand the cry and pain of the poor, repent and
restore the justice due them. Reconciliation can be effective only
when the liberated people forgive their oppressors and accept
them when they demonstrate repentance for their injustices.
Ministry should not end with liberating the people but enabling
both parties to do their part to achieve reconciliation and build
a healthy relationship. What lies beyond liberation? This ques-
tion is to be considered seriously.
Third, the liberation model is criticized for centering on indi-
vidual leaders such as Moses, Gideon, Deborah, Saul, David
and Jesus. Since the impression of the liberation ministry is by
an individual, Christians assume that the church as a commu-
nity need not practice the liberation. Rather, the church could
leave it to individuals who are interested in working for the de-
velopment of community. Is liberation model individualistic?
Does it ignore the essence of corporate responsibility? No. It is
true that a few individuals are mentioned as being involved in
liberation in the Bible. But these individuals were called and
commissioned as the representative of the suffering commu-
nity. They did not stand alone. Their task was for the people
and with the people. The ministry of Moses was with the com-
munity of the bonded Israelites. He identified himself with this
community. He represented them. He struggled with the sup-
port of the suffering people. The leader and the people were in
solidarity in their struggle for liberation. The Judges played the
same role. Jesus identified Himself with the humanity. He rep-
resented suffering humanity to God and liberated them from
the bondage of sin, hunger, disabilities and the power of evil
spirits. The liberation model is handed over to the community of
faith who enjoyed the redemption of God. It is a mission of the
corporate body of Christ. Within this body of Christ, an indi-
vidual takes up leadership and mobilizes the community of faith
to the act of liberation, drawing the support of the victims of
oppression and exploitation. Liberation is a joint struggle of the
church and the oppressed in need of liberation against injus-
tice and for working out equality, dignity and welfare.
Four, some Christians are optimistic of the ministry of lib-
eration. Yet some Christians are pessimistic of achieving libera-
tion. One of the reasons, they state, is the minority of the Chris-
tian population. Can a small percentage of Christians achieve
liberation? Are we not supposed to evangelize and increase the
Christian population first? Cant evangelism change oppressors
and bring liberation automatically? It is true that the proclama-
tion of the Gospel can change the oppressors. They need the
Gospel of repentance. But, 90% of evangelism is directed to-
wards the oppressed and not towards the oppressors. Of course,
the oppressed are more receptive towards the Gospel. It will be
a serious mistake to postpone the ministry of liberation till we
increase the Christian population to a high percentage. Mil-
lions of poor longing for liberation would die in misery and with-
out hope by the time the spread of Christianity in the country.
Would it be wise to engage in encounter and invite trouble to
lives and churches? The fear of Christianity being in the minor-
ity is realistic. But, it shows the lack of faith in God, under-
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standing the Bible and confidence in our neighbours. The con-
cern for liberation is not an issue for Christians alone. Many
Hindus, Muslims and atheists are concerned about liberating
the poor. There are a number of religious and secular move-
ments involved in struggles of justice. Churches can co-operate
with these movements in liberating the people. Some leaders
hesitate to join hands with these movements because they be-
long to religions of other faith or political parties of different
ideology or they use violence as means to achieve the goal. This
critical awareness about the religious, political and secular move-
ments on the side of the Christians is healthy. But, on the other
hand can we expect the support and solidarity of these move-
ments, political parties and media towards struggles against Anti-
Conversion Bills, restrictions over religious freedom, ban on evan-
gelism or rules against the minority rights? Since Christians
form only 3 percentage of the total population in India and
churches in some places are not that strong enough in terms of
membership and resources, co-operating with the local move-
ments in the liberation struggle is a necessity. Extending Chris-
tians co-operation to or involving with the local movements or
inviting them to involve in the action programmes of churches
should be always critical and uncompromising the uniqueness
of our faith. Even though, the common goal is liberation, the
means to achieve the goal is to be agreed upon before extending
our critical co-operation.
ADMINISTRATION MODEL
Administration is a necessity for a community to exist peace-
fully and make progress economically, politically and socially.
Otherwise, chaos and violence could prevail and the society would
run into problems with law and order and would soon perish.
During the period of the patriarchs, the leaders of the tribe
performed social and religious functions. Abraham, Isaac and
Jacob as the leaders of their tribes sorted out the problems of
the members of the tribe and also that of other tribes or rulers
of the ethnic groups in Canaan. They were the elders and judges
of the highest court of appeal. Although, age was part of their
qualification to act on behalf of their tribe, their status as lead-
ers of the family and servants was given much importance.
Abraham sorted out the problem of Lot, Sarah and Hagar. Sarah
could not drive Hagar out. She asked Abraham to drive her out
and reserve the right of property and succession to her son Isaac.
When the shepherds of Abraham and Abimelech had confron-
tation over the water of a well, Abraham negotiated the deal
with Abimelech, made a covenant and solved the dispute at
Beersheba (Gen. 21:22-34). Isaac sorted out the same problem
with shepherds of another king (Gen. 26:17-22). Jacob played
the role of administering his large tribe with wives, maids, chil-
dren, father-in-law and servants. The administration of the tribal
system was primarily the responsibility of the leaders of the
tribe. Usually the leaders of tribes, communities or cities were
called elders (zequnim). They were recognized representatives
responsible for the administration of justice within their com-
munity. After the period of Jacob, the Israelites in bondage, had
elders to sort out the social and religious matters of the commu-
nity as well as to represent the community to Pharaoh. This is
evident from Moses and Aaron calling the elders of Israel to
assemble (Ex. 3:16; 4:29). But, it is not told clearly, whether
this group of elders functioned as a council or gained any offi-
cial recognition from Pharaoh. Since Moses was called and sent
with the authority of God, he took over the leadership, commu-
nicated the message and mobilized the people through the elders
of Israel, in their move from bondage to liberation.
However, something should have happened during their jour-
ney in the wilderness, which made the people to seek the direct
involvement of Moses in sorting out their problems. The role
and authority of the elders in the community could have been
ignored. The power and authority of Moses grew heights. Moses
was doing all sorts of work including the administration of the
community in pilgrimage to the promised land. He could not
have enough time to solve the problems of all the people. Moses
expressed this difficulty twice, according to the narratives of the
Exodus and Numbers. One was before the event at Sinai and
the other was after the covenant making at Sinai (Ex.18,
Num.11:14). So two levels of administrative set-up emerged. One
is the decentralization of the administration of justice to the
grass-root level. According to Jethro, Moses needed to appoint
officials to administer justice (sare wesephetu officers of jus-
tice Ex.18:21-24). Knowing this need of the liberated commu-
nity, which was still young, Moses provided the necessary basic
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administrative structure by appointing judges, which helped
them in their life in Canaan. Thus, the model of administration
of justice emerged in the wilderness. There are no details of the
problems of the Israelite families in wilderness. But, it is obvi-
ous that there were lots of problems within the families and
between the families such as quarrels between brothers, rape,
theft of properties and animals, neglecting the elderly, maltreat-
ment of parents, adultery, marital relationship, divorce, borrow-
ing and debts, worshipping idols, distribution of food, murder,
false witness, etc. The Ten Commandments received later by
Moses at Sinai reflect these problems of the Israelites and pro-
vided a norm to the community in transition. Before receiving
these commandments and appointing judges, Moses had in-
quired the cases of the people and sought the mind of God be-
fore pronouncing judgement (Ex.18:15-16). As the leader of the
community, people expected him to tell the divine revelation in
the judgement of their problems. There was no written code of
conduct on which Moses could rely to judge the cases. He had
to spend so much time to listen to both the parties, verify the
witnesses and solve their problems. Moses, therefore, accepted
the suggestion of Jethro to develop an organized system of ad-
ministering justice by selecting able men and appointing them
as officers over thousands, hundreds, fifties and tens (Ex.18:21).
The qualifications for being officers of administering justice were
well defined by Jethro. These officers had to have qualities of
ability, fear of God and trustworthiness. They had to hate dis-
honest gains such as bribery, favouritism towards kith and kin
and cheap popularity. They were required not to pervert justice
and ruin the lives of the righteous. Moses responsibility was
not only that of selecting and appointing such officers but to
teach and train these officers and the people in the statutes of
Yahweh and instruct them in the way they ought to lead their
lives (Ex.18:19-20). Selecting, appointing with authority, teach-
ing and training and rendering justice became the necessary
components of the administration system in Israel. The term to
judge has a deep meaning. It is not simply punishing the wrong.
It means to settle the dispute, bring reconciliation and enable
the community to live in peace. The well-being of a community
depends on guarding the rights of its members. The appointed
leaders in this model were not called judges (shophet), although
their function was to judge, but as officers (sare). Since these
officers were assigned to small groups of people in tens, fifties,
hundreds and thousands, they were easily approachable and
available to speed up justice. It is possible to understand the
tens, hundreds and thousands as a hierarchical structure for
further appeal. With matters of unsolvable dispute at the bot-
tom, intermediary or higher level, they could seek the help of
Moses and divine decision by inquiring of Yahweh. It was not
easy for Moses to share his power with others. But, he delegated
his authority to these officers and developed this new model of
administration in Israel.
Another level was the appointment of seventy men as offi-
cials to be with Moses in administration (Num.11:16-17). This
arrangement became a necessity because of the complaints of
the people about their misfortunes and the need of food. These
officials were called elders for the purpose of leading the peo-
ple. This suggestion of appointing seventy men was from God
because Moses was still holding power. The entire administra-
tive system was centered around him, in spite of the appoint-
ment of several judges as per the suggestion of Jethro. I think
the old system of corporate leadership by the elders of the com-
munity which was over-shadowed by the prominence of Moses
for some years, has been recognized and revived again. God
wants team leadership and corporate administration. These sev-
enty men were selected from the elders who had some previous
experience and reputation among the people. Joining with
Moses at the tent of meeting meant God had granted approval
and recognition. It was more like an induction service. God took
the power and authority enjoyed by Moses and shared it among
these elders. Moses and these elders became the Council of
Administration. A corporate body at a higher level was insti-
tuted to lead the people of Israel. They made the decisions on
behalf of the people with Gods guidance. It is not known how
the judges appointed by Moses, on the advice of Jethro, related
themselves to this Council of Administration. They could have
continued their functions at the grass root level. Only those
disputes which they could not solve came to the Council of Ad-
ministration. This council was responsible for sorting out, not
only the legal disputes of the members but also, the social, po-
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litical and economic problems of the people of Israel, providing
holistic leadership and leading them to the promised land.
Even though, the Council of Administration instituted at the
time of their journey could have suffered a set back after the
death of Moses, the essence of corporate leadership and decen-
tralized administration of justice persisted after entering Canaan.
Elders of Israel formed as a legal assembly in their villages and
carried out the administration of justice in the Settlement pe-
riod. This legal assembly met at the gate of the city or in a com-
mon place in villages to perform their duties. This was some-
thing similar to the Village Panchayat in many Indian villages.
The OT does not throw much light on the structure of this legal
assembly or their methods of administering justice except to
mention the phrase justice in the gate in several books. This
indicates that the administration model transpired in the pe-
riod of settlement, through the monarchical and post-exile peri-
ods. Ludwig Kohler believes that all men who had land and
property in the village as well as the priests had the right to be
the members of the legal assembly who were responsible for
administering justice. However, the wicked were not allowed to
be part of the legal assembly (1956:149-175). On the basis of
Ps.121:8, which speaks of the peasants going out of the city, to
their fields in the morning, Kohler suggests the legal assembly
met in the morning (cf. Zeph.3:5). From the story of Ruth, it
can be inferred that the assembly met together to perform their
duties (Ruth 4:2) while the parties involved stood in front of
them. The law of Moses was the basis for their judgement. When-
ever they were not able to get clear guidance from the law, they
depended on earlier decisions as precedents and rules and tra-
ditions within the local context. The proceedings of the legal
assembly were oral and not recorded. But, the decisions were
known to the local community through the members of the as-
sembly, who took part in settling the dispute. It is not known
whether this legal assembly charged any fee for their work or
not. But, they levied penalty charges and compensations to pay
the victims (Ex. 21-23, Amos 2:9-16). This gave the impression
that the administration of justice was the corporate responsibil-
ity of the community and was to be done without expecting any
reward for service. This feature of decision making by the entire
community or through their representatives in the assembly is
so significant and challenges autocratic way of making decisions
in our communities and institutions.
While this kind of legal assembly persisted in the villages in
Israel, another practice of administration was performed by the
individual judges like Deborah, Gideon, Samson and Samuel,
who emerged in the Settlement Period. This phenomenon did
not replace the local legal administrative system of elders but
helped to sort out their problems particularly the disputes be-
tween the tribes. These charismatic judges traveled to different
places and operated on the tribal level and national level. They
devoted their time, largely to settle the problems of the tribes in
addition to fighting enemies and liberating the Israelite tribes
from their oppressors. What the local legal assembly could not
achieve at the tribal or national level was compensated for by
the role of the individual judges. But, the administrative model
of the individual judges had its own limitations and did not last
long. Neither could it invalidate the authority of the local legal
assembly which consisted the elders of the community.
The legal assembly of elders in the villages continued in the
monarchical period too. One of the main responsibilities of the
kings in Israel was to administer justice to both the natives and
sojourners living in the land of their jurisdiction. Not that kings
were fighting with their enemies all the time but, they had an
excuse to neglect the administration of justice. Kings and rul-
ers were part of the administration model. To rule (malak) means
to administer justice by settling disputes, restoring justice, rec-
onciling the parties and maintaining peace in the society. Kings
in Israel were expected to give priority to this function. Their
prudent judgment in cases was note-worthy. For example, in
order to avoid further chaos in the royal family and to save the
life of Absalom, a woman sent by Joab came to David and pre-
sented the case (2 Sam. 14:1-24). After long listening and delib-
erations, David pronounced the judgment. The punishment on
Absalom was averted. Also, the Kings functioned as a higher
court of appeal when disputes were not settled satisfactorily at
the local legal assemblies. This was evident from the way
Absalom, as unauthorized judge, started administering justice
to the people who came from different cities to the royal court
seeking justice from David (2 Sam. 15:1-6). Another evidence
was the approach of the two prostitutes who sought the verdict
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of Solomon concerning the living and the dead child (1
Kings.3:16-28).
On certain occasions, the kings authorized some persons like
priests, prophets or army commanders to inquire the disputes
and settle the problem. The royal court and its appointed offic-
ers should have taken part in the administration of justice. Some-
times, the kings intimidated these officers to pronounce verdict
in favour of them, as was the case of Naboth and the vineyard (1
Kings. 21). Rehoboam joined with the officers and failed to
listen to the request of the northern Israelites and this caused
the united kingdom to be divided. Whether the kings accepted
bribes and perverted justice is not clear but, they failed quite
often in ensuring that the legal assemblies in the villages and
the officers in the royal court performed their duties fairly. They
not only ignored to check what went on in the country but also
joined with the corrupt officers, the business community and
people of influence in the society to pervert justice. Prophets
such as Elijah, Amos, Micah, Isaiah and Jeremiah criticized such
kings for not establishing the justice of the poor and the right-
eous. The administration model which included the local legal
assemblies, kings and royal court came under severe criticism
in the monarchical period and yet, continued without a better
alternative.
The situation of administration of justice during the period
of exile was also not known. The Israelites may have sorted out
their problems with the help of the priests and the elders in
their midst. For certain problems, they might have approached
the legal system of the Babylonians, since some of the Israelites
married the sons and daughters of the Babylonians and also
related to them in their work and business. But, during the
post-exile period, Ezra appointed officers from the people of Is-
rael to administer justice in every town (Ezra 7:25; 10:14). These
officers who were called magistrates (shophetim) and judges
(dayanin) administered justice to the people in the region of
Transjordan, with the approval of the King Artaxerxes. These
officers could settle the disputes on the basis of the law of Mo-
ses and the traditions developed over the years within Israel.
They did not need to judge the people of Israel on the basis of
the law of Persia. The administration of the people of Israel by
these special officers in Palestine during the post-exile period
persisted on the basis of their religious code and customs. How-
ever, the administration of elders at the local level, in villages
and towns continued. These elders opposed the suggestion of
sending away the Babylonian wives and solved the problem of
separation in families (Ezra 10:12-14). It showed that the spe-
cial arrangement of appointing magistrates and judges to apply
the laws to social life could be challenged by the corporate power
of the people. The general assembly of people deputed their
elders representing their views and making decisions on their
behalf. The book of Ezra gives an impression that a hierarchical
structure of administration had been developed in the post-ex-
ile period. Ezra and the appointed judges and magistrates were
at the top of the hierarchy of administration, the elders repre-
senting the villages and towns were in the middle and the gen-
eral assembly of people were at the bottom. What is important
to notice here, was the power of the people. The top and inter-
mediary levels in the administrative structure had to go to the
people for their consent. Decisions could not be imposed with-
out the participation of the community. Later in the post-exile
period, the High Priest became the supreme judge in the place
of the king and the people could appeal to him to settle their
disputes (2 Chro. 19:8).
From the writers of the Gospel, it is known that there were
Gentile judges in Palestine and the Israelites were reluctant to
take their quarrels to these Gentile judges. The parable of the
unjust judge in Luke 18 portrays the arrogant nature and un-
caring dealing of the judge with the widow who had pleaded for
justice for a long time. Jesus warned the Jews to settle the
disputes among themselves as far as possible instead of going to
the judges. It could be infered from the narratives of the NT
that two different institutions of administration existed for the
Jews. Jews who were following Judaism regarded the Temple
and the Sanhedrin in Jerusalem as the valid institution of ad-
ministration. Outside Jerusalem, the synagogues played the
administrative role for the Jews. The basis for the administra-
tion of justice in these institutions was the law of Moses and the
traditions developed and accepted by the Jewish authorities.
But, with the birth of the Church and the addition of disciples
from Jewish and Gentile communities, the Church in Jerusa-
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lem, under the leadership of James and Peter, played an impor-
tant role in the administration of the affairs of the converts.
They sorted out social problems through a group of social work-
ers, who took care of the distribution of food to widows (Acts. 6),
the theological problem of requiring circumcision for the Gen-
tiles and worked out the essentials of the faith of the Church.
The elders appointed in the local churches established in differ-
ent parts of Asia due to the missionary work of Paul, Barnabas,
Timothy and Titus played an administrative role in the affairs of
the congregation. How far these Christians approached the
Sanhedrin, Synagogue or Roman authorities for help in socio-
political and religious matters requires a separate research. What
we can infer is that the churches had limitations in handling all
the affairs of Christians. With the development of modern mis-
sions and the expansion of Christianity in the West and East
and the establishment of schools, colleges and hospitals, local
churches are unable to break away from the administration of
the institutions. The link between the Church and the institu-
tions is so strong in some regions that the ecclesiastical politics
affect the operations of the institutions and vice versa. In a coun-
try like India, Christians cannot avoid the help of secular courts
on certain matters due to the rules and requirements of the
government and the local churches concerning matters of mar-
riage, employment in institutions, promotions and burial.
Churches and institutions are losing their credibility as fair ad-
ministrators of their own affairs and for that of other people due
to the lack of understanding of the theology of administration.
Many of us fail to see how vital good administration is for soci-
ety. Some corrupt officials make unjust decisions for their own
gains and cause irrepairable damage to the lives of people. The
police and secular Courts often interfere with the administra-
tive system. The ideal model of administration needs not only
training in management but much more committed leaders who
fear God and practise godly values of administration.
The important aspect of administration is not planning for
the future or managing resources but analyzing and judging
present and future situations and taking proper decisions. Ad-
ministration as stated before is the judging and solving of the
problems of people and the rendering of justice. It implies tak-
ing the side of the victim and the righteous. God is the best
example of an ideal administrator. He is not described as the
administrator in the modern terms, but as Judge by essence of
administration. This is illustrated by the stories of Jacob (Gen.
31:53), Samuel (1 Sam.2:10) and the prophets (Jer.11:20; Ezek.
7:3; 36:19). The prophetic proclamation of oracles reveal Gods
characteristics as an administrator. As a Judge, He pronounces
judgment or proclaimed salvation to people through the proph-
ets. The prophetic drama of the court scene with the messen-
ger formula Thus says Yahweh is an extension of the righteous
administration of God. The Psalmist expressed this theology of
administration by proclaiming Yahweh reigns (malak Yahweh
Ps. 93, 96). Although this phrase points out the sovereignty of
Gods rule over the world, the Psalms never failed to explain the
theme of righteous administration. God as the supreme Judge
and the righteous administrator is illustrated in several places
in the Bible. His character challenged the leaders of communi-
ties and the rulers of kingdoms, to practise efficient administra-
tion (Num. 35:24; Ps. 146; Prov. 29:14). The Bible presents God
as the everlasting Judge of the past, present and future. It is
noticeable that God acts through humans and renders justice.
God and humans are partners in the ministry of administra-
tion. God prefers team leadership, democratic approach, the
participation of the community and corporate decision-making.
God has entrusted the privilege and power of the administra-
tion to humans and expects honesty and accountability in their
dealings. God as the supreme, righteous and everlasting Judge
is the theological basis for our administration model.
Connected with the model of administration are three im-
portant issues. One is the question of the basis of administra-
tion. It is observed that the system of administration in the his-
tory of Israel was based on the character of God. The God of
creation wants justice and welfare to prevail in all dealings. God
expects to render justice to humans and nature. Kingdom val-
ues, taught and promoted by Jesus, form the basis of Christian
administration. The administration of churches and institutions,
however, has to relate to the rules and regulations of the gov-
ernment. It would be wrong to refuse to obey and follow the
laws of the government. Neither would it be rational to insist
that the rules and regulations in nations should be based on
Christian values. Tensions and conflicts between Christian val-
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ues and the rules of government come up every now and then.
But, within a secular and pluralistic context, it is essential to
relate with the administration of the government. A separate
study on the relationship between Christian administration and
the government is needed.
This issue raises the next question. Could all the authorities
and powers which exist today have been instituted by God? Is it
imperative, therefore, to obey the authorities always? How is
Pauls view written in Romans 13:1-7 understood to be? Paul
knew the power and atrocities of the Roman government. In
spite of this knowledge, he advised the church in Rome to re-
gard the fact that all authorities come from God and that they
ought obey the authorities. On the one hand, Paul acknowl-
edged the sovereignty of God; that God could raise a nation as
an empire or punish the nation and bring it down. On the other
hand, Paul was concerned about the survival and progress of
the Christians who were a minority and were always the target
of blame for any political or economic problem in the Roman
empire. They underwent persecution and great suffering under
the rulers of the Roman government. Moreover, this instruction
in Romans 13:1-7 is in relation to paying of taxes, fulfilling civic
responsibility and avoiding unnecessary persecution. Refusing
to the pay taxes meant rejecting Roman authority and rule.
But, what was the view of Jesus on paying taxes to Rome? Many
Christians misinterpreted it to mean that Jesus too wanted the
Jews to accept the Roman authority and obey Caesar by paying
the taxes (Mt. 22:15-22). Most of commentators take a similar
position in interpreting the text. They think that Jesus was con-
sidering the act of the Zealots to refuse to pay the poll or head
tax as one of civil disobedience. Neither did Jesus support the
Herodians who want the taxes to be paid to Rome so they could
stay in power and enjoy the favour of Caesar. Jesus was not
ironical, anti-Herodian or political but He wanted the Jews to
fulfill their religious duty more than to merely obey Caesar.
This is the emphasis of the commentators (Bruner:1990:781-
786). However, Jesus meant differently. Since the Roman coins
bore inscriptions such as Caesar, Emperor of Rome, Son of God
and Lord or Tiberius Caesar, Son of the Divine Augustus, the
High Priest; which exalted Caesar as God and Lord and contra-
dicted one of the foremost laws in Ten Commandments, it was
possible for Jesus to ask the Pharisees to return the Roman
coins to Caesar. Although the Pharisees used a different coin
for religious purposes, they accepted the Roman coins for civic
purposes. This meant the Pharisees compromised with the Ro-
man rule and were unwilling to question the oppression and
injustice of Caesar. Jesus challenged the Pharisees, who held
fast to the Law of Moses, not to compromise with the Roman
government for their own survival and gain. It was not only a
compromise in political life but also in their religious beliefs,
which held their God to be the only true God and Lord. Jesus
pointed out their double standards in using Roman coins as
their acceptance of Roman rule and in using a different coin for
religious purposes, which symbolized contradiction. Jews were
asked to reject the evil power of Rome by returning all the Ro-
man coins to Caesar for keeping the nation under bondage,
persecution and violating the rights of people. As long as they
paid the taxes, they accepted the Roman authority. The real
meaning of the text is that the Jews need not pay the tax but
were to show their protest through civil disobedience. While
Paul made a concession in writing such an advice to the Chris-
tians in Rome, he challenged them through another instruc-
tion in Eph. 6: 10-17 to struggle against principalities, powers
and authorities. He did not accept the view that the evil powers
and authorities came from God. He wanted the church to ques-
tion such evil powers, struggle to overcome them and transform
the society.
Based on this issue, the third question in administration is
about unconditional obedience to powers and authorities in the
family, work places and society. It is a fact that some corrupt
people play politics, use the power of money and men and the
influence of caste and communal identity to get into positions
in churches and institutions. Once they come to power, they
commit all sorts of atrocities and injustice. They try to change
rules and regulations to favour themselves. They bring their own
people to participate in committees and occupy positions of
power. They swindle money, ill-treat women, take vengeance on
their opponents and the powerless and victimize and punish
those who question their way of leadership and administration.
This kind of unjust administration is neither instituted nor or-
dained by God. Such leaders try to use Romans 13:1-7 against
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the people to coerce them to obey. Christians need to discern
that which is in line with the principles of God and to co-oper-
ate with such administration. There are a number of evidences
in the Bible for questioning the policies and administration.
Leah and Rachel questioned the way Laban treated Jacob. The
Hebrew nurses who received the command of Pharaoh to kill
the male child at the birth did not obey that order. The five
daughters of Zelophehad questioned the policy of inheritance
of the family land and challenged the administration of Moses
to change the law in favour of the rights of women (Num. 27;
36). Prophets such as Elijah, Amos and Jeremiah did not obey
unjust rulers in Israel. Jesus did not accept the wrong interpre-
tation and inhuman policies of the Jewish religion and Roman
authorities. Paul, Barnabas and other disciples questioned un-
just rule and faced persecutions. It is the responsibility of
Chistians to question and find out whether such authorities
and powers are from God or instituted by evil forces to oppress
and exploit people. Christians ought to challenge the unjust
policies and powers to bring changes in the administration.
PROPHETIC MODEL
Another important model of ministry in the Bible is the pro-
phetic model. Today, the Church is expected to be the prophetic
voice of God. The second major division in the Hebrew OT is
called the Prophets (Nebiim) and consists the books of Joshua,
Judges, 1 and 2 Samuel, 1 and 2 Kings, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel
and the twelve minor prophets- from Hosea to Malachi. The
narration of the origin and growth of the prophetic movement in
these books are so important for the study of this new model in
ancient Israel. Two major periods in the history of the prophetic
movement, can be identified namely, the earlier period begin-
ning from Moses to the period of Elisha in the 9
th
century BC
and the later period from the 8
th
century to 4
th
century BC. The
watershed for this remarkable division in history is the writing
of the prophecies by the prophets from the 8
th
century onwards.
While the books of Joshua to 2 Kings written by historians tell
of the life, message and mission of the prophets, the books of
Amos, Isaiah, Jeremiah and others present to us their prophe-
cies in various literary styles and forms.
Moses is also included in the list of prophets and described
as the greatest prophet in Israel because he knew God face to
face, performed miracles and showed the mighty power of God
to the Egyptians and the Israelites (Dt.34:10-11). Moses has
already been related to the model of liberation since his call
focused on the mission of liberating the people in bondage and
fulfilling the task of leading them to the land of Canaan. But,
his role as the messenger of God in receiving and proclaiming
His word to the people cannot be ignored. He stood as a media-
tor between God and the Israelites. He represented the prob-
lems and needs of the Israelites to Yahweh. His contribution to
the ministry of prophecy is significant. First of all, Moses pro-
claimed to the people of Israel the will of God to liberate them
from bondage. They came to know that their God had seen their
affliction and would respond to their cry and groaning. It is evi-
dent that the prophetic ministry of Moses was to reveal the will
and plan of God to a particular community in a particular pe-
riod of their history. Secondly, his prophetic ministry was not
only to proclaim the will of God, by passing on information to
the people but also, providing Gods word as the basis for their
life. Receiving the Ten Commandments and mobilizing the Isra-
elites to accept the commandments as the basic instruction for
their lives by making a covenant with Yahweh was really pro-
phetic. Consolidating the liberated community on this shortest
Constitution as a norm for their faith and existence was a tre-
mendous achievement in the ministry of proclaiming Gods word.
Thirdly, whenever people who were provided with Gods word,
failed to practise it, the prophets prayed to God on their behalf.
Moses pleaded Yahweh to pardon the Israelites who were not
sincere in their covenantal relationship. Prophetic ministry is
one of intercession for people. Receiving and proclaiming Gods
word, educating and consolidating the people on the principles
of God and pleading on their failure became integral elements
of his prophetic ministry which made him a great prophet.
Although known popularly as a Judge, Samuel was a Seer
and performed the prophetic ministry of receiving Gods word
and proclaiming it to the people. In telling Gods word, Samuel
related to the community as well as to individuals like Saul.
Moses and Samuel uniquely combined the ministry of cultic
functions, liberation, administration and prophesying. It is not
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known whether Deborah actually performed cultic functions like
offering sacrifices or not, but she did administer the Israelites
by communicating Gods word to them. The message, that God
was going to deliver the Israelites from the hands of King Jabin
and his army commander Sisera, came to her to be communi-
cated to Barak. Her prophetic ministry was not limited to reveal-
ing the will of God in the lives of the individuals who came to
her but it related to the tribes of the Israelites. The deliberate
mention of the prophetic ministry of Deborah, although not
elaborate, shows that women were not discriminated against in
the sight of God, in receiving the word, communicating it, set-
tling disputes and contributing to the deliverance of people. That
Gods ministry is inclusive of women, is a reminder to share this
ministry with women.
It is obvious that the prophetic ministry rose to a new height
in the 10
th
and 9
th
century BC with Nathan, Gad, Elijah and
Elisha. With the emergence of monarchy in Israel, prophets be-
came the political activists and they had to confront the ruling
kings, communicate Gods word to challenge them, plan and
set direction in national politics. Saul and Samuel could not get
along well. But, David gave an official status to the prophetic
ministry and invited Nathan and Gad to be the members of his
court in communicating Gods word and helping in administra-
tion. Though Nathan enjoyed status and recognition, he did not
fail to proclaim Gods message to David, when David had an
adulterous relationship with Bethsheba and killed her hus-
band Uriah (2 Sam. 12). Gad the prophet proclaimed the proph-
ecy for taking the census of the soldiers as failure on the part of
David to trust Yahweh (2 Sam. 24:11-18). Nathans prophecy to
David in 2 Samuel 7:11-16 is so significant to the extent it laid
the messianic expectation as an inevitable theology in the his-
tory of Israel. A new political Davidic tradition was created by
Nathan for good or bad in Israel. But, it defined the close rela-
tionship between God and King, the accountability of the king
in adminstering the people and provided political stability to
continue the monarchy in the line of David. Nathans intensive
involvement in politics could be seen in his effort in promoting
Solomons succession to the throne. He noticed the struggle for
power going on in the different camps of Absalom and later with
Adonijah and he analysed the consequences and opted for a
better solution if not the perfect one. He discussed it with David
and showed a preference for Solomon to be enthroned (1 Kings.
1:22-27).
As the situation got worse, the prophets took up further chal-
lenges in their ministry. Elijah and Elisha, 9
th
century prophets
in the divided kingdom of the north, were powerful in commu-
nicating Gods word to people, confronting the kings, to the ex-
tent of being branded as trouble makers in Israel which led to
their banishment. Yet, they performed miracles, including the
raising of the dead. The ministry of performing miracles, the
added dimension to the prophetic model, became a necessity in
their given context to prove Yahweh as the only true God and
not Baal. It served as the symbolic pointer to the ministry of
Jesus. Their historical setting was marked by political atroci-
ties, religious syncretism and corruption in society. King Ahab
and his Phoenician wife Jezebel showed no fear for Yahweh or
respect for the law of Moses. The religion and worship of Baal
were officially promoted as an important and acceptable cult.
The priests and the prophets of Yahweh were persecuted but
the priests of Baal were given financial support. People wor-
shipped Yahweh as well as Baal simultaneously and the conse-
quences of the fertility cult were seen in their society. The rich
became richer and powerful. The growth of large estates
(latifundium) resulted in the oppression of peasants. In this hos-
tile atmosphere, Elijah had to proclaim Gods word and prove
Yahweh as the true and powerful God and not Baal. He proved
it on Mount Carmel and challenged the king, the false prophets
of Baal and the Israelites to turn to Yahweh (1 Kings. 18). Elijah
received a clear message from Yahweh to anoint Hazael as king
over Syria and Jehu as king over Israel (1 Kings 19:15-18). He
fulfilled the role of making the king for Israel and Syria. This
happened before the death of Ahab. It signalled the end of his
rule. Rejecting the unjust ruler and anointing another king while
the present king still ruled the country was a remarkable but
risky political act on the part of Elijah. Unable to tolerate the
injustices of Ahab, particularly in killing Naboth and taking the
inheritance of the vineyard, Elijah not only condemned the atroci-
ties of the monarchy, but also pronounced the death penalty on
the king (1 Kings 21:17-18). Elijahs prophetic ministry touched
religion, politics and society.
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Elisha, following the footsteps of Elijah, continued the pow-
erful prophetic ministry of bringing Gods word to the people
and the king. He performed more miracles such as changing
the bitter water into useful water for drinking and irrigation of
the land (2 Kings 2:19-22); filling the ditches in the dry valley
with water to help the army and king (2 Kings 3:14-20); provid-
ing oil in jars to the widow to sell in order to clear her debts and
redeem her two sons (4:1-7), raising the only son of Shunamite
up from the dead (4:31-37), feeding hundreds of hungry people
with barley bread (4:42-44), healing the leprosy of Naaman (5:1-
19) and floating the fallen axes in the river (6:1-7). Whether
these miracles were performed in the lives of individuals or the
community, they were liberative and not merely a show of the
power of the prophet to earn fame and money. Proclaiming Gods
word was combined with liberation from hunger, thirst, debts
and becoming slaves, disabilities and deseases and even from
death. After the ministry of Moses, this dimension came again
to the forefront in the ministry of Elijah and Elisha and later in
the ministry of Jesus as he continued the prophetic tradition.
Elishas prophetic ministry was so closely related to his national
interest in protecting the people from enemies. What modern
satellite technology could do was done by Elisha thousands of
years ago, in predicting the movement of the armies of their
enemies (2 Kings 6:11-13) through divine revelation. His politi-
cal activism continued to the extent of anointing and instruct-
ing Jehu to implement the punishment of Yahweh on Ahab and
proclaiming the victory of Israel over Aram (2 Kings 13:14-24).
As we analyze more the ministry of Elijah and Elisha, we are
convinced that they did not merely proclaim prophecies but were
involved in the implementation of the word of God in their reli-
gious and political history. No wonder that these two prophets
were called Chariots and horsemen of Israel (2 Kings 2:12;
13:14), a accolade conferred by the public and acknowledged by
historians in Israel, for their unique ministry of combining proc-
lamation and action.
The history of the prophetic movement from the 8
th
century
BC, however, showed not a separation of proclamation from ac-
tion but more of specialization in proclaiming Gods justice, writ-
ing of the prophecies and challenging the religious and political
authorities to establish justice and peace. The northern king-
dom experienced political instability due to coup and capturing
the throne by the commanders of the army. The narratives of
the book of Kings in the OT bring out the uncertainties in the
political realm. Though the southern kingdom of Judah prac-
tised the tradition of enthroning the descendants of David, most
of the kings who came to the throne did not prove their ability of
administration. Kings misused their position and power. Busi-
ness people exploited the labourers. The Rich accumulated
wealth, particularly they increased in their possession of land
and built expensive houses. Religious syncretism and false pi-
etism took deep root among the people. The officials at the city
gate perverted justice and ruined the lives of many families.
More and more organized injustice started penetrating the soci-
eties of these kingdoms. People exhibited helplessness to ques-
tioning such atrocities and exploitations. God had to raise char-
ismatic prophets such as Amos and Hosea to minister in the
north and Isaiah, Micah and Jeremiah to prophesy in the south-
ern kingdom. There is no intent to go into the details of their
family background and life except to highlight some of their
prophecies of judgement proclaimed to the people and authori-
ties. The oracle of Amos recorded in 2:6-8 is blunt in pointing
out the manner in which the justice of the righteous and the
needy was sold for silver and a pair of sandals. Removing ones
sandal is not of a great significance, in terms of money but giv-
ing it to others, as portrayed in the story of Ruth, meant a cus-
tom and symbolic act of transferring power and authority to
another person at the city gate. By taking bribes, they took the
justice belonging to the poor and transferred it to the rich, who
were the offenders. Amos referred to it as selling the justice for
silver and a pair of sandals. Trampling the head of the poor
into the dust and pushing the afflicted out of the way, refers to
the economic exploitation and marginalization of the people to
make them yet poorer in their society. Peasants, labourers, wid-
ows and orphans fell into the category of the poorest. These
people could not think of rising out of their poverty. Micah ex-
pressed the pain and misery they suffered and condemned the
actions of the exploiters, describing it as tearing the skin of the
poor, chopping their bones and flesh and drinking soup made
out of the lives of the people (Micah 3:1-4). Isaiah presented the
attitude of the wicked that they call good as evil and evil as
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good (Isa. 5:20) and condemned their rapid acquisation of wealth
especially land and houses. (Isa. 5:8). The prophets, including
Jeremiah, analyzed the society and were certain that the op-
pressors like kings, officials, military commanders, business
people, false prophets and priests worked together in perverting
justice and ignoring the plight of the people. They held the op-
pressors responsible. They challenged the corruption in the po-
litical, religious and socio-economic aspects of the kingdoms and
called the nations to repent and seek Yahweh. Mere worship
and performance of rituals were not enough. They were mean-
ingless and unacceptable to God if the leaders failed to practise
the laws of Yahweh and establish justice, welfare and peace.
The rich and powerful could not bribe the true prophets to sup-
port them. Proclaiming Gods justice subjected the prophets to
opposition and persecution, forcing them to quit from continu-
ing the prophetic ministry. From their sufferings in prophetic
ministry, it is evident that the prophets had genuine concern
for the people, wishing they neither had to suffer attacks from
their enemies, nor taken captives to other nations. They wished
for the delay in the coming of the day of Yahweh so that the
entire nation could repent to avoid destruction. Amos, Micah,
Isaiah and Jeremiah pleaded God not to punish their people
but to be merciful to them. They envisaged Gods salvation after
punishment. The pain of knowing the suffering of the poor, on
the one hand and the impending judgment, on the other hand,
affected the physical, emotional and spiritual life of the Proph-
ets, proving the genuineness of their prophetic ministry.
The Prophetic ministry did not simply criticize the injustices
in the society and proclaim Gods judgment on the nation. It
did more by way of strengthening the faith of the people of God
in times of despondency, especially during the period in exile.
Second Isaiah of chs.40-55 proclaimed the prophecies of salva-
tion and return to the promised land. He cautioned them not to
think of Marduk, the Babylonian god, as powerful but to keep
faith in Yahweh. His encouragement to the community in exile
helped them to continue in the faith of Yahweh. Ezekiels vi-
sions of dry bones, communicated to the people, gave them hope
and revived the community in exile. Their prophecies of salva-
tion provided the analysis for the history of the past and present
and also provided them with the guidelines to return to the
land and live according to the values of Yahweh. Joining with
the prophets in exile, Third Isaiah (chs. 56-66) of post-exilic
period proclaimed the message of salvation and new creation.
The motif of new creation energized by the Second Isaiah (48:6-
8) and the Third Isaiah (65:17-25) added a new dimension to
the prophetic ministry. It showed that the prophets supported
new creation and were involved in the transformation of the
society. This did not refer to the modernization of the society
but to the renewing faith in Yahweh and the re-building of the
post-exile society to one of justice, peace and progress where
the rich and powerful would share their wealth and authority
with the poor and powerless. The situation would even reverse,
to the extent of wolves becoming sheep, if the rich relinguished
power voluntarily and live with the poor without violence and
harm to the latter (Isa.11:1-9). Haggai, Zachariah and Malachi
followed this motif and were involved with the people in re-struc-
turing the pattern of worship, rituals, offerings, tithes, adminis-
tration of justice and sharing of resources (Ezra 5:1-2; 6:13-14).
By transforming the society, creating the new society became
part of the ministry of the prophets.
There is not much detail about the prophetic ministry of the
post-exile period except for the ministry of Daniel, during the
period of persecution by the Antiocheus Epiphaneus IV. With
the rise of apocalyptism, the prophetic ministry declined. At the
time of the rule of Greeks and Romans, many Jews longed to
see the resurrgence of prophets like Moses, Elijah and Elisha
and regarded Jesus as a prophet re-living in the similar tradi-
tion of the early prophets (Mt. 11:9-14; 17:1-7; Lk. 4:16-18; Jn.
4:19-20). The preaching and miracles of Jesus showed the power
of the prophetic ministry. He repeated the old messages of the
prophets and applied them to His own context and even re-
interpreted them. He criticized the injustices of the religious
and political authorities and the administrators especially tax
collectors. He proclaimed the message of salvation. He accepted
people calling Him a prophet, although wanted them to regard
Him more than a prophet. He fulfilled the prophetic ministry
foretold of Him in the OT (Lk. 4:16) but did not stop there. He
asked the disciples to continue the prophetic ministry in the
world. The NT church took up the prophetic ministry and pro-
claimed Gods justice throughout Asia. The prophetic role of
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the church is to be the critique of the society as well as the
creator of the new society by transforming it to manifest the
values of the Kingdom of God.
The Prophetic ministry is a powerful model. Three contem-
porary issues connected with this model of ministry is discussed
below. The First one is the prevalent idea about the prophetic
ministry in churches. Many pastors and lay people think of
prophecies rather than prophetic ministry. Today, many Chris-
tians understand the function of speaking in tongues or declar-
ing the blessing of God by reciting a biblical verse in the wor-
ship service, as the prophetic ministry of the church. These gifts
of the Spirit are needed and given to the church. It can help a
few individuals in the worship service. The dominant notion is
the fulfillment of prophecies in history. Christians look for proof
text and try to see which prophecies have been fulfilled in his-
tory and which ones are yet to be fulfilled. The prophecies about
the fall of the northern and southern kingdom of Israel are
quoted as the evidence for the fulfillment of Gods word spoken
through the prophets. The popular prophecies are the predic-
tions about the birth and death of Jesus. The OT quotations
used by the writers of the Gospel are read during the Christmas
service (Mt. 1:22-23), Palm Sunday (Mt. 21:4-5, 12-13), Good
Friday (Mt. 27:45-46) and Easter (Lk. 24:24-25, 44-48) to prove
the truthfulness and validity of the prophecies in the Bible. How-
ever, preachings and teaching on the issue of prophecies and
fulfillment fail to give importance to the role of the prophets and
to see the way Jesus fulfilled the prophetic ministry in His life.
Jesus was not only a proclaimer of justice and a performer of
miracles but also a victim of injustice. As a victim, Jesus repre-
sented the sufferings of the people. His life and death repre-
sent the re-enactment of the daily sufferings of people and His
resurrection is the hope of the victims. From this perspective of
Jesus as a prophetic persona as well as a victim, it could be said
that the prophetic model is to be a minister and a victim to
identify with and represent the suffering people.
The Second issue is the question of the credibility of the
church in playing its prophetic role. Churches in different places
are losing their testimony because many bishops, superintend-
ents, pastors and treasurers are corrupt. They fail to produce
proper and honest accounts for auditing and for their own Dioc-
esan or Church Councils as well as for the government. There
are incidences of money swindling, taking a large sums as com-
mission, compulsion to pay donations and bribes in the matters
of appointments in institutions and selling of properties and
using the money for elections in the church. A few leaders and
members of the congregations are caught up matters of moral-
ity, murder and theft. Caste and communal favouritism and
nepotism in selecting candidates for ministries, appointing teach-
ers, nurses, doctors and other staff in institutions clearly por-
trayed elements of perversion of justice. Victimization and pun-
ishment for those who seek justice and rights has ruined many
families. Many members of the Diocese know very well that
churches have to set their own house right before raising a voice
against injustice in the society. This has hindered the prophetic
role of the church. Should we wait till churches set themselves
right? This will not happen. Churches are not going to be per-
fect as long as problems of corruption and injustice thrive among
them. To neglect its prophetic responsibility till the church at-
tains perfection is not a correct decision. The prophetic function
operates on two fronts. One is the corrupt authorities within
the church and the other is the society. Churches and institu-
tions, on the one side, should be criticized and challenged by
people who believe in its prophetic role. They could be involved
in transforming structures and policies. On the other hand, lead-
ers and members should criticize the political and economic
policies and social injustice in the society. Operating on those
two fronts can mutually challenge and change the church and
society.
The third issue is the question of identifying and undergoing
the suffering. Can the church fulfill the prophetic role of identi-
fying with and re-enacting the suffering of victims when it be-
comes wealthy and powerful? The important dimension in the
prophetic ministry is the messianic role of Jesus and the
Church. Jesus identified Himself with the victims of injustice in
His own death. He was powerless and He suffered. The messianic
prophecy of Isaiah 52:13-53:12 applied to Jesus is still applica-
ble to all those who suffer. It can be applied to the church as a
corporate body, to bear the Cross, suffer and identify with such
victims. But today, many mainline denominations and independ-
ent churches are wealthy in land and properties, shopping com-
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plex, estate and gardens and institutions. Churches have be-
come a symbol of wealth and power. They are misusing their
wealth and power to oppress people within Christendom. Group
and communal politics dominate in the administration of
churches. This does not mean that churches should sell their
properties. However, unless a conscientious effort is taken to
identify with the poor and victims of persecution, churches can-
not be called truly prophetic. Fulfilling the prophetic role of the
church implies analyzing the socio-political trend, consequences
in the economic and religious lives of the people, criticizing the
unjust policies, upholding human rights and raising their voice
for the poor and powerless, as the earlier prophets did during
their historical period. The Prophetic model of ministry of the
church demands a move towards suffering for the sake of jus-
tice and proper use of power rather than showing its wealth and
authority.
REFORMER MODEL
Reforms are needed at every stage of development in society.
Structuring and re-structuring of religion, politics, the economy
and administration are integral parts of reforms. In analyzing
the various ministries of people during different periods in his-
tory, it is easy to notice the unique contribution of Ezra and
Nehemiah in reforming the religious, social and administrative
aspects of their post-exile community. Not that others such as
Moses, Judges and prophets failed to reform their society. They
too tried to transform different aspects of their society in com-
mitting themselves to the main mission for which they were
called. But, the post-exilic situation was a critical one since they
could not have their own kings to lead them. They were under
the political rule of Persia. Early governors appointed by the
kings were also Persian till Nehemiah was deputed with author-
ity as governor to administer the territory across the river under
the Persian rule. The Post-exile community was looking for a
leader from their own community to guide and reform their so-
ciety. They returned to the promised land with mixed feelings
and tried to restore the country. The Temple was not yet re-
constructed to unite all of them in worship and festivity. Many
Israelites including some priests, Levites and officers took sons
and daughters in marriage from the Babylonians and brought
them to the land. As they settled again in the land, they mar-
ried sons and daughters of other ethnic groups living around
them. The Wall of Jerusalem needed re-construction to give
them security. The Sabbath was ignored. Priests and Levites
were not taken care of properly by the people. There was no
discipline and people were doing whatever they wanted. They
lacked leadership and needed reform. Their society was in dan-
ger of collapsing again and falling prey to further foreign rule.
They needed a constructive programme of reform to stabilize
their religious, social and economic life in the land God had
given to them.
Understanding what was going on in the returned commu-
nity encountered in Judah, Ezra and Nehemiah took certain
bold steps towards achieving solutions. The first step Ezra took
on his arrival was to appoint magistrates and judges from the
people of Israel in every village and towns to sort out the prob-
lems and disputes of families (Ezra 7:25). People could not get
justice due to the lack of administrators. Representatives of vil-
lages lived permanently in Jerusalem and met together as a
council to take decisions. Secondly, Ezra took up the teaching
of the laws, educating the people, in an attempt to root the
community to the law of God. Reforms require teaching and
conscientization programmes. The more the principles and val-
ues of life are taught the easier it is to intensify the reform.
Thirdly, Ezra knew the evil consequences of mixed marriages
especially with the Canaanites. It led the Israelites to forsake
Yahweh and worship Baal, practise abominations, idolatry, adul-
tery and inhuman practices which resulted in the exile. He,
therefore, took a firm step to call those who had entered mixed
marriages, including some of the priests, Levites and officials, to
get separated from such wives. Ezra was not a racist but a re-
formist, trying to avoid the evils of syncretism in the lives of the
Israelites (Ezra 9-10). Severe opposition to his decision led to a
solution which permitted the retention of the foreign wives on
condition that they would worship Yahweh only and accept the
historical and religious traditions of the Israelites. The book of
Ruth, written at this time of controversy, proved that Moabite
woman like Ruth was accepted and regarded as an ancestor of
David, especially when she declared to Naomi, Your God is my
God and your people are my people. Ezras decision and final
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solution to the issue of mixed marriages with condition to put
away the foreign wives or to convert themselves to Yahwehism
was clearly a reform touching family, faith and worship led the
people through a confession by narrating their history of libera-
tion from Egypt, possessing the land and their losing of it in
exile.
Nehemiah intensified the reform by constructing the wall of
Jerusalem (Neh. 6:1-15) and initiating a covenant renewal which
stipulated that the Israelites thereafter will never marry the sons
and daughters of the Canaanites (Neh. 9-10). He called for a
national confession of sins and repentance. Nehemiah dismissed
the priest Eliashib who appointed Tobiah, the corrupt leader
and anti-reformist over the chambers of the house of Yahweh.
These two persons jointly enjoyed the offerings and sacrifices
brought by the people, neglecting the other priests and Levites.
Since priests and Levites were unable to get their food, they
started leaving the cultic profession and going to work in the
field to earn their bread (Neh. 13:1-12). This resulted in neglect
in the worship of Yahweh and the reading of the word of God to
the people. Nehemiah rectified this situation by taking action
on officials, rationing the supply of food to the priests and Levites
and fire wood for sacrifices and encouraging the people to bring
in their offerings to the temple and cultic centers. He appointed
treasurers to be the custodians of these resources. Analyzing
the situation and re-organizing the system and community re-
sulted in major changes in the society. The sociological impor-
tance of the sabbath rest to the people and animals, as in the
law of Moses, was enforced by Nehemiah. No one in Israel was
allowed to tread wine presses, harvest fruits, load and unload
vegetables or take them inside the city of Jerusalem on the
sabbath day (Neh.13:15-22). Allowing work to go on during the
sabbath meant ignoring the need for rest. It was a violation to
the rights of the labourers. Another area of reform is the effort
to restore the land and fields of the people who returned from
exile and abolition of slavery (Neh. 5:1-12). Nehemiah prohib-
ited the practice of lending money for interest on mortgage and
accumulating the land of the poor. His land reform addressed
to the economic problem of the post - exile community.
The religious and sociological reforms initiated by Ezra and
Nehemiah, with the support of the priests and prophets, helped
the post-exile community to be rooted again in the laws of
Yahweh. The rationale for the reform needs to be mentioned
here. First of all, both Ezra and Nehemiah based their reform
on the analysis of their history. They emphasized the tradition
of liberation and the Exile. The bondage under Midianites,
Philistines and Babylon was possible because of the corruption
in religious and social life. It is important to learn lessons from
events in history so that measures are taken to prevent the re-
currence of social and religious degeneration. Secondly, the cov-
enant made at Sinai was intended to establish a permanent
relationship. God, as a partner of the covenant, expected the
Israelites to fulfill His laws in their lives. Although the people
broke the covenant, God wanted to fulfill His commitment to
His people by liberating, leading and blessing them. Reforma-
tion based on covenantal relationship can be sustained by con-
tinual renewal of the covenant. Thirdly, the reform was an act of
gratitude to the grace and mercy of Yahweh, who raised up Cyrus,
Artaxeres and Darius to help the Israelites to return to Jerusa-
lem and construct the temple and the wall. The Israelites could
not take the salvation of God for granted and continue in their
old life style. They were expected to acknowledge it and mani-
fest it in their lives. Fourthly, reforms can be based on ideolo-
gies. However, the Israelite society was based on the worship of
Yahweh. Any reform, therefore, in Israel is to be based on the
worship. Knowing this fact, Ezra and Nehemiah based their re-
form of society on the proper worship of Yahweh. Reformation
in religion and society requires such insights into history, criti-
cal examination of the existing situation of the country and, the
integration of various aspects of life and firm actions.
Although the reformer model emanated from a particular his-
torical period in Israel, the problem of mixed marriages, ex-com-
munication and divorce still confronts the ministry. Jesus and
the apostles spoke about this issue and gave some direction to
the churches. Therefore, the issue of marriage in contemporary
times needs a brief discussion. There are three main types of
marriages namely, Intra-religious marriage, Inter-religious mar-
riage and Inter-Caste/Tribal marriage. Whatever be the case,
the main trend in our cultural context is to arrange the mar-
riage. Very few marriages are contracted on the basis of genu-
ine love and so are able to cross the barriers of caste and reli-
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gion. First, intra-religious marriage means marrying a person
belonging to another Christian denomination, e.g. marriage be-
tween a Roman Catholic and a Seventh- Day Adventist or
Bretheren or Baptist or Presbyterian or Methodist or Anglican
or Pentecostal. Since the bride and groom are Christian, there
is no theological problem in solemnizing their marriage in the
church and enter in the register of the government. However,
some denominations insist that both parties should belong to
the same denomination or one party should transfer their mem-
bership to belong to the other denomination. Some clergy refuse
either due to doctrinal reasons or the policy of their denomina-
tion to solemnize if the bride or groom belongs to another de-
nomination. These reasons have created problems and difficul-
ties in the arranging of marriages. Parents feel pressured to
look for partners for their sons/daughters within their own de-
nomination or to compel their children to accept the doctrines
of other denominations to work out the marriage. Sometimes
the prospective couples are required to go through rites of im-
mersion baptism, catechism classes and confirmation again.
Theological and ecclesiastical reforms are needed in this area of
inter-Christian marriage. The Bible never says that both the
groom and the bride should belong to the same church or de-
nomination. The policy of getting a clearance letter from the
churches to which they belong to announce the banns, the veri-
fication of membership and background and the payment of the
prescribed fee to solemnize the marriage are necessary. Such
procedures are helpful and guards against some fraud in mar-
riages. However, it is wrong to refuse marriage between couples
belonging to different or least recognized denominations. It is
true that it is impossible to recognize all the Christian denomi-
nations including Christian cultic groups like the Mormons,
Jehovah Witnesses, Jesus Only, etc. The beliefs and practices
of denominations should be carefully evaluated before banning
links with them. However, churches need to extend a warm wel-
come and show a more ecumenical spirit and understanding for
intra-Christian marriages.
Secondly, very few Christians marry persons belonging to
another religion. Inter-religious marriages are not common since
the arranged marriage system is usually preferred. Parents look
for Christian partners for their children. However, two trends
developing in the past years have caused difficulties in the min-
istry in the matter of marriages. One is the trend of moving to
another region or country in pursuit of education and in search
of employment or a partner or falling in love with another who
belongs to the Hinduism, Islam, Jainism or Tribal faith. An-
other trend is the sociological factor of maintaining links with
the caste, tribal communities which maintain their own belief
systems and customs. There have been incidences of some Chris-
tian girls and boys from villages, having to marry a Hindu or
Muslim partner within their own community for the sake of
maintaining kith and kin relationship, keeping property within
the family or for the sake of employment. Yet others got mar-
ried, in spite of opposition from parents or husbands, particu-
larly in the case of Hindu and Islamic women who accepted
Christ secretly and continued as secret Christians till their
entire family got converted. If each of them tried to maintain
their own faith and pursued their own religion, how should the
church deal with this problem? Should the church excommu-
nicate the member who got married to another belonging to a
different religion? Should the church refuse to baptize their
child? Could they allow the Christian partner to continue to
worship and take part in the Holy Communion in the church?
Does the Bible give any guidance on this problem? I know some
churches have taken severe disciplinary action by ex-communi-
cating persons who got married to a Hindu and Muslim and
announced the decision openly in the worship service. They
closed the door on that person and instructed the parents, broth-
ers and sisters not to have any relationship with that inter-reli-
gious marriage. This kind of action has ruined the image and
welfare of some families.
It is not known whether Joseph and Moses who married
women of Egypt and Midian respectively, converted their wives
to worship Yahweh. It is also not known whether Bathsheba, a
Hittite women worshipped Yahweh after marrying David? It is
not clear for how long Ruth continued in the religion of Moab
till she declared the acceptance of the people and religion of
Naomi as her own. What did Paul mean by the text in 1 Cor.
7:12-16? Even though he firmly advised not to be yoked with
the unbeliever in marriage, Paul made a concession for those
who got converted to Christianity from Judaism or the mystery
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religions of the Greek and Romans after the marriage. He did
not advise the partner who got converted and joined the church
to divorce or separate himself or herself from their spouse and
children if they were still non-Christians. Separation or divorce
endangers the family life. Paul envisaged the possibility for the
other unbelieving partner to know the Gospel and commit to
Christ. The implication of the text is that the Church of which
the believing partner is a member should not take any discipli-
nary action if he or she continues to live with the other unbe-
lieving partner and is responsibly leading the family life.
The Bible insists, in general, that both partners should be-
long to the same faith and cherish the values of God. It presents
cases and consequences of inter-religious marriages in the his-
tory of Israel as a warning to the community of the Christian
faith. Faith can be compromised and syncretism could creep in
the lives of the couple and affect the family and community.
Practical difficulties like participating in the festivals and reli-
gious ceremonies of the other partner, deciding the religion of
their children and their marriages and burial procedures could
bring conflict between the couple and their children. The best
advice is to belong to the same religion. However, the churches
ought to change their attitude towards people who have opted
for inter-religious marriage, particularly in the case of secret
Christians and those in sociological bond with their caste, vil-
lage and community. Instead of taking action on them and clos-
ing the door on them, they could express humane concern, reli-
gious tolerance and concession to these persons by allowing
them to attend worship, services and taking part in Holy Com-
munion and encouraging them to continue in the faith of Chris-
tianity.
Third, the issue of inter-caste and inter-tribal marriages needs
attention. Our social context is pluralistic in terms of race, caste
and tribe, language, culture and customs. This is dealt with in
detail in a later chapter. Christians have accepted the caste sys-
tem and are practising it rigorously in the arrangement of mar-
riages within their own caste. This practice promotes the con-
tinuance and consolidation of caste system in the church. It
breeds segragation and affects the unity and fellowship of Chris-
tians. Caste marriages among Christians raises theological and
sociological questions. Does the Bible insist on marrying within
the same caste? Although the society perpetuates the caste
system, churches need to challenge this evil. The theological
justification is that everyone is created in the image of God. In
the sight of God, there is no caste or colour or gender discrimi-
nation. God wants more integration of ethnic groups and
strengthening of Christian fellowship. Jesus was not a pure Jew.
He came from a family of ancestors who got married to people of
other race and religion. Paul taught the churches not to prac-
tise racial or caste discrimination and to regard everyone as equal
and valuable in Christ. The sociological problem of the caste
system is challenged by the theological understanding of crea-
tion and the nature of the Christian faith and fellowship.
Churches should proclaim the necessity of inter-caste marriage
as theologically valid and educate the youth to break this op-
pressive and divisive barrier to create a new society of believers.
POLITICAL ACTION MODEL
Political action, in brief, means dealing with political author-
ity and changing policies, rules and regulations to protect the
rights of the people and provide justice, welfare and peace. This
happened in the history of Israel, at a particular point in time,
to avert the genocide of the Jews in the kingdom of Persia.
Esther, under the guidance of Mordecai, took political action
against king Ahasuerus and the royal court. She was not the
first one in their history to confront the king and the court. The
political actions of Moses, Elijah, Elisha and other 8
th
century
prophets have already been pointed out. They did it as part of
the prophetic ministry to which they were called. But, Esther
was not a prophet, neither was she assigned with a duty nor
given the authority to perform those duties. She rose up to the
occasion and risked her life saying, if I perish, I perish (Esther
4:16). Many of us fail to value her action and consider it as an
easy one because she was married to the king and enjoyed the
status of Queen. But her words, if I perish, I perish revealed
her difficulty in approaching the king with a totally different
request and yet anticipating that her request would be accepted.
As Queen, she would have been expected to support the poli-
cies of the king and not to contradict or confront the govern-
ment. Any action she took for the sake of Jews could be inter-
preted by Haman and his group as a communal one and a po-
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litical treason instigated by Mordecai and other Jews. Esther
and the Jews could have been misunderstood as planning to
usurp power in Persia. Yet, Esther did confront the King and
the court by defying the rules of meeting the king and finally,
she achieved her purpose and saved the lives of thousands of
Jews. It looked as though everything went on smoothly but it is
impossible to ignore the opposition of the hard core officials in
the palace and of Haman. The basis for her action was humani-
tarian and she did not allow unjust policies to be implemented
to deprive the minority Jews of their rights to exist in that coun-
try. It was a life-saving mission which brought the oppressor to
account for his misdeeds. The channel for her political action
was a combination of spiritual, strategies and the involvement
of the victims. First, Mordecai and Esther had elaborate discus-
sions on the prevailing political situation in Persia and the de-
velopment of the trend towards oppressing the Jews. She could
not appeal her case before the King and his court simply on the
emotional basis of saving her own life or the lives of her commu-
nity. Esther collected all the data and facts with which to argue
and convince the king. Political action demands such prior
preparation. Second, the affected party should be made aware
of forthcoming rules and policies and its consequences for their
existence and progress. The gathering of all the Jews was to
conscientize them (Esther 4:16-17). Thirdly, Esther understood
the need for spiritual strength and prayer support for political
action. She required the community of Jews to fast and pray for
three days. She too fasted and prayed for three days. Fasting
and prayer played an important role in Jewish spirituality. By
it, they analyzed their history, realized Gods covenant and ac-
tions, repented of their mistakes and requested for pardon to
re-energize themselves and continue as the true and sincere
community of Yahweh, diligently following His commandments
(cf. Isa. 58:6-9). The three days of fasting and prayer may have
made Esther and the people to reflect on the above aspects and
gain strength and hope to challenge the injustice. Fourth, their
spirituality and openness to discussion led Esther to achieve
the goal without violence, quarrelling and bloodshed on both
sides. Political actions need not necessarily be always violent or
militant. Non-violence has been a feature of many political ac-
tions in the history of many nations.
However, there are evidences in the history of Jews using
violence to overthrow the unjust political rule and persecutions.
The chief priest Mathatias and his sons Judah, Jonathan and
Simon known as Macabees were compelled to revolt against
Antiochus Epiphanus IV who persecuted the Jews in Palestine.
He defiled their Temple in Jerusalem by sacrificing pigs on the
altars and compelled the Jews to worship the emperor and fol-
low Greek philosophies and practices of the mystery religion in
170-160 BC. The political action of revolt and battle against this
ruler was initiated by the Hasmonean family of Mathatias in
collaboration with the local people. Many Jews died in the bat-
tle. They risked their lives to attain freedom from Antiochus and
form their own Jewish State. Many of the political actions of the
Jews took place in different parts of Palestine during the rule of
the Greeks and Romans. They were crushed with force and blood-
shed. Although they are not documented in the Bible, it is docu-
mented in the writings of the Inter-testament period, Josephus
and Philo.
Political actions continued in the days of Jesus and the early
church. Jesus not only challenged the unjust rule of the Ro-
mans by instructing Pharisees to refuse to pay the poll taxes
(Mt. 22:15-22) but also confronted the pomp and pagentry of
the Romans with an alternative action of entering into Jerusa-
lem on a colt and with the singing of Hosanna (meaning save
us) by the people. The Triumphal entry, as it was called by NT
scholars, is taken for granted by churches and celebrated as
Palm Sunday to mark the completion of the Lent season and
preparation for Good Friday and Easter. The real meaning of
the event of the triumphal entry of Jesus into Jerusalem has
been reduced to a mere ritual of going around the church build-
ing, bearing palm branches and singing hymns and lyrics. What
Jesus did was a satyagraha against all the injustices of the
Romans to the Jews. It was a protest march initiated and organ-
ized to send a signal of warning to the rulers of the nation. He
proved that the powerless people did not have weapons like the
Roman soldiers. They had palm branches which could not kill
anyone but could encourage them to look toward the hope of
liberation, just as the spring shoots of the palm symbolizes new
life. They did not have horses and chariots like the Romans had
to flaunt their royalty and power and intimidate them. But, they
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had harmless creatures like donkeys, the common means of
transport for the poor. The Donkey did not represent power as
the destructive weapon of war. A Red carpet welcome was as a
symbol of status and pomp given to world rulers. But, the pow-
erless people welcomed the political action of Jesus by spread-
ing their clothes as a sign of joining the protest with their leader.
It was their expression of solidarity with the struggles for free-
dom and justice. Political leaders noticed the resurgence of a
new leader, Jesus and the solidarity of the people with him.
They understood its impact as threatening their power and au-
thority and the Romans were sure to consider the event as a
political revolt against their rule. They planned to suppress this
political movement. Jesuss action of protesting and taking the
people along with Him, resulted in His arrest, trial and crucifix-
ion.
The basis of Jesus political action was His call to be Messiah
and to establish the kingdom of God with its principles and
values on this earth. This could not be achieved simply by preach-
ing, teaching and performing miracles among the Jews. On the
other side, it needed more tough action to challenge and change
the unjust rule of the Romans. His march and the shout of the
people declared the end of wordly values and began a new chapter
in human history. The method Jesus adapted was practical. First,
He prepared the people through His preaching and teaching.
He educated them and also corrected their wrong views and
interpretations. This is a necessity for any political action. But,
some of the religious leaders like priests, Pharisees and
Sadducees were unwilling to see this point and opposed the
methods Jesus has adapted. Second, Jesus planned carefully
the alternative strategy. He deliberately chose to enter into Je-
rusalem riding on a donkey amidst the shouts of hosanna, which
was a more positive slogan than provocative ones against the
authorities. He allowed the people to bear the palm branches
than banners or swords or bombs. Third, Jesus did not go alone
or with a selected few of His disciples, as happened on the Trans-
figuration day. He planned it in such a way that people could
join Him. The timing of the event was after resurrecting Lazarus.
Involving the poor and powerless in His protest march was an
important strategy. It gave meaning to the struggle, which was
intended for the people, by the people. Fourth, Jesus did not
instigate His disciples or people to resort to violence to achieve
the goal of political, religious, socio-economic changes in Israel.
He condemned the use of weapons (Mt. 5:38-42; 26:51-54) ei-
ther to protect or take revenge. Non-violence was His major char-
acteristic in transforming individuals and society.
In the history of the early church, there is not much to read
on the actual political actions of the apostles except for their
message against principalities and powers. Paul wrote to instruct
the Church not to conform to this world (Rom.8:1-2) but to strug-
gle against its injustices. He compared the spiritual and social
warfare to a real war situation, using the metaphorical language
in Eph. 6:10-17. Peter did not approve the persecution against
the Christians and encouraged them to condemn the injustice
but at the same time to stand firm in their faith and prove to be
faithful to God. Such balanced teaching on political action sus-
tained the Christian community in the later period when they
faced severe oppression and persecution of emperors such as
Nero and Titus. But the Jews, under the leadership of Bar
Cochba in 130-135 A.D., revolted against the Romans to gain
political freedom and again established their Jewish state, which
resulted in bloodshed. Both Jews and Christians faced difficul-
ties and left in misery due to the violence. The Political Action
model raises challenges for the contemporary Church. However,
some opinions of Christians hinder their involvement in socio-
political action, which could bring changes in the realm of poli-
tics and society.
Four of the opinions are addressed below. First of all, is the
prevalent view of accepting all authorities and powers as insti-
tuted by God and obeying these authorities. Christians pay too
much importance to texts such as Mt. 22:15-22, Rom. 13:1-7
and 1 Pet. 2:13-14,18-21, as examples of true spirituality and
fail to understand these texts from the perspective of the nature
and mission of God. Since the views of Jesus and Paul on obey-
ing political authorities has been discussed in the earlier sec-
tions, it is unnecessary to repeat the details here. Second, is
the belief that minority Christians cannot be involved in politi-
cal action. I pointed out this issue of minority feeling and sug-
gested the seeking of the co-operation of other political parties,
NGOs and social action movements. Co-operation with these
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agencies could be critical, issue based and time-bound in order
to achieve the goal in a non-violent manner.
Third, is the issue of taking neutral positions. Many Chris-
tians think that they should neither oppose authorities nor join
hands with political parties and social action movements. Rather,
they should be neutral and lead a witnessing life. The assump-
tion behind this view is due to two reasons. On the one hand,
Christians believe that socio-political actions are the responsi-
bilities of politicians, economists, scientists, ecologists, trade
unions and NGOs. Churches should not take sides with these
people and organizations because politicians are corrupt and
Unions and NGOs are influenced by Marxism and Communism.
To extend support to these people therefore means jeopardizing
the image of the Church and inviting trouble from the ruling
government or authorities. In fact, there is no such position as
neutral. Either we oppose or support the injustice. Here is an
illustration. A strong man beats a poor and innocent person on
the road. This weak person is unable to retaliate. Instead, he
tolerates the cruel beating and cries for help. This person could
be a villager or woman or a child. You are witnessing to this
incident. You know that the oppressor is wicked and cruel. The
victim is bleeding and helpless. If you maintained a neutral po-
sition, then, you would be allowing the strong brute to continue
with his injustice and atrocities. By being silent and inactive,
you are supporting this injustice to go on. The moment you
take the side of the poor victim, you are in action and would
question the cruelty and injustice. Therefore, there are no choices
but either to take the side of the poor and oppressed and to
challenge the injustice or silently and inactively support the
unjust authority to continue the evil. To be neutral is to be a
coward. It is a betrayal of truth and humanity. On the other
hand, Christians believe that prayer can change politics and
society and establish justice and progress. No one is under-
estimating the power of prayer. It is true that prayer can change
people. But, what we notice in reality is the escalation of injus-
tice, violence, poverty, accumulation of wealth and power, in
spite of so many years of praying. Faith and Prayer are needed
as the basis for Christian life and witness but it should be ac-
companied by work and action. They are the fuel for the act of
transforming the society. The oppressive forces are happy with
Christians as long as they are silent and maintain the so- called
neutral position. They are not bothered about prayer to change
them. The oppressors know very well that neutral Christians
are good people and support their authority and policies of in-
justice.
Fourthly, the opinion that by diverting their energy and re-
sources towards socio-political involvement, churches are
marginalizing and neglecting evangelism is questionable. Many
believe that evangelism is social action and is the best way to
bring changes to society. In his book, Social Action Vs. Evange-
lism (1977:26-37) William Richardson advocates for this view of
evangelism, as social action and Christianization is humaniza-
tion. This is a wrong assumption. Evangelism and socio-politi-
cal actions are two separate categories although there are some
links between them. These two aspects can complement each-
other but they are not one and the same. Evangelism, as pointed
out later in this chapter, is a proclamation of the Gospel to the
world, converting individuals to Christianity and bringing them
into the fold of the church. The activity of evangelism begins
with the world and moves towards individuals or groups and
ends with creating a fellowship of faith. The movement is from
the wider circle and then narrows down to a local church. But
socio-political action is not primarily proclamation but based on
the Gospel which is proclaimed. It deals with the social, political
and economic problems of people irrespective of their race, reli-
gion and culture. It is not converting them to a faith but offering
the eternal life of justice, peace and welfare based on the Chris-
tian faith. It is transforming the society by the transformed peo-
ple of the Bible. It is a movement from the local church to a
wider world. In this process of upward movement and action,
some individuals who see the power of the Gospel and commit-
ment of Christians in dealing with the politics, policies, authori-
ties and society may respond positively and become Christians
and join the local church. Socio-political action, therefore, could
have an effect of evangelism rather than evangelism becoming a
socio-political action. The argument many raise to support their
assumption is that by evangelizing and converting individuals
and communities, society is transformed. If everyone became a
genuine Christian and obeyed Gods word, then the society will
automatically get transformed. This is a deep-rooted view. Once
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became genuine Christians, it is assumed, they will not perpe-
trate injustice and oppress people. Evangelizing the people is
first and foremost and that in turn brings changes in society
without any act of violence. This notion is theoretical and
unachievable, because all the people are not going to respond
to the Gospel. Very few, as Jesus and Paul said, shall accept the
Gospel, join the church and continue as real Christians. A vast
majority may not respond to the Gospel. Moreover, it is very well
known that some so-called believers live a double standard.
Many Christians who consider themselves pious and spiritual
still practise caste system, demand dowry, ill-treat domestic serv-
ants, keep false accounts in business, pay less wages, deprive
the rights of the poor and give bribes to achieve their goals. This
trend is also seen with some of our leaders who vehemently
oppose injustice and try to champion the cause of the poor.
Some of these Christian leaders who know well the teachings of
justice and righteousness and are involved in social action, also
accumulate wealth in the name of the poor, ill-treat workers in
their action movements, are morally and financially corrupt and
practise the caste system. But, this does not mean that the Chris-
tian socio-political action has lost its validity. How could we con-
tinue in the belief that once all people become Christians, the
society will reach perfection? Millions of people are suffering,
living in misery and passing away without the hope of any help
or exercising their rights and justice before the message of the
gospel and conversion reaches them. This is why the assump-
tion that evangelism is a social action or vice versa is question-
able. Proposing this kind of view is a deliberate attempt to shelve
socio-political action or evangelism once and for all. The trends
in poverty, ecological degradation, unemployment, land aliena-
tion, ethnic conflicts and violation of human rights cannot be
changed by evangelism. They require analysis and action to cre-
ate and implement constructive policies.
WISDOM MODEL
Wisdom is a virtue and is appreciated in every culture. Sci-
entists, magicians, craftsmen, historians, diplomatic advisers are
regarded as wise people. They are well-respected and paid for
their services. The ministry of wise men and women is quite
often left out in many books written on Christian ministry or
mission. Christians also tend to ignore the Biblical literature on
wisdom. Preachers too neglect to bring out the roles of wise
men and women. Most of them prefer to quote the proverbs or
verses from the Book of Job in their sermons and recommend
such texts to their congregations. Neglect of the study of the
role and contribution of wise people in Israel has deprived many
of insight into leadership and management today. Calling this
service wise mens model could invite criticism from feminist
groups, so I prefer to call it the wisdom model which refers to
the ministry of both wise men and women. The focus is limited
to those wise people who served in or associated themselves
with the royal court and contributed to the development of lit-
erature on wisdom in Israel. The earliest known wise man in the
history of Israel was Joseph, who had the talent and knowledge
of interpreting dreams. The Egyptian court had different kinds
of wise men ranging from magicians to the counselors to Phar-
aoh. But the wisdom of Joseph excelled all these wise people in
the land. He was promoted to the office of Prime Minister-sec-
ond-in-commend to the King and was entrusted with the re-
sponsibility of managing the affairs of the kingdom. His pru-
dence in saving enough grain in store houses in order to survive
the prolonged famine, brought fame to him (Gen.41:33-44).
Daniel, is another person who showed his wisdom in interpret-
ing the dreams of the Babylonian king, Nebuchadnezzar. What
the wise men of the court of this Babylonian king could not do,
Daniel did and saved his own life and that of his three compan-
ions (Dan.4-5). His intelligence and honesty elevated him to the
top most office in the period of Darius (Dan.6:1-3). Both Joseph
and Daniel were elevated in positions in a land of different reli-
gion and culture and yet they kept their faith. The Spirit of God
was with them, helping to interpret the dreams and giving valu-
able advice to the king. They were not professional wise men
but under the prevailing situation and opportunities, they used
their special intelligence to serve the land in which they lived.
Kings in Israel also had wise men in their court. David and
Solomon had their own officials with special knowledge and tal-
ent to advise them. These wise men may have given advice on
framing political and economic policies and negotiating alliance
with neighbouring countries on security and trade. Ahithophel,
a counselor in the period of David was known for his notoriety
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(2 Sam. 15:31-37; 16:20-17:23). Absalom took counsel with
Ahithophel and Hushai (2 Sam. 17:14). These two wise men
misled Absalom. Wrong advice from bad counselors created prob-
lems for king David, the royal court and the people in the land.
Rehoboam was not given proper guidance by the counsel of men
at the court. It resulted in the division of the kingdom. Jer-
emiah categorically lists the wise men who were not performing
their duties properly and criticized them for failing in leading
the king and the nation (Jer. 8:8-9). But, in 2 Sam. 20:16-22,
there is a different story of a wise woman of Abel, who saved her
city from destruction. She understood the situation and did not
hesitate to approach and appeal to Joab to spare her city. Such
was the wisdom and courage of this woman to avoid the battle
against the city of Abel and bloodshed. It could be assumed that
the Israelite wise men who served in the court of the Persian
king Cyrus played a role in advising the king to make the edict
and permit the Jews to return to their land from the Babylonian
captivity.
Another contribution of wise men and women of Israel was
in creating literature which could instruct the people to walk in
the ways of God. The creation, writing and compilation of prov-
erbs to instruct the king, officials and people was taken up by
the wise men and women. These proverbs give meaning to wis-
dom as being the fear of God and teach how to lead an ethical
life. Wisdom is not looked at as an educational degree but as an
intelligent understanding of life. Questions on the suffering of
the innocent, the relationship between sin and suffering and
the role of God in human problems are dealt with in the book of
Job. The book of Ecclesiastes discusses the issue of enjoyment,
pleasure and vanity of life. These writings look philosophical
because they were presented by wise men but they are helpful
in discussing the problems of life. The wisdom model of minis-
try gave intellectual as well as practical guidance, based on the
values of Yahweh to rulers and people of Israel. Such a ministry
is necessary in society today. Churches are not deprived of in-
telligent people. However, they do not reason together to apply
their wisdom to matters of the church or society. Churches also
do not feel the need for such a group and are satisfied with
political figures on their committees. People of knowledge, abil-
ity and commitment, and not merely those with degrees and
position, are needed to enact wisdom model.
Two contemporary issues in connection with the wisdom
model will be discussed briefly here. One is the dichotomy be-
tween the spiritual and the intellectual in Christianity. Various
reasons can be traced for this separation of spirituality from
rationality. The growth of the Bhakti movements as a reaction to
Gnana marga led the Indians to give importance to conserva-
tism than rationalism. This impact was transmitted to Christi-
anity and is evident in many churches today. Another reason
was the negative image presented of the Pharisees and
Sadducees. Many Christians have a negative attitude towards
these intellectual groups in Judaism because they were hin-
dering the ministry of Jesus. It is assumed that Jesus did not
like them. It is true that Jesus questioned their misuse of intel-
lect, which created a negative impression, oppressive policies
and a craving for power. However, Jesus accepted some of the
Pharisees, like Nicodemus and Paul. Jesus is not against intel-
lectualism but against the misuse of intellectualism. He wants
us to use our mind and intellect properly. The Conservative re-
action to intellectualism is also due to the propagation of liberal
theology and paying little respect to Christian fundamentals
and bhakti life. This negative image led to the dichotomy be-
tween spirituality and rationality and promoted the preaching
of simplistic sermons which emphasized the vertical relation-
ship between the believer and God and preparation for life in
the other world. Christian leaders train their congregations to
have a more inward look than to develop a critical look at trends
in politics and society. A church member reserves the right to
be critical of the issues or not and this is an accepted norm in
many churches. This has resulted in the growth of fundamen-
talism and neglect of intellectualism in churches and institu-
tions. Pastors are more interested in supporting annual revival
meetings, retreats for youths, and all night prayer meetings than
organizing intellectual fora to discuss socio-political issues, bi-
ble studies or seminars on contemporary issues. Yet the Bible,
as explained above, presents people of intellectual ability and
their contribution to the progress of politics, economics, science
and religion.
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Another role of the Wisdom model in contemporary times is
its contribution to the development of proverbs, metaphors, para-
bles and ethical slogans. In traditional societies, sages gener-
ated proverbs, parables and metaphors out of their critical evalu-
ation of society and communicated their ideas and taught lead-
ers like kings, court officials, priests and the people. For exam-
ple, within ancient Israel, two kinds of proverbs were developed
out of the prevailing situation. When the Israelites settled down
in Canaan and inherited the land, they were required to labour
on the land to produce food. Having land, yet being idle and
lazy is an indication of imminent poverty. In order to create
awareness, the sages in ancient Israel generated proverbs such
as A slack hand causes poverty but the hand of the diligent
makes rich (Prov. 10:4), The appetite of the lazy craves and gets
nothing.. (13:4), The lazy will put to forced labour (12:24) (15:19
and 20:4). They condemned poverty emanating from laziness.
However, the context changed during the monarchical period
particularly in the 9
th
and 8
th
century BC. The rich started op-
pressing the poor and depriving them of their land and prop-
erty. In spite of their diligent and hard work, many were still
poor. Poverty was perpetuated. The sages were forced to gener-
ate another set of proverbs to counter the wrong accumulation
of wealth by the rich and to raise criticism against injustice.
Examples of such Proverbs include The rich and the poor have
this in common: the Lord is the maker of them all (22:2) and
The rich rules over the poor and the borrower is the slave of the
lender (22:7). Wise men challenged the society and gave direc-
tions to leaders and people. The Indian society has hundreds of
proverbs and parables. Some of them are oppressive in content
and subtly promote the status quo. Others are liberative. Sev-
eral proverbs are enlightening and encourage the hearers to
lead an ethical life. Unfortunately, the good proverbs are not
used in preaching and teaching in the church. They are re-
garded as unacceptable because these proverbs come from secu-
lar or religious poets and sages. The churches are not generat-
ing their own proverbs, parables and sayings to address the
changing situation. Christian scholars in the field of literature,
history and sociology hesitate to apply their intellectualism to
the ministry of the churches and to develop proverbs of biblical
content to enlighten, instruct and mobilize people and build
the nations. The effect of Wisdom model of ministry in churches
and society can be felt only when these hurdles are crossed.
Deliberate effort is needed to give due recognition to the Wis-
dom model of ministry.
CHRONICLER MODEL
The term Chronicler is used with reference to a person who
records events which occur within a day in an institution, either
as a compilation of an annual report or as documentation for
the purposes of writing history later. The Hebrew term sopher
meaning to write or to count appears in the Books of 1 and 2
Kings, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Esther, Psalms and in the Books
of 1 and 2 Chronicles. Scholars understand that it referred to
the Secretary of the royal Chancellery during the monarchical
period; a scribe in the court recording the proceedings of the
events or the victory of the king in a recent battle or a scribe
who copied and interpreted the text of the Holy Scripture. The
interest of this study is to highlight this ministry as mentioned
in the Bible and to give importance to this service of writing and
documentation of events or the word of God. The Chroniclers
who work behind the scenes hardly get any attention. There is
a difference between a prophet writing his prophecies and a
scribe recording events at the instruction of the higher officials,
for a wage. Baruch, a disciple of Jeremiah worked as a scribe,
recording the prophecies of Jeremiah. He sealed and preserved
the recordings. (Jer.36:1-9). In the book of Kings, the recur-
rence of the expression, Now the rest of the acts of Jeroboam,
how he warred and how he reigned are written in the Book of
the Annals of the Kings of Israel is almost like a formula and
the writers of the book of Kings (1 Kings 14:19. Cf. 1 Kings.
14:29; 15:7,23,31; 16:5,14,20,27; 22:39,46; 2 Kings 1:18; 8:23;
10:34; 12:20, etc) use it to conclude the history of each of the
kings. This indicates that the writers of the Book of Kings have
given limited information about the kings and what they have
provided is not exhaustive or complete. If readers are interested
to know more about the kings, they have to read the Annals of
the kings. Writing the history of the kings in Israel and Judah
was not done by members of another country. The scribes from
the community of Israel were employed by the court to write the
Annals. Whether they recorded events and proceedings of the
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country correctly is a matter of dispute. Kings and other offi-
cials must have checked on these writings. Ezra demanded the
king Darius to go through such annals to know the edict of
Cyrus and to confirm the privileges given to the Israelites once
again because of the opposition from the Persian Governor sta-
tioned in Judah. The Ministry of writing is important because it
provided historical data to future generations. The successes
and failures of the kings and the living conditions of citizens
during a particular era were revealed in such recordings. Sec-
ond, it helped future kings to note the edicts, decisions and
negotiations of their predecessors so they could follow the trend
accordingly. Third, their documentation became the basis of theo-
logical emphasis and guidance to future generations. The
Deuternomist and Chronicler interpreted the events with theo-
logical emphasis and provided the theological guidance to their
generations. Without such Annals, they could not have inter-
preted the events and theologized the history.
Similarly, without writing the word of God and providing writ-
ten copies of scriptures in various cultic centres in the land,
priests could not have read and preached on Gods word. People
could not have had the opportunity of listening to the reading of
the Scripture. Since Jesus had the written scripture in hand,
He was able to read, explain the scripture and tell the people of
its fulfillment in Him. Jesus confirmed the authority of the
scripture by using it and declaring that it be followed by the
people. Although not much is known about the ministry of Mat-
thew, Mark and Luke, it is a fact that they wrote the Gospels.
They were not called as scribes but they mentioned the activi-
ties of scribes in the period of Jesus in their Gospels. From
their writings, much is learnt about the history of Jesus, the
acts of the apostles, the spreading of the Good news and the
emergence of a new community. Writing is also a ministry.
Writing, for the purpose of recording the events, interpreting
history and giving directions to people, needs appreciation. This
ministry is not just for professional historians or archivists. Many
Christians assume that preaching is more important than writ-
ing and documentation of the actions of God. This ministry can-
not be neglected by the churches.
Christians could raise questions on the role of the Church
regarding the interpretation and recording of the history of a
nation and of Christianity. Many may agree that churches have
the responsibility to record the history of Christianity and leave
the job of recording the socio-political history of nations in the
hands of historians in the Universities, Colleges and journal-
ists. In their attempt to separate secular history from the his-
tory of Christianity, Christians get confused by the two. For ex-
ample, many Christians are unable to examine the British colo-
nial history critically. They mix up the British political rule, which
was oppressive, with the period of Western missionaries. The
assumption that has been developed is that the British rule was
good for Christianity. But, there is evidence that the British
rule controlled the activities of the missionaries. It refrained the
missionaries from taking part in the Indian struggle for free-
dom. Christian scholars need to specialize in the analysis and
presentation of history on at least three different levels. One is
the critical analysis of the socio-political history of the nation.
Another is documenting the growth, development and contri-
bution of Christianity and finally, to bring inter-action between
secular history and the history of Christianity, giving appropri-
ate interpretation to the inter-action to give proper direction to
the Church and society. These three levels are further clarified
below.
First, all secular historians, journalists and scholars who have
interpreted events and written history have so far been known
to belong to the rich and upper class. Moreover they belong to
the upper hierarchy of caste. Their perspective of historical events
is shaped by the background of their caste and class. Their in-
terpretations, therefore, reflect their outlook. They have failed
to look at history from the lowest social stratum. The perspec-
tive of the poor, marginalized sector and victims of caste and
class system is not projected. The feelings of the Tribals, the
Dalits, women and minority groups and the way they look at
history and interpret it is neglected in the writing of history.
Since the government, academic institutions, newspapers, jour-
nals and publishing companies are usually dominated by the
upper caste and class, it is the responsibility of the Church to
take the side of the poor and powerless and to present the real-
ity of their pain and misery and opinions on politics and eco-
nomics to the world. This is necessary to counter the wrong and
one-sided presentation of the upper class people and to chal-
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lenge such writers to change their outlook and contribute to
giving proper direction to society. Churches have so far sub-
scribed to the presentation of history by the upper class as fact
and have failed to create an alternative presentation. How the
churches can carry out this ministry is a practical question that
ought to be discussed and planned out by the dioceses or na-
tional association of churches. They could constitute a body of
chroniclers and request scholars to write the secular history
from the perspective of the poor. The values of the kingdom of
God and justice to the poor and oppressed should be the crite-
ria or basis for interpreting and presenting history.
Secondly, the documentation of the development and progress
of Christianity needs attention. Most local churches, dioceses
and organizations do not maintain proper record of events and
programmes. They do not make use of statistics to measure the
growth, achievements and failures of their churches. Whenever
they celebrate silver or golden jubilees or centenaries, the sou-
venir publications contain more advertisements than presenta-
tion of history. The stones laid on newly constructed buildings
show the names of the authorities, donors and members of the
committee than a brief note about the development of the infra-
structure or history of the institution. The priority is on popu-
larity than presenting the details of history. Significant contri-
butions of some pastors, theologians, missionaries, evangelists,
women, lay activists to Christianity and society are not docu-
mented in history. Specialized training should be given to pas-
tors, missionaries and lay leaders to enable them to analyze,
document programmes and events, to write articles and essays
and get them published periodically in magazines and journals
to educate Christians.
Thirdly, it is important to be conversant with secular history.
Some of our pastors and evangelists familiarize themselves with
the events of the day, spiritualize what is happening in society
and try to preach simplistic sermons. Quite often they make
theological blunders. For example, the cyclone which destroyed
the coastal area of Orissa (India) in the year 1999-2000 was
interpreted as Gods punishment on the state for killing the
Australian missionary Graham Steins and his two sons. The
powerful earthquake which destroyed some regions of Gujarat
(India) killing more than 20, 000 people was interpreted as a
warning to the ruling government for not taking action against
the burning of churches in Gujarat. Natural calamities like
drought and famine are interpreted as Gods punishment for
the sins of human beings. Accidents of fire, in the air, on the
sea and roads and the deaths of innocent people are interpreted
to be Gods will. Persistent poverty is regarded as a result of the
laziness and sin of the poor. Which is the best way to interpret
such events which occur in nations? The Christian view need
not rule out the critical analysis of economic and social policies
or the scientific study of ecological disaster or human error in
accidents. Applying the principle of retribution always, as the
answer for what goes wrong in society shows deficiency in un-
derstanding the occurrence of events. The theory of retribution
followed by the historians in Deutronomy and Chronicles and
some prophets could be a guiding principle. But, the essence of
such a criteria lies in the fact that all human actions political,
economic, social bring their own consequences to the society
and not just the personal sin of individuals. Structural injustice
and corporate accountability are emphasized by the prophets
and historians of ancient Israel in their interpretation of his-
tory. Due recognition should be given to scientific interpreta-
tion of history instead of always defining it from a theological
perspective. However, the Christian view of history cannot over-
look interpretations of the actions of God within the socio-politi-
cal context. Trying to integrate or strike a balance between sci-
entific and theological interpretation of history is not easy but it
is not impossible.
In relating to secular history, Christian historians need to
analyze and project the contribution of Christians in transform-
ing society. Such writings are emerging in recent years. Simi-
larly there is a need to evaluate the impact of socio-political
history and changes in the Constitution of India and introduc-
tion of new policies and orders of the government on the life
and ministry of the churches. A critical analysis of these changes
in contemporary times is needed by Christian historians and
theologians to challenge, prepare and shape Christianity to make
it meaningful to Christians as well as to the people in our
country.
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SON OF MAN MODEL
The ministry of Jesus is highly regarded as the ideal model
and many read the Gospels again and again to learn more about
His message and ministry. Jesus is considered as the connect-
ing link between the ministries of the OT and the ministries of
the early church. David Bosch points out an important dimen-
sion of the inclusiveness of Jesuss mission and writes, It em-
braces both the poor and the rich, both the oppressed and the
oppressor, both the sinners and the devout. His mission is one
of dissolving alienation and breaking down walls of hostility, of
crossing boundaries between individuals and groups (2000:28).
Some like His preaching and teaching ministry and others like
His healing ministry. His ministry was as prophetic, evangelis-
tic, pastoral, characterized by miracles, messianic, liberative,
priestly, political, etc., each emphasizing a particular aspect of
His work. His ministry involved much activity that it could be
referred to as a whole. One particular ministry, as mentioned
above, cannot represent all of His activities. Neither can only
one of the different titles used for Him -Prophet, Son of God,
Son of Man, Messiah, Son of David, Jesus, Immanuel, King of
the Jews - represent His entire person and work. I prefer to call
His ministry, the Son of Man model rather than the Messianic
model or Son of God model. The term messianic sounds more
Jewish and tends to limit to the Jewish context. It demands
prior knowledge of the development of the concept of Messiah
in the OT and in the Inter-Testament period. Most congrega-
tions do not understand this theological concept. They either
limit their understanding of Messiah to the Saviour of souls or
to the forthcoming Judge. They do not derive much enthusiasm
for ministry from this difficult Jewish concept. The title Son of
God is preferred by Christians since the idea of incarnation is
linked to the celebration of Christmas and reveals the status of
Jesus as truly divine. It also contrasts with the avatar of many
gods and goddesses born out of sexual relationships or of mythi-
cal creation without historicity. However, the emphasis on Son
of God leaves an impression that Jesus could have involved in
all these ministries because He is divine and has supernatural
power. It is impossible for anyone to be involved in all these
ministries. Such notions affect personal involvement, to a cer-
tain extent, in challenging injustice and taking up political ac-
tion. It has an implication on suffering too. Many Christians say
that Jesus could suffer in His ministry because he is the Son of
God and has some mystical power through His secret relation-
ship with the Father and angels. We cannot suffer like Him in
ministry because we are human. We acknowledge Jesus is the
Son of God and the true Messiah. But to clarify the above con-
cept of people, there is the need to supplement and insist the
other side of Jesus as the Son of Man, the title He Himself
preferred and frequently used (Mt.8:20; 9:6; 17:22, Mk.2;10;
9:31; 14:62; Lk.9:22; 22:69; Jn.3:14) (George Peters:1972:43-
44). This title Son of Man is used in Jeremiah and Ezekiel. It
referred to the prophet emphasizing his human nature, iden-
tity and servanthood. (Ezek. 2:1; 3:1; 21:28). Another similar
reference in Dan.7:13-14, which reads in Hebrew, one like a
human being or one in human likeness has caused difficul-
ties in interpretation (Goldingay:1989:167-169). Some think that
it neither means the real human being nor represents human-
ity. Others stress its meaning to be frailty of humanity, the af-
flicted but faithful elements in Israel. Robert Anderson empha-
sizes that Dan.7:13 should be read in the light of v.27 to under-
stand that the description in v.13 is a personification of the
people or the saints of the Most High (1984:85-88). The title
Son of Man, first, presents Jesus as truly human, born of the
virgin Mary with bones and flesh and underlines His identity as
a human being, the same as the rest of humanity. Secondly,
His sufferings were real and He felt pain just as any ordinary
person would feel pain. He knew what hunger and thirst were.
He knew how painful it was to be misunderstood and misrepre-
sented. His temptations were real even to the extent of asking
God to take away the Cross from Him if it be His will. He felt the
pain of the trial and crucifixion. Thirdly, this title expressed His
helplessness like any ordinary human being. He drew strength
from God. His prayer, faith and commitment were enough to
empower in performing miracles and defeating the powers of
evil on the Cross. Fourthly, this title has a universal application
because it refers to suffering humanity everywhere in the world.
The salvation he brought as truly human on the Cross is for the
entire humanity. Finally, it takes physical, spiritual, social, eco-
nomic, cultural and political areas seriously because the Son of
Man is part of these structures and He has addressed the evils
of these structures and worked to transform them.
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On the basis of the motto the Son of Man came not to be
served but to serve Jesus served the people of His time through
preaching, teaching, training the disciples, caring and healing
and challenging injustice. Various kinds of doctrines were
preached and taught which confused people. The main purpose
of Jesus preaching ministry was to proclaim the good news of
His coming into the world, to inaugurate the Kingdom of God
and to call people to repentance and acceptance of the Kingdom
(Matt.4:17; 6:33 Mk.1:15). Two features of Jesus preaching on
the Kingdom of God are important and require elaboration here.
First of all, people thought of Gods reign as a future event which
will be characterized by the birth of a king in the family of David.
Both the Jewish leaders and their people were expecting the
Messiah but did not realize that the Messiah had come in the
person of Jesus. They were expecting that a monarchy will be
established again and the expected Messiah will be born into
the royal family. As they held on to this belief, they were not
able to see Jesus as the Messiah and the OT fulfilled in Him.
But, Jesus through His preaching, tried to let the people un-
derstand that the Kingdom of God has come in His person and
that it is already present in their very midst (Lk. 17:21). What
had been inaugurated now will continue till its final fulfillment
in the future when Jesus returns to judge the world. Thus, the
kingdom is representative of the present and the future. Jesus
tried to explain this idea through His preaching using various
literary forms such as parables, metaphors, rhetoric, thesis and
anti-thesis as in Matt. 5:1-11; 13:1-53. Some understood His
message and others misunderstood Him particularly the Priests,
Pharisees and Sadducees. The Roman authorities too misun-
derstood Him when He talked about the kingdom. It sounded
like political rivalry to them, intended to overthrow their rule
and domination.
The second salient feature of His message is the value of
Gods reign. The Kingdom of God is not based on any Greek or
Roman ideology. The values are based on the nature and the
attributes of God who created the world. Jesus talked quite of-
ten about His Father in heaven and His close relationship with
Him reveals His consciousness of the nature of God and the
principles God expects to prevail in society. The principles are
justice, sharing, love, peace, protecting the rights of people, car-
ing for the marginalised like widows and orphans and the wel-
fare of all people. The Sermon on the Mount is a very good
example which expresses these values. The two basic tenets of
Gandhian philosophy, ahimsa and sarvodaya, were carved out
of the message Jesus delivered on the Mount (Matt. 5-7). Such
was the power of His message which is still attracting many
leaders today. It is worthy to note here that Jesus never preached
an-ism, like Capitalism, Socialism, Marxism or Communism.
Neither did He associate Himself with any one philosophy or
ideology. His message, however, does speak of socialism. Moreo-
ver Jesus, never established a political system to implement all
these values. To Him, these values are necessary for all societies
whether they are tribalistic, monarchies, capitalists, commu-
nism or democrats or socialists. He is particular about the prac-
tise of the values of the kingdom of God in families and society.
His values may be difficult to implement in Capitalistic systems
because the basic principle and mode of operation of capitalism
is profit-making and accumulation of wealth. However, even such
a system needs to be refined constantly to establish the values
of Gods reign. Communism, which was highly regarded as the
ideal system to implement the values of the Kingdom of God,
also has its own limitations and has failed in Eastern European
countries. It denies the existence of God and the freedom of
religion and lacks spirituality. Mere works without faith cannot
be successful. Socialism, Gandhianism, Greenism, etc have their
own limitations. Jesus knows very well that none of the political
systems are perfect. Therefore, He neither preached about the
system of operation nor created a new system He stuck to the
preaching of the principles and trained the disciples to preach
this message of values and prove it in their own lives. Jesus
practised it and wanted all His disciples to practise it. He be-
lieved that leaders who took these values seriously would be
compelled to transform their own political, economic and social
systems because the values were based on the attributes of God
and had the power to touch such systems, political parties and
administration. In the process of achieving the values of the
kingdom, they cleaned themselves of the evils of their system.
Therefore, to say, as many Christians wish, Jesus should have
dictated a perfect system to implement the values of the king-
dom is not right. He has given the freedom to work it out through
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a system which will strengthen Gods reign in the best possible
way on this earth. To accept it and practise it through the best
possible system is the responsibility of humanity.
Preaching and teaching went hand-in-hand. Jesus taught
the people how to understand the Law. For example, he told
them the sabbath is created for man, not man created for the
sabbath. He corrected their views on prayer and fasting, forgive-
ness, reconciliation, judging others, wages, adultery, death pen-
alty for prostitution, marriage and divorce through his teaching.
The Priests, Pharisees and Sadducees made the law a burden
for people; Jesus made them beneficial to the people and en-
hanced humanitarianism and not legalism. This does not mean
that Jesus neglected or ignored the Law. Certainly, He ques-
tioned some elements of the Law, re-interpreted and re-empha-
sized them. The Law, to Him, was not an authority unless it
stood in relation with the Kingdom of God, which was His pri-
mary mission.
Preaching and teaching of Jesus were shown practically in
His caring and healing ministry. He knew that the good news of
the Kingdom should be meaningful to people in their day to-
day life. Jesus declared this purpose when He began His minis-
try by reading the text of Isaiah 61:1-11 in the synagogue at
Nazareth. This event is narrated in Lk.4:16-29. This text,Lk
4:18-19, known as the Nazareth Manifesto, indicates that Je-
sus was anointed and sent for the ministry of proclaiming the
good news to the poor, and offering liberation to the oppressed,
freedom to the captives, sight to the blind and implementing
the acceptable year of the Lord. New Testament commentators
point out that the phrase, to evangelize the poor in v.18 could
be understood as an encompassing designation of Jesus whole
ministry, which is then expanded on the rest of the verses
(Nolland:1989:196). The year acceptable to Lord refers to the
Jubilee, which was the year of release of land, labour and writ-
ing off debts. Usually the dawn of Jubilee was proclaimed by
the priests. When Jesus proclaimed it, signaled that the King-
dom of God has come through His mission. Some people fail to
get the metaphorical meaning of the lame and blind men-
tioned in the OT as referring to the poor and oppressed and
miss the point of the liberation of the oppressed. Jesus found
Galilee a suitable place to launch His mission because the peo-
ple were down-trodden, neglected, poor and looking forward to
the fulfillment of the prophecy of the OT. Jesus made it clear to
them that the prophecy is fulfilled in Him and that a new era
had began in their history. The compassion He showed in feed-
ing the thousands of people, as reported in all the four Gospels,
is an evidence to it. People who were blind, deaf, lame, para-
lytic, affected by leprosy or having other physical deformities
were regarded as sinners and were scorned. Such people were
pushed out of home to beg on the streets and lived outside the
city. They were not allowed to enter places of worship. These
outcasts, poor and powerless people in society were looking for
healing which would liberate them from their disabilities and
empower them once again to be equal with others. Jesus not
only healed those who approached Him but also took initiative
to heal the disabled. The two blind men who followed Jesus and
expressed their faith in Him received their sight (Matt.9:27-31).
Jesus healed the other two blind men who cried for help near
Jericho (Matt. 20:29-34), the man with leprosy (Matt.8:2-4; Mk.
1:40-42; Lk.5:12-13), the ten lepers (Lk.17:11-19), the servant
of the Roman centurion (Matt. 8:5-13; Lk.7:1-10), the woman
with the hemorrhage (Matt. 9: 20-22; Mk.5:25-29; Lk.8:43-45),
the daughter of the Canaanite woman (Matt. 15:21-28, Lk. 7:24-
30), the deaf man with speech impediment (Lk. 7:31-37) and
the man with the withered hand (Matt. 12:10-13), etc.
Matthew narrated an incident of a paralytic man being let
down through the roof to Jesus for healing (9:2-8). The crowd,
both inside and outside the house, was watching the healing of
the paralytic person. Jesus answered the critiques saying,
the Son of Man has authority on earth to forgive sins...: (9:6).
Healing, according to Jesus, is not simply removing the physi-
cal deformities but also bringing wholeness to the person. He
never said that the paralysis of that person was due to his sins.
He made this point clear again and again to those who tried to
link sickness and disabilities to the sins of the person or the
sins of his parents. Though the two are separate, yet sin can
cause physical sickness and deformities. But, Jesus concern
was for human beings to receive physical and spiritual healing.
His reason for saying that the Son of Man has authority to for-
give sins is to show people that with His coming, humanity could
receive forgiveness. His ministry makes people, whether they
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are able-bodied or disabled, to enjoy the forgiveness of God.
The Son of Mans willingness to forgive sins motivates us also to
forgive others and not to condemn them as sinners even if they
deserved to suffer. John narrated another incident. Jesus could
have avoided going to the pool near the Sheep Gate in Jerusa-
lem. But, he made the effort to visit the pool, where the invalid
like blind, lame and paralytic were waiting for healing. There
He healed a man who had been paralyzed for thirty-eight years
(Jn. 5:1-18). He did not tell him anything about forgiveness of
sin as He told the other paralytic man brought on the pallet.
Yet, His healing of the man who had been paralyzed for thirty-
eight years included healing from sins. The new life he received
from Jesus was not only physical but also spiritual and he was
obliged not ruin it by his own actions in the future.
Driving out evil spirits from possessed people occupied an
important place in Jesus ministry. Matt. 8:28-34, Mk.5:1-15
and Lk 8:27-35 report the healing of the two demoniacs. Matt.
9:32-33, 12:22 and 17:14-18 give further evidence of healing of
demon-possessed people and overcoming the power of evil. The
liberative ministry of Jesus did not stop with the healing of the
invalid or the demon possessed people but went to the extent of
overcoming death by resurrecting the son of the widow of Nain
(Lk. 7: 11-17) and Lazarus (Jn.11). The political action of Jesus
against injustice and exploitation has already been discussed.
Dying on the Cross could be considered a political action since
Jesus died as a victim of political injustice. It stands as a culmi-
nation of his ministry to offer forgiveness from sins, reconcilia-
tion with God as defined by Paul (Rom. 5:10), liberation from
the powers of evil and the welfare of humanity in the present
and future were the highlights of His ministry. Through His
ministry, Jesus addressed the problems of people, liberated
them from the power of evil in the form of pain, sickness, death,
demon-possession, personal sin and immorality, the humilia-
tion of being an outcast and He empowered such poor and pow-
erless people and restored their dignity and life. His message
and ministry were an integral part of His life.
Jesus gave importance, as mentioned earlier, to the training
of the disciples rather than creating a system to promote these
values. The Son of Man model uses human resources and not
angels or celestial forces to achieve its goal. Special attention
was given in training the sons of the soil as part of His minis-
try. David Bosch points out six major differences between the
training of the disciples by Jesus and the Jewish Rabbis, in
their attempt to make the training a medium to promote the
message (2000:36-39). Good messages become a failure in pro-
motion and implementation due to unsuitable training pro-
grammes. Unlike Judaism, which has a tradition of the disciple
choosing the Rabbi and attaching himself to that teacher, Je-
sus chose His disciples. The choice is not by the disciples but by
Jesus. Secondly, the purpose of choosing a Rabbi was to study
the Law and to improve upon knowledge and interpret the Law
which is regarded the authority. But, in Jesus discipleship train-
ing the disciples were asked to renounce everything not for the
sake of the Law but for the sake of Jesus alone (Matt. 10:38).
Jesus took the place of the Law. The commitment is to the per-
son and work of Jesus and not to a code of laws. The legalism of
the Law is replaced by the person of Jesus. Thirdly, studying
the law could make the disciple a Rabbi and could bring fame
and earnings. But, following Jesus was not a promising career
except to risk ones own life for the sake of the Kingdom.
Fourthly, in Judaism, the disciple was a student but under the
training of Jesus, the disciple was a servant and was expected
to serve the people. Fifthly, a disciple of a Rabbi was not sent
out to preach, perform miracles and heal people with the au-
thority. Under the training of Jesus, preaching, healing and
action were an integral part of discipleship. Finally, in Judaism,
the disciple belonged to the school of the Rabbi and the rela-
tionship could come to an end after the study of the Law. But,
being a disciple of Jesus meant belonging to the community of
believers, witnessing for Jesus and looking forward to His re-
turn in glory. The relationship between Jesus and the disciples
needed to continue. It is not known whether Jesus intended
for His disciples to plant churches or not. Scholars argue that
Jesus wanted the Kingdom of God to be established among the
people but the disciples planted churches and created the reli-
gion of Christianity. This is a debatable issue. How can one con-
trol the Holy Spirits work of convicting people to repent, be-
come witnesses for and disciple of Jesus, celebrate the new cov-
enant of Eucharist and continue in the teaching of the new
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faith? Limiting the study only to the Gospel and ignoring the
Book of Acts, gives the impression that Jesus intention is the
Kingdom and not the Church. David Bosch has argued that any
movement has to become an institution or it becomes weak in
the long period, withers and disappears (2000:) In this book, I
intend to show from the Bible that new models of ministry
emerged out of the continuing work of the disciples. They may
be classified as the Evangelistic Model, Missionary Model and
Pastoral-Teacher Model, for convenience and each model would
be studied separately.
The key issue in the Son of Man model is its relevance to the
suffering people. This model brings a shift in the understand-
ing of the death of Jesus on the Cross. So far, the death of
Jesus is understood as a sacrificial offering for the forgiveness
of the sins of all who repent. It is true. Scholars have discussed
the meaning and purpose of his death over the years and have
debated theories of propitiation and expiation. Most of the dis-
cussions and preachings on the death and forgiveness on the
Cross, focus on the repentance of the offenders and oppressors
rather than on the pain and injustice suffered by the victims.
We fail to see the relevance of the death of the Son of Man for
the victims of injustice. But the perspective of the model of the
Son of Man, emphasized by many liberation movements and
action groups, brings a shift from the focus on the offenders to
the victims. Jesus not only identified himself with suffering hu-
manity but also died as a victim of injustice like any other hu-
man being. Thus, Jesus became a representative of all the vic-
tims of injustice and forgave all of the victims. With this under-
standing, His death becomes meaningful to the victims and the
offenders. Otherwise, the offenders could do whatever they
wanted and receive pardon from God without asking for pardon
from or restoring justice to their victims. Every one of us feel
offended when another who has wronged us seeks direct for-
giveness from God without apologizing to us. It is our expecta-
tion that our offenders apologize to us and ask for pardon or
make up for the losses if possible. When they do not because
they have already received forgiveness from God through re-
pentance, their repentance and the forgiveness they request
from God is questioned. Could they have received forgiveness
directly from God without the death of the Son of Man? How is
the death of Jesus related to matters of repentance and forgive-
ness? Should His death only signify a ritual sacrifice offered for
the sins of all the people or make Him a victim of injustice de-
manding offenders to relate to their victims offering forgiveness
on behalf of the victims? Is Gods offer of forgiveness conditional?
Receiving Gods forgiveness demands faith in the death of Je-
sus, repentance, asking pardon from the victims and restoring
justice to them however possible. The victims should not take
advantage of the repentance of the offender and refuse forgive-
ness. Both should work out reconciliation. This is true in the
case of the individual victim or the communities under oppres-
sion and injustice. Jesus taught people to seek first the forgive-
ness of those they offend and to reconcile with them before
brining their offerings to the altar (Mt. 5:23-24). This principle
has not changed but has consolidated by his death. The evan-
gelical Christianity which emphasized these principles and re-
quirements related to repentance and forgiveness should be re-
covered and reiterated today.
EVANGELISTIC MODEL
The Evangelistic model begins with the preaching of the good
news, which Jesus did by following the prophetic tradition. It is
not a new model. For, many prophets of the OT preached the
good news of salvation. They proclaimed the message of deliver-
ance from political oppression and economic exploitation. Proph-
ets Amos and Hosea, who spoke mainly about the judgment
oracles, proclaimed the message of Gods compassion and the
grace for the people of Israel and forgiveness and acceptance of
Yahweh after their repentance (Amos 9: 13-15; Hosea 1:10-2:1).
Isaiah, during the period of exile, even went one step further in
his message of salvation, calling the community under exile,
light to the nations. The Gospels portray the evangelistic model
of John the Baptist. As a forerunner of the Messiah, he pro-
claimed the forthcoming salvation to the Israelites, clarified the
questions raised to him and called them to repent and accept
salvation through Jesus (Lk.3:3-9; Jn.1:19-34). However, there
are some new dimensions in the evangelistic ministry of the
disciples of Jesus, in terms of the content of the message pro-
claimed, the goal, motives, methods and strategies. These as-
pects need elaboration.
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Although mission includes evangelism as one of its essen-
tial elements, I would like to discuss the Evangelistic and Mis-
sionary models separately, giving each a special identity. In
fact, these two models overlap but some distinctiveness can be
pointed out. The New Testament attests the evangelistic model
using the word evangelists in Eph. 4:11-13: The gifts he gave
were that some would be apostles, some prophets, some evan-
gelists, some pastors-teachers to equip the saints for the work
of ministry, for building up the body of Christ, until all of us
come to the unity of the faith and of the knowledge of the Son of
God, to maturity, to the measure of the full stature of Christ.
The office of the Evangelists stems from the nature of the minis-
try of proclaiming (evangelizomei) the good news (evangelion).
Evangelism, in a nut shell, means proclamation of the good news
of salvation in Christ, announcing the offer of forgiveness of sins
and inviting people to repent and accept Jesus Christ as their
Lord and Saviour. Giving a separate identity to the Evangelistic
model would entail highlighting the content of the evangel, goal
and motives of evangelism. In contemporary times, evangelism
is projected as a mere proclamation of the Gospel through meet-
ings, radio, television, print media, whether people respond to
it or not. The missionary model includes both proclamation of
the Gospel and church planting, training of local leaders, tak-
ing care of their social and economic needs and participating in
structural changes. The slight distinction between these mod-
els have risen due to the growth and development in the meth-
ods of the task.
There is a lot of confusion and ambiguity about the content
of the good news today. Instead of classifying evangelicals and
ecumenicals, I prefer to point out the two extreme positions of
fundamentalists and liberals. The sharp distinction between
evangelicals and ecumenicals in India cannot be maintained
always. Many evangelicals are ecumenicals. They take active
part in the activities of mainline churches and the ecumenical
movements. Many ecumenicals are evangelicals and hold the
Bible as the true Word of God and believe in evangelism and
conversion to Christianity. Some fundamentalists consider cer-
tain doctrines such as immersion baptism or speaking in tongues
as the good news. Some others preach only about Jesus. Oth-
ers include the Kingdom of God but equate it to heaven, the
place where souls go and rest after death. Some fundamental-
ists preach sets of morals and the regulations of their denomi-
nation as the Gospel. Many preach the eternal life as futuristic
to avoid the judgement and going to hell. Some liberals limit
preaching only to liberation from political and economic oppres-
sion leaving out other elements of the Gospel. Sin is under-
stood only in terms of injustice to others rather than in terms of
morality, accountability and personal holiness. To some other
liberals, the historic Jesus is not important to be proclaimed as
the Lord and Saviour. The historic person and work of Jesus
Christ is reduced to cosmic Christ present in other religions.
People of other faiths, therefore, they claim to receive salvation
in their own religion. What is important, according to them, is
to have a common ideology for inter-faith dialogue and multi-
religious co-operation and action. Those who tried to indigenize
the content of the Gospel to suit to the local culture, equated
Jesus Christ with Hindu gods and used terminologies like ava-
tar, guru or chit (logos as knowledge) in the Satchitananda.
Jesus preached the good news, which the disciples under-
stood and proclaimed to be the authentic message. The content
could not be altered or adulterated but the forms of proclaiming
it can be selected to suit the cultural context. In the Gospels,
the Kingdom of God is the central feature of Jesus message.
For example, Matthew writes, From that time Jesus began to
proclaim: Repent for the kingdom of heaven has come near
(4:17). The central theme of the entire chapter of Matthew13 is
the Kingdom of God and is communicated in parables. It is
important to notice the way Mark links the term evangelion
with the basilia tou theu (kingdom of God) and emphasizes that
the good news is nothing but the Kingdom of God (Mk.1:14)
Jesus came to Galilee, proclaiming the good news of God and
saying, The time is fulfilled and the kingdom of God has come
near, repent and believe in the good news. The Kingdom of
God was the main topic in the discussion between Jesus and
Nicodemus according to John (3:3). Luke makes it clear that
Jesus was sent to this world for the purpose of proclaiming the
good news of the Kingdom of God (Lk.4:43). The Jesus mis-
sion in this world was to preach and teach about the kingdom of
God to various villages and towns. The reports of Mathew and
Luke are note worthy. Matthew speaks of Jesus sending the
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twelve disciples with the following instructions: As you go,
proclaim the good news, the Kingdom of heaven has come near.
Cure the sick, raise the dead, cleanse the lepers, cast out de-
mons (10:5-8). Luke narrates the event of sending the seventy
with the instruction: .. whenever you enter a town cure the
sick who are there and say to them The Kingdom of God has
come near to you (10:8-9). According to Jesus, the good news
is the Kingdom of God. The writers of the Gospels make this
point clear by defining the term evangelion as the Kingdom of
God. It is therefore, important to understand the meaning of
the Kingdom of God and to preach it as the Gospel message.
The Kingdom of God is a concept, an experience and an expec-
tation. It is true in the present as well as future. Its roots can be
traced to the OT. The idea of the kingdom of God is developed
from the monarchical period. The kings of Israel were expected
to be servants of Yahweh and to rule the people in justice, peace
and security. They were expected to be the guardians and pro-
moters of faith in Yahweh in the land. They were not to misuse
their position, power and authority. Their policies and adminis-
tration had to reflect the values of Yahweh. In brief, people were
supposed to enjoy their governments as if God ruled them. Their
kingdom had to be a model of Gods reign. For this reason, they
spoke of Yahweh as their king and ruler (Ps.93; 96). However,
the people noticed and experienced injustice and exploitation
under the rule of several of their kings. It did not feel like God
ruled them. Many kings failed God and the people and left the
kingdom in misery and ruins. People started expecting a good
king to come up from the family of David. This expectation grew
more during and after the period of exile, as they longed for
deliverance from foreign rule, the establishment of justice and
welfare and progress. Their expectation was for Gods reign on
earth through the descendants of David. Jesus preached the
values of the kingdom of God and not a political system as pointed
out earlier. These values include love, forgiveness, sharing, jus-
tice, equality, welfare, deliverance from sickness and the pos-
session of evil spirits, freedom from political, social and eco-
nomic oppression and exploitation. Jesus command to preach
the good news of the Kingdom of God included healing and
deliverance from such problems and difficulties. Matthew and
Luke did not forget to point out this close association of the
message and its manifestation in the actual lives of the people
(Mt. 10:5-8; Lk.10:8,9).
After the resurrection of Jesus, the disciples proclaimed the
kingdom of God as their good news with Jesus as the subject of
their preaching. It is impossible to separate Jesus from the
Kingdom of God. They knew that Jesus had inaugurated the
kingdom by His coming to earth and had established it through
His ministry of proclamation, healing and deliverance, death
and resurrection. The prophecy of the OT and the messianic
expectation of the people was fulfilled in Jesus. The Kingdom
without Jesus is a mere secular ideology. They did not preach
just the kingdom as an ideology but also the person of Jesus,
his message and ministry and the way the kingdom will be com-
pleted at His second coming. This integrated message is no-
ticed in Acts 14:22; 19:8; 28:23, Rom. 14:17; 1 Cor. 4: 14-20.
Paul tried to convince his audience to see the link between the
kingdom of God and Jesus and persuaded them to accept and
enjoy the good news. With the focus on Jesus as the Lord and
Saviour and the Kingdom He had inaugurated, they explained
the meaning of the good news to the people. Michael Green
discusses the way Mark, Luke and Paul emphasized the dis-
tinctive aspect of the good news and points out the important
elements of the good news such as the redemptive death of Je-
sus, the universal application of the message, the need for re-
pentance, faith and self sacrificial discipleship, the forgiveness
of sins and the promise of eternal life here in the present and as
hope for the future (1995:56-92).
Questions are raised about the goal of evangelism. When
Jesus asked His disciples to proclaim the good news and heal
the people, He told them the goal of evangelism and gave them
the authority and assurance of His presence with them. Mat-
thew records the goal of proclamation: All authority in heaven
and on earth has been given to me. Go therefore and make
disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Fa-
ther and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit, and teaching them to
obey everything that I have commanded you. And remember I
am with you always to the end of the age (28:18-20). Some
scholars do not regard the concluding text of Matthew and Mark
as original but a later addition. Other scholars have argued its
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authenticity. As long as it is part of the Scripture and Jesus has
already trained the disciples on proclamation, it becomes im-
possible to ignore the text or regard it as irrelevant. These texts
speak of the Great Commission and are central to the evangelis-
tic and missionary models of ministry. George Peters writes,
The Great Commission is more than just one commission among
many commands of Christ. It is lifted out because of its singu-
larity as a command of the risen Lord and of its restatement in
one form or another by the four evangelists, each presenting it
from his own point of view and with his own unique emphasis
(1972:176). On the basis of the study of the Greek syntax of
this text, it is argued that the central emphasis is to make dis-
ciples by going and proclaiming the good news, baptizing and
teaching those who respond to the message and accept Jesus
as their Lord and Saviour. This Great Commission has theologi-
cal aspect because it is about the redemptive work of God through
Jesus for humanity. God took the initiative and fulfilled the
task of redemption. The work of Jesus is the continuation of the
OT. The Great Commission is sociological because it is related
to the life of human beings. The redemption does not stop with
the forgiveness of sins but goes beyond the spiritual need of
people. It is about the values of the Kingdom of God. People get
liberation from all sorts of oppression and exploitation. It ad-
dresses the power and authority of evil. The message in procla-
mation is about deliverance from such evil and enjoying the
good life. It is meaningful to individuals as well as to the corpo-
rate life of the society. But, its significance has been limited to
the saving of individual souls, ignoring its relevance to the socio-
economic, political and cultural life of communities.
This creates an urge to trace the motives for evangelism.
Michael Green discusses three motives namely, a sense of grati-
tude, a sense of responsibility and a sense of concern (1995).
David Bosch accepts these three motives and discusses the re-
verse order, giving priority to the sense of concern (2000:133-
139). The Great Commission has a close link with the Great
Commandment of loving God and loving people. The more love
there is for God and people, the more commitment there is to
the Great Commission. The main reason for proclaiming the
good news is to know and experience the love of God which
compels to share Gods love among one another. John empha-
sizes love as the main reason why God sent His only son Jesus
to this world to save humanity and offer eternal life (3:16). Paul
does not disagree with John but highlights that the righteous-
ness and power of God motivates him to evangelise. The evi-
dence is his famous testimony: For I am not ashamed of the
gospel, it is the power of God for salvation to everyone who has
faith to the Jew first and also to the Greek. For in it the right-
eousness of God is revealed through faith for faith.. (Rom.1:16-
17). Paul considered the proclamation as a duty because the
benefit of enjoying the love and power of God cannot be kept to
oneself but must be shared with others. In this respect, it is not
merely a religious service but also a social service to humanity.
This service of evangelism should not be offered with an expec-
tation for reward. Some of our preachers and teachers in Sun-
day School have distorted the facts about the service aspect of
evangelism by telling people that by winning more souls, the
proclaimer could add diamonds or stars to his or her crown in
heaven. Songs and choruses written with this kind of message
creates a wrong notion about evangelism and the good news in
the minds of the singers. Some preachers even threaten their
audience to bring at least one soul to Christ, other wise they
cannot meet Jesus on His second coming. This compels people
to win converts by inducement, offering some benefits or creat-
ing a sense of guilt and failure in their lives. The motive for
proclaiming the good news is to explain the love of God and
prove it in action by transforming society and allowing the audi-
ence to respond voluntarily. People should be allowed to search
for the meaning of the Gospel voluntarily so that they can expe-
rience the conviction of the Holy Spirit personally and to make
a more faithful commitment. However, let the ministry of mak-
ing disciple in sincerity, honesty and with faith go on that many
may be benefited and societies enjoy the values of Gods reign
such as justice, peace, equality and welfare. Let the spiritual
and social need of humanity met by the work of Jesus form the
basic motive for evangelism.
The apostles proclaimed and discipled people using distinc-
tive approaches. Whether they used the method of personal or
public evangelism they did not commercialize proclamation. They
never publicized miracles as their first gospel as some evange-
lists do calling their meetings Healing Crusades, Miracle Min-
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istry or Gospel Festival. There was not so much of pomp and
show in the evangelistic model of the apostles. Though Paul
asked for financial support for the disciples in Jerusalem, fund-
raising was not the agenda of his evangelism. Today, Mass evan-
gelism through crusades place emphasis on celebration with
colourful posters and cutout images of the evangelists, very much
like a political party convention. It is important to be aware of
the disadvantages of using terms like Festival, Crusade or Con-
vention within the Indian context. The word crusade has a
negative connotation due to its connection with the attacks
launched by Christians against the Jews in the Medieval pe-
riod, in their attempt to claim Jerusalem. There is a vast differ-
ence between a cultural, religious or political celebrations, which
are usually called festivals, and proclaiming the Gospel. The
word festival dilutes the seriousness of the ministry of evange-
lism. It becomes a mere Christian celebration rather than a sin-
cere proclamation. I am not against mass evangelism but I am
concerned about the commercialization of evangelism and how
some of its methods provoke negative rather than positive re-
sponse. But, the apostles proclaimed the Gospel with clarity,
conviction and uncompromising faith, leading a life of simplicity
and sacrifice. Paul expresse this distinctiveness of the ministry
of evangelism in 1 Thes. 1:4-6: For we know, brothers and sis-
ters because our message of the gospel came to you not in
word only, but also in power and in the Holy Spirit and with full
conviction; just as you know what kind of persons we proved to
be among you for your sake. And you become imitators of us
and of the Lord The expression of their message, filled with
the power of the Holy Spirit and their life style, drew thousands
to Christ. The result was the addition of new believers to the
assembly of the apostles, continuing in their teaching and fel-
lowship in Jerusalem (Acts. 2:41-42; 4:4) and in the different
places where Paul preached.
The most debated ministry over the years is evangelism. Many
questions are raised about evangelism. Three issues are selected
for our discussion. First is the issue of equating mission to evan-
gelism and vice versa. Although many Christian leaders agree
that social service is important and are involved in the activities
of changing society for the better, they regard mission as evan-
gelism. Mission, in their opinion, is the proclamation of the Gos-
pel and conversion to Christianity. Since the terms evangelists,
evangelion and evangelizomei appear in the NT rather than the
word mission, they emphaize evangelism only as the mission
and give priority to the text of the Great Commission in Mt.
28:19-20. The basic concern is the salvation of individual souls.
According to them the Gospel, is about the justification and
regeneration of individuals and securing their souls for heaven
after death rather than the spreading the Kingdom of God. Ac-
cepting Jesus Christ as the Lord and Saviour means not only
escaping from the forthcoming condemnation but also enjoying
materialistic blessing at present. They are not much concerned
about the redemption of the society. Moreover, they argue that
society will get worse and all efforts to change it will be a waste.
So, it is better to save souls for heaven and get the satisfaction
of redeeming a few from eternal condemnation and leading them
to a blessed life here on this earth. By transforming, at least, a
few individuals to be born-again Christians, they could con-
tribute to building a responsible society. There is some truth in
this kind of understanding but it has narrowed down evange-
lism to persons only. This interpretation of evangelism has been
challenged by other evangelicals. Since the content of the Gos-
pel is the kingdom of God and Jesus and the realm of the rule
of God is the society, evangelism is more than just saving souls.
Both individuals and social structures are objects of evange-
lism. Individuals are not isolated but form part and parcel of
socio-economic structures. Sin, therefore, is personal and so-
cial. The Lausanne Conference held in 1974 declared clearly
the wider meaning of mission. Evangelism and social responsi-
bility as part of the mission is projected in the Lausanne Cov-
enant.
Second, we notice two extreme views on the question of the
necessity and validity of evangelism. On the one side, some
Christian scholars have raised their voice against evangelism for
various reasons. They were of the view that Jesus wanted only
the preaching of the Kingdom of God and not the winning of
souls to join the Church. Another view was that evangelism pro-
moted the religion of Christianity rather than transformation of
the structures. They pointed out the tension created by evange-
lism within the pluralistic context of many countries. Moreover,
when some people become Christians, their community is di-
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vided due to religious conversion and their cultures and cus-
toms are affected. The main interest of the proponents of this
position is secular humanism. The Christian Gospel, they be-
lieve, can be an ideological basis for changing socio-political struc-
tures. It could provide motivation to Christians to promote secu-
lar humanism in society. These views can be countered by sev-
eral arguments. The NT scholars have argued that the intention
of Jesus was not merely to proclaim and establish the Kingdom
of God on earth but also create a community of faith to witness
the Gospel and carry on the ministry. This faith community of
disciples is the Church. God continued His plan of establishing
the Church through the work of the Holy Spirit and mobilized
these communities to fulfill various ministries, as can be seen
from the Book of Acts and the epistles of the apostles. If the
local communities of faith were not formed, then the proclama-
tion of the Gospel and working for social change would have
ended with the death of Jesus. It is the Church which has kept
this vision alive, allowing the ministry to continue till today.
The validity of evangelism and Church planting has been dis-
cussed by missiologists like Donald McGavran in his essay, Es-
sential Evangelism: An Open Letter to Dr. Hoekendijk (The Con-
ciliar-Evangelical Debate: Crucial Document, 1977:56-66). The
proclamation of the Gospel and the social service of the local
churches have challenged people of other faiths and even have
led them to reform their own religions and activities. Several
documents and writings are written to show the influence of the
Gospel on other religions and culture. Raja Ram Mohan Roy
and Gandhi drew challenges from the Christian Gospel and re-
formed their own religion. The activities of the churches have
contributed to the end of the slave-trade, sati, child labour, ra-
cial and gender discrimination in many parts of the world. The
apartheid system in South Africa was vehemently opposed by
the Church. Local churches proclaimed the values of the Gos-
pel and challenged the socio-political structure of South Africa.
Founding of the churches is an integral part of evangelism which
cannot be stopped with mere proclamation. There are some
Christian groups who try to deliberately avoid the proclamation
of the Gospel and leading people to Christ, wherever they of-
fered social service and action. One reason, they gave was that
proclamation hindered social service and action. The Local peo-
ple showed indifference or suspicion and were apprehensive of
being converted to Christianity. In some villages, they declined
to accept the service. Another reason was the belief in estab-
lishing the Kingdom of God and not the Church. Consequently,
the Christian social group created an alternative structure called
Peoples Associations or Organizations, with members belong-
ing to various religions and political parties, instead of planting
churches. They achieved success, to a certain extent, in orient-
ing these Peoples Associations on the ideology of secular hu-
manism to show that social changes could be carried on by these
associations in the place of the churches. Funds from Christian
groups were given to these associations in addition to the dona-
tions collected from the members of the associations. A detailed
study evaluating this approach is necessary. However, it has
been noticed that some of these Peoples Associations have be-
come either exploitative, divided or influenced by the political
parties and controlled indirectly by the very oppressors against
whom the struggles were launched. This challenges their cred-
ibility and effectiveness. Most of them have withered due to spir-
itual bankruptcy or have been modified to continue as commu-
nal organizations. This does not mean that church planting is
the only answer. In some villages, Churches have become ex-
ploitative, divided and have gradually disappeared. But, it is
known that a church constantly strengthened by preaching and
teaching can at least keep the message of the Gospel alive and
work for the values of the Kingdom of God. The divided church
can be reunited in the Gospel, revived and mobilized by the
work of the Holy Spirit. This is why revivals are necessary. Chris-
tians should study the history of revivals and their contribution
to the growth of the Church and transformation of the society.
There is always a valid reason for, proclaiming the Gospel, plant-
ing churches in society and changing structures. The other criti-
cism that evangelism creates tension and division, can be ad-
dressed thus: the world is already divided by various races, castes,
colour and religions and is facing political, economic and social
tensions. Already, religious and political conversions are going
on. People join the groups and cults they like. Dr. Ambedkar
led more than 50,000 Dalits to be converted to Buddhism, liber-
ating them from the evils of the caste system and socio-eco-
nomic oppression promoted by Hinduism. Conversion and mo-
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bility from one religion, ideology or culture to another cannot
be stopped. An encounter with culture is unavoidable. Modern
technology, globalization and the mass media affect each cul-
ture. The early missionaries too made mistakes by imposing
western culture on people in the mission field but they also
contributed to social change. The values of the Gospel can ei-
ther challenge some cultural elements like the caste system,
sati, dowry, patriarchy and human sacrifices in fertility cults or
endorse and uphold good elements which do not contradict the
Gospel. The Gospel does not destroy culture but it transforms
it. Evangelism need not create tension and division. The procla-
mation of the Gospel is to help people to cross these barriers,
unite themselves in Christ and express their solidarity through
joining the community of faith to challenge the unwanted ten-
sions and divisions.
On the one side, many Christians have argued for the neces-
sity of evangelism stating various theological and sociological
reasons. They have affirmed its valid role in the history of hu-
man beings. The biblical understanding of the concept of sin
and salvation gives theological basis for evangelism. The under-
standing of the concept of sin and salvation varies from religion
to religion. The predominant view of Hinduism is that the soul
is incorruptible and indestructible; that the body is evil and
destructible. Sin affects the body and salvation is by human
effort. For an atheist, God has nothing to do with humans. The
concept of sin is social which demands proper ethical living and
actions to rectify it. Secular humanists may be religious and
may use the philosophies of their religion as a motivating factor
for salvation. Sin is understood in terms of socio-political evils
and salvation is changing that social structure through strug-
gle. Christians, however, understand the concept of sin and sal-
vation in terms of vertical and horizontal relationships. Human-
ity has fallen due to the misuse of freewill and disobedience to
God and needs salvation from God. God saved humanity through
the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ. Sin is not merely
telling lies or committing adultery. It includes social injustice,
exploitation and oppression. Through salvation, God forgives
humanity, reconciling them to Himself and restoring the bro-
ken fellowship between Himself and the rest of the creation.
That God has redeemed the creation is the good news. It be-
comes imperative, therefore, to proclaim this good news and be
involved in changing social structures. In his book, Good News
and Good Works, Ron Sider has brought out the theological and
sociological reasons for evangelism, explaining the concept of
sin and salvation, the relationship between evangelism and so-
cial responsibility and affirming the validity for evangelism
(1999:26-45).
Third, is the issue of conversion which is a vast subject. Vol-
umes are written on this topic. This issue cannot be discussed
in detail here except to highlight the oppositions to conversion.
Many Christians who believe in evangelism expect those who
respond positively to the Gospel to be baptized and included in
a local church. Conversion to Christianity is an integral aspect
of evangelism. But, opposition to religious conversion comes from
different groups in society. On the one hand, Hindu fundamen-
talists, atheists and Marxists oppose evangelism and conversion
to Christianity. This kind of opposition from some religious
groups and political parties is unavoidable. They saw evange-
lism as a threat to the supremacy of their religion, culture and
political power. Conversion to Christianity and joining a church
are viewed as a threat because the poor are liberated from their
socio-economic and political oppression and gain equal recogni-
tion and welfare. Conversion to Christianity threatens the vested
interest of the caste Hindus, landlords, business people and
politicians. It is necessary to engage in dialogue with those who
oppose evangelism and to explain to them, the reason for this
ministry and to convert those who are willingly accept Jesus is
needed. But, the major concern is the opposition from some
Christian leaders who lead many mainline churches to aban-
don evangelism. The consequences are obvious. Village congre-
gations of these denominations dwindle and disappear due to
lack of evangelism and pastoral care. Some of the converts have
reverted to Hinduism and Islam. Many members in villages and
towns have moved to other independent churches due to the
evangelistic and pastoral care programmes of these independ-
ent churches. It is possible to identify several sub-groups among
the Christians who oppose religious conversion. Although they
believe in evangelism, some Christians oppose the conversion of
people of other faiths to Christianity. The proclamation of the
Gospel, according to the view of this Christian sub-group, is
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mainly to teach the values of the Kingdom of God, making them
better Hindus or Muslims and mobilize the people of other faiths
to co-operate with the church without converting them to Chris-
tianity. Their conversion should not be to a religion but to the
ideology of the Kingdom of God. This group is similar to those
who advocate the formation of Peoples Associations in the place
of planting churches. The weakness of this group is their sepa-
ration of the Kingdom of God and its values from the full Gos-
pel. They are failing in fulfilling all the aspects of the Great
Commission. The other group of Christians regard the procla-
mation of the Gospel and converting people to Christianity as
an expression of Christian arrogance and lack of understanding
of other religions. It is a good caution because some Christian
fundamentalists preach against other religions without toler-
ance and respect for the people of other faiths. Christians need
humility in doing the ministry. If converting to Christianity is
spoken of as arrogance then proclaiming the values of the King-
dom of God could also be criticized as if other religions do not
have such values in their religion. This group has ignored the
uniqueness of Christ and the Gospel and its relevance to indi-
viduals and society. Proclaiming the uniqueness of Christ and
the Gospel with an understanding that other religions too have
some truths and values, and inviting hearers to make their own
choice voluntarily is not arrogance but concern for humanity
and commitment to changing the society. Another group of Chris-
tians who believe in evangelism but oppose conversion to Chris-
tianity state another reason. If people are converted, they have
to undergo difficulties and face persecution from families and
communities in villages. This sub-group feel that the pain and
problems of conversion out number the benefit of becoming
Christians due to social relationship to caste and tribe, restric-
tions of the government and lack of support in the churches.
They have a sympathetic attitude towards converts. But, both
the Bible and history show that the followers of Jesus Christ
faced persecution and losses and yet, they were sincere in their
faith and commitment. Persecutions, alienation and losses are
part of conversion whether it is political or religious. The ben-
efits of conversion cannot be measured merely socially and ma-
terially. Restrictions and discrimination of the government on
Christian converts should be challenged. Another sub-group
in Christianity opposse conversion and joining the church be-
cause present day churches do not live up to the expectation of
God. Local churches are not living by the standards of the Gos-
pel. Rather, there is caste and gender discrimination, doctrinal
confusion, dirty politics, corruption and lack of warmth and fel-
lowship to the converts from other religions. According to this
group, God will justify the followers of Christ who did not con-
vert themselves and join the church as righteous if they had
faith in Jesus Christ. God will accept them in his Kingdom. It is
true that churches are not perfect. The Bible never said that the
local churches will be perfect. The Letters of Peter, Paul and
James dealt with the problems in the early church and encour-
aged them to have the mind of Christ (1 Cor. 2:16; Phil. 2:5;
Col. 3:2) and continue in transforming themselves and their
surroundings. How God will judge those who die without hear-
ing the Gospel or those who hesitate to convert themselves but
continue as secret Christians, or those who hate Christ is a
debatable issue. Scholars have written on these issues (Sand-
ers:1992; Kirk,1992). But accepting Jesus Christ as personal
Saviour and joining the local church are the teachings of the
Bible. Early mass conversions among the untouchables and
backward communities to Christianity were for the sociological
reason of caste, racial discrimination, recognition, dignity and
for welfare. Waskom Picketts book Christian Mass Movements in
India, Donald McGavrans books Understanding Church Growth,
Bridges of God, Ethnic Realities and the Churches: Lessons from
India and the study of Graham Houton and Ebi Sunderaraj,
discuss the issues of definition of conversion, reasons and na-
ture of mass conversion in India. The Gospel provided the moti-
vational force to get converted and the church provided secu-
rity, fellowship and employment to the converted poor and pow-
erless converts. Thus, evangelism contributed positively to the
liberation of the down-trodden people and proved its validity in
the history of human beings.
Conversions cannot be stopped by opposition and rules or
persecutions. Those who want to convert themselves to another
religion will do so at any cost. Everyone has the right and free-
dom to convert or reconvert to a religion, ideology, political party
or social group of their own choice. This human right and privi-
lege should not be removed or suppressed by the family, com-
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munity, political party or religion. Proclamation, teaching, bap-
tizing and making disciples in the ministry of evangelism are
valid but should be done with love, concern, sympathy and re-
spect for others. Persuasion, according to Paul, is not forcing
anyone to convert but is the inner concern to transform persons
and society (2 Cor. 5:11-21).
MISSIONARY MODEL
The word mission means to send a messenger with a pur-
pose. The term, missio Dei, denotes mission of God. Two rea-
sons for calling the missionary work as Gods mission could be
mentioned. One, God sent His son Jesus to the world with the
purpose of proclaiming the good news, inaugurating the King-
dom of God and offering eternal life and forgiveness, deliver-
ance, freedom and welfare. The other is that Jesus sent the
disciples with the same purpose to continue the work God had
begun in humanity. The sender is always God and the message
is about the person and work of Jesus. Gods authority is del-
egated to the messenger to carry out the mission. The messen-
ger could be an individual called or commanded by God or a
group of believers united in the worship of the Lord Jesus Christ,
professing their faith. The mission of God is the mission of the
Church also. Gods presence with the messenger is assured. As
an instrument of God, the local church plays a role in acknowl-
edging these aspects, in providing resources for the mission and
in promoting fellowship and service to humanity.
The Book of Acts tells us the missionary work of Peter, Philip,
Paul, Barnabas and other disciples. Philip went to the villages
in Samaria and preached the good news (Acts.8:4-17). Peter was
asked to go to the house of Cornelius and proclaim the good
news to the Gentiles (Acts 10:34-48). Acts 13 is considered as
the mark of the beginning of missionary work. The Church in
Antioch sent Paul and Barnabas to proclaim the good news to
the Jews and Gentiles living outside Palestine. It was not the
emotional wish of the church in Antioch to have territorial ex-
pansion but an initiative of God using the Holy Spirit to call the
church to set apart Paul and Barnabas (13; 2). The purpose of
setting apart was for proclaiming the good news to others. The
church did some preparation. Verse 3 tells us that they spent
enough time in fasting and prayer to confirm the calling of the
Holy Spirit, receive more details on the kind of task and direc-
tion to the region for the task, authority to lay on hands and
their official dispatch as missionaries of the church. The jour-
ney of Paul and Barnabas becomes significant because they were
sent by a church with a mission. Placing hands on them was a
symbol of authorizing them and an assurance of their prayer
for them, for the task ahead. They could have raised some money
to pay for their travel.
Scholars regard Pauls ministry as the model for missionary
work. The first missionary journey of Paul and Barnabas nar-
rated in Acts. 13-15 proved fruitful. Paul, Barnabas and John,
also called Mark, sailed to the island of Cyprus and went to the
synagogue of the Jews in Salamis and proclaimed the good news
(13: 45). No details are given about the message preached or the
result of their ministry in Salamis but Acts narrates the con-
frontation between Paul and Bar-Jesus, a magician. This Jew-
ish false prophet at Paphos opposed the ministry of Paul and
Barnabas and tried to block Sergius Paulus, the Proconsul from
listening to the message and placing his faith in Jesus, the
Messiah. The magician was so close to the Proconsul that he
made him to believe his teachings and magic. He enjoyed the
recognition of the political authority and did not want Sergius
Paulus to accept the preaching of Paul. The magician was afraid
of losing his benefits, authority and being exposed as a false
prophet. Paul had to bind this magician and prove his teachings
wrong. At the command of Paul, the magician became blind and
the power of magic could not open his eyes. This incident need
not be looked at as a miracle for the sake of drawing the Procon-
sul to believe Jesus. Paul was not interested in performing mira-
cles to make people believe. It so happened in the course of his
proclamation, either to bind and control the powers of evil or to
bring deliverance to people, could serve as a sign of the effect of
the good news. The political authority, Sergius Paulus believed
the teaching about Jesus (13:12) after seeing the way falsehood
was overcome by the truth. The Gospel of Jesus confronts the
teachings of false prophets. The conversion of Sergius Paulus
was not an aimed goal but an unexpected result. It is not known
whether he was baptised and joined the church in Cyprus or
not. There is no textual evidence of planting a church in Cyprus
on this journey. What is interesting to note is the close link
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between the political authority and the false prophet and the
power of the Gospel breaking this link and leading the political
authority to faith in Jesus. Paul and Barnabas were not inter-
ested in gaining the favour of the political authority in promot-
ing their interest. They left him to continue in the new faith and
moved to the region of Pamphyria.
Paul preached in the synagogue on the sabbath day in the
city of Antioch in Pisidia (13:14). Luke, the writer of the Book of
Acts, gives us the content of the message preached at Pisidia.
The content is highlighted here than discussed in detail. His
proclamation included the historical tradition of liberation from
Egypt, giving of the land of Canaan, the settlement period un-
der the leadership of the Judges and the monarchical period of
David. Paul did not narrate the full history but moves on to
point out the fulfillment of the prophecy given to David through
Jesus. The Israelites failure to understand the fulfillment of
prophecy in Jesus, led them to crucify Him on the cross but
God raised Him from the dead and brought salvation to human-
ity (13:38-39). Paul touched the fulfillment of the OT, pointed
out Jesus was the expected Messiah and made it clear that the
forgiveness of sin and salvation was brought by the death and
resurrection of Jesus. The response of the audience was over-
whelming (13:43-44). The opposition from the Jews was also
mounting on Paul and Barnabas forcing them to turn to the
Gentiles (13:47-48). The theological disagreement of some of
the Jews on accepting Jesus as the Messiah and the salvation
in His death and resurrection, according to the preaching of
Paul, was the reason for the opposition which resulted in the
persecution and banishment of Paul and Barnabas from that
city. Opposition to proclamation and persecution go hand-in-
hand in some places in missionary work. However, the encour-
agement is that many Gentiles in Antioch accepted the mes-
sage of Paul gladly, praised the word of the Lord, received the
eternal life and became believers (13:48-49). The Gospel started
spreading through out the region through the ministry of Paul
and later, through the local church planted among the Gentiles
in Antioch. Verse 52, And the disciples were filled with joy and
with the Holy Spirit - affirmed the planting of the church in
Antioch in Pisidia and the experience of the disciples with the
Holy Spirit. Missionary work does not involve only proclaiming
the gospel and planting churches but also enabling disciples to
be filled with the joy of salvation and to rely on the Holy Spirit to
enlighten, lead and strengthen them in faith and witness.
The proclamation of the good news by Paul and Barnabas to
Jews and Greeks in Iconium led many of them to believe in
Jesus Christ. Another phenomenon in the missionary work of
Paul and Barnabas here was that the Jews who opposed them
instigated the Gentiles to drive Paul and Barnabas out of that
city. However, these missionaries did not yield to the pressure
of the opposition, they remained in the city, spoke boldly and
performed signs and wonders (14:2-4). The phenomenon is that
the people of the city were divided. Some of them sided with the
apostles and some with the opposing Jews. This division was
caused by deliberate instigation. Otherwise, people who had
voluntarily accepted the new faith would continue in their new
faith and others would continue in their old faith. Accepting
new faith or philosophy in the Greek-Roman world was not new.
It went on for generations with the development of new philoso-
phies, mystery religions and cultic practices. While the instiga-
tion caused division among the residents, the proclaimed Gos-
pel united the Jews, Greeks and some Gentiles in their new
faith in Jesus. Since Paul and Barnabas stayed for a long time
in Iconium, it could be inferred that they united the converts in
worship and teaching. This young church grew in the midst of
opposition.
Moving to the Lycaonia region, Paul and Barnabas proclaimed
the good news in Lystra and Derbe. The help they offered the
crippled man in Lystra led the Gentiles to think of Paul and
Barnabas as gods and they attempted to offer sacrifice to them.
Paul and Barnabas told these Gentiles to turn away from super-
stitions and worthless rituals of sacrifices to gods and goddess,
to the living God who is the Creator, who gave rains and food
(14:15-17). They did not take the glory to themselves or accept
the honour of the Gentiles. Proclamation manifested with the
power of deliverance should present God not only as a Saviour
but also as a Creator and should encourage people to worship
the true Creator rather than the creation. The Gospel chal-
lenged and transformed some of the religions and cultural prac-
tices of the hearers. Acts 14:20-21 tells that many became disci-
ples in Lystra and Derbe.
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On their return to Jerusalem via Lystra, Iconium and Antioch,
they met the assembly of the disciples in these cities. Unlike
the hit and run evangelists of modern day, Paul and Barnabas
spent time with the new believers. Acts 14:22-23 speaks of four
important elements in their follow-up missionary work viz. they
strengthened the disciples, encouraged them to continue in faith
and face persecution in order to be part of the Kingdom of God
and its values; they appointed elders from among them in each
assembly, took care of them in prayer and fasting and finally
entrusted them to the Lord. Missionary work goes beyond proc-
lamation and winning disciples to strengthening and organiz-
ing them into a dynamic community of faith, worship and in-
volvement. Choosing elders and training them did not diminish
the responsibility of Paul and Barnabas but they continued to
provide care and develop local leadership, to lead the disciples
in worship, helping them understand their new faith and share
this new faith with others in word and deed.
By reporting what had happened in their ministry to the
apostles in Jerusalem and to their sending church in Antioch,
Paul and Barnabas created two important dimensions in mis-
sions. One was linking the planted churches of the Jews and
Gentiles with the sending church. Thus, a relationship between
these churches, beyond race and geographical distance, devel-
oped through the missionary work. Another was to make the
sending churches more responsible towards the new disciples
in other cities yet, not imposing too much of their authority and
doctrine of circumcision but learning and drawing challenges
from the new converts as they tried to understand the Scripture
and work of the Holy Spirit.
While the first journey of Paul and Barnabas has developed a
model of missionary work crossing geographical boundaries and
culture, the second journey strengthened this model. Paul and
Silas left with the prayer and blessing of the believers in Antioch.
They went through Syria and Cilicia and strengthened the
churches (15:40-41). The main purpose of the second journey
was to visit the already planted churches in Derbe and Lystra
and strengthen the believers, in addition to proclaiming the good
news in new places such as Philipi (16:15), Thessalonica, Beroea,
Athens (17:1-22), Corinth (18:7-8) and Ephesus (18:19-20).
Strengthening the churches could mean helping the believers
to understand the OT, the message and ministry of Jesus Christ,
clarifying the doubts and questions raised by the believers, sort-
ing out their problems or disputes and training elders to lead
the churches. It implied a long stay with these churches and
being closely involved with the leaders and congregations. The
proclamation of the good news compels the proclaimer to be
involved with the people who responded to the good news. The
washing of hands after proclamation and running away from
the spiritual and socio-political problems of the converts cannot
be responsible missionary work.
Paul had to proclaim the good news in a place of prayer, by
the river in Philippi, a leading city in Macedonia. It is not known
whether it was a synagogue building or an open-air meeting
place, where women could freely participate. Lydia and her
family accepted the message preached by Paul and received bap-
tism (16:13-17). I assume, Paul could have baptized them in
the river. Paul was not hesitant to stay with that family which
invited him. It was not easy for Paul to go and live with a family.
It is necessary to note Pauls humility, his willingness to adjust
and his interest in relating with the converts. This is another
challenge to modern day ministers, who try to withdraw from
the fellowship offered by converts. Preaching of the Gospel brings
deliverance from the possession of evil spirits, as seen in the
case of the slave girl in Philippi (16:16-18). The people who were
making money out of this slave-girl opposed Paul and accused
him and Silas of disturbing the city by advocating practices con-
tradictory to the Roman custom. Instead of being happy for the
slave girls deliverance from evil spirits, the exploiters of the girl
failed to notice the meaning and power of the Gospel in trans-
forming human lives. Paul and Silas had to go to prison for
preaching and healing the slave girl from the powers of evil.
Their imprisonment in Philippi brought the jailer to faith and
his entire family to baptism (16:30-34).
Acts 17:1-9 narrates that for three Sabbaths Paul argued in
the synagogue at Thessalonica explaining from Scripture and
proving that the Messiah has to suffer, die and rise again. The
proclamation cannot ignore argument, correcting wrong notions
and convincing people to see Jesus as the Lord and Saviour.
Through discussion some of the Jews were convinced and led to
this new faith. Opposition from other Jews drove Paul out to
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Beroea where Jews were more receptive (17:10-12) and they
became believers. Paul had to adopt the methods of preaching
and arguing again in Athens with the Gentiles and point out
that the unknown God is revealed in Jesus Christ (17:22). Al-
though many Athenians were sceptical of his preaching and of
the message of resurrection after death, some of them believed
(v.34).
The proclamation of the good news continued in Corinth, as
noticed in Acts 18:1-18. Pauls method was to approach the Jews
in the cities and speak to them about Jesus, the Messiah and
salvation through His work. Aquila and his wife Priscilla accepted
the message of Paul and became believers. Few more Jews such
as Titius Justus, Crispus and his family as well as many
Corinthians (v.8) which could refer to the native gentiles be-
came believers and got baptized. Paul stayed in Corinth for a
long period and strengthened the believers before returning to
Jerusalem. It is not known for how long he stayed in Jerusalem
and then in Antioch. He left again, for the third time, to pro-
claim the Gospel in Ephesus, Galatia and Phrygia. Acts 19:11-
27 reports that God did extraordinary miracles through Paul in
Ephesus that many became believers in Jesus, which resulted
in the decline of the sale of idols of the gods and goddess through
out that region. In the midst of the opposition and persecution,
Paul continued the proclamation of the gospel planting of
churches in Ephesus and Galatia and strengthening of the new
converts. Even when he was arrested and sent to Rome for trial,
Paul proclaimed the good news of Jesus and the Kingdom of
God to those who came to his house (Acts 28:16-30).
It is necessary to analyse the salient features in the mission-
ary work of Paul and his team. First, the proclamation of the
good news was the centre of their missionary work. Their jour-
neys to various Roman provinces in Asia was not for tourism or
trade. Uncompromisingly they declared Jesus Christ as the
Messiah and Saviour of the world. Using various methods of
communication like preaching, teaching, arguing, explaining,
convincing and persuading, they presented the Gospel to both
Jews and Gentiles. A detailed analysis of the content of their
preaching could reveal various theological elements. Second,
healing the sick and disabled and delivering people from the
powers of evil spirits was part of their missionary work. It be-
came inevitable to prove the power of the Gospel and the pen-
etration of the Kingdom of God in the lives of human beings,
throughout their ministry. The miracles they performed was
neither to make the people believe nor to increase the number
of converts for the churches. They represented the liberative
power of the Kingdom of God, which Jesus Christ wanted to
establish among the people that they may enjoy liberation from
oppression and powers of the evil spirits. It was these miracles
which made the audience to believe the Gospel. Third, uniting
the Jews and Gentiles through the proclamation of the Gospel
in a visible assembly was a tremendous achievement, especially
within the context of racial discrimination between ethnic com-
munities, class differences between the rich, poor and slaves,
gender and status discrimination, against of citizenship,
sojourners and refugees. Church planting and growth provided
believers security and protection to practice their new faith. It is
more than a mere assembly of believers. It was a dynamic force
to counter discrimination and bring unity among the people,
enhancing their understanding of culture and custom and mo-
bilizing the members to love others, care and share resources. It
was a koinonia of believers with the purpose of diakonia for the
people. Organized under the leadership of elders, rooted in the
Gospel and empowered by the Holy Spirit, the assemblies car-
ried on the mission of God. Fourth, Paul understood the nature
and the potential of this eschatological community of believers
to further the Kingdom of God and made so much effort in
strengthening the members in their faith, witness and actions.
The letters written by Paul to the various churches he planted,
reveal the ecclesiastical, theological and social problems of these
churches and the pains Paul had taken to clarify and guide the
elders and members. He chose and trained persons like Timo-
thy, Titus and Ephaphradus to visit these churches and
strengthen the converts. Fifth, oppositions and persecution is
unavoidable in the ministry of proclaiming the good news. Usu-
ally, there are more opponents to the Gospel than those will-
ingly accept Gospel. The Gospel definitely cuts across some wrong
elements in culture, economy, religion and politics and thus
brings tensions and divisions in society. Unfortunately, such
tensions and divisions are unavoidable, as it is with other ide-
ologies, philosophies and policies. Society would always be di-
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vided for many reasons. Tensions and divisions will continue till
our Lord comes again. But, it must not be forgotten that the
Gospel has the power to overcome evil in society, bring unity in
diversity and promote the values of Gods reign. Suffering and
risking of lives cannot be avoided in ministry, particularly in
missionary work in cross cultural contexts. 2 Cor.11:24-33 enu-
merates the sufferings of Paul for the sake of the Gospel. Roland
Allens book Missionary Methods: Pauls or Ours is a challenge
to examine the salient features of Pauls missionary work. Many
Indian missionaries have had similar experiences of Pauls work
in their missionary work in different parts of the country. They
followed the same features of the early missionary model. Many
new churches have been planted and are growing quantitatively
and qualitatively.
Missionary work integrates various activities particularly the
proclamation of the Gospel, planting and nurturing churches,
developing leaders and fulfilling social responsibility through
charity, relief, development and actions for justice. Some of the
issues connected to evangelism already have been discussed in
the previous pages. Two issues are selected and discussed be-
low. One is the emphasis of the School of Church Growth. Al-
though many missiologists, who associate themselves with the
School of Church Growth in USA, Europe, India and Korea, do
not ignore the activities of liberation and social service, they
emphasize evangelism and church planting as the top priority
of missions. Many useful contributions have come from these
missiologists. A collection of essays written by biblical scholars,
missiologists and social workers and compiled by Ralph Winter
under the title, Perspectives on the World Christian Movement: A
Reader (1999: 3
rd
edition), provides insights on missions and
church growth. It is an important resource book for the field of
missiology. Donald McGavran, the father of the Church Growth
school of thought, emphasizes the quantitative and qualitative
growth of churches. According to him, the growth of a local
church, in terms of statistics, is important. He brought about an
awareness of the principles and nature of the growth of the
churches. Out of the three kinds of quantitative growth namely,
Biological, Transfer and Conversional growth, he believes, the
last one is a test for evangelism. As in the days of the apostles,
people should benefit from the Gospel, convert to Christianity
and add up to the churches. McGavran calls the phenomena of
mass conversion of an ethnic group Peoples Movement and
analysizes the dynamics of their conversion in his book, Un-
derstanding the Church Growth (1999:51-53; 221-249). He found
out that an ethnic group like a tribe or caste, comes to conver-
sion in mass if they were not required to cross their caste or
tribal identity and mix with people of other caste in a church
but are allowed to continue in their identity, culture, language
and customs. He calls it a homogenous unit principle. His crit-
ics have raised questions about the number game as the criteria
for the growth of the churches and the homogenous unit princi-
ple, which can contradict the biblical nature of the church. The
proclamation of the Gospel need not necessarily result in church
planting. The proclamation of the Gospel has its own strengths
because it is about the forgiveness of sins and the values of the
Kingdom of God. Whether people accept the Gospel and join
the church or not, it should go on to make the people aware of
what God has done for and expects from humanity. It is a mes-
sage for both the oppressor and the oppressed, calling each to
repentance because all have sinned (Rom.3:21-26). Further-
more, oppressors should repent of their injustice and restore
justice to their victims and the oppressed also should repent of
their resentment. However, responding positively and joining
the church is an expression of the solidarity of the converts and
a force for the mission of God. There is no point in having thou-
sands of people in the church without quality spiritual life and
the urge for social justice. The criticism on McGavrans views
are valid but he did not deny the fact that quality side of the
church should also be kept in mind. Quantitative and Qualita-
tive aspects are inter-dependent. Both of them are necessary
for the life of the churches.
The homogenous unit method may be good and acceptable
in the case of the conversion of a tribe or an ethnic group of
similar language and culture. However, it would be erroneous
to say it is necessary to encourage the growth of caste churches.
Such a principle in connection with caste churches may be help-
ful for numerical growth and in maintaining social identity, cul-
ture and custom but, it is against biblical teachings (Gal. 3:27-
29). Churches of Greeco-Roman context were real challenges
for class, racial and caste discrimination and paved the way for
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accepting people of different class, race and colour and treating
them equally. The Caste system is socio-religious discrimina-
tion oriented and is perpetuated by the Hinduism. I have ex-
plained the evils of the Varna system, in the context of India. It
is sufficient to point out at this stage that the Gospel cuts through
this discrimination and unites the people. To go on planting
churches or supporting the existing caste churches, which per-
petuate the caste system among the Christian community in
India is against biblical principle. For the sake of numerical
growth, it is impossible to compromise biblical teaching with
particular reference to the caste system or maintain caste
churches. Churches based on the caste system are different
from churches based on tribal or other ethnic aspects. McGavran
points out that caste churches already exist in the Indian soci-
ety. They are ethnic realities in India. He explains the phenom-
ena of ethnic churches in his book, Ethnic Realities and the
Church: Lessons from India (1979). While he is against the evils
of the caste system, he is sympathetic towards the formation of
these churches in India. He is optimistic that these caste
churches could grow if the homogenous unit principle was en-
couraged. It was unnecessary for low caste people to be seated
separately or to be served the Holy Communion in a different
cup or to be dominated by the upper caste on committees. Ironi-
cally, his sympathetic and optimistic attitude seems to support
caste discrimination rather than contend for equality within the
church and society. Church growth based on the principle of a
caste system is a debatable issue. Should Dalits be converted to
Christianity? Should they be encouraged to have a church of
their own? What is the response of other Christians in encour-
aging the Dalits to maintain their identity, culture, custom and
administration? What is the opinion of the Dalits on theology of
the Church? It would be necessary to conduct detailed research
on the validity of the homogenous unit principle, with regard to
caste churches, from biblical, theological and sociological per-
spectives in the light of emerging Dalit and Tribal theologies.
The next important issue in the missionary model is social
action. Quite often, missionary work ends at charity, relief and
development of schools, hospitals and orphanages. Missionary
activities hardly include revolts against injustice or changes in
social structures. There is a difference between social service
and social action. Social service in general, means charity, relief
and development. They deal with the consequences of poverty,
earth-quakes, floods or drought and violence against an indi-
vidual or a community. To help the people affected by the above
reasons, churches extend financial help and food and clothing
supplies and build houses to accommodate the victims. Social
service deals with the situation of illiteracy and the need for
medical facilities through the establishment of schools and hos-
pitals. Such charity makes the recipients dependent on the do-
nor. They fail to deal with the causes of the problems which
create poverty, environmental degradation, natural calamities
and conflict. The more the victims depend on charity, the more
they lose their dignity and status. However, developing educa-
tional and medical institutions empowers them and makes them
independent. Developmental work need not necessarily deal
with the root causes of injustice, therefore, Social Action is
needed. Social Action has a particular connotation. It is a strug-
gle to deal with the causes of poverty, calamity and violence and
to establish justice and welfare. Social action- aims at changing
socio-political and economic structures for the transformation
of society. It identifies and attempts to deal with oppressive forces.
Social action is an expression of the solidarity of the victims
with their supporters in upholding their rights and progress.
Christian social action, as explained elsewhere, is based on the
teachings of the Bible. God is loving and just and he commands
us to love our neighbours (Lev. 19:18; Mt. 5:43; 22:38; Rom.
13:8-10). I have highlighted some of these aspects in the model
of liberation and political action. Lack of social analysis and theo-
logical perspectives, a neutral attitude, inferiority complex, with-
drawal tendencies, ministerial specialization and priority of evan-
gelism over social action are some of the impediments of social
action of the churches. However, it is known that the earlier
missionaries practiced social action and it is still practiced in
mission fields and some churches around the world. It is almost
unavoidable. While I was travelling in a train a few years ago, I
happened to meet three missionaries of one of the leading mis-
sionary organizations working in several places in northern In-
dia. I raised the issue of social action and asked them to share
their experience. They told me about the seed-bank in their
mission station. After noticing the pathetic situation of the tribals
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who borrowed money from money-lenders and were forced to
sell their agricultural produce at the prices fixed by these money
lenders, these Indian missionaries who were preaching the Gos-
pel and planting the churches had no choice but to take social
action. They helped the tribals to bring their produce to the
church and market it for a higher price. They supported the
poor natives and contended with the hostility of the money-
lenders. They also encouraged the natives to save grains for the
next cultivation season by creating a seed-bank in the church
and this broke their dependence on the money-lenders to pur-
chase seed for the next sowing season. This liberative action led
the money-lenders to burn the church and seed bank, threat-
ening the missionaries to leave that region. They threatened
the tribals not to have any contact with the local church and
these missionaries. However, the missionaries and the tribals
have decided to continue the struggle. Christian social action
exists at a micro-level in many mission fields but unfortunately
the incidents are not documented and analyzed by the mission-
ary organizations and churches.
Tensions and practical difficulties involved in the holistic mis-
sion to transform the lives of people are enormous and unpre-
dictable. This has created fear in some pastors, evangelists and
missionaries, making them reluctant to participate in social ac-
tion. Problems and difficulties in holistic ministry vary from
place to place and from group to group. Yet, one pressure which
can be felt by those who believe in evangelism and social action
is the accusation of converting people to Christianity. This accu-
sation could come from the people for whom we work or the rich
man and his oppressive forces or some Christian leaders. Once
the people for whom the struggle is launched know about our
commitment to evangelism, they may or may not refuse our
help. Even if they rejected Christ, they must not be left to con-
tinue in their suffering. Without any precondition, genuine love
must be shown towards them. They may understand the basis
of our action and Gods concern for them as they listen to us
and see our work for them. Once the church or missionary team
wins the confidence of the poor, the oppressors will try to hinder
liberative action by raising their cry against our presence as
conversion effort or brand us as Marxists. These oppressors know
very well that social action initiated or supported by Christians
will expose their injustice and liberate the poor. They are not
really concerned about the poor, their religion or their culture
but about their own interests, afraid of losing the poor who served
them in various ways for a long time without questioning their
authority and exploitation. By their accusation, they put pres-
sure on the action group to leave that place and the poor at
their mercy. The oppressors need to understand and the reason
for helping the poor, whether they accept our theology or not.
There are questions about the intentions and interpretations of
RSS, VHP, Bajrang Dal, Hindu Munnani Movements on the work
of Christians. These Hindu fundamentalists will always brand
all our activities as conversion to Christianity. They oppose chari-
table and liberative work and hate the very presence and progress
of Christians. The Hindutva policy is an evidence to this fact.
Recent atrocities, as reported in the newspapers in 1998-2000,
against Christians in various parts of India was proof of their
hatred towards the poor and religious minorities seeking libera-
tion, equality and welfare. Involvement in the ministry of libera-
tion does not imply denial of evangelism. It is not easy to give a
ready-made answer on how to balance evangelism and social
action. These aspects could be worked out depending on the
situation.
CHARITY MODEL
Another example of social service is charity. Today, the word
charity carries a negative tone since it refers to the people at
the receiving end. One of the demerits of charity is that it makes
people dependent and is not enabling them to stand on their
own feet. It makes them to lose their dignity and respect. As
pointed out earlier, charity fails to address the cause of their
poverty or misery but deals only with the resultant situation or
its consequences. Charity is more of a temporary relief or help
rather than an effort to develop self-esteem and justice. Although
charity has its own limitations, it is helpful to people in dire
need, particularly in times of calamity and tragedy. Charity re-
veals the positive aspect of the need to share with the needy. It
underlines the Christian concept of giving and stewardship.
Charitable service was not new to the Jews. The OT insists
on giving alms and taking care of widows, orphans, slaves, al-
iens and the poor (Ex.22:21; Lev.19:33-34; Dt. 26:12). Abraham
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and Lot expressed charity by extending hospitality to those who
came to sojourn in the midst of them (Gen. 18:1-4; 19:1-3).
Rebekah, the daughter of Bethuel came forward to help the
servant of Abraham by giving him water to drink (Gen. 24:15-
21). Reuel, the priest of Midian, helped the fugitive Moses
(Ex.2:20-22). Special laws were created after the covenant at
Sinai to strengthen charity towards needy members within and
outside their community. These laws were further modified dur-
ing the Settlement period to meet the growing needs of the
poor. The basis for charity in ancient Israel was the command to
love their neighbours. Charity laws in Exodus, Leviticus and
Dueteronomy emphasize proper relationship between human
beings. One of the important laws was the sabbatical year of
land (Ex.23:10-11). The land holders in Israel were asked to let
their land lie fallow on the seventh year. The purpose was to
enable the poor people in the land, particularly those without
land, have access to grains, fruits and vegetables grown on the
land during the fallow year. They could gather their food from
such land and did not need to starve to death. The sabbatical
year was not uniformly observed by all in one region. Each fam-
ily calculated the sabbatical year for their own land and let the
land lie fallow on the seventh year. Some scholars suggest that
families could have aportioned their land into seven sections
and allowed each section to lie fallow for a year, as they rotated
and cultivated the rest of the six sections to meet their food
supply. Whatever was the method of observing the fallowing year,
the poor people were able to find some land left for their sake in
one or another region and they moved to such places where
they gathered their food and survived. The law of the sabbatical
year to the land had sociological implications and served as char-
ity to the needy (J.B. Jeyaraj, Land Ownership in the Penta-
teuch: Ph.D. Thesis :1989) Ex. 22: 25-27 insisted that the Isra-
elites lend money to the poor without levying interest. This
discouraged them from becoming creditors or demanding secu-
rity pledges. Even if they take their cloak on pledge, the only
property left out for the poor, it should be returned before the
Sun goes down to help the poor to cover and protect himself or
herself from the cold. Lending money to the needy was not re-
garded as giving of alms. The borrower had to try sincerely to
return the money to the lender but most of the time, the poor
debtor could not make it and the money lent to the poor is lost
forever. This law of lending money without interest implies the
risk of losing the money. Knowing this risk, families lent money
and were prepared to lose it. However, they derive joy from help-
ing the poor financially. These two laws of social concern helped
the poor and committed the families in Israel to be charitable to
individuals or families. The well-to-do families could opt to be
charitable voluntarily or neglect the laws of social concern. In
order to make a compulsory provision of charity to the poor,
orphans and widows, the law of tithing was emphasized
(Dt.26:12). Part of the tithe went to the priests and levites and
the rest went to the poor in their society. This in- built mecha-
nism with their work and worship promoted charity. The Book
of Proverbs instructed families to help their poor in the midst.
The Psalms reflect the cry of the needy and call on the worship-
per to be sensitive to people in distress and pain.
Prophets, individually helped many families particularly the
families of widows irrespective of their socio-religious background.
For example, Elijah hepled the widow of Zarephath in the re-
gion of Sidon through the miracle of providing flour and oil at
the time of famine, saving the life of the widow and her son (1
Kings. 17:8-16). Later Elisha saved the widow of a prophet in
Israel and her two children, who were almost bonded into slav-
ery, by providing enough oil for sale to clear their debt (2 Kings
4:1-7). These miracles, I believe, were performed for the libera-
tion of marginalized people from the powers of famine and debts.
They were immediate relief measures. Boaz, the owner of the
land instructed his workers to deliberately allow the grains to
fall on the field so that Ruth, the widow, could gather them to
prepare food. By this charitable action, Boaz saved the lives of
Naomi and Ruth, the two widows and protected them from go-
ing into slavery or begging or prostitution (Ruth 3-4). David not
only showed charity to Mephibosheth, the disabled son of Saul
(2 Samuel. 9) by providing him with food every day but also
restored his rights and properties (Jeyaraj, AJTR: 1998:138-
145). These examples show that charity was practised by indi-
viduals, families and rulers in ancient Israel. Whether there
was any organized unit or infrastructure or not, responsible for
charitable acts in different places in the land needs separate
research. It is possible, as some scholars believe, that Judaism
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in the post-exilic period had a system of distribution of food to
the poor. Religious communities like Essenes had their social
service team in important cities, particularly in Jerusalem, and
provided shelter and clothes to travellers (E.P. Sanders:1992:230-
234; J .Jeremias:1969:126-134).
There is some evidence of alms giving to the poor by the
Pharisees and Essenes in the New Testament and Rabbinical
writings. Jesuss sermon on the Mount warns the hypocrites
against publicizing their giving of alms in the synagogues and
on the streets to gain praise from others and taught that alms
be given in secret without expecting any reward (Mt 6:1-4). This
showed that Jesus accepted the practise of alms giving. He asked
the rich young man who desired to have eternal life to sell all
his wealth and give the money to the poor (Mk.10:17-22). Je-
sus concept of doing charity was not out of plenty but in losing
everything for charity. This is a radical principle of charity. Ac-
cording to Jesus, there are no limitations in sharing resources
with needy people. This teaching was unacceptable to the rich
and hypocrites of his day. Jesus underlined this principle of
charity when Zacchaeus confessed to returning his accumu-
lated wealth in four or five fold to the poor. Jesus knew that
Zacchaeus would lose all his wealth if he returned it in multi-
ples and acknowledged that action as real repentance, charity
and justice and the evidence of true salvation of Zacchaeus life
(Lk.19: 1-10). Disabled persons deserted by their families and
marginalized by their religion and society sat on the way to
Jerusalem or in front of the Temple to beg for alms from pil-
grims to Jerusalem (Mt.20:30; Acts3:2). As a mark of their piety,
the Jewish worshippers would normally give alms to these beg-
gars. Peters act of healing the lame man at the entrance of the
Temple reveals the fact that the poor need liberation and a right-
ful place in the society more than they needed charity. Some
Christians tried to sell all their property and put the money in a
common fund as was done in an ashram community. The story
of Ananias and Sapphira (Acts 5) points out that such an ex-
periment did not work out well and did not last for long.
The next chapter of Acts 6 depicts an emerging structure for
charity in an organized manner in the early church. It began
with the distribution of food to the widows in the churches.
From the report of Luke, it is understood that the early koinonia
cared for the widows. But, with the constant increase in the
number of converts from Judaism to Christianity the responsi-
bility of taking care of the widows also increased. More and more
widows joined the church and enjoyed the new fellowship. Many
of them were so poor or not cared properly by their families that
the church had to feed them and take care of their needs. The
limited resources at their disposal naturally led the persons-in-
charge to show favouritism and nepotism in the distribution of
food. Since the persons-in-charge were predominantly Hebrew
or Aramaic- speaking Jews, they showed favouritism to the He-
brew/Aramaic- speaking Jewish widows, neglecting the Greek-
speaking Jewish widows. Such discrimination was not good for
true koinonia and diakonia. The complaints on discrimina-
tion were taken in good spirit by the leaders of the assembly.
The positive attitude of the leaders towards criticism urged them
to analyze the reasons for the neglect in their service. These
apostles realized the need for an organized group to raise re-
sources and supervise the distribution of food. They under-
stood, it was a time consuming job. They consulted the whole
community of disciples and shared their problems with them,
mentioning their priority for preaching and teaching the word
of God. They worked out a special arrangement to distribute
food to the widows. This unit had seven men for the special
service and was regarded as an official structure with the au-
thority of the apostles and approval of the community. The apos-
tles defined the qualification for this task. These men had to be
of good standing which meant filled with integrity, the Holy Spirit
and wisdom. These were regarded by the apostles as the most
important qualifications for charitable service. The selection was
done by the community. It is worth noting that the apostles did
not select their own candidates or appoint them at their own
will. The decision-making power was given to the community.
Authorization was given by the apostles by the laying on of hands.
Koinonia and Diakonia can be strengthened by listening to
the problems and criticisms of the poor and making corporate
decisions. Such a democratic procedure is healthy for relief and
development.
Christian stewardship as an integral aspect of spirituality
gained more importance with the beginning of the missionary
journeys of Paul and Baranabas. In the letters of Paul, he men-
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tions various causes for giving. The three major reasons for giv-
ing identified in his writings are namely, for the support of the
Christian preacher/teacher, the missionary who brings the Gos-
pel and the poor people in the churches. From Gal.6:6, 1 Cor.
9:11-14 and 1 Tim. 5:17-18, it is clear that those who received
preaching and instructions on the word of God had an obliga-
tion to share their good resources with their preachers and teach-
ers. The elders who ministered the Word of God had the right to
receive their support from their congregations. Not only the
preachers and teachers, but also the missionaries who brought
the Gospel to a particular city needed the support of the believ-
ers. The church at Philippi supported Paul while he was with
them and later sent their support while he went to preach the
Gospel to the nearby cities of Thessalonica and Corinth and
later to Rome when he was imprisoned (Phil.1:5; 4:14-18; 2 Cor.
11: 9). One of the very few churches which was in constant
touch with the missionary Paul was the church at Philippi. Paul
thanked God for the Philippians and called their relationship a
partnership in the Gospel.
The major area of concern in the study is the message of 2
Cor.8 on the third aspect of giving, i.e. to the poor in the congre-
gations. Knowing the need and suffering of the poor in Jerusa-
lem, Paul urged the churches in Macedonia (Thessalonians and
Philippians), Ephesus and Corinth to raise some money and
send it regularly to the church in Jerusalem. Paul suggested a
systematic way of giving in 1 Cor. 16:1-4, encouraging the
Corinthians to set aside a sum of money on the first day of every
week according to their income so that the help will be readily
available. They need not rush to collect the money at the last
minute. The Corinthians followed this suggestion and sent the
collection regularly to the poor in Jerusalem. However, they
started showing slackness and irregularity in setting aside the
money to be sent to Jerusalem. In urging the Corinthians to
keep up this good work, Paul made explicit to them, the ideal in
the churches in Macedonia. As I analyzed 2 Cor. 8 more in-
tensely, I noticed three foundations in Pauls writing on Chris-
tian stewardship. I would like to call them the theological,
missiological and sociological bases. Each of them are closely
connected to the other. In highlighting the model of Macedonia
to challenge the Corinthian church, Paul emphasized the
missiological basis. The Thessalonians and Philippians gave them-
selves first to the Lord and then to the support of the poor in
Jerusalem. According to Paul, by accepting the Gospel and ac-
knowledging Jesus Christ as their Saviour, they gave their lives
to the Lord. Giving begins by surrendering ones life to the
lordship of Christ and then it flows to help the lives of others.
Surrendering to the Gospel demands practising the kingdom
values of sharing and supporting. Giving life to Christ naturally
leads to giving up possessions and life for others. Both are in-
ter-linked. One without the other is meaningless. The mission
of proclamation of the Gospel leads to the mission of sharing. A
person can very well contribute money and other resources with-
out surrendering his or her life to Jesus. Such an act is basi-
cally humanitarian and done out of common concern but it need
not be based on the missiology Paul is talking about. To Paul,
Christian stewardship is not based purely on secular human-
ism but on missiological, sociological and theological bases. The
Macedonians were not rich. They were living in poverty and fac-
ing persecution. Yet, they gave voluntarily beyond their means.
They even pleaded that their gift for the poor people in the con-
gregation of Jerusalem be accepted. Their experience of the
Gospel motivated them to give in spite of their poverty and afflic-
tion. Their sincerity and eagerness to give was the criteria for
accepting their charity. Those who are in need and at the re-
ceiving end need to see the positive aspect of sincerity and ea-
gerness on the part of the giver in order to accept their help.
Pauls point was that if a poor church could share their money,
then the rich Christians in Corinth could do much more. He
challenged them to excel in giving also apart from their excel-
lence in many other aspects. It is the test of ones love for God
and for others.
Paul states the theological basis for giving in 2 Cor. 8:8-9.
Although the Lord Jesus Christ was rich, He became poor for
our sake and that is the theology of giving. Jesus Christ left
everything to come and die on the Cross that humanity could
enjoy the richness of salvation. In stating this theology of God
becoming poor, Paul mentioned that Lord Jesus Christ be-
came poor. God in entirety, according to these verses, became
poor not holding anything for himself. If God could become
poor for our sake, then the Corinthians who received Gods rich-
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ness of forgiveness and eternal life had to show the same kind
love for others. Sharing their wealth with those in need proved
their genuine love for God. Paul called it a ministry to the saints
in 2 Cor. 9:1. Although he spoke of help to the poor among the
Christians in Jerusalem, Paul did not rule out the need to help
the needy outside the church.
Paul was not satisfied with the mere act of generosity to the
poor just to console their conscience. His sociological basis stated
in 2 Cor. 8:13-14: but it is a question of a fair balance be-
tween your present abundance and their need, so that their
abundance may be for your need, in order that there may be a
fair balance was, a tremendous challenge and radicalizing the
giving by using the phrase fair balance. He contrasts the abun-
dance of having with the need of the people and proposes a
fair balance between possession and distribution of wealth. I
do not like to push Pauls idea of fair balance too much to mean
Christian communism or socialism. I think, Paul was aware that
the accumulation of wealth and earnings would go on but he
desired that those who accumulated wealth share with the needy.
In sharing, two things happen. The accumulated possession in
the hands of the rich is reduced and the needy rises to the
stage of having resources. This flow of abundance from the rich
to the poor should continue to create at least a fair balance if
not equal balance. Achieving economic and social equality de-
mands more than charitable giving. Charity can only offset the
situation of accumulation and narrow down the gap between
the rich and poor to a certain extent. For Paul, this sociological
challenge, is linked to the theology of God becoming poor and
the missiological basis of partnership in the Gospel. Christian
charity should work towards fair balance and not stop with a
token or symbolic ritual of alms-giving. The Charity model chal-
lenges both the giver and the receiver in the Christian con-
text. As has been mentioned above, sincerity, eagerness and
willingness are expected on the side of the giver. Furthermore,
the giver is expected to give according to his or her ability and
even beyond his or her means realizing the love of God and the
benefits of the Gospel. The receiver need not feel ashamed to
accept the gift or the generosity of the giver because it has theo-
logical, missiological and sociological implications. When the
status of the needy changes to one of abundance, they are ex-
pected to follow the same principle of eagerness and willingness
in giving to others. It is only when the giver and the receiver
commit themselves to the theological, missiological and socio-
logical bases, the model of charity or Christian stewardship be-
comes more meaningful and significant.
The Charitable service of individuals and institutions in con-
temporary society needs attention. Out of sympathy, love and
concern, some individuals give some money to the beggars who
roam the streets and sitting in front of the churches, bus and
railway stations. Most of these beggars are either lepers or de-
serted women with children or children who ran away from
homes. They ask for some money to buy food or medicine. Giv-
ing some money to these people does not meet all their needs.
Some criticize these poor people, believing they make a lot of
money through begging. Cartoons and jokes are written in maga-
zines to ridicule them. Whatever the suspicion for these victims
may be, helping them with money is not wrong unless their
misuse of alms to buy drugs, alcohol or tickets of gambling, is
obvious. There is the need to be sensitive to poverty. Their help-
lessness looking at us for help should touch our mind and heart.
By giving a few paise or rupees we are not encouraging them to
continue begging but trying to quench their thirst and hunger
temporarily. However, some Christian families have a system-
atic and well-planned pattern of charitable service. Having ac-
quainted closely with individuals or families in poverty and know-
ing their needs clearly, these Christians help poor children to
get educated by paying their school fees, buying school uni-
forms and books. Regular help is given to buy medicines for
some poor families. Annual financial assistance is provided to
clear part of their debts. Adopting the poor, understanding their
difficulties and sharing resources with them is a good way of
fulfilling charitable service.
Christian institutions such as churches, schools, colleges,
hospitals and orphanages are involved in charity. They run sev-
eral programmes such as Sunday lunch for the poor, free medi-
cal check-up, provision of free shelter and food and scholar-
ships for studies. They convey the concern and commitment for
the poor. However, two major problems have risen in the past
few decades with regard to institutional charity. One is the ten-
sion to commercialize institutions due to increasing requests
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for help and the lack of funds to meet all the requests. Schools,
colleges, hospitals and even orphanages started charging some
amount from those who seek our help in spite of subsidizing
the cost of operation with the donation of the well-wishers. The
donations are not proportionate to the demand. By becoming
commercial the poor are unable to have access to certain serv-
ices. Only those who could afford to pay some money could have
access to the service of these institutions. Some institutions
which started as charitable services have now become fully com-
mercial and serve the rich and the middle class. The poor are
excluded gradually. Another problem is the lack of volunteers
to work in these institutions as service to the poor. Many Chris-
tians see these institutions as avenues for employment rather
than volunteer service for honorarium or low salary. Some teach-
ers employed in our schools are doing extra tuition outside class
hours and run coaching centres at home for earning more money
rather than sparing their time to coach poor students. The in-
creased cost of living, loans and debts and indifferent attitude
towards the needy is affecting individual and institutional chari-
table service. Biblical teachings on Christian stewardship and a
deliberate effort to keep the vision and action of Christian char-
ity is needed today. Christian life and ministry cannot ignore
charity and justice.
COUNSELLING MODEL
The ministry of counselling went on in ancient Israel and in
the churches planted by the apostles. However, it is not given
explicit recognition and identity as a separate model like the
priestly, prophetic, evangelistic and pastoral models in the Bi-
ble. Counselling was integrated with the ministry of the priests,
prophets, judges, wisemen and pastors. Moses, Joshua,
Deborah, Samuel, Nathan, Elijah, Jesus and the apostles were
involved in counselling the people along with doing other min-
istries. Counselling as a separate model of ministry and disci-
pline of study gained importance in the modern days. The word
counsel means instruct, guide, advise or build up. Although,
these meanings are not ignored, the term counselling is de-
fined by the secular psychologists and therapists as listening
to the people in pain, comforting the people in suffering, ena-
bling them to understand their problems and helping the peo-
ple to reconcile within themselves. Various techniques and ap-
proaches from the science of psychology are used in the process
of counselling. Psychologists speak of different kinds of coun-
selling such as Client-oriented Counselling, Referral Coun-
selling, Educative Counselling, Marriage Counselling, Fam-
ily enrichment Counselling and Group Care Counselling.
Howard Clinebell, a Christain counsellor discusses each of the
types of counselling in detail in his book Basic Types of Pasto-
ral Care and Counselling (1984). The Bible does not speak of
counselling the way the modern psychologists have defined the
professional counselling. But it underlines the principle of lis-
tening, helping, comforting and consoling showing empa-
thy and accepting the people in physical and psychological pain.
Physical problems such as sickness, death, poverty, suppres-
sion of freedom and rights and persecution for faith in Christ
have created psychological pain. The Bible recognizes the link
between physical and psychological problems. Many psalms
particularly the psalms of lament in the OT reveal the problem
of suffering (6:1-7; 22:1; 37; 73; 82). Peter, Paul and John en-
couraged the early Christians to tolerate the persecution and
continue in their Christian faith (1 Pet.3:17; 4:12-19; 1Thes.3:4;
2 Thes.1:4; 2Tim. 3:1-5; Rev. 1:9; 7:13-14). They did counsel-
ling through their teachings. Whether their ministry of teach-
ing could be regarded strictly as counselling or not is debatable.
However, the biblical image of shepherd includes the function
of caring and guiding the flock. Isaiah speaks of the four-fold
function of a shepherd namely, tending, gathering, carrying and
leading using different verbs (Isa. 40:11). To this prophet, Yahweh
is the shepherd of Israel. Using the same metaphor, Jesus called
himself as the good shepherd committed to service of caring the
people (Jn. 10). The status and the role of a shepherd will be
dealt later in the Pastoral model.
Since the function of care which includes not only teaching
and social service but also counselling is linked to the image of
a shepherd in the Bible, scholars combine the two phrases pas-
toral care and counselling together and speak of Pastoral
Care and Counselling. According to William Hulme, Pastoral
Care is a supportive ministry to people and those close to them
who are experiencing the familiar trials that characterize life in
this world, such as illness, surgery, incapacitation, death and
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bereavement and the Pastoral Counselling is either in one-to-
one relationships or in groups, is a ministry to persons, cou-
ples, and families that assist them in working through pressing
problems in their relationship to themselves, to others, and to
God. Both are dialogical ministries, and both are oriented to the
healing process in pain and suffering (Pastoral Care and Coun-
selling,1981:9). Howard Clinebell goes one step further in de-
fining the aim of pastoral counselling from the point of the growth
of the counsellee. Pastoral Counselling, according to him, aims
at helping persons deal constructively with their immediate prob-
lems, make decisions, face responsibilities and makes amends
for self-other hurting behaviour, as well as expressing, experi-
encing, and eventually resolving growth-blocking feelings, atti-
tudes, and self-perceptions (1984: 35).
The probable examples which are closer to the idea of coun-
selling in the OT are the counsel of Eliphaz, Bildad, Zophar and
Elihu to Job and Deutero-Isaiah to the people of Israel. The
former is an example for an individual being counselled by his
friends and the later is for the community being counselled by
the prophet. The Book of Job is regarded as a wisdom literature.
The common understanding among the scholars about the pur-
pose of wisdom literature is to instruct and guide the individu-
als, families, rulers and people. The Book of Job is explained
rarely from the perspective of counselling. Job was a
righeousman. He was faithful to God but was severly tested. He
lost his possession, servants and his children (Job. 1:13-22). In
addition to the losses of properties and people, Jobs health was
affected to the extent that his own friends could not recognize
him at sight (2:7-8). Job was in physical suffering and mental
stress. His pain was unbearable. His problem became more se-
vere when he started analyzing the reason for his suffering.
The patient Job in Chapter 1:1-2:9 became an impatient Job
in the rest of the chapters till the arrival of Elihu. Scholars such
as Francis Andersen, David Clines, J.H. Eaton, Gustavo
Gutierrez discuss the problem of suffering and show different
kinds of reading the Book of Job. Yet, the Book of Job is not
fully analysed from the study of counselling. From the perspec-
tive of counselling, one can look at Job as a man longing for
people to empathize and identify with him and provide an an-
swer to his theological question on innocent suffering. He was
looking for spiritual, physical and psychological healing. But
Job was disappointed with the arguments of his three friends.
While the three friends failed to convince and comfort him, Elihu
played the role of a counsellor expressing his empathy (32:2-
10, 11-12, 21), identifying himself with the suffering Job (33:6,
32) and enabling Job to rethink about the problem of his self-
righteousness (35:1-8), encouraging him to remember Gods
goodness and righteousness (36:5-6; 37:14) and gain hope. A
re-reading of the Book of Job particularly chapters 32-37 from
the perspective of counselling can be useful in pastoral minis-
try. William Kirwan regards the approach of Elihu as an exam-
ple of Christian counselling because it created a sense of be-
longing showing empathy, genuineness, warmth, concreteness
and giving Job a feeling of security for self-exploration and writes,
The modern day counsellor would do well to follow the general
example of Elihu (Biblical Concepts for Christian Counselling:
A Case for Integrating Psychology and Theology, 1994:119-148).
Kirwan notices another aspect of counselling in the Bible. It
is the effort of edification and enabling the counsellee to serve
others. Based on the term building up used by Paul in Rom.
15:2 and 1 Thes. 5:11, Kirwan points out the goal of edification
is to help the counselees gain a comprehensive self-understand-
ing an objective, healthy and integrated perspective on their
problems and on their assumptions about themselves, other
people and the world. (1994:149). The edification through the
teaching ministry of Deutero-Isaiah could be regarded as a coun-
selling. Isaiah 40 begins with the words Comfort and Comfort
my people and speak tenderly to Jerusalem which express
the idea of counselling in the context of suffering in Babylonian
exile. Their suffering includes the suppression of their rights to
return to their land, restriction of their movements in Babylon,
forceful situation to accept another culture, learning the lan-
guage of Babylon, living with the taunting question of failing to
keep the commandments of Yahweh and carrying the guilt of
losing the land and the theological question of supremacy of
Yahweh over Marduk, the Babylonian god. They had physical,
spiritual and psychological suffering. The teachings of Deutero-
Isaiah helped the community of Israel in Babylon to understand
their problem, reasons for the suffering in exile, answer the
theological question of supremacy of Yahweh (40:18-23) and the
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assurance of salvation (40:3-5; 41:14; 43:18-19). The prophetic
proclamation gave enough edification to the Israelites. His teach-
ings presented Yahweh as the God of compassion and concern
(49:13-16), powerful than Marduk and his emphasis on do not
fear (41:10, 14) encouraged them not to continue in despair.
Some of the teachings of the apostles edifying the Christians
during the political and religious persecution, as mentioned
above, could be regarded as counselling.
The ministry of Jesus included counselling. Unfortunately it
is not highlighted much in theological books. His approach is
not only healing the people from their sickness, diseases and
disabilities but also healing them from guilt feeling and provid-
ing spiritual answer and psyhological relief. One can notice this
dimension in healing the paralytic man in Mt.9:1-9 and of the
man born blind in Jn.9:1-7. The theological discussions on these
texts centre around the question of sin, theory of retribution,
and the power and authority of the Son of Man to forgive and
heal but not from counselling perspective. In these events, Je-
sus discussed the issue of the link between sin and disability. It
is a common notion even today among people that disabilities
and deformities are due to the sin of that individual or his fam-
ily or the curse on their ancestors. Jesus challenges this notion
and points out that the human beings need physical and spir-
itual healing. Healing the paralytic man or blind man need not
have removed their guilt feeling taunting them over a period
that their disabilities could be due to the sin they themselves or
their families have committed. Leaving them with such ques-
tions to continue in their mind even after giving them physical
healing is not a full healing. Hence, he pronounced forgiveness
of sin in the case of the paralytic man and clarified openly the
absence of link between disabilities and sin in the case of the
man born blind. The counselling approach of Jesus helped to
solve the psychological problem of the paralytic man, blind man,
their families and friends. These cases are examples for com-
bining Individual Counselling and Group Counselling method.
Jesus, furthermore, was concerned about the way worries and
anxieties of life could affect the people. He asked his followers
not to have worries and anxieties which could affect their spir-
itual, mental and physical status and cause sickness. He asked
them to look at the birds of the air and lilies in the field (Mt.
6:25-34). Although, the focus of this text is on seeking the King-
dom of God and its righteousness, his assurance of Gods care
for all through the illustration from the nature is a comfort and
edification to the followers.
Christian counsellors of today may use various techniques.
But faith in God and prayer to God play an important role in the
process of counselling. Both the counsellor and counsellee act
upon the faith in God. Faith should be understood as a dy-
namic force rather than a set of beliefs in the process of coun-
selling. They should believe that God loves people, shows com-
passion, forgives and gives freedom from guilt, answers prayers
and offers hope of life. One important issue connected with the
ministry of counselling is its limitation. Should the counselling
stop with comforting and consoling? Should the counsellors limit
themselves with enabling the counsellee to identify the prob-
lems, reasons and solutions? Cant they take the persons in
suffering along with them and involve in actions to achieve jus-
tice and welfare and peace of mind from their problems?
PASTORAL MODEL
This chapter began with the Priestly Model and it will be
concluded with the Pastoral Model which is inclusive of some of
the ministries stated earlier. The biblical image of a pastor is a
shepherd. However, many churches prefer to use the word pas-
tor or priest than the term shepherd. Some of the mainline
denominations founded by the Western missions still prefer to
use the titles such as Presbyter, Vicar, Canon, Rector and
Reverend. Using of various titles and equating these titles to
mean pastoral ministry has created confusion among the peo-
ple. Shepherding is more than the priestly function of perform-
ing rituals in the church. Instead of reducing the shepherd to
be a mere priest in the church, it is important to raise the priest
to be a shepherd, a role which is holistic.
The roots of the Pastoral model go back to the period of the
Israelite. In the ancient Israel, the Hebrew term, roeh (from the
root word raah to tend, pasture flock) was used several times
to refer to the shepherd of sheep and the word boker (from the
root word baker cattle) to refer to the herdsman of cattle. The
Hebrew word roeh is translated as poimen (to tend, pasture) in
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Greek. These two terms in the OT and NT are used in the literal
sense to refer to a shepherd tending flock and also in the meta-
phorical sense to refer to people involved in other leadership
viz. liberators, kings and rulers as shepherds. There were pro-
fessional shepherds in ancient Israel, who either stayed with
masters and took care of their sheep or gathered sheep and
cattle from families, led the flock to green pasture for a period
and return them to the owners for a fee. Many families in Israel
were involved in agriculture and also owned cattle and sheep at
home. The stories of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob speak of them
as shepherds. The descendants of Jacob continued as a shep-
herding community in Egypt before being forced into the com-
pulsory labour of construction. Although the Israelites occupa-
tion shifted more towards agricultural farming after their settle-
ment in Canaan, shepherding of sheep and cattle continued.
The stories of Manasseh, Saul, David and the message of Amos,
Micah, Habakkuk, Ezekiel showed that shepherding continued
as an important occupation in Israel. The metaphorical use of
the word shepherd, therefore, was so deeply rooted in their songs
(e.g. Ps. 23; 80:1) and stories and proverbs. The Israelites devel-
oped this imagery from their own experience as a pastoral com-
munity from the time of Abraham, used it in their conversation
and literature and later to the ministry in the context of the
church. However, the prevalent and general assumption among
contemporary Christians equates priesthood with shepherding
and calls priests as pastors and vice versa. A close look at cer-
tain biblical texts brings to notice the fact that priests were not
called shepherds and that the OT categorically classifies levitical
priesthood as a separate model from the political leadership and
rule as shepherding. The following expounds the different di-
mensions of shepherding. Liberators, kings, prophets in Israel
were called shepherds. Descriptions of God as the greatest shep-
herd and Jesus as the Good Shepherd are present in the Bible.
Moses described the congregation of Israel as sheep; he un-
derstood himself to be their shepherd and asked God to provide
a shepherd to go out before them and come before them lead
them out and bring them in (Num.27:17) since he was too
old to continue the ministry of shepherding. The entire commu-
nity of Israel in the wilderness needed a leader to be with them,
to lead them to the promised land, where they could enjoy a
good life. The shepherd in succession to Moses was expected to
perform all the functions which Moses was performing from lib-
erating to leading them. Joshua was selected to succeed Moses
as the shepherd of the liberated community. Shepherding the
people of Israel was not mere tourist guidance in their travel to
the land but a comprehensive function involving worship, pro-
claiming Gods word to the people, interceding for them, inquir-
ing the problems of the people, administration of justice, taking
care of their day-to-day needs, protecting them from becoming
slaves to neighbouring nations, encouraging the liberated com-
munity to continue in the covenantal relationship and being an
exemplary society in Canaan. The functions of Moses and
Joshua included these cultic, political and social aspects while
those of the levitical priests were confined mainly to the cultic
functions. The pastoral model of Moses and Joshua during the
liberation from Egypt, till the settlement of the people in the
land, was holistic.
2 Samuel 5:2 speaks of David as the shepherd of Israel dur-
ing his anointing as their political ruler (cf. 2 Sam.7:7). This
idea of calling kings as shepherds was developed further by the
prophets. They used the term shepherd to refer to the kings of
Israel and Judah and even the kings of Babylon and Persia. In
the prophecy of Micaiah, the son of Imleh, Ahab the king of
Israel was mentioned as a shepherd (1 Kings 22:1). Jeremiah
spoke of the kings of Judah as shepherds (Jer. 3:15, 23:2-4,
33:12, 50:6, 51:23) who failed miserably in their rule of the
people of Israel. They were unable to support people in justice
and righteousness, in growing in the faith of Yahweh and in
providing political security and economic prosperity. Jeremiah
criticized the kings of his period for listening to the prophecies
of false prophets than to the prophets called and sent by Yahweh.
Their failure contributed to the destruction of the country by
the kings of other nations. These kings of other nations were
also designated by him as shepherds (6:1, 23:1). Ezekiel too
called the kings of Israel shepherds and criticized them for not
caring the people like a true shepherd (Ezek.34:1). According to
him, they were shepherds of selfish gain than for sacrificial lead-
ership, working for the justice and welfare of the people. How-
ever, he came out of his frustration and disappointment with
the previous rulers and expressed his hope of getting a good
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shepherd in the line of David who will take care of the people
and turn their miseries during the period in exile into enjoy-
able life when they return to the land. In my opinion, these
prophets used the term shepherd in a particular sense to the
political rulers rather than in an inclusive sense of including
priests and prophets. Whenever these prophets criticized the
priests and false prophets, they referred to them as cohen
(priest) and nabi (prophet) and not as shepherds. My observa-
tion of prophetic texts drives me to draw the conclusion that
priests were not regarded as shepherds. In prophetic literature,
shepherding is always understood to be political leadership and
rule. The prophets were aware of the two separate ministries
viz. the cultic-priestly model and the political-pastoral model
in ancient Israel.
The prophets were not known as shepherds but a few shep-
herds in Israel were called to become prophets. For example,
Elisha of 9
th
century BC, Amos and Micah of 8
th
century BC and
Habakkuk of 7
th
century BC were shepherds by profession and
proclaimed Gods justice in their response to Gods call into
prophetic ministry (1 Kings 19:19 Amos.1:1, 7:14, Habk 3:17).
They expressed their experience in the shepherding profession
in their oracles and preferred to be understood as shepherds
and farmers than as sons of prophets engaged in their family
business of professional prophesying for profit (Amos 7:11-14).
By proclaiming Gods word, along with their shepherding and
farming, these prophets integrated the prophetic ministry and
the shepherding profession.
The OT describes Yahweh, the God of Israel as a Shepherd.
Jer. 31:10-11 and Isa. 40:11 describe Yahweh as the Shepherd,
who liberated the people of Israel from the exile and restored
them to their land. These prophets proclaim the message of
hope that their God will be like a shepherd, who will gather
them in His arms as an expression of forgiveness and accept-
ance, lead them to the promised land and take care of them.
The salvation oracles proclaimed by Deutero-Isaiah are messages
of counselling to the hopeless people to draw strength and hope.
Gods love and concern for afflicted people is always assured
and He watched over them in exile, on their return to the land
and in the restoration of the land. All the responsibilities of a
shepherd viz. feeding and watering, gathering and protecting,
carrying and leading and counting and multiplying the flock
were expressed metaphorically in these prophetic texts in rela-
tion to the suffering community in exile. As such God is por-
trayed as the liberator and leader of the community a holistic
function in terms of political, social, economic and spiritual as
in the tradition of Moses. Psalm 23 also describes God as the
Shepherd. The context of this psalm is not clear but this psalm
expresses the holistic function of a shepherd and describes God
as the greatest Shepherd to the entire community of Israel.
Jesus uses the metaphor of shepherd in Matt. 9:35-36 and
Mark 6:34 with regards to the liberation of the Jews from the
political and religious oppression of the Roman Government,
temple authorities and Jewish religious sects such as Pharasees,
Sadducees and Scribes. Jesus envisioned these liberators lead
the people for welfare and justice and to the proper understand-
ing of scripture. However, the shepherds had so far either ne-
glected or exploited the people for their own gain. The Jews
longed for a good shepherd. It was in this situation that Jesus
claimed to be the Good Shepherd (Jn.10), stating the responsi-
bilities and life style of a good shepherd knowing, carrying
and protecting the sheep-willing to risk his own life for the sake
of the sheep. His concern and care crossed the boundaries of
His own people and extended to other people who were not
Jews. He is a good shepherd, not restricted by a particular
people or geographical boundaries but a universally good shep-
herd. His understanding of liberating and leading the people is
in close connection with the Gospel of the Kingdom which He
preached and practised. The metaphorical use of good shep-
herd is closely linked to the idea of the Kingdom of God. He is a
ruler not of this world but of the kingdom of God, which stands
for right values and not a political system. However his role is
holistic having socio-political and religious dimensions. The
cost of this holistic mission, resulting from being the good shep-
herd, was His own life (Matt. 26:31, cf. Zach.1:7). His life style,
message and ministry and the sacrifice of his own life for the
people made him the Great Shepherd (Heb. 1:20). The wish and
ambition of Jesus was that God may raise such good shepherds
for holistic ministry since the demand is so much (Matt.9:36).
These shepherds were expected to follow the pastoral model of
Jesus and work as good shepherds.
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Jesus, the good shepherd is the paradigm for pastoral minis-
try. His ministry included preaching, teaching, healing, pro-
claiming justice and judgment (Matt. 25:32). He preferred titles
like Son of Man and Good Shepherd which do not express
any position of power. He avoided performing priestly functions
either in the Temple or in the Synagogue, except teaching the
Scripture when He went to these cultic centres. He avoided us-
ing priestly titles for himself or using the title shepherd for the
priests of his days. Jesus was aware that the OT priestly model,
which was usually a ministry directed towards God, had fallen
into performing rituals and exercising power and authority. He
wanted to counter this model with a suitable alternative. He
preferred the pastoral model which was people (flock) - oriented
and holistic. This could be the reason why he started calling
himself a good shepherd. Jesus is later described as the high
priest by the writer of the epistle to the Hebrews to mark the
fulfillment of His priestly function. Today, many assume that
priestly role is the shepherds role and vice-versa. Unfortunately,
shepherds role is reduced to the priestly role of mere conduct-
ing worship, and prayer meetings and the performance of cer-
tain rituals and sacraments. These activities become the main
function of pastors. But shepherding is more than a priestly
function. The shepherds role includes the priestly function and
with other functions intrinsic to pastoral model.
After his resurrection, Jesus asked Peter to feed and take
care of His flock. The call and command to Peter to be the shep-
herd is more than a priestly role. He had to follow the pastoral
model of Jesus and he had a wider ministry of liberating the
people from their sufferings, leading them to practise the values
of the Gospel of the kingdom and to begin enjoying the good life
now on earth. The person and work of Christ became the foun-
dation of pastoral theology.
The leaders who were taking care of the churches planted by
the apostles were never called priests (hiereus) but elders
(presbyteros), bishops (episcopon - overseeing) and ministers
(diacon), purposely to avoid the traditional notion of the priestly
model and also not to limit the status and role of the elders to
strict mere priesthood. The apostles wanted to make a distinc-
tion between the Judaistic priestly role based on the Torah par-
ticularly offering sacrifices, and the leadership of the churches
based on the Gospel of Jesus Christ. They, therefore, used the
term elders and raised them for wider ministry, following the
pastoral model of Jesus. The term elders is not new to the
Jewish people since it was used in the OT to refer to the elders
of the villages or communities, those who sat at the city gate to
judge as well as the elders of the synagogues. However, the
office of the elders in the NT churches was broadened to include
functions such as pastoral visitation of the sick (James 4:4),
interpreting the Scripture in the light of the life and ministry of
Jesus (1 Tim. 5:17), general oversight of the congregation (1
Pet.5:2), receiving gifts on behalf of the needy in the congrega-
tion, collecting money and sending it to the poor in Jerusalem
(2 Cor.8) and taking part in the Council of the Apostles (Acts
15:4,6,23; 16:4).
The role of the elders of the churches in the NT is the pasto-
ral model which includes the socio-political and religious func-
tions for the congregations as well as extendable to others out-
side the churches. Paul addresses the elders of the church at
Ephesus as shepherds (Acts. 2:28). Peter, in his epistle, applied
the term poimen (shepherd) to the elders of the churches in
dispersion in West Asia (1Pet. 5:1-4) and called them Shep-
herds of Gods flock because they took care of the congregation
like selfless shepherds. He asked them to be selfless in this
ministry and willingly to serve and not for gain. These elders
were already engaged in the ministry of caring for the people of
God, in conducting worship, preaching and teaching the Scrip-
ture, counselling and guiding them in the Greco-Roman con-
text of West Asia. By calling them shepherds of Gods people,
Peter encouraged them to have a wider ministry.
Some assume that the metaphoric use of shepherd is not
comprehensive enough to include all ministries particularly the
aspect of a suffering servant and the prophetic role. But, a shep-
herd is a suffering servant for the sake of his flock. The shep-
herd stays with sheep day and night, faces harsh environment
during pasturing, suffers to lead the flock to green pastures and
water, risks his life to protect the sheep from animals, thieves
and unsuitable environment, seeks the lost sheep, keeps ac-
count and makes the effort to multiply the sheep. A shepherd is
also a prophet in the sense of looking ahead of the suitable
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pasture and forth-coming dangers. As the prophet warns the
people, the shepherd warns the flock and guides them to safety.
Another significant aspect connected with the concept of bib-
lical shepherding is the double role of the shepherd. On the
one hand, Jesus played the role of a shepherd but on the other
hand, He is described as the pascal lamb, undergoing vicarious
suffering as described in Isaiah 53 and in Hebrews 9:12-28.
This transcendability of shepherd becoming a suffering sheep
and revealing the powerlessness and vicarious aspect is unique
in the Christian tradition which challenges Christian leaders to
be shepherd as well as pascal lambs. Opinions expressed show
that the title pastor is not suitable today in contemporary soci-
ety. Many pastors have come from towns and cities without hav-
ing any link with the context of farming or shepherding. They
prefer to minister in the urban churches. Whether one has an
experience in farming or not, human life is closely linked to
agriculture. It is the source of human existence. Since no other
image can express the dimensions of suffering and caring, the
title shepherd is suitable and could be retained in spite of the
changes in the world.
The phrase pastor-teacher in Eph. 4:11 emphasizes the two
important functions of the pastoral model i.e. feeding and car-
ing in the pastoral ministry. In replacing the old priestly model
with the new pastoral model, the cultic function of organizing
and leading worship was taken over by the apostles and elders
of the churches in Jerusalem, Corinth, Ephesus, Galatia, Philippi
and Colossae. They incorporated the ministry of worship into
their role out of necessity. The Jewish Christians were not al-
lowed to worship in the temple and synagogue. They were per-
secuted and forced to worship in houses. Their historical and
geographical situation led the apostles and elders to add the
ministry of worship with certain modifications to their ministry
of teaching and caring. Worship can be defined as adoring God,
acknowledging God as Creator, Sustainer and Redeemer. It is
an expression of faith in the person and work of Christ. It pro-
vides the opportunity to confess sins, seek reconciliation and
restore relationship with God. A faith community listens to the
reading of scripture and brings prayers and offerings to God in
worship. Apostles were careful to avoid certain elements of wor-
ship demanded in the OT, particularly offering animal sacrifices
and selection of elders following the laws of priesthood from the
tribe of Levi. They brought changes in worship patterns on the
basis of their understanding of the fulfillment of the OT in the
person and work of Christ. After a long discussion on the issue
of circumcision, the apostles decided not to require it from the
Gentile converts. They introduced a change to include Gentiles
with Jewish converts in the same worship service, making it
more inclusive of converts from different race and culture. How-
ever, their thrust was more on teaching the Word of God, edify-
ing and caring for the congregation through counselling and
guidance.
The study of the ministry of the shepherds like Jesus, apos-
tles and elders in the NT reveal four main purposes of teaching.
First, teaching educated the congregation on the knowledge of
God. Jesus made the effort to teach the people in the temple,
synagogue and on the streets or the shore of the sea of Galilee
(Mt. 5:2; 11:1; Lk.4:15; Jn.7:14-15) that they may get the right
understanding of God. According to Paul, the purpose of teach-
ing is to root believers in the sound doctrine of God (Titus 2:1-
10). He wrote extensively on the person and work of Christ, the
fulfillment of the OT in Jesus, justification by faith, sanctifica-
tion, the gifts of the Spirit, the body of Christ, new creation in
Christ, the second coming of Jesus Christ and the final judg-
ment. Peters preaching and epistles spoke of the doctrine of
God. John described God as light, love and advocate and warned
his readers about the anti-Christ (1 Jn.1-4). Second, the apos-
tles were keen on teaching in order to counter the wrong inter-
pretations and heresies confusing the congregation. Paul wrote
to the Galatians to be careful about Gnostic and Epicurean teach-
ings (Gal.1:6-9) and taught them to abandon the practices of
special days, months and superstitions belonging to the reli-
gion of elemental spirits (Gal. 4:8-11). He taught the
Corinthians not to have divisions among them but to strive for
unity and true fellowship (1 Cor.3:5-8) and to be careful about
the teachings of the false apostles (2 Cor. 11:1-15) who preached
a different Gospel and those who denied the resurrection (1
Cor. 15). Third, their teaching focused on the issues of human
relationship and the socio-economic life of Christians. The apos-
tles were particular about the quality of Christian life and wit-
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ness in society. Peter, James, John and Paul taught believers to
have proper relationship with others particularly between mas-
ters and slaves, to accept the equality of gender and race, to
abstain from drinking and adultery, to marry fellow believers as
far as possible, uphold justice, love and share resources with
the poor and bear fruits of the Spirit. Four, the teaching minis-
try of the apostles and elders included the training of leaders
and congregations to share their new faith in Christ to others.
Paul encouraged the Corinthians and trained Timothy and Titus
to witness for Christ. The different aspects of their teaching min-
istry strengthened the congregation in the faith of the Lord Je-
sus Christ and emboldened them to face oppositions, heresies,
and persecutions and to witness for Christ. Today in many
churches preaching for about twenty minutes to one hour once
a week in a Sunday service has gained priority rather than regular
and systematic teaching. Weekly Bible studies to help the con-
gregation to learn about the content of the books in the Bible
and have theological reflections on contemporary socio-political
and economic issues are neglected both by the pastors and con-
gregations. People seem to derive more satisfaction from just
attending worship service on Sundays and special revival meet-
ings rather than longing to learn the Scripture to know more
about God. This has created pseudo-spiritual members, who seek
signs and wonders and seek to evade struggles and sufferings
for the sake of faith and justice.
Not much is known about the way in which the apostles and
elders carried on the ministry of counselling. The NT does not
tell which techniques they used. What could be discerned, how-
ever, is that some individuals would have approached the apos-
tles and elders to share their spiritual, family and economic
problems. These leaders may have listened, given some guid-
ance and prayed for them. However, the teachings of the apos-
tles through their preaching, conversation and writing focused
on the entire congregation. Their approach was more of coun-
selling and guiding the group. The ministry of counselling has
grown over years and developed many techniques to deal with
individuals, families, groups of employers, employees and the
community of faith. Pastors cannot ignore these new techniques
used in the ministry of counselling and guidance. Contempo-
rary pastoral ministry requires pastors to be well versed in Scrip-
ture, knowledgeable and well acquainted with their congrega-
tion if they wanted to be effective and contributive.
What has been discussed about the different models of min-
istry in the preceding pages is limited. All the ministries of God
require certain qualities. Gods ministry is one which demands
high level of responsibility. Human beings are not worthy of
doing Gods ministry. Yet God calls some individuals to full-time
ministry and others to voluntary involvement. God has entrusted
this responsibility to the Church and given the promise of ena-
bling the Church to fulfill these various ministries. Suffering
and losses are an integral aspect of ministry. God and society
expect absolute truthfulness on the part of those who are in-
volved in ministry. Prayer is another important aspect in Chris-
tian life and ministry. Jesus made special effort to pray alone as
well as pray with His disciples. Peter, John and Paul wrote about
the role of prayer in ministry in their epistles. With the willing-
ness to learn from God, people and nature and the incorpora-
tion of the insights gained, the ministry should thrive.
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Chapter Five
Priesthood of all Believers
Different models of ministry in the Bible have, so far, been
identified and some of the salient features of these models have
been discussed. These have been ministries of individuals or
groups in different periods of biblical history. After the period of
the apostles, some of these ministries were carried on with some
modifications in different parts of the world. However, some of
the traditional designations like priestly, prophetic, evange-
listic, missionary and charity are retained. Today, modern
technology is used in doing some of these ministries, Even
though, Christian ministry is done by leaders particularly by
pastors, evangelists and missionaries, it is not by a few leaders
or for a few people but by the church as a corporate body. Ac-
cording to Donald Messer Ministry is the function of the church
as a whole. It is Gods gift not first of all to the individual, but to
the community of faith, who in turn chooses who should repre-
sent it in leadership roles. The Church is ministry. Its raison
detre is service to the world. There is no other reason for the
church to exist (1989:64). The ministry of the Church is called
the priesthood of all believers (1 Pet.2:5,9; Rev. 1:6; 5:10). The
term priesthood is used in the comprehensive sense of the
ministry or service of all those who believe in Jesus as the
Lord and Saviour, whether these believers are ordained or not
ordained. The emphasis of the NT is not just on the priestly
model only but falls on all the functions of ministry (Eph. 4:11-
13) done by the Church in the name of the Lord Jesus Christ.
In other words, the Church is the priest to serve the eternal
God. This doctrine of priesthood of all believers is a significant
development on the OT idea of priesthood. The people of Israel
were called the chosen people, a kingdom of priests and a
holy nation at the time of making the covenant at Sinai (Ex.
19:5-6). While this text speaks of the entire people of Israel as
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the priests to serve Yahweh and to act out the commandments
in the society, it is also easy to note the separation of the tribe
of Levi from the Israelites as the priest. This was a special calling
to the Levi tribe to act on behalf of the people of Israel. These
priests were chosen to provide leadership in worship and ethi-
cal guidance to Israelites. The Levitical priesthood did not in-
validate the priesthood of all the Israelites. The entire commu-
nity was expected to service Yahweh not only by worshipping
and offering sacrifices but also by obeying the Commandments
and serving their society. This idea was later reiterated in Num.
11:29: Would that all the LORDs people were prophets and
that the LORD would put his spirit on them. Moses made it
clear that the prophetic ministry was not for a few privileged
people but for the entire community of Israel. The people of
Israel could be regarded as prophets because they received, pro-
claimed and fulfilled Gods word.
The NT narrows down the idea of priesthood of all believers
from the nation of Israel being the priest of the Lord to the
Church being the priest of the LORD. The disciples of Jesus
joined together as the Church is the new Israel within the large
old Israel. As the Gentiles joined the Church after hearing the
Gospel, the composition of the new Israel changed. The compo-
sition of the true and new Israel, that is the Church, became
largely Jews and Gentiles. As the Gospel spread to other parts
of the world, the composition of the Church became inclusive of
the believers irrespective of their race, caste, colour and geo-
graphical territory. What was important was their faith in the
Lord Jesus Christ, their participation in worship and sacraments
and their firm commitment to the mission of God. Peter and
John, the apostles discussed the idea of the priesthood of all
believers in their writings. After witnessing the tremendous
numerical growth, progress in ministry and the emerging need
for people to share responsibilities, Peter wrote about the theol-
ogy of the priesthood of believers:
Come to him, a living stone, though rejected by mortals
yet chosen and precious in Gods sight, and like living
stones, let yourselves be built into a spiritual house, to be a
holy priesthood, to offer spiritual sacrifices acceptable to
God through Jesus Christ. (1 Pet.2:4-5).
Peters use of stone is metaphorical. Stones do not have life.
They are only materials. But, Peter referred to Jesus Christ as
the living stone rejected by mortals and by that he meant the
crucifixion, death and resurrection of Jesus. The sentence, like
living stones let yourselves be built into a spiritual house re-
ferred to the believers. Believers of Jesus Christ become like
living stones because they received the eternal life from Him.
Instead of leaving these believers as individual stones, it was
meaningful to bring them together to build on the foundation of
Jesus as a spiritual house that is, the Church. The purpose of
becoming the Church, the spiritual house was to be a holy
priesthood. The founding of the Church with the believers as
living stones was for service. Peter combines the two words, holy
and priest, found separately in Ex. 19:5-6 to emphasize the
importance of founding the Church for the service of God. Since
it is for the service of God, it is a holy priesthood and expected
to project the holiness of God to the world. This idea is further
qualified by the phrase to offer spiritual sacrifices acceptable to
God through Jesus Christ. Offering spiritual sacrifices means
serving God in a way that is acceptable to Him. Believers, as a
local church, can have several ministry or programmes. It does
not mean that all the activities and programmes are acceptable
to God. The Church should discern which ministry is accept-
able and fulfill such activities sincerely. As God established His
mission through Jesus Christ, so should the ministry of the
Church be through Jesus Christ. This means, the ministry of
the Church is founded on the person and work of Jesus Christ
and carried out in His holy name. The Church is qualified to be
the priest of God through the work of Jesus Christ. Peter em-
phasized this again in verse. 9 saying, in order that you may
proclaim the mighty acts of him who called you out of darkness
into his marvelous light. The mighty acts, obviously, are the
death and resurrection of Jesus and the offer of forgiveness,
holiness and eternal life. Peter carefully combined these ideas
in verses 4-5 and 9 to show the inseparable link between God,
Jesus Christ, the Church and the Ministry. Commenting on
this text of Peter, Wayne Grudem writes, This verse, thus,
gives explicit statement to the doctrine of the priesthood of be-
lievers. Since all who come to Christ are now a holy priesthood,
able continually to draw near to Gods very presence and offer
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spiritual sacrifices acceptable to God through Jesus Christ, there
can no longer be an elite priesthood which claims special ac-
cess to God, or special privileges in worship or in fellowship with
God. To try to perpetuate such a style of priesthood distinct
from the rest of believers is to attempt to maintain an Old Testa-
ment institution which Christ has abolished once for all.
(1989:101).
The idea of priesthood of believers runs to the end of the
Bible. John also emphasized that the Church became the priest
of God by the work of Jesus. He writes, To him who loves us
and freed us from our sins by his blood, and made us to be a
kingdom, priests serving his God and Father, to him be glory
and dominion forever and ever. Amen. (Rev. 1:5-6). He men-
tioned how believers could become the priests of God and also
pointed out that this priesthood of believers embraces saints
from every tribe, language, people and nation ( Rev. 5:9-10).
Paul elaborated on the priesthood of all believers through the
use of the metaphor of the body of Christ, even though he did
not use the phrase priesthood in 1 Cor. 12: 12-27. To Paul,
the membership of the Church crosses race, class and region.
As different parts of the body jointly make a whole, these mem-
bers baptized by the one Spirit, make the body of Christ. As
each member of the body has a function to play , so the mem-
bers of the Church have a ministry and are each endowed with
the gift of the Spirit to carry out that ministry.
The writings of Peter, John and Paul declare some important
truths about the priesthood of believers. First, the Church as a
whole is considered as the priest and not just the ordained min-
isters. Second, the priesthood is not a status but a function or
service to be accomplished. Third, the nature of the priesthood
is holy because it is a service to God and the Church is expected
to reveal holiness, purity and honesty in the ministry. Fourth,
the composition of the members belonging to this priesthood is
not limited to Jews or Gentiles of West Asia but includes believ-
ers from all tribes, communities and nations irrespective of lan-
guage, culture and region. It does not mean that all those who
belong to other faiths or ideologies and offer good service form
the members of the priesthood of believers. It includes only
those who acknowledge the person and work of Jesus Christ
and commit to his teachings and are willing to be part of the
Church. Fifth, the priesthood, at the universal level, is a corpo-
rate ministry exercised by the whole Church. However, at the
local level, this priesthood is expressed locally by the members
of the local churches through various activities.
CHURCH OR KINGDOM
In discussing the doctrine of the priesthood of all believers,
it is important to note some of the criticisms raised against the
Church. It is not possible to discuss in detail the theology of the
Church or the concept of the Kingdom of God here. A number
of books have been written on these issues. The focus,here, will
be on the validity of founding the Church on theological and
practical grounds and to show the relationship between the
Church and the Kingdom of God.
Church
Some scholars think that the intention of Jesus was to preach
the Gospel and establish the Kingdom of God but the outcome
was the Church. They think that Jesus never intended to cre-
ate a new religion or worship outside his own Judaism. He con-
tinued within the religion of Judaism, attended the Temple in
Jerusalem and the synagogues, offered prayers, interpreted the
OT scripture, fulfilled the Jewish rites and participated in the
festivals. His intention was to reform the Jewish religion and
society following the tradition of the prophets, preaching the
age-old concept of the Kingdom of God developed by the proph-
ets. If the intention of Jesus was to create a church, then He
would have done it during the three years of his ministry, but
Jesus did not do it because he did not want to separate himself
from Judaism and preferred to continue in Judaism right to
the end of his life. It was the apostles who deviated from the
intention of Jesus and created the Church. Based on this view,
some leaders in India discourage evangelism, conversion and
planting of churches. In addition to the above reason, they
state other socio-economic and cultural reasons.
Biblical scholars have argued that the teachings of Jesus
implied a Church in some form or other without telling clearly
the form of worship to be followed or the organizational struc-
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ture of such an institution. Leon Morris book, Ministers of God,
lists some of the following arguments (1964:11-17 ). First, the
Greek word Ekklesia which means the Church appears in the
teachings of Jesus, twice (Mt. 16:18; 18:15-20). The reference
to the Church in the text of Mt. 16: 18: I will build my Church..
is not a later addition by the writer of the Gospel. Neither could
it mean building the existing nation of Israel. It has a specific
meaning. After seeing the reaction of the Jewish community
towards His message and ministry, Jesus declared that He would
build His own Church with those who believed his message and
mission. The Church here is not to be seen as the hierarchical
and denominational church of today. What Jesus meant was to
establish a group or fellowship of believers as the true Israel
within the larger Israel. While the nation of Israel rejected Je-
sus, a few individuals accepted Jesus. This small fellowship of
believers were expected to continue as the true Israel to pro-
claim the good news of the Kingdom and work for its ideals.
These disciples were the members of His Church. The other
reference to the use of ekklesia in Mt. 18:15-20 mentioned in
the discussion of settling the disputes indicates that the forma-
tion of the true Israel has begun. There were some problems
between the members of this fellowship but the problems had
to be settled in a proper procedural and cordial manner before a
member was estranged from the fellowship. This instruction of
Jesus was not a general one to the larger Israel which had simi-
lar teachings in Judaism. Jesus was specifically addressing His
disciples. They were expected to settle problems without af-
fecting the relationship between one another and were asked to
forgive the other members of the Church as many times as pos-
sible (Mt. 18:21-22). In addition to these two references, it is
easy to notice the intention of founding a community of the
Gospel by using different terms. Jesus called His followers a
flock (Mk.14:27, Jn. 10:6), little flock (Lk. 12:32), my lambs
(Jn 21:15) and my sheep (Jn. 21:16). These expressions clearly
indicate that Jesus regarded His disciples as a coherent group,
committed to his ideals and mission. Jesuss idea of disciple-
ship, as I have pointed out earlier, are different from the disci-
pleship in Rabbinical Judaism. The uniqueness of following Je-
sus lies in accepting Him as the Lord and Saviour and totally
committing to His person and work. This demanded the coming
together of the disciples to function as a coherent group or a
fellowship. In other words, this koinonia is called the Church
i.e. the disciples called and organized for a commitment. Sec-
ond, the Messiahship of Jesus implies a definite messianic group
of people. Jesus interpreted his vocation as the Messiah in
terms of two OT figures viz. the Son of Man in Dan. 7 and the
Suffering Servant in Isa. 53. These two figures presuppose a
society and express service to the entire people, even those cross-
ing the boundaries of the Jewish community. The concept of
being Messiah demands those who enjoy the benefit of the serv-
ice and the vicarious death of Jesus the Messiah, to exist and
function as his messianic community. This messianic commu-
nity envisaged by Jesus is the Church. This messianic commu-
nity is called to be a Suffering Servant for the rest of the people.
Third, the two sacraments of baptism and the Lords Supper
instituted by Jesus (Lk. 22:19-20; Mt:28: 19-20) presupposes
that a definite fellowship group must practise them. Jesus asked
the disciples to continue this new covenant in remembrance of
what he has done for humanity. He asked them to preach this
good news of forgiveness and eternal life and baptize those who
responded positively and disciple them continuously. These sac-
raments are meaningless if a community of disciples is not there
to believe and practise them. Fourth, Jesus desire to gather
and organize a new community of disciples is implied in His
teaching about the bridegroom (Mk.2:19-20), the prepared wed-
ding feast (Lk.14:15-24), the temple to be built (Mk. 14:58; 15:25;
Lk.18:45-47) and the cornerstone ( Mt. 21:42; Lk.20:17) and in
the prayer recorded in Jn. 17. Fifth, some of the actions of
Jesus such as calling of the twelve disciples, organizing them as
the initial community, commissioning them to go to villages with
His authority to preach and heal the sick, teaching and training
them for the mission, reveal His intention of instituting the
Church. G.E. Ladd remarked, by the acted parable of choos-
ing the twelve, Jesus taught that He was raising up a new con-
gregation to displace the nation that was rejecting his message
(1974: 109). Whether one agrees with the above arguments or
not, it is clear that the Church is not the creation of the disci-
ples. Making people to respond to a message and organizing
them as a fellowship for a mission which demands surrendering
of life and embracing losses than gains cannot be achieved by
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the power of human beings. The timing of the birth of the Church
is also worth noting. The disciples were dismayed at the death
of Jesus and were the targets of the Jewish religious leaders
and Roman political power. In this milieu of fear and persecu-
tion, people hesitated to join the disciples or declare them-
selves as the followers of Jesus. What happened in history, as
told in Acts 2, was beyond their plan and ability. The birth of
the Church in Jerusalem was the work of the Holy Spirit and
not the effort of human beings. After seeing the working of the
Holy Spirit convicting and converting thousands of people, mov-
ing them to join the fellowship and continue in teaching and
breaking of bread, the apostles were awakened. They began to
understand the message and mission of Jesus. They found the
meaning to Jesus reference to them as flock and his declara-
tion , I will build my Church. They began to see the move-
ment growing beyond their expectation and ability. They un-
derstood the phenomenal growth of the Church as Gods will
and went on planting churches in other parts of the region.
Some of the Christian leaders who have had problems with
the establishment of the Church suggest that the present form
of the institutionalized Church be dismantled and secularized
by including all those, irrespective of their religion, who believe
in the ideals of Jesus Christ. According to them, baptism is not
necessary. The members needed not confess that Jesus Christ
is the Lord and Saviour but they could have some sort of holy
communion to express their solidarity. They could have a com-
mon goal of service to the humanity. Their worship could be
ecumenical by reading the Scriptures of different religions and
incorporating the rituals of such religions in a symbolic way.
These attempts have been made in different periods of history
in different parts of the world. Either these movements could
not continue for long or ended up becoming different sects or
cultic groups which spread heresies. The Church, according to
the NT, is not a club of fans who agree on ideologies. The Church
has a definite nature, composition and mission. The members
of the Church are those who believe Jesus to be the Messiah
and his act of salvation and declare Him as their Lord and
Saviour. The Church is not inclusive of all those secular hu-
manists who belong to different faiths or deny faith in any reli-
gion. The Church is a worshipping community, professing the
faith in the person and work of Jesus Christ and witnessing for
such a cause. While the nature of the Church is religious, the
service of this religious community is intended for the rest of
the humanity.
The proliferation of racial and caste discrimination, nepo-
tism, politics, increasing financial and moral corruption among
the leaders of present day churches, has urged some Chris-
tians to suggest leaving the church and mingling with the rest
of the society while keeping their faith in Christ and continu-
ing in social service. It is easy to understand the feelings of
such Christians but, where will they go? They could very well
join some social service organizations or Non-Governmental Or-
ganization voluntarily or simply remain at home without joining
any group and yet continue in charity and social service. These
people would soon feel the desire for worship and fellowship.
There is something significant in Christian worship, even though
the church has its limitations and short-comings. Although the
Church is expected to grow in quantity and quality, the number
game is not important. Those who would not want to believe in
the person and work of Jesus Christ, the Bible and the Church
could very well leave the Church and find a place suitable to
them. Theological and practical problems have been discussed
in the history of the Church and the Creeds were created to be
remembered and affirmed by the members. The Church can
survive with a few genuine Christians yet, carry out the mission
of God.
Kingdom
Some Christians and preachers confuse Church with the
Kingdom of God and the Kingdom for the Church. One example
is the Sermon on the text in Mt. 6: 33 Seek first the Kingdom
of God and its righteousness and everything shall be added unto
you in the sense of saving souls who would also join the church.
When they preach about building the Church, they imply build-
ing the Kingdom. These two words Church and Kingdom are
used interchangeably to equate the Kingdom with the local
church. Furthermore, this confusion has led some preachers to
create their own cultic groups and have demanded that people
to sell all their property and join the cultic groups. Their un-
derstanding is that they are now in the Kingdom of God and
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their eternal destiny is safe and secured. It is usual to hear that
most of cultic groups end up in further confusion, disillusion-
ment and even embracing mass suicide ordered by their lead-
ers. Another negative effect of confusion on those who hold this
view is passiveness. They assume that the merge between the
Kingdom and the Church implies the mission is over and they
have to wait for the final consummation only. It is, therefore,
important to know the relationship between the Church and
the Kingdom of God.
G.E. Ladd discussed this subject in detail in his book, A
Theology of the New Testament. Eddie Gibbs also discusses this
issue from the perspective of church growth in his book, I
believe in Church Growth. The following insights could be drawn
from these scholars, who prove from the biblical text that the
Church is different from the Kingdom of God. First, the Church
is a worshipping community and believes in the Gospel of the
Kingdom but not the Kingdom itself. The Kingdom of God sym-
bolizes the dynamic rule of God. It emphasizes the prevalence
of certain values in society. God and not the Church is the
ruler of the world. The Kingdom of God is not a political system
yet it touches the sphere of politics and economics and the
social and cultural life of people. The Kingdom of God was inau-
gurated by the coming of Jesus. As projected in Jesus death
and resurrection, the Kingdom of God has already come in His
person into the world. It is present in the world and moving
towards the future for its final fulfillment. As such the Kingdom
of God is past, present and future. Second, the Kingdom of God
creates the Church. By preaching the good news of the King-
dom of God and teaching its values, people are changed. It
transforms the attitude, behaviour and actions of those who re-
spond positively to its call. People are not just responding to a
set of ideals but to the person and work of Jesus Christ. The
transforming power of the Kingdom is Jesus Christ. Respond-
ing to the Lord Jesus Christ requires them to join the Church
which is founded by Jesus himself. The Church is a fellowship
of believers whose ideals are based on the message and the
values of the Kingdom of God. Third, the Church witnesses to
the Kingdom of God. As Jesus proclaimed the good news of the
Kingdom, the Church is expected to proclaim the Gospel of the
Kingdom. G.E. Ladd wrote, The Church cannot build the King-
dom or become the Kingdom, but the Church witnesses to the
kingdom to Gods redeeming acts in Christ both past and fu-
ture. This is illustrated by the commission Jesus gave to the
twelve (Mt.10) and to the seventy (Lk.10), and it is reinforced by
the proclamation of the apostles in the book of Acts (1974: 113).
Fourth, the Church is the instrument of the Kingdom. The dis-
ciples of Jesus not only proclaimed the good news of the King-
dom but also made it manifest in action by liberating people
from sin, healing the sick and delivering people from the pos-
session of evil spirits. The same power which worked through
Jesus also worked through the disciples. The apostles used this
delegated power to serve the community. Many who saw or ben-
efited from the deliverance joined the churches they planted in
different places. The Church is expected to continue as an in-
strument for bringing the goodness of the Kingdom to the
people.
Criticisms have been raised against the view that the Church
is the only instrument of the Kingdom. Are secular movements,
Non-Governmental Organizations and Liberation Movements not
working for the Kingdom of God? Could they not be considered
as instruments of the Kingdom of God? Does God not use
these movements for liberation, healing and the welfare of peo-
ple? The usual biblical evidence quoted to argue for this view is
the action of Rahab, who helped the spies engaged in conquer-
ing the land of Canaan (Josh. 2:1-14), the deliverance given by
Cyrus, the Persian king to the exiled (Isa. 45:1-7) and the say-
ing of Jesus in Mk.9:38-40. It is true that God uses various
people for His purpose. In the first case, Rahab had come to a
conclusion that her nation had been defeated and so she helped
the Israelite spies with vested interest. She had a personal mo-
tive of saving her life and family by doing this favour. Not betray-
ing those who came to her is part of her profession. It was also
assistance she extended on humanitarian grounds to save the
lives of the strangers. However, she was remembered for the
timely help she gave to the Israelites. She was engraved upon
their history as noticed in Heb. 11: 31. The Prophets made it
clear that Yahweh used nations to punish and deliver Israel.
Their history stands in close relation to the sovereignty of
Yahweh. Deutero-Isaiah has interpreted the rise of Cyrus as
the work of Yahweh, mainly to defeat Babylon and deliver the
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Israelites. This prophet did not say that Cyrus worked for the
Kingdom of God but that he helped the Israelites to return to
their land. Did Cyrus know Yahweh was the one raising him up
to deliver Israel? Did he ever acknowledge that the God of Israel
raised him up in power? Did he not attribute his rise as the
work of his Persian god? What about the bloodshed in his con-
quest of Babylon? Was that the best way to work for the King-
dom of God or the expansion of his own kingdom? Deutero-
Isaiah did not care what Cyrus thought about his rising or how
he would have looked at history. His interpretation of Cyrus as
Yahwehs instrument should be seen in relation to the Israel-
ites loss of faith and hope in Yahweh and the marvel of Marduk,
the powerful god of Babylon . They were in doubt as to whether
Yahweh or Marduk was in control of their history. In despair,
Deutero-Isaiah looks at the rise of Cyrus as Yahwehs action.
Both the rise of Babylon to destroy Jerusalem and the rise of
Cyrus to deliver the exiles, according to the prophet, were the
actions of Yahweh. Yahweh is the one who is in control of their
history. This view is communicated by interpreting the rise of
Cyrus as Yahwehs work. The other text in Mk.9:38-40 is a
general remark by Jesus that many may use His name and do
miracles and wonders without acknowledging Him as the Christ.
Yet, they are not against Jesus. They are also interested in so-
cial service. Jesus did not say that the other exorcist is an in-
strument of the Kingdom of God. Jesus was aware of many such
people who were doing miracles in his name and delivering peo-
ple from the demons. He even pointed out that some of these
people who perform miracles would not enter into the Kingdom
of God (Mt. 7:21-23). The magician asked Paul to grant the gift
of doing miracles without acknowledging Jesus or His message
of the Kingdom of God is another evidence. These miracles need
not necessarily stand in direct relation with the Kingdom of
God even though they bring some good results for the people.
All the above three references are about the work of the indi-
viduals. Can the instrument of the Kingdom of God be individu-
als or a corporate group like the Church? As far as I under-
stand the NT, the instrument of the Kingdom of God is not
identified with an individual whatever may be his contribution
for the good of the people. It is always a group of believers i.e.
the Church.
Many as individuals or groups could involve in doing some-
thing good for the society either in the name of God or on the
basis of ideologies they hold. For example, a group of Hindus or
Muslims or Atheists or Marxists could involve in the struggles of
justice and human rights and bring liberation and welfare for
people. Each religion teaches to do good for humanity. Some
Human Rights groups work on the basis of secular humanism.
RSS, VHP, Bajrang Dal which promote Hindutva and the King-
dom of Rama and upholding Vedic rituals, Varnashrama and to
a certain extent Sati are involved in charity and liberation. To
call all these groups in par with the Church as an instrument of
the Kingdom of God needs serious thinking. This does not mean
that the Church only can do good works. Are our local churches
perfect to claim to be the only instrument of the Kingdom of
God? Can they complete the task? Such questions are raised.
It is true, our local churches do have shortcomings and commit
mistakes. But the Gospel of the Kingdom challenges to reform
the local churches. The Holy Spirit is there to help the churches
to transform. To brand all the good works of other groups as
belonging to the religion of demons is also wrong. We can un-
derstand their faith in their religion and give due credit for their
contribution. But to expect these groups outside the church to
acknowledge openly that their action is based on the ideals of
Jesus and they are working for the kingdom of God inaugu-
rated by Jesus is unfair. Equally wrong for the Christians to say
that these groups whether they acknowledge Jesus Christ or
not are fulfilling the command of Jesus. We cannot interpret or
thrust our own ideas and claims on other groups. In the bibli-
cal context, there is a unique relationship between the Church
and the Kingdom of God. The Kingdom of God is not a secular
ideology. It is a religious ideology which includes the person
and work of Jesus Christ and committing to his commandments.
Jesus Christ has linked the Kingdom of God with the Church
and the Church with the Kingdom of God. Neither Jesus Christ
nor the apostles speak of other voluntary social service groups
as the Church or the instrument of the Kingdom of God.
CALL OR COMMAND
The doctrine of priesthood of all believers is not properly
understood by many Christians today. They are of the view that
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the ministry is only for those who are called by God. The rest of
them are to be faithful to the Lord Jesus Christ, attend the
worship service regularly, confess the Creed, pay their subscrip-
tion and support the activities of the Church financially and
take part in the Holy Communion. Some of them hesitate even
to read the Bible lessons or lead the intercession or help in
serving the Holy Communion. They are satisfied with their secu-
lar job and in supporting their local church. In many local
churches, the ordained clergy shoulders all the burden of the
ministry. Congregations are only spectators and not willing to
share the burden or be involved in the ministries of the church.
Or else they think that it is the responsibility of their pastorate
committee to do ministry with the pastor. There is an another
side to this problem. Some clergies do not encourage the idea of
service of all the believers in the Church, may be due to lack of
confidence or fear of superceding his image and authority or to
have absolute control over the laity. To enlighten and motivate
the congregation for various activities, means clergies have to do
more work. Such members of the clergy want simply to limit
themselves to conducting worship service on Sundays. They use
the idea of call and ordination to threaten the laity to limit them
to their pews. Because of this attitude and situation, many tal-
ented members who like to exercise their gifts in the ministries
left their local churches and started their own para-church or-
ganizations.
It is true that God calls some people for ministry. God called
the entire tribe of Levi for the priestly ministry. Moses was called
to liberate the bonded Israelites. Prophets such as Samuel, Elijah,
Amos, Isaiah, Jeremiah were called for prophetic ministry. Je-
sus called the disciples to follow him and continue the ministry.
Paul received the call and committed to build the churches rather
than persecute them. Receiving and realizing the call is impor-
tant for ministry. One can get Gods call for ministry in three
different ways namely, inner call, churchly call and the congre-
gational call. Individuals commit for fulltime ministry of the
church because they received the secret call or inner call of
God. They could have received such a personal call through in-
ner feelings in their heart or vision or dream. Or else a biblical
text could have spoken to them. Sometimes individuals are called
by the leaders of their church which is known as churchly call
because these individuals have manifested their secret call and
commitment through their personal holy living and by showing
leadership using their talents and resources for the ministries
of the church. While the authorities of the church fail to recog-
nize such individuals or deliberately ignore them on caste and
class discrimination, the families, friends and members of the
church notice these individuals and encourage them repeat-
edly to go for fulltime ministry. Such a congregational call leads
the individual to recognize his or her secret call and confirms it
by the repeated encouragement of the congregation. One can
dedicate himself or herself for fulltime ministry by receiving the
call in one of the above three ways. While the experience of
having a call for ministry constantly motivates, sustains and
empowers the person, it is not a guarantee for continuous suc-
cess. Many who experienced Gods call in a definite way and
proved their honesty and sincerity throughout their ministry
could not achieve a great success or become popular. But they
were true to their call and commitment. On the other hand,
some who received Gods call and proved effective have ended
up as failures because they failed to keep the call in focus and
did not lead a life worthy of their calling. Somewhere in the
middle of their ministry, they lost their interest and became
ineffective or have fallen prey to financial or moral or theological
corruption.
Gods call to some individuals does not restrict others from
doing Gods ministry. All the believers of the Church are ex-
pected to serve the Lord Jesus Christ. The Church as a whole
has the calling to do ministry. This is on the basis of the work
and command of Jesus Christ. As Jesus is the Suffering Serv-
ant, the Church is the Suffering Servant of God for humanity.
The ministry is by the whole Church and for the whole church
and society whether the members have special call or not. There
is a Great Command of Jesus to love God and love the neigh-
bours. Love of God and fellow human beings leads us to serve
them in all the possible ways. The Great Commission demands
all the believers to proclaim the Gospel and make disciples. The
metaphor of the body of Christ used by Paul, as we noticed,
indicates that the different members of the Church have minis-
tries to perform and transform people and society.
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In the history of evangelism, missionary work, translating
the Bible and charitable service and social action, lay members
have done effective ministry and achieved great goals. Some of
them never waited for a special call from God. Realizing the
Great Command and Great Commission, they went on achiev-
ing and contributing to the growth of the churches and progress
of the society. One important question in connection with the
ministry of the lay person is to be discussed. Should the minis-
try done by a Christian or a group of Christians in these days
outside the church to be linked to their church? The idea of
priesthood of believers indicates that the ministries of the church
are exercised by the Christians should be in and through the
church. The ministries of the laity stand in close relationship to
the church. The leaders and other members of the church are
aware of these activities. They can appreciate, pray, support fi-
nancially and involve if they are done in close connection with
their church. This can be noticed in the history of the early
church. The apostles and laity in Jerusalem were aware of the
ministries of Paul, Baranabas, Mark, Silas, Timothy and Titus.
Their ministries had some sort of a link with the church in Je-
rusalem or Antioch or later with the churches in Corinth,
Ephesus, Philippi and Galatia. My next chapter on the struc-
tures and partnership for Gods ministry discusses the relation-
ship between the church and para-church organizations. It is
always better to have a close link between the ministries of the
laity and their local church. For some reason, if a Christian lay
person or a group of members start a ministry outside their
church and continue it without having any link with their church,
we cannot force them to link their ministry with the church or a
diocese. Usually these movements started outside the church
eventually could become a local church and grow into a de-
nomination or may continue as an inter-denominational organi-
zation. The danger is that these groups could end up as a ques-
tionable cult or become a secular movement totally cutting off
its connection with the local church and strengthening the ac-
tivities and programmes with the resources and people of multi-
faiths.
ORDINATION
Connected with the ministry is the question of ordination,
gifts of the Spirit and the training. Ordination is given much
importance in the Roman Catholic Church and Protestant
mainline denominations in India. To the Roman Catholics, ordi-
nation is the apostolic succession of the pastorate and one of
the seven sacraments of the church. Baptists define ordination
as the recognition of a divine call or as being commissioned or
set apart by God for special service. United Methodists too speak
of ordination as the recognition of the call of God and setting
apart by the Church for the specialized ministry of Word, Sacra-
ment and Order. Presbyterians regard the ordination as the
congregational call for the ministry of the Church (Messer,
1989:.69-70). According to the Constitution of the Church of
South India, ordination is an act of God in his Church. To
quote, The Church of South India believes that in all ordinations
and consecrations the true Ordainer and Consecrator is God,
who, in response to the prayers of His Church, and through the
words and acts of its representative, commissions and empow-
ers for the office and work to which they are called the persons
whom it has selected (Constitution II, 7 and 11). Pentecostals
speak of ordination as recognizing the call of God, anointing of
the Holy Spirit and affirming the apostolic authority for the min-
istry of the Church. How these denominations view the ordina-
tion may vary but all of them emphasize the call of God in the
lives of the individuals who dedicated themselves for the minis-
try. Ordination is granting them some sort of authority and rec-
ognition by the whole church to do ministry. Donald Messer
defines the ordination as a communitarian act, bonding per-
sons to the church and convey authority on behalf of the church.
The church authenticates Gods call and authorizes the per-
sons called by God (1989:69).
The important pre-requisites, in my opinion, for ordination
are the personal experience of repentance and accepting Jesus,
the assurance of forgiveness and salvation, call for ministry, wit-
nessing life, continuous feeling for ministry and the real love
and concern for people. The other qualifications and training
depend upon the ordaining denomination and the nature of
ministry for which the ordination is performed. On the theo-
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logical basis of the priesthood of all believers, some churches
have ordained women as pastors, chaplains, missionaries, so-
cial workers and counsellors. Moreover, the Scripture tells us
that women are also created in the image of God and in equality
with men. There is no discrimination of gender in the sight of
God. I have arqued that Sarah was also chosen along with
Abraham for the mission of God in my article Naming and Re-
naming as communication in Ancient Israel (AJTR, V. 1992:158-
170). Deborah and Esther were instruments in Gods mission.
Women are part of Gods mission. If the gift of ministry is given
to all those who believe in Jesus and members of the body of
Christ, as noticed in the NT, then women are also included.
Can the body discriminate the other member of the body? Priest-
hood of all believers is inclusive of women. Can they be dis-
criminated if women too express their faith, call and commit-
ment for ministry? Some churches do not agree with this theo-
logical argument. While others agree with the biblical teaching
of priesthood of all believers, they hesitate to ordain women for
practical reasons. However, the ordination of women in Indian
churches is gaining acceptance among the laity. Ordaining un-
married men and women (e.g. Roman Catholic churches) or a
widower or a widow is not a theological problem. While Indian
culture appreciates such dedicated men and women who re-
main to be single for the sake of Gods work, marriage is cer-
tainly an advantage in the ministry. More serious question rock-
ing the western churches is the ordination of homosexuals and
lesbians. Theologians, leaders and laity are sharply divided on
this issue.
Each denomination performs ordination by conducting a spe-
cial worship with the celebration of the Holy Communion. In
the churches which uphold hierarchical structure, the Bishop
calls each ordinant to come and kneel down and places his hands
on the head of the ordinant and issues later the certificate of
ordination. In the Pentecostal churches, as the senior pastor
lays his hands on the head of the ordinant other pastors also
lay their hands on the ordinant and pray for the special anoint-
ing of the Spirit to give wisdom and power to carry out the min-
istry. Although the Bishop and Pastors are only representatives
of the church, it gives an impression that the ordination is by
the authorities of the church. Since the ordination is the act of
the whole church, it is better to invite a few lay members, if
possible representing the section of men, women and children,
from the congregation to join in the laying on of hands on the
candidate. What is significant in ordination service is the laying
on of the hands and dedicating the ordinant for the ministry.
This practice is taken from the Bible. The apostles laid their
hands on the selected six for the special ministry of taking care
of the widows in the church in Jerusalem (Acts. 6:6). The church
in Antioch used the same practice of laying hands on Paul and
Barnabas for the ministry of evangelism (Acts 13:3). Paul also
laid his hands on Timothy to do the ministry of the church (2
Tim. 1:6) and warned him not to lay hands on everyone but to
use this gift carefully and diligently (1 Tim. 4:14; 5:22). It is also
important to examine what happens to the person who received
the blessing of the laying on of hands. This person could experi-
ence physically or psychologically something at the moment of
ordination. But it is more important to understand the serious-
ness of Gods call, the high expectation of the church and the
accountability in the ministry. This person does not become
divine or sacred or infallible through the ordination but is re-
quired to be more holy in thinking and deeds and honest in life
and ministry. Such persons are servants of the people and should
not abuse their authority vested by the church. They are special
instruments of God to bring blessings to the members of the
church and others in their society. However, these salient fea-
tures of ordination are not kept in the forefront of the churches
today. The ordination service in some churches are held like a
festival with all the pomp and show particularly in South India.
So much of money is spent to make the annual ordination serv-
ice a political extravaganza. Some caste groups elevate the
ordinants belonging to their caste by garlanding, felicitating and
giving gifts. They organize a private caste group dinner parties
as if a M.P. has been elected for the Parliament. Christian com-
munalism shows its ugly face in this kind of service which is
supposed to be solemn and cut cross all the racial and caste
discrimination. The congregation which ordains them to be the
suffering servant of their church encourage them to glorify in
their titles and positions than in their responsibilities and
service.
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The cassock, colourful vestments or costly suits in our cul-
ture add further authority and hinders the ministers to be close
to the congregation. Many Christians do not know the signifi-
cance of cassock, surplice and stole. Cassock was the usual dress
of people in the Greeco-Roman world. Even now it is the com-
mon dress in the Middle East. Salves and servants did not have
more than one or two cassock to wear and so it is used to be old
and dirty due to their labour. When such slaves or servants
come to serve the food at the table of their master, as some
explain, they wear the surplice to hide the dirty cassock and
then remove and hang the surplice in a safe place after serving
the master. They also had a long piece of cloth hanging around
their neck as a stole to wipe away the dirt and clean the plates
and cups before serving food and drink. Whether one agrees
with this explanation or not, we can say that these items sym-
bolize the hard labour and servitude of the slaves and servants
towards their masters. When this imagery of cassock, surplice
and stole was incorporated into the ordination and made as a
uniform of ministers is not clear. It should have happened after
the period of the apostles. But the application of the imagery of
slaves and servants to the ministers of God does appear in the
writings of Paul and Peter. Today, this uniform decorated with
colourful embroideries and silver and gold lining is turned into
a dress of authority, power and respect. We can notice the reac-
tions of some of our Roman Catholic friends towards this wrong
understanding. So they prefer to make their uniform more sim-
ple and appropriate to the local culture. This is more evident in
the case of some of their Orders. Instead of cassock, some Ro-
man Catholic priests wear dhoti and shirt. Nuns started wear-
ing saress than their traditional gown in order to relate more
closely to people. The use of costly suits when there are poor
people in the churches in India is nothing less than giving the
image of a western businessman or a CEO of a big company or a
corporation. I am not against the use of uniform or vestments to
give some sort of identification and distinction for the ministers.
My concern is to see that such a dress is not a hindrance for
ministry but go with the local context of the people. Continue to
use the traditional uniform like cassock demands teaching on
the meaning and significance of such a uniform, liturgical col-
ours and vestments and constant realization on the part of the
wearer not to misuse it in ministry.
Questions are raised about the re-ordination of an already
ordained minister and the withdrawal of ordination. We notice a
number of cases of re-ordination particularly in the circles of
independent churches and Pentecostal assemblies. This hap-
pens either because the person who got ordained in one church
does not disclose it when he moves to another denomination for
a better salary, benefits and organizational structure or because
the authorities of that church insists them to be re-ordained.
The re-ordination takes place because both the parties do not
understand and respect the biblical meaning of ordination. These
ordained ministers consider the ordination as a token which
can be exchanged for another token. Those leaders who insist
re-ordination try to show their authority and impose their own
rules and regulations rather than upholding the biblical teach-
ing. The gift of ordination is a permanent one. Once a group of
believers of Jesus Christ evaluated the call and commitment of
a person and ordained that person in a corporate act for the
ministry of the church, then it stands valid. The ordaining de-
nomination is not important. If for some reason, the ordained
person is lent to do ministry in another denomination in a dif-
ferent place, the receiving denomination can confirm the ap-
pointment accepting the earlier ordination. There is no need to
re-ordain the person. We have a historical evidence in the for-
mation of the Church of South India. On the basis of the above
theological reason, the ordination of the Anglicans, Methodists,
Baptists and Congregationalists were accepted at the time of
unifying these denominations into CSI. The ministers were al-
lowed to continue with their earlier ordination but required to
follow some changes in the order of worship and administration
(Refer to the documents on the formation of CSI. Also the Con-
stitution of CSI).
Can the church withdraw the ordination of one of their min-
isters? Some denominations faced this problem and tried to with-
draw the ordination and de-robe the minister on the grounds of
immorality or theological perversion. We lack clear evidence from
the Bible that the apostles had withdrawn the ordination of some
one. But we can infer that they took some sort of disciplinary
action on those leaders and members who did not prove worthy
in the ministry (Acts 5:1-11; 1 Cor. 11:31-32; 14:26-36; 1 Tim.
1: 19-20; Titus 1:10-13). If a minister is willing to acknowledge
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mistakes, repent and ask for pardon, then, the ordination need
not be withdrawn. Instead of de-robing, the person could be
forgiven and suspended from doing ministry for a year or two as
a disciplinary action. Such a person can very well take part in
the worship service and Holy Communion. He loses the right of
ministry only for the banned period. That person certainly loses
the reputation among the people but not the forgiving love and
grace of God. On the other hand, if the person continuously
show apostasy and promote heresies, then the church can come
together and take a decision to dismiss such a person once for
all from the fellowship and ministry. Although ordination plays
an important role in commissioning and authorizing pastors,
evangelists, missionaries and other leaders for fulltime or part-
time ministry, it is not a requirement for the rest of the believ-
ers to involve in the ministries of the church. They can very well
involve in the activities and programmes of their church and
shoulder the burden with their pastors, evangelists and mis-
sionaries without ordination.
GIFTS AND TRAINING
Do we need special gifts, talents and guidance of God to do
the ministry? Quite often many Christians assume that they
cannot involve in the ministry because they do not have the gift
of the Spirit or talents to express or a clear guidance from God.
They are interested to involve in the activities of the church but
they hesitate and stay behind. We must remember that Paul
addresses this problem in 1 Cor. 12: 1-31. He enlightens his
readers about the nature of the church and the spiritual gifts.
The text is important for our discussion on the gifts of the Spirit:
Now there are varieties of gifts, but the same Spirit; and
there are varieties of services, but the same Lord; and there
are varieties of activities, but it is the same God who acti-
vates all of them in everyone. To each is given the manifes-
tation of the Spirit for the common good. To one is given
through the Spirit the utterance of wisdom, and to another
the utterance of knowledge according to the same Spirit, to
another gifts of healing by the one Spirit, to another the
working of miracles, to another prophecy, to another the
discernment of spirits, to another various kinds of tongues,
to another the interpretation of tongues. All these are acti-
vated by one and the same Spirit, who allots to each one
individually just as the Spirit chooses. (1 Cor. 12: 4-11)
First, Paul points out that there are varieties of gifts and
varieties of services. He lists them in terms of the office of the
apostles, prophets and pastor-teacher and further in terms of
functions like healing, assistance, leadership (vv. 27-28) and
various kinds of tongues, interpretation of tongues, discernment
of spirits and utterance of wisdom and knowledge. Except to be
the apostles which is limited to the twelve plus Paul, the rest of
the gifts of the offices and functions are given to the members of
the church. Believers can be prophets, pastor-teacher or heal-
ers or leaders of other activities of the church. Second, these
gifts of ministry, according to Paul, are unlimited. God is not
only the bestower of these gifts of ministry but also activates
these ministries to be done by the members of the body of Christ.
Christian ministry of the Church is going on for ages. This is
because God activates the ministries continuously. God has spo-
ken, motivated and led people to commit for ministries. The con-
tinuance of the ministries of the church through out the ages is
not the effort of any human being or because of well-established
infra-structure. Some of the well-established organizations, in-
stitutions and movements with the ability and training of lead-
ers and enough funds have stumbled and disappeared in many
parts of the world. Although we are expected to show interest
and obedience to the activation of the Spirit and take effort to
carry on the ministry, we need to remember that it is the Spirit
of God which helps us in the ministry. Without the initiative
and support of the Spirit of God, these gifts of ministry cannot
be exercised by us. God is with the ministries of the church,
that is why, the ministries are thriving till today and spreading
all over the world. God did not seclude himself after bestowing
the gift of ministry to the church but committed himself as a
continuing partner with the believers in the ministry. Jesus
has promised and assured his followers his continuing pres-
ence till the end of the world. Ministries produce believers and
Believers contribute to ministries. This dynamics is the con-
tinuous work of the Holy Spirit. Persecutions may come and go.
People may deny their faith and leave the church. Some churches
and denominations could dwindle and disappear. But the min-
istry of the Church cannot be stopped or put an end. For, min-
istries are given as a gift by God and will be continued by the
One who bestowed it to the Church. Its a tremendous truth
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predicted by Paul. Third, the purpose of giving the gifts of the
Spirit is explained in Eph. 4:11-13. The various offices and func-
tions are to equip the believers for ministry and to build up the
body of Christ in faith and witness. Fourth, the goal of grant-
ing such a gift of varieties of ministry and various kinds of serv-
ices to the believers is for the common good (1. Cor. 12:7).
These gifts of the Spirit are not given to one or two individuals to
become prosperous and powerful. They are granted to the en-
tire church to build in faith and the communities around them.
To me, the goal is not limited to the strengthening the faith and
witness of the congregations only but goes beyond this limita-
tion. These gifts are to promote the Kingdom of God in society.
For, the gifts of evangelism, prophecy, utterance of wisdom and
knowledge and working of miracles to heal or liberate have con-
nection with the society. They have meaning only when they
are related to the socio-economic situation of the local people.
These special gifts of God, in my opinion, cannot be regarded
as talents which have different connotations in these days. Some
talents, as people say, are inherited biologically and some are
developed through learning and training. Human talents can
be used to enhance the above ministries given by God. For ex-
ample, the talent of music singing and playing instruments
can be used in the worship service to enhance the pietism and
joy of the worshippers. Intellectual understanding of history,
science and technology can contribute to the ministry of utter-
ance of wisdom and knowledge to bring critical evaluation of the
trend in the church and society and provide guidance and di-
rection in the life and activities of the believers. Everyone of us
has some sort of talents about which we may not be aware or
we hesitate to develop and use them in the service of the local
church. Let us remind ourselves the parable of the talents told
by Jesus in His teaching about the Kingdom of God. The lead-
ers of the churches also should encourage their congregations
to share their talents. A good leader will certainly provide op-
portunities for the laity to express the talents and strengthen
the ministries of the church.
Theological education and ministerial training are helpful in
the ministry. Varieties of training are designed according to the
need of the local churches. Long term seminary training for
pastoral and missionary work, short term training for evange-
lism, social work or Sunday School teaching or operating the
audio-visual equipment and refresher courses are available.
Churches can encourage the interested persons to join these
programmes. It is not possible here to discuss in detail the na-
ture and types of theological education. They have their own
merits and demerits. Its a vast area and needs a separate treat-
ment on theological and practical grounds. However, it is impor-
tant to note that the office of the pastor is not just to conduct
the worship service and prayer meetings or offer counselling
help but also to teach the biblical truths and train the members
of the church. Each local church is not only a community of
faith but also a training centre for the various services of the
church. Pastors could hold some of the teaching and training
programmes as well as invite the experts to train the congrega-
tion. Laity can be better trained and effectively at a low cost if
the programmes are arranged periodically in the church. While
different kinds of training for fulltime or voluntary ministry help
us, we need to rely on God for more insights, guidance and
talents and to be used as a channel of blessing to bring the
goodness to the entire creation of God and glory to his holy
name.
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Chapter Six
Structures and Partnership for
Gods Ministry
Churches and para-church organizations have contributed,
for many years through their various ministries, to the growth
of the church and the progress of society. Their existence and
contributions confirm that churches cannot ignore para-church
organizations and social movements. The para-church agencies
too cannot replace the churches or make them irrelevant. These
modalities and sodalities are realities today. They need each
other. However, there are tensions and problems between
churches and para-church organizations. Churches are suspi-
cious of the competitiveness of these organizations . The preach-
ing, teaching and writings of the leaders of para-church organi-
zations, they feel, are not theological. Some of them teach wrong
doctrines and others promote conservatism. The leaders of the
churches, therefore, constantly have to counter such wrong
trends in theological doctrine from spreading among their con-
gregation and guard the members against leaving their churches
to join fundamentalist groups. Moreover, churches feel that para-
church organizations are encouraging the congregations to send
their tithe and offerings to their programmes and ministries
rather than to give to churches in support of the ministries of
the parishes. Churches are afraid that they might lose their
income, which would affect their programmes and ministries.
They, therefore, want to control the para-church organisations.
Some dioceses have restricted the activities of para-church agen-
cies in their churches. Some of them banned some para-church
movements and have announced to their congregation not to
have any link with such movements.
Para-church agencies, on the other hand, accuse churches
for limiting their activities to worship, which is often traditional
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and restricted to formal liturgies and not interesting enough to
the generation of today. They worry about the neglect of other
ministries such as evangelism, church planting, literature, teach-
ing and training the laity, prayer meetings, counselling and
healing the sick. They point out that there is not much freedom
for the youth to use their talents in the churches or to experi-
ment new outreach programmes or to work out action plans to
demand social justice. They justify the need of para-church
movements to carry out these various ministries with the ever
growing population, especially in a vast country like India. These
suspicions, misunderstandings and restrictions have affected
the relationship between the churches and organizations. These
two structures are unable to work together and co-operate in
the various ministries of God. If they worked together in full co-
operation, then the expected result is synergy that is, a phe-
nomenon where the output is greater than the sum of the indi-
vidual components (Taylor:1994:6). Ralph Winter in his article,
The Two Structures of Gods Redemptive Mission has argued
for the validity of the two structures such as Church and Mis-
sion society (Perspectives: 1999:220-230). In this chapter, I am
trying to show that God raised many suitable structures to fulfill
His ministries during different historical periods and I plead for
better understanding and partnership between these structures.
DEVELOPMENT OF STRUCTURES
From the records of the Old and New Testament, some insti-
tutions and movements used by God in the history of Israel can
be identified. The people of Israel became an elected and
covenanted community at Sinai (Ex.19-24). Moses, who liber-
ated and guided them through the wilderness, instituted the
priesthood by appointing priests and Levites after receiving in-
structions from God (Ex. 28-29; Lev. 8-9). The priests and Levites
were to be dispersed among the rest of the twelve tribes upon
entry into the land of Canaan and they were to live with them in
their villages and to build altars for worship and sacrifice. In
addition to conducting worship and offering sacrifices, these
priests were asked to teach the commandments, counsel and
guide the people, settle their disputes and render justice. Dur-
ing the settlement period, the priesthood became a well-estab-
lished institution throughout the land of Israel. However, this
main structure had its own limitation. When the people faced
the aggression of the Philistines and Midianities, who plundered
their harvest and subdued the tribes for several years, the priests
were unable to liberate the Israelites from the hands of their
enemies. The ministry of Judges emerged in such a situation.
God called a few individuals, endowed them with power and
used them to liberate the tribes. Such charismatic leaders func-
tioned individually in administering justice and then, with a
group of selected Israelites as a team in liberating the oppressed
tribes. The ministry of the Judges over a period of 200 years
made such a significant impact that their movement became a
para-structure to priesthood. Quite often priests and judges
worked together in cultic preparations before and after the bat-
tle and in rendering justice to the people. Their partnership
contributed to the security of the country and to the adminis-
tration of law and order in the land. On certain occasions, the
priests and judges could not get along together. Yet, the priests
did not consider the judges as rivals to their structure, neither
did they stop their activities. The judges, although, successful
in militarism and efficient in administering the laws of the land,
did not regard the priesthood as irrelevant, neither did they
abolish it, using their military might. They recognized each other
as Gods instruments in fulfilling His will in the lives of Israel-
ites. The institution of priesthood continued before, during and
after the period in exile and the inter-testamental period. How-
ever, the para-movement of judges did not continue for long. It
served a purpose in a particular period of history and was re-
placed by the institution of kingship in Israel.
Priesthood, which played a role in the consecration of kings,
the cultic service before and after the battle against other na-
tions and co-operation with the administration of kings in the
early period of monarchy, came into tension with kings like Solo-
mon, Rehoboam and Jeroboam (1 Kings 2:26-27; 12:6-16; 12:25-
33). The political institution of kingship started controlling and
corrupting the religious institution of priesthood with its power
and authority. Both, kings and priests, joined together to per-
vert justice and oppress the poor and powerless, so much so
that the people needed another movement to support them and
speak against the injustices. It became necessary for God to
raise the prophetic movement to proclaim justice. Nathan, Gad,
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Elijah, Elisha, Amos, Hosea, Micah, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel,
Haggai, Zachariah and Malachi proclaimed Gods words. Some
of them functioned as individuals and others had close associa-
tion with the prophetic groups in Israel. Prophets became a para-
movement to priesthood and kingship in Israel. Some of them
(Nathan, Gad) worked closely with priests and kings. Their part-
nership helped the country to progress politically, economically
and religiously. David enjoyed their partnership to strengthen
the kingdom but tensions mounted between the prophetic move-
ment and the other two established institutions after the10
th
century BC. Elijah had confrontation with the priests and kings
of Israel (1 Kings 17-19). Amos was driven out by Amaziah, the
priest at Bethel (Amos 7:10-17). Jeremiah was beaten up and
locked up in the courtyard by the priest of Jerusalem (Jer. 20).
Instead of working together, the priesthood wasted time and
energy to suppress, if not to eliminate, the prophetic movement.
If these two structures had joined together, they would have
transformed their religion, politics and society and avoided the
fall of their kingdom and the loss of their land and resources to
foreign enemies such as Assyria and Babylon in 722 BC and
587 BC, respectively.
Occasions of tensions between the institution of priesthood
and Jesus are narrated in the Gospels. Jesus tried to work in
and through the religious structures of His day but His move-
ment with the twelve disciples in establishing the kingdom of
God and fulfilling Gods mission was misunderstood and threat-
ened by the priesthood. The Church, born after the death and
resurrection of Jesus, was initially a movement of disciples and
not an established institution. This new movement of Jesus
disciples had to face problems and persecution from the Jewish
priesthood, Roman empire and other para-movements such as
the Pharisees, Sadducees and Scribes. In spite of these difficul-
ties, the Church became a well-established institution and an
ongoing modality. The NT Church with its leaders as shepherds
(pastors) replaced the OT priesthood which was linked to the
system of sacrifices (J.B. Jeyaraj: AJTR:1995:164-175). The early
Church in Jerusalem had various workers including Stephen,
to take care of the social problems of people but a new para-
structure emerged with the sending of Paul and Barnabas as
missionaries to West Asia. This laid the foundation for the spread-
ing of the Gospel and for the expansion of Christianity in West
Asia, Europe and North America. God used the structure of mis-
sions to plant churches and the structure of the church to cre-
ate para-movements for various ministries to transform society.
These two structures are interdependent and are expected to
continue in partnership in Gods ministry. The history of Chris-
tianity shows the development of other structures such as mon-
asteries, seminaries, mission societies like Church Mission So-
ciety (CMS), London Mission Society (LMS), Baptist Mission So-
ciety (BMS), etc. in different periods of time and their contribu-
tions to the growth of churches and the progress of the society
(Gibbs:1978; R.D.Winter:1976: 213-234).
India is witnessing the growth of hundreds of para-church
agencies specially in the post-independence period. Some of
them belong to denominations such as Church of South India
(CSI), Church of North India (CNI), Methodist, Baptist, Chris-
tian Missionary Alliance (CMA), Mennonite, Assembly of God,
etc. Others are inter-denominational and are doing their minis-
tries either in co-operation with some churches or independ-
ently without official relationship with the churches. Human
resources and financial support for these organizations come
from mainline churches. All the para-church agencies can be
classified and grouped under seven major categories as follows:
(i). Evangelistic organizations which preach the Gospel to
Christians and non-Christians through revival meetings, con-
ventions, camps and conferences. (ii) Cultural and Cross-cul-
tural Mission societies involved in planting churches in
unreached areas and establishing schools and hospitals in mis-
sion fields. (iii) Social Service agencies who take care of orphans,
widows, aged people and provide relief measures during calami-
ties, ethnic violence and war through their projects. (iv) Social
Action movements which identify the factors causing injustice,
forces which perpetuate violence, violation of human rights and
demand social justice and work for the welfare of the people. (v)
Educational and Literature ministries which organize seminars
and workshops to strengthen the laity and train leaders for in-
volvement in churches and society. Training institutes, semi-
naries and research centres affiliated to the Senate of Serampore
(SSC) and Asia Theological Association (ATA) provide specialized
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training for Gods ministry, as compared to the general educa-
tion given by mission schools and colleges. Bible Society, Chris-
tian Literature Society (CLS), Evangelical Literature Service (ELS),
Indian Society for the Propagation of Christian Knowledge
(ISPCK), Theological Book Trust (TBT), etc. are providing Bibles
in different languages, theological text books, devotional and
song books for the churches, missions and institutions. (vi)More
Dialogue Forums are emerging due to the initiative of some Chris-
tian leaders in various parts of India to bring people of other
faiths to understand each other and to live in peace and har-
mony. (vii) Other associations such as World Council of Churches
(WCC), National Christian Council of India (NCCI), World Evan-
gelical Fellowship (WEF), Christian Conference of Asia (CCA),
India Missions Association (IMA), Evangelical Fellowship of In-
dia (EFI) which co-ordinate churches and para-church agencies
for sharing of information, discussions and work-out pro-
grammes. They help the churches and para-church organiza-
tions to do the ministries effectively in our country. It is esti-
mated that there are more than 500 of such protestant para-
church agencies with approximately 6000 Indians working for
them at the local, regional and national level. Their number is
expected to grow some more in the next decade.
THIRD STRUCTURE
God does not limit Himself to the work of these two struc-
tures only. He has raised a third structure in different periods
of history to contribute to the goals of His mission. This third
structure used to be secular or religious, belonging to people of
other faiths. The leaders of this structure do not adhere to the
faith of the Israelites or Christians. Jewish leaders such as
priests and prophets acknowledged and co-operated with the
third structure. For example, the 8
th
century prophets recog-
nized that God raised the Assyrian empire as an instrument to
punish the northern kingdom of Israel (Amos 3:11; 7:17; Hosea
10). Jeremiah acknowledged the Babylonian empire as Gods
instrument to re-structure the corrupt society of Judah by de-
stroying the temple in Jerusalem and leading them to exile
(Jer.1:14; 4:5-8,21,29). Deutero-Isaiah claimed Cyrus, the king
of Persia as Gods servant to bring salvation to the exiled (Isa.
45:1-13). Nehemiah and Ezra co-operated with the Persian rule
in the governance of the land in the period after exile. Their
reform movement functioned with the help of the Persian King
and they were able to construct the temple, the wall of Jerusa-
lem, reinstate worship and the preaching of the Torah and main-
tain law and order in the land (Neh. 2; Ezra 3). Priests of the
post-exile community co-operated with the plans of Nehemiah
and Ezra and never opposed them, drawing support from Per-
sian rulers. They too recognized that their God worked through
such political structures for the good of the people. Jesus also
did not exclude the third structure from the mission of God. He
considered the movements belonging to the third structure not
as enemies or rivalries but supporters even to the extent of re-
garding them as His own brothers and sisters (Mk.9:38-40;
Mt.12:50).
Many Christians, today, think that it is not right to have any
link with the third structure, whether it is secular or religious.
They do not want to co-operate or work together with the move-
ments and organizations belonging to the third structure in es-
tablishing the values of the kingdom and in transforming soci-
ety. They consider it as unscriptural, fearing that it will lead to
syncretism or compromise with other religions or ideologies.
Leaders of the churches and para-church agencies are afraid
that Christians who support their ministries would question their
links with secular and other religious movements and withdraw
their financial support. It must be realized that Christians are a
minority in India and living in pluralist context. Although this
minority has contributed much through the ministries of the
church and para-church organization to the nation, it cannot
change society alone. Christians must acknowledge the contri-
bution of secular movements and other forces such as peasant
organizations for the right of the peasants, ecological movements
in protecting the nature, feminist movements for the welfare of
women and children, Dalit organizations for the cause of the
untouchables, Gandhian peace foundation for the harmony of
people and national integration and must be willing to co-oper-
ate with them for socio-political changes in the country without
compromising their faith and convictions. Critical co-operation
with this kind of third structure is a necessity in Gods ministry.
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PARTNERSHIP AND CO-OPERATION
Churches, para-church agencies and secular movements have
their own problems and limitations. If these structures wanted
to be more effective in their ministries, they needed the part-
nership and co-operation of the other. According to the nature
and need of their ministries, they could work out either bilat-
eral or vertically integrated or horizontally integrated part-
nership (Butler:1994:9-30) If partnership was difficult to work
out then, at least mutual co-operation must be established.
Some of the challenges of building partnership or co-operation
for these structures are listed briefly.
(i) The challenge, first of all, comes from the Scripture. It is
noticeable that God raised structures to fulfill His purpose in
different historical periods. Whenever the priesthood and other
para-structures such as Judges, Prophets and Reformers co-
operated and worked together, they were able to transform the
politics, society and religion of Israel. Drawing motivation from
the history narrated by the Scripture is an important challenge
to present-day leaders of churches and organizations. To stand
aloof and do the ministry is against the scriptural principle of
fellowship and unity. The spirit of ecumenism should enable us
to understand and accept others and bind us together in the
ministry of God.
(ii) The changing world with the new info-tech challenges for
partnership and mutual co-operation. The need for efficiency
and suitability in the new millennium demand more collabora-
tion among Christians. The secular business world has under-
stood the changes taking place around the globe and is moving
towards joint venture in technology and trade. It is pooling its
resources and expertise to avoid duplication, saving funds and
resources to become more effective. Churches and most organi-
zations are far behind in their theological outlook, working pat-
tern and in achieving expected results. There is the danger of
getting outdated in the new millennium. Partnership is one of
the ways to avoid duplication of work and wastage of resources
and to modernize thoughts and workout strategies.
(iii) The administrative set up created to suit personal con-
venience needs re-structuring for cordial co-operation. Admin-
istration should open up their structures for participatory deci-
sion-making. Real administration allows leaders of other struc-
tures to be involved in the committees of other structures. In-
volvement of pastors and bishops in the administration and min-
istries of other para-structure and the involvement of leaders of
organizations in the committees of churches will surely
strengthen co-operation and partnership.
(iv) The power of political and social forces is so great nation-
ally and internationally, it could pervert justice, instigate com-
munal violence, disturb peace and harmony and hinder eco-
nomic progress and welfare. The oppressive forces do not like
churches, para-church organizations and other similar move-
ments to co-operate in partnership. Critical co-operation with
the Third Structure is a necessity in order to deal with national
and international issues. National and international injustice
are important challenges to the structures in their efforts to
exist in solidarity rather than as divided forces.
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Chapter Seven
Developing Leaders for Ministry:
Principles of Training
Training and developing leaders for the ministry of churches,
organizations and institutions is indispensable. A few people
are born with the qualities of leadership but, many people are
shaped to be successful leaders by their families, friends, una-
voidable circumstances and situations or through special train-
ing. Rigorous training is given to soldiers and officers in the
military service. Terrorist groups train their men and women to
accomplish the task with minute precision at the cost of their
lives. Industries and businesses train their executives, manag-
ers, sales personals, office staff and labourers by sending them,
periodically, to various institutes and training centres. Doctors,
nurses and lab technicians are constantly updated on the use
of new techniques and modern equipment. Compared to these
people, Christian ministers are trained less. It is sad to note
that the churches are not giving priority to training their clergy
and lay people towards the development of quality leadership.
Anthony DSouza points out that Christian leadership essen-
tially involves service and should not promote power, authority,
honour, prestige or personal advantage (Developing the Leader
within You: Strategies for Effective Leadership:1994:5). He re-
minds us to distinguish between leadership and management
and writes, Essentially, leadership is a broader concept than
management. Leadership involves working with and through
people to achieve results, which are not necessarily institutional
or organizational goals. We can think of management as a spe-
cial kind of leadership that sees achieving of institutional or
organizational goals as paramount (1994:17). Various reasons
contribute to the neglect in the development of efficient
leaders.
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1. Some people think that a call from God is the sole criteria
for doing Gods ministry and that the training is not important.
The Holy Spirit, they believe, could give them the gifts and tal-
ents needed for ministry and guide them through critical situa-
tions. They assume prayer could give them enough wisdom and
strength for ministry. It is true that the call of God, gifts of the
Spirit and prayer are important. They are needed for ministry
but they alone are not enough. Training is needed to analyze
the situation, plan actions, work out strategies and implement
them.
2. Some have a low respect for Christian ministry and place
high esteem on other professions such as medical, engineering,
business management and international relations. This is an-
other reason for not realizing the importance of training.
3. Evangelistic campaigns, annual festivals, maintenance of
buildings, Christmas celebrations and dinners are regarded more
important than training programmes. So churches and institu-
tions allocate a small amount of the budgets for training and
developing leaders.
4. Some Bishops, Superintendents, Directors and General
Secretaries of churches and para-church organizations are afraid
of updating their clergy, staff and workers. They discourage them
from further studies or from attending workshops and semi-
nars. These leaders want to control those who are employed for
various reasons. Sometimes they are concerned about the
financial expense of training people and the increase in salaries
to be paid after the training or higher studies.
5. Since well-trained personnel leave the church or organi-
zation and start their own ministry, leaders hesitate to spend
funds to develop others working in their institutions. Sometimes,
the well-trained people are reluctant to go to rural areas for
ministry or accept some other responsibility. This kind of expe-
rience dissuades the leaders from organizing training pro-
grammes.
6. Racial, language and caste discrimination too contributes
to the neglect of training and developing leaders. If the ruling
class in churches or organizations belong to a particular caste
or tribe or race, then others belonging to different castes and
ethnic groups are deliberately left out from training programmes.
Potentially committed people of ethnic minorities are
marginalized by the majority and their policies of nepotism.
God is interested, not only in calling and guiding people for
ministry but, also in training them. God used many forms of
training as we notice in the Bible. Abraham was trained to so-
journ in different places. Although semi-nomadic life was not
new to Abraham, moving from one place to another unknown
place, obeying Gods guidance and just believing His promises
were part of his training. He learnt to trust Yahweh. A similar
pattern could be noticed in the life of Isaac and Jacob. Josephs
training included experience of hatred and betrayal from his
own brothers. Being sold as a slave, a servant in the Egyptian
palace and imprisoned in Egypt for his truthfulness, gave him
opportunities to learn administration and shaped him to be-
come a great leader in Egypt. Moses received royal training from
Pharaohs official at the Egyptian palace. God trained him in
the wilderness before sending him to lead the people of Israel
out of bondage. During the forty years of wandering in the wil-
derness, the Israelites were trained to regard themselves as a
pilgrim community in covenant, to trust Yahweh for their needs
and have Him prepare them for a life in the promised land.
Moses trained Joshua to succeed him and lead the people to
the land. Samuel learnt to receive and proclaim Gods word by
ministering under the leadership of Eli at Shiloh. Before mak-
ing David the King of Israel, God trained him to be a shepherd,
face Goliath, win several battles for Israel, confront difficult peo-
ple and situations, develop courage and confidence and learn
diplomacy. Elisha was called and trained by Elijah to continue
the prophetic ministry in Israel. After being with Elijah and wit-
nessing his powerful ministry, Elisha realized the need for Gods
power and asked for that gift in abundance. Mordecai raised
Esther and also trained her to be faithful to the Israelites. She
received guidance and was challenged to speak to the king and
save the Israelites from genocide. Ezra was a trained priest. Dan-
iel went through various stages of training to interpret dreams
and visions. He learnt administration at the court of Darius. It
took many years for him to come to the top position (Dan.6:1-3).
He had to undergo suffering in the prison for his honesty and
in the den of lions for his faith and commitment. Jesus was
trained at home. It is also possible that Jesus could have re-
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ceived religious education from a Rabbai or synagogue. The first
thirty years of his life was a preparation for his ministry. Details
about his training is not given in the Gospels. However, the
writers of the Gospels (Mt. 13:54-57; Mk.6:2-4; Lk.4:22-37;
Jn.7:14-15) have recorded the way the Priests, Pharisees and
Sadducees marveled at his teaching and power of healing the
sick (J.B. Jeyaraj, Meeting the Messiah, 1999:20-31). Jesus
trained his disciples for three and half years before dying on
the cross. He did not establish a seminary at the banks of Jor-
dan or at the centre of Jerusalem to train the disciples. He took
them along with him and trained them through discipleship.
The content of His teaching included the meaning of the Law,
ethics of the Kingdom of God, bearing and suffering on the Cross,
eternal life, love for others, prayer, great commission and the
second coming. His teachings imparted the values of life and
shaped the character of the disciples. The disciples learnt the
values of the Kingdom of God and the skills to do the ministry
from Jesus. Victor Cole analysized the way Jesus trained His
disciples from the perspective of curriculum and writes, As
touching what Jesus taught, we can categorize these into three:
prepositional truth, or cognitive facts; practical matters of life,
values, character and spiritual life; as well as practical skills
necessary for ministry. All three correspond to cognition, affect
and somehow psychomotor skills, respectively, in todays edu-
cational categories (Victor Cole, Training of the Ministry: A Macro-
Curricular Approach, 2001:61). Paul had professional training
from Rabbai Gamaliel. Using the discipleship method of Jesus,
Paul trained Timothy, Titus, Aquilla and Precilla and the elders
appointed in the churches at Galatia, Ephesus, Corinth, Philippi
and Colosse.
Training for ministry could be formal or informal. The above
examples indicate that some of them were trained formally in
the cultic centres, royal courts, prophetic guilds, priestly groups
and rabbinic schools. Others were trained informally through
travel and sojourn in various places, in the wilderness, prisons
and among families. Sometimes, the training was a combina-
tion of both formal and informal patterns. Different forms of
training at different places shaped the leaders. No one could
say that the training received so far was enough for the rest of
their lives to do Gods ministry. Training and developing oneself
to be a leader is a life-long process. We continue to learn new
insights, techniques and methods needed for a particular min-
istry. The theoretical knowledge and techniques, as well as socio-
political and cultural contexts, influence the training and devel-
opment of leaders. Sometimes, people are trained in one con-
text and sent to another cultural or socio-political context for
ministry. Sometimes, people are trained and placed within the
same context. Training should give serious attention to the con-
text in which the persons are trained and to the context to which
these trained personnel are going to serve. Integrating theory,
techniques, practicals and context in training is important to
develop efficient leadership. Having both full-time ministers such
as the clergy, evangelists, missionaries and social workers and
the lay people involved in the ministry of churches and organi-
zations in mind, the following general principles are suggested
to be at the centre of training and developing leaders for church
and society. These principles are key in spiritual, theological
and ministerial formation. Instead of discussing details about
the way training could be given, I am highlighting the princi-
ples for training. Case studies listed in the next section speak of
different approaches in training.
VISION OF GOD AND VISION FOR PEOPLE
The foremost principle in training for ministry is enhancing
the vision of God and that for people. The word vision could be
regarded in the literal sense of seeing God or receiving a mes-
sage from Him through a trance. God revealed himself to
Abraham, Jacob, Moses, Samuel, Amos, Isaiah and Daniel. These
men saw visions and dreamed dreams of God. However, we can-
not insist that everyone of us should receive visions from God as
the above persons did. Since God had revealed himself in Je-
sus and provided us His written Word, we need to gain the vi-
sion of God through the Scriptures. Vision, therefore, should
not be understood in the literal sense of dreams and trance.
Vision means knowing Gods nature, attributes, actions, will and
expectation through the reading of the Scripture and listening
to the experience of others. Knowing God is an on-going experi-
ence. Difficult moments and critical situation in our personal
lives and ministry too, contributes to understanding God. Grow-
ing in the vision of God motivates, sustains and enables Chris-
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tians to take up challenges in serving God. Vision of God leads
Christians to gain vision for others. Understanding God helps
them to understand humanity. For example, the more divine
the revelation was to Abraham, the more he understood human
beings. His plea for forgiveness for the people of Sodom and
Gommorah and his intercession that their lives may be spared
from destruction is an evidence (Gen. 18:17-33). Moses was will-
ing to lose his status and life if the people of Israel were pun-
ished and banned from entering the promised land. He was a
man filled with concern for his people. He prayed, struggled
and suffered for his people. Amos pleaded to God not to destroy
Israel after seeing the visions (Ch.7-8). Isaiahs vision of God in
the temple at Jerusalem made him to realize the holiness of
God and his unworthiness for ministry (Isa.6). The visions of
Habbakuk, Jeremiah, Ezekiel and Daniel helped them to un-
derstand who God is and what God wanted them to do for peo-
ple. The visionary experience of these people was a good train-
ing to serve God and society. In their lives the vision of God and
vision for people were inter-linked. This aspect comes out more
vividly in the life of Jesus. Jesus quite often spoke of his Father
(Jn.15). He told his disciples about his relationship with the
Father. He explained the purpose and will of the Father for hu-
manity. The vision of the Father made him more conscious of
his identity as the Son of God and Son of Man. Jesus could
claim himself as the Good Shepherd. His understanding of the
Father enhanced his concern for people and encouraged Him to
lay down his life for humanity (Jn.10:14-15). Jesus trained the
disciples to keep the vision of God in focus and serve people.
The apostles narrate their vision of God in the epistles. Their
understanding of God and their personal experiences in minis-
try motivated them continuously to take up challenges and face
persecution. By reading the visions narrated in the Bible, one
could certainly understand God as God of the poor, justice, wel-
fare, love and peace. Unfortunately many Christians fail to see
these dimensions of God. Theological training should provide
them a re-orientation to God.
The vision of God should be inculcated in the vision for peo-
ple. Some people come to understand God more and more
through their vision and service for people. Which of these two
comes first depends on the individual. What is important here
is the necessity of inter-action of vision of God and for people for
effective leadership. However, this inter-action is either at a low
level with some leaders or is one-sided. Some of them speak
highly of God and their visions, dreams and experience of God
but ignore the aspects of justice, human rights and the welfare
of people. They dichotomize the vision of God and vision for
people and hold on to the vertical aspect only. Recent events of
terrorism by Islamic fundamentalists and sucide bombers of dif-
ferent groups make it clear that terrorists are indoctrinated with
the high vision of God, glory of death and heaven rather than
the value of human life. They have lost the vision for others and
ignored the damage and pain they could cause to people. Inno-
cent people become victims of their terror, which they believe
was done for the sake of their God. Terriorists need proper
vision for humanity. Training for ministry should be based on
the vision of God and focused on the people. It is important to
train people to subject their traditions, rituals, customs and views
to the authority of God and to uphold Gods love, mercy, grace,
justice and the welfare of people. Hosea brings out this empha-
sis saying, for I desire steadfast love and not sacrifice, the knowl-
edge of God rather than burnt offerings (6:6).
KNOWLEDGE OF THE SCRIPTURE
The knowledge of the Bible is indispensable for Christian
ministry. This need is already emphasized earlier in this book.
However, I would like to quote a few texts to show how much
God and the apostles valued this principle. The books of the OT
and NT were written and edited stage by stage. According to the
biblical narratives, the earliest written text could be the
Decalogue. The other statues and ordinances were expansions
of the Decalogue and were added later. Moses read the Ten
Commandments and explained it to the people of Israel. Moses
trained the priestly group from the tribe of Levi and the rest of
the Israelites to be rooted in the knowledge of Gods command-
ments. The levitical priesthood was trained to instruct the peo-
ple in the laws. Joshua too taught the law to the people of Is-
rael. It is not clear how the ministerial training of the priests
and levites went on after the settlement in Canaan. It is possi-
ble that the families of the levites trained their sons in the knowl-
edge of the Torah. Cultic centres could have functioned as a
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training ground for priests and levites. The temple in Shiloh,
where Eli ministered, could have been a training place of that
region. Knowledge of the Torah was expected of everyone in
Israel (Dt.6:1-9). Prophets were able to quote the laws of Torah
in their proclamation. The lives and ministry of priests and proph-
ets were based on the Word of God.
Jesus ministry, particularly teaching in the synagogue, was
so radical. The priests, pharisees, sadducess and scribes who
were well versed in the Torah made religion a burden for the
Israelites through their interpretation. The interpretation of Je-
sus challenged religious scholars to understand Gods word prop-
erly. He corrected their wrong notions. Jesus gave more time to
orient his disciples on his interpretation of the Law and Proph-
ets. His teachings, recorded in Matthew 5-7, gave the disciples a
new perspective of God and ministry for people. His parables,
sermons and remarks enlightened the disciples on Gods word.
The training of the disciples in understanding and interpreting
Gods word enabled them to preach the right message and do
powerful ministry after the ascension of Jesus. Paul insists that
the knowledge of Gods word was an important foundation for
Christian life and ministry. He says, All Scripture is inspired by
God and profitable for teaching, for reproof, for correction and
for training in righteousness, that the man of God may be com-
plete, equipped for every good work (2 Tim. 3:16). He took time
and effort to increase the knowledge of Scripture in the churches
he had planted. He trained Timothy and Titus not only to have
deep insights of Gods word but also commanded them to teach
the Word of God to the congregations (1 Tim. 4:6-9). The other
apostles such as Peter, John and James imparted the teachings
of the Scripture by writing epistles and sending them to the
elders of the churches. Their effort enabled the elders to avoid
heresies and show remarkable leadership in times of opposition
and persecution. The ministry could continue because of their
strong foundation on Gods word. Knowledge of Gods word is
not enough. People of God should be trained in understanding
and interpreting Gods word from contextual perspective.
KNOWLEDGE OF THE WORLD
Sufficient knowledge of the world, particularly the socio-po-
litical and historical background of the context in which the
ministry would be done, is necessary. General knowledge of the
world could have been built up through the reading of newspa-
pers and the watching of TV but, the knowledge of the world
means the ability to understand the society critically. Training
programmes should include courses on analyzing the socio-politi-
cal and economic situation at a micro- and macro-level respec-
tively. The reasons and consequences of poverty, exploitations
and accumulation of wealth in the hands of a few should be
analysed through teaching and involvement. The land of Canaan
was new to Moses. He sent spies to study in detail geography,
religion and culture of the people of Canaan (Num. 13: 17-33).
Prior knowledge of the promised land became a necessity to
train the elders of the tribes of Israel and the priests who were
to lead the Israelites to Canaan. Moses and his team analyzed
the situation and prepared the people. Joshua warned the Isra-
elites about the religion of Baal and the culture of the Canaanites
because he could compare the nature of Baal to Yahweh (Johs.
1:6-8; 2:1; 23:6-8; 24:14-15). Baal promoted fertility cult, hu-
man sacrifice, the practice of sorceries and the worship of na-
ture than the Creator. Analysis of religions is part of the train-
ing. David was successful in battle because he gained the knowl-
edge of the location, people and their strength prior to an attack
by sending spies. Prophets could predict the rise of a new em-
pire because they were careful to collect information about the
political situation within the land of Israel and in Assyria, Syria
and Babylon from the caravan traders. They analyzed the poli-
cies and administration of the kings in Israel and Judah. Prophets
such Elijah, Amos and Micah knew what was happening in vil-
lages and towns around them. They were sensitive to the pain
and opinion of the public. Without such an experience they
would have failed to progress in their ministry and make it rel-
evant to their historical period. Jesus observations and analy-
sis of the Jewish society and Roman political power, helped him
to teach and train the disciples. Paul was already educated not
only on Judaism but, also on the philosophies and mystery reli-
gions of the Greeks and the Romans (Acts.16-20). His knowl-
edge of the Roman world enabled him to write and counter the
false teachings of Gnostics, Epicurians, astrologists and sorcer-
ers and the religion of Diana of Ephesus. His analysis of the
society led him to challenge racial and economic discrimination
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and segregation of Jews, Greeks, masters, slaves, men and
women and to use the Church as a dynamic force to counter
this evil (Gal. 3.28, Eph. 2:15-18; 6:10-20). He trained leaders
of different ethnic origin. He trained the leaders to make the
Church inclusive of believers of all race and economic back-
ground. The uniqueness of training is subjecting the knowl-
edge of society, analysis and results to the message of the Gos-
pel. The Gospel is the basis of evaluating the knowledge we
have accumulated about the world. This inter-action between
the knowledge of society and the Gospel is an important princi-
ple in training and developing leaders for ministry.
KNOWLEDGE OF THE INSTITUTION
Persons appointed or allowed to be involved in programmes
as volunteers should be knowledgeable in the structure of the
church or organization that uses them in ministry. They should
be told the history and development of the institution. Records
such as the annual reports, magazines, documents of the pro-
grammes, auto-biographies or biographies of the founders should
be made available to the trainees. The information about their
organization should help them to know about earlier problems
and how they were solved. They could avoid repeating the same
mistakes. They can learn new insights and set new strategies
and patterns of ministry. The more they understand their insti-
tutions, the more they become loyal to their service. The leaders
of ancient Israel never forgot to tell the history and traditions of
their ancestors, Egyptian bondage and liberation and the cov-
enant with Yahweh to each generation. The knowledge of the
history and growth of Israel was imparted to generations through
story-telling and singing the psalms. Their worship, laws, songs,
proverbs and prophecies incorporated the history of the institu-
tion of Israel and contributed to the growth of their knowledge
about themselves.
Some leaders are so successful in the ministry and take their
institutions to a greater height because they know very well the
history and development of the institution, the people who work
with them and the people for whom they work. Some pastors
who are transferred to other churches, take interest to know
the history and people of the church. Some others fail to know
their institution. Their lack of knowledge about the new place
of ministry causes problems and even leads to divisions in the
church. Some leaders do not want their staff to know about
their institution. They deliberately keep the staff and workers
in darkness as a medium of control, which make ministry ineffi-
cient. We live in an era of information technology. A person
could become an efficient leader and contribute to information
building about an institution, the people employed and the con-
text to which the ministry is directed.
ADMINISTRATION AND ACCOUNTABILITY
Everyone involved in the ministry needs the skill of adminis-
tration. I mean, the ability to manage their time, resources at
their disposal and co-ordination of the work. Some pastors, evan-
gelists, teachers, social workers are poor in administration be-
cause they do not take interest in learning management skills.
Some Christian ministers are highly disorganized and do every-
thing at the last minute. They do not plan ahead. Others lack
the skill of accounting and managing the funds. It does not
occur to them to settle accounts or keep record of bills or vouch-
ers. Some are good in spending than raising funds for ministry.
The Bible speaks of administration and stewardship. One of the
key principles in administration is to delegate power and au-
thority. Moses tried to manage the people of Israel all alone.
Jethro, his father-in-law, instructed him to appoint leaders and
to authorize them to serve the people of Israel (Ex.18). Jesus
delegated his authority to the disciples, to go and serve the peo-
ple. Another principle in administration is sharing of informa-
tion, decentralization of decision-making and the creation of
corporate accountability. Many leaders do not want to share
information and try to avoid the democratic approach in making
decisions. They do not record the minutes of meetings properly
or circulate it among members on time. The authoritarian way
of administration quenches the spirit of ministry and demoral-
izes ministers, forcing them to neglect their work. The demo-
cratic approach and corporate decision-making, which is en-
couraged for ministry, could be noticed in the OT and NT. The
body of elders, priestly groups and prophetic guilds played an
important role in the administration. The council in Jerusalem
allowed extensive discussion on matters of faith, formulating
doctrines and policies, analyzing the problems of ministry and
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decision-making. The elders appointed in churches were asked
to use democratic approach in their administration. They are
good examples for the democratic approach and participatory
decision making patterns. The parables of Jesus speak of ac-
countability (Mt.6:19-24; 13: 15:37; 21:28-32). Individuals as
well as leaders should be held responsible for the use of fi-
nance, labour and properties belonging to the ministry. Moral
and financial corruption have no place in Christian ministry.
Training programmes for ministry should enable the trainees to
learn the truth of stewardship, the democratic approach of ad-
ministration and accountability to God and the institution. Chris-
tian ministry suffers in many parts of the world because the
training programmes fails to emphasize these principles in de-
veloping leadership.
ACCEPTING CRITICISM AND CORRECTING MISTAKES
Many Christians are alergic to criticism. They do not want to
be criticized or their mistakes pointed out. Some leaders go to
the extreme of victimizing their staff for criticizing them. Criti-
cism should be done with due respect to the individual and with
the view to help the person to do the ministry efficiently. It should
not be done with the attitude of enmity. A leader could be suc-
cessful if only he/she allowed to be criticized and welcomed
differences in opinion. Agreering to disagree must be learnt in
ministry. Moses was severely criticized by some people in the
community. He accepted their criticism and suggestion. David
learnt to accept the criticism of Nathan the prophet. Solomon
and Rehoboam could not tolerate the criticism of others. Their
vengeance against their critics went to the extent of killing them.
Proverbs points out that where there is no criticism, people per-
ish. Ministry also could suffer. Amaziah, the priest could not
tolerate the message of Amos. He forced the prophet to leave
Bethel and stopped the prophetic ministry. Daniel was criti-
cized for his faith. Jesus was criticized by the priests, Pharisees,
Sadduceess and Roman soldiers. Jesus listened to their criti-
cism, respected their opinion against him and replied them with
a motive to correct them. The apostles were criticized for preach-
ing Jesus as the Messiah and for healing the sick people. Some
of our leaders tolerate criticism but, they are unwilling to cor-
rect their mistakes and wrong approaches. Jesus predicted the
denial of Peter, but, Peter did not accept this prediction. He
repented later and tried to make up for his mistakes. Thomas
expressed doubts on the resurrection of Jesus but, he was
ashamed of his doubts after seeing the resurrected Jesus. He
made a profound statement My Lord and my God in an at-
tempt to correcting himself (Jeyaraj, Meeting the Messiah,
1999:76-82). Paul repented for persecuting the Christians after
receiving the vision of God and dedicated himself to suffer for
Christ. To accept mistakes, confess failures in public and cor-
rect wrong approaches, courage is needed. Some leaders regard
the acceptance of mistakes and the ability to correct them as an
issue of prestige. To them, prestige is more important than the
blunders and their consequences in ministry. They refuse to
learn the principle of accepting and correcting mistakes. Such
people cannot develop themselves as good and honest leaders.
Training programmes should help ministers with the skill to
face criticism, set right their weakness and failures and to grow
more in efficiency.
COMMUNICATION AND CONFRONTATION SKILLS
Efficient communication is necessary for ministry. Many lead-
ers such as Moses, Gideon, Isaiah, Jeremiah were not born ora-
tors, but, they trained themselves to communicate the message
of God to the people. Communication skills such as oration and
writing could be developed through particular techniques and
practices. Prophetic ministry in ancient Israel included visual
communication. The symbolic actions of Jeremiah are evidences
of visual communication (Jer.13:1-11; 27:1-8). Amos, Hosea and
Isaiah used different forms in communicating the message. Con-
veying the ideas in proper form and style is necessary for lead-
ers. Some leaders are good in thinking and developing new ideas
but poor in communicating to people. Jesus was able to com-
municate his teachings using the method of story-telling, para-
bles, proverbs, rhetoric and prophetic form. He used visual com-
munication by asking his followers to look at the birds of the air
and lilies of the fields (Mt.6:25-34; 13:24-34). His action of tri-
umphal entry into Jerusalem using the colt and cleansing of
the temple are evidences of visual communication (Jn.12:12-
18). Peter, who was a fisherman, became an eloquent communi-
cator. His preaching led many Jews to Christianity (Acts.2:14-
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41). Pauls oratory abilities allowed him to speak at Athens (Acts.
17). His style of writing was scholarly yet ordinary people could
understand his teaching. The apocalyptic style for communicat-
ing the visions of John in the Book of Revelation (Chs. 4-9; 12-
16) was the appropriate skill at the time of severe persecution.
Pauls verse, for our gospel came to you not only in word, but
also in power and in the Holy Spirit and with full conviction (1
Thess.1:5) emphasizes style, power and conviction as important
elements in Christian communication. Training programmes
should enable leaders to develop decent literary styles, filled
with the power of the Holy Spirit and full conviction for effective
communication.
Confrontational skill is also necessary. In doing ministry, we
come across difficult situations and problematic people. Instead
of avoiding such people or difficult situations, it is important to
face and sort out the problem. Patience is an indispensable ele-
ment in the skill of confronting people and situations. Develop-
ing patience and faith in God provides strength to deal with the
problems. Jesus was confronted with difficult people such as
Pharisees, Sadducess, Roman soldiers and Pilate. He never
avoided or condemned them. He faced them with patience and
confidence. When Jesus was confronted by the people possessed
by evil spirits and at the death of Lazarus, he related his minis-
try to these people. He knew what was supposed to be done. He
neither wavered nor compromised but stood firm in his plan in
confronting the situation and the people. Peter, Paul and James
followed Jesus method. Confronting skill is not to show power,
authority and pride. It is done out of respect for people. It should
show love and forgiveness and contribute to the restoration of
justice and peace to people.
PRAYER
Prayer and meditation are part of Christian life and neces-
sary for ministry. Some leaders who are so busy with the work
neglect prayer. Since prayer is a voluntary action, it is difficult
to give training on it. The initiative is on the side of those who
are involved in ministry, but, the opportunity to come together
to pray for people or particular needs could be provided by
churches and organizations. Prayer topics could be collected
and circulated among members of the body of Christ. Personal
and corporate prayer strengthens life and ministry. The per-
sonal prayer of an individual could include asking God to point
out his or her weakness, asking for wisdom and knowledge,
forgiveness and assurance and strength to bear all the difficul-
ties in ministry. Personal prayer could also be an intercession
for others. Abraham prayed for his personal needs and the
fulfillment of Gods promises. He also prayed for Lot, the people
of Sodom (Gen. 18) and Abimelech, the king of the Philistines
(Gen.20:7). When we pray for others, it becomes a ministry to
them through our prayers. Moses took time to be with God in
prayer and interceded for the Israelites (Ex. 32:9-14). David, as
a king, prayed to God to forgive him for the mistakes he had
committed and pleaded that Israel should not be punished for
his failures. The prophet Habbakuk prayed to God to be merci-
ful towards the nation of Israel and pleaded for justice to be
done (Habk.2). The prayers of Jeremiah show the depth of his
inner struggles and pain and draws strength to continue the
prophetic ministry (Jer.4:19-22; 9-12). He pleaded to God to
forgive Judah and restore the nation. The Book of Daniel shows
him as a man of prayer for the nation. Through prayer, these
ancestors of Israel were able to influence the people around
them and bring great impact in history. Jesus spent time pray-
ing to his Father. He withdrew often from the disciples and prayed
for his life, ministry and for the people. His prayer at Gesthemane
revealed his inner struggle in fulfilling the will of God. Quite
often he instructed his disciples to pray for themselves, the na-
tion and to raise more labourers for ministry. The prayer taught
by Jesus which we call as the Lords Prayer has a deeper mean-
ing and much relevance for personal and social life. Water Wink
writes, the phrases of the Lords Prayer are not indicative
but imperative we are ordering God to bring the Kingdom near.
It will not do to implore. We must command. We have been com-
manded to command. We are required by God to haggle with
God for the sake of the sick, the obsessed, the weak and to
conform our lives to our intercessions (Wink, Engaging the Pow-
ers: Discernment and Resistance in a world of Domination,
1992:303). He taught them the meaning of fasting and prayer
(Mt.6:9-18). By the example of the prayers offered by the Phari-
see and the Sadducee, He warned his disciples that prayer could
become a ritual and hypocritical (Mt. 6:9-15). He prayed for Is-
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rael on the Cross and asked God to forgive them. The apostles
gave importance to both individual and corporate prayers. Their
miracles are an evidence of such prayers. Pauls letters con-
tained many prayers offered for the believers in the Church. He
began his epistles not only with greetings and blessings but a
few sentences of prayer. A detailed study of prayer found in the
OT and NT is needed in training programmes. The study of the
content and literary styles of prayers, the occasions on which
they were offered, the persons who said the prayer and the re-
sult of the prayer could encourage those who are involved in
ministry today. Many Christians pray mainly to change situa-
tions, solve their problems or to supply their needs. Quite often
our prayers are self-centered. Prayer changes not only the situ-
ation but should also change the person in prayer. The experi-
ence of Jacob at Peniel brought changes in his personality (Gen.
32:21-32). Prayer alone cannot change the society has been
pointed out elsewhere in this book. Action is also needed. On
prayer and action, Walter Wink remarks, action is also no
substitute for prayer. For some, action is a cover for unbelief;
they simply do not believe that God is able to act in the world.
Since God cannot change things, we must. For others, who feel
called by God to establish justice, prayer seems a waste of pre-
cious time. But long-term struggle requires constant inner re-
newal, else the wells of love run dry. Social Action without prayer
is soulless; but prayer without action lacks integrity (1992:306).
Our motives, attitudes and values towards prayer should change
whether it is personal or corporate.
LIFE STYLE
The life style of ministers carries more impact in the minis-
try. Great leaders such as Mahatma Gandhi and Mother Teressa
led a simple life. Our model is Jesus. He led a simple life-style.
He shared his power and authority with his disciples. His life
was transparent to his disciples. He did not accumulate wealth
or look for comfort. He avoided popularity and fame. Above all,
Jesus was careful to maintain high standards in ethical life. He
showed the disciples the meaning of humility by washing their
feet. Paul followed the model of Jesus and challenged Chris-
tians to lead a simple and ethical life. He wrote to the church in
Phillippi to count everything as a loss for the sake of Christ
(Phil. 3:7-11; 4:12). Ministry is not for making personal gains
but for losing everything for Christ and for others. Gnana
Robinson writes, The context of the poor calls for a new life
style both in our personal life and in the structure of our theo-
logical institutions so that our words and actions may go to-
gether and carry some credibility (G.Robinson, A Journey
through Theological Education, 1989:94). The credibility of Chris-
tian ministry lies in the life style of Christians. It is important
that those who teach and train others translate their teachings
into life. Those who are in training for ministry hear not only
the teachings but also see the life style of the leader. Victor Cole
emphasizes this fact by saying, teaching of content materials
in training of the ministry must combine what is said with what
is lived. Then learning will combine what is heard with what is
seen. Thus, in the teaching-learning process, saying correlates
with hearing, while living out a life correlate with seeing a life
style lived out (2001:44).
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Chapter Eight
Theological Education,
Context and Involvement
This essay is a reflection based on my 20 years of experience
as a Theological teacher in an ecumenical seminary affiliated to
the Senate of Serampore College and involvement with various
evangelical institutions and missionary organizations. It is more
a sharing of my views to initiate discussion in churches and
seminaries. The present scenario of theological education in
India is very much encouraging. The following reasons could
be stated :
(i) We have developed advanced level theological education
that many of our students can complete their doctoral degrees
within India. Scholars to guide researchers, library resources
and scholarship funds have been developed over the years to
provide quality education in our seminars and colleges.
(ii) Indian seminaries are drawing students from neighbour-
ing countries like Sri Lanka, Nepal, Bangladesh and Myanmar,
where theological education is not that much developed either
due to political or ecclesiastical reasons. Indian seminaries have
risen to extend their help to the churches and theological insti-
tutions in Asia. India will become an important centre of theo-
logical training in Asia in 2000 A.D.
(iii) Indian theological education gives importance to pietism,
ecumenism, evangelization, church planting and liberation.
Indigenization of Christianity was taken seriously soon after In-
dependence and efforts were taken to create an indigenized form
of liturgy and worship, theology in philosophical terms, impart
theological education in regional languages, produce books and
course materials in vernacular, etc. Contextual theologies like
liberation, dalit, tribal, feminist and eco are developing.
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Christian Ministry
(iv) Churches particularly belonging to Charismatic move-
ments who once questioned the necessity of theological educa-
tion have now acknowledged its importance and started estab-
lishing their own seminaries and institutes either at a large or
small level. However, the mushrooming of theological colleges
in India with overseas funds in the last decade is a serious mat-
ter of concern for us. For, some of these seminaries are neither
related to churches nor missions. They are owned by some
families. They call themselves trans-denominational but not
willing to get affiliated to a Senate/Board/Theological Associa-
tion. They are not bothered to have evaluation and accreditation
by an accrediting agency. Some of the graduates find no future
since their certificates are not recognized by churches and or-
ganizations.
(v) Co-operation between the theological institutions of Ro-
man Catholic churches and Protestant churches in terms of ex-
change of faculty, organizing seminars and producing publica-
tions is increasing these days. This can help us to learn from
each other.
(vi) Students who have studied in evangelical seminaries are
accepted for higher studies in ecumenical seminaries. Some of
the students trained in ecumenical seminaries are accepted as
teachers in evangelical seminaries and vice versa. This is a no-
table change in the Indian theological education. The division
between evangelicals and ecumenicals can be narrowed down
further if Senate of Serampore (SSC) and Asia Theological Asso-
ciation (ATA) work closer on certain programmes and projects.
Although we notice progress in theological education in In-
dia, we also hear a lot of complaints from Bishops, Presidents,
Senior Pastors and Laity about the declining commitment of
theologically trained students, lack of vision for people, shallow
understanding of the Scripture and society, misuse of power
and authority, moral lapses and negligence in the stewardship
of money. Should we blame the college that trained such min-
isters and the system of education given to them? Or should we
blame the structure and treatment of the Church/Organization
that employed them? Leaders of the churches and organiza-
tions are partly responsible for not providing proper guidance
and encouragement and shaping their ministers to be effective
in the ministry. I believe, the system of education and the train-
ing of the colleges are also partly responsible in the formation
of Christian ministers. This leads us to raise questions such as
- What kind of Education is more suitable to our context? What
should be the goals and objectives of our theological training?
What should be the centre of our training - Student or Society
or Church?
Another issue raised quite often in the present context is the
theological thrust or focus of the seminaries. Should all the semi-
naries agree and promote only one theology suited to the poli-
cies and doctrinal stand of their management? Theologies are
pluralistic. But what should be the common theological thrust
of the seminaries? Liberation theology which is biblical as well
as contextual should be the main thrust of the seminaries. Semi-
naries are not just educational institutions but also service agen-
cies in our society. They cannot simply teach subjects and close
their eyes to the evils in our society. Teaching and involvement
should go hand in hand in all our educational institutions in-
cluding secular schools, colleges and universities. However, many
church leaders question this view and insist that seminaries
should produce only poojarees to conduct worship and rituals.
There is a lack of understanding of the biblical concept of a
shepherd. Seminaries, therefore, are in constant struggle with
their churches to promote the kind of training churches expect
or churches need today.
MODELS AND OBJECTIVES
Different models of theological education such as monastery,
university, seminary and discipleship centre, etc., have been
developed over the years. As I was completing this book, I re-
ceived a copy of Victor Coles book Training of the Ministry from
TBT Publishers. He has dealt in detail the historical develop-
ment of theological education which I need not repeat here.
Seminary or Bible College model is more popular in different
parts of the world. Trained in a seminary and honoured with a
degree or diploma are liked by many. It gives them recognition
and religious authority. This was the situation even in the pe-
riod of Jesus. Scholarly Rabbinic schools were offering theo-
logical training on Torah, Prophets and Writings. Students like
Paul preferred the scholar Gamaliel. Some Pharisees and
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Christian Ministry
Sadducees were trained in such Rabbinic schools. Scribes were
given special training in writing and copying the Torah. When
Jesus started preaching, teaching and giving radical interpreta-
tion of the Scripture, the Pharisees and Sadducees questioned
his authority to preach and teach. They did not respect him or
accept his interpretation since Jesus did not study in a Rab-
binic school (Jn.7) Jesus noticed the fallacies of formally struc-
tured training, professionalism of the Pharisees and Sadducees
helped them to show as the only recognized authority over the
Scripture and to force their interpretation on the people. But
Jesus created an alternative model of training - ie., the Disci-
pleship Training (Guru-Shishya model). He could have estab-
lished a seminary with a campus either on the sea-shore of
Galilee or by the riverside of Jordan or in the city of Jerusalem.
He preferred Discipleship Training model to suit the goal and
objectives. He knew very well that goals and infra-structure are
inter-related. His model did not require a big infra-structure
and continuous financial support. He made the training con-
textual and people-oriented rather than authoritarian and op-
pressive of people. His mission is liberative. He trained the
disciples to live and die for the Gospel of forgiveness, liberation
and welfare. He used houses, sea-shores, street, pools, gar-
dens, hills and mountains, temple and synagogues as the cen-
tres for his training. Jesus avoided the danger of falling into
the trap of constant fund raising and protecting the buildings
and structures. He carefully selected the objectives, the model
and programmes to build-up the disciples in personal, theologi-
cal and ministerial formations to exercise their faith and prac-
tice what they learned. He used various methods of testing
their performance in the context. A very important lesson we
need to learn from the ministry of Jesus is that goals, objec-
tives, programmes, curriculum and infra-structure are carefully
selected and inter-linked and determined the nature of train-
ing. Should we say only the Discipleship model is the best and
to be followed ? Should we avoid all the other models of theo-
logical training ? No. Each model has its own merits and de-
merits. We cannot ignore the historical and theological reasons
which necessitated the development of various models over the
years. India is a vast country with different culture and church
traditions. No one can claim the monopoly of theological educa-
tion for the whole of the country. Senate of Serampore as an
affiliating agency is playing an important role in giving highly
academic theological education in our country. Senate of
Serampore is even aiming high to achieve the status of Chris-
tian University in India. ATA as an accrediting body is also play-
ing a valuable role in our country particularly evaluating some
seminaries and requiring them to offer quality and contextual
training. While we recognize such a pluralism of affiliating and
accrediting agencies for India, we need to emphasize the wholistic
theological thrust which includes liberation, evangelism, shar-
ing of resources, non-violence and justice in our context. We
need various models of training but they should contribute for
the transformation of the ministers and society.
Models integrating objectives, programmes and evaluation
methods alone cannot make the trainees successful and effec-
tive in the ministry. We have a number of cases who were trained
in such institutions and have miserably failed in the ministry
and family life. Therefore another important dimension in train-
ing is the call, vision and continuous commitment of the indi-
vidual. Identifying and selecting only such candidates without
favouritism and nepotism is an important responsibility of the
churches. Seminaries too should provide an atmosphere for min-
isterial candidates in training to grow in their vision and com-
mitment.
CONTEXT AND CURRICULUM
Each training is focused on a context. Context of India is
pluralistic - religiously, politically and socio-economically. In
addition to major religions such as Hinduism, Islam, Christian-
ity, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikkism, we have a number of minor
religions. People of different faiths live side by side and usually
get along well. But we notice tensions and violence between
religious communities are increasing in recent years. Some are
over emphasizing the supremacy of their religions over other
religions and try to demolish the worshipping centres of others
and suppress their culture and customs. Conversion and anti-
conversion efforts of some religions spark violence and venge-
ance. Religious communities live in constant suspicion. What
should be our theological training to our religious pluralism?
Should we insist only on evangelism and ignore inter-religious
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Christian Ministry
dialogue? Should our curriculum include these issues and en-
able the students to work for peace and harmony or not ? How
do we train our students to appreciate culture, uphold
indigenization and at the same time not to contradict the Gos-
pel or compromise and betray the Gospel?
Socio-economic dimension of our context is also pluralistic
because Indian society is a class as well as caste oriented . 3-5
% of the population are the richest and control the business
and politics of our nation. More than 50% of the people live
below the poverty line not able to have their daily bread. Out of
40-45 % of the middle class, a large segment are employed in
the private and unorganized sectors, struggling to meet the cost
of living with their poor salary. A small section of the middle
class are salaried people, employed in the Government and try-
ing to go up the ladder by any means. Caste system has divided
our society and created the evils of untouchability, nepotism
and communal violence. Tribals and Dalits demand justice and
equality. Ranvir Sena of the landlords kill the poor Dalits mer-
cilessly. RSS, VHP and Bajrang Dal try to impose Brahminical
customs and Sanskritization on others. Caste politics in the
appointments or elections in the churches and dioceses is be-
coming unavoidable and ruin the unity of the Christians. What
sort of courses and practicals should be offered to make our
theological training more meaningful to our nation ? We need a
paradigm shift from Church focused curriculum to Society
focused curriculum.
Curriculum which includes the list of subjects, detailed course
outline with requirements of reading, assignments and evalua-
tion criteria cannot be formulated theoretically. It should be
related to our context, address to the issues and bring out solu-
tions. Otherwise curriculum written without taking the context
into consideration is useless and irrelevant. Curriculum is not
just to teach knowledge and issue certificates but to impart
knowledge on the context, develop the skill of analysis and iden-
tifying the problems, challenge the teacher and students to get
involved in society and achieve some results.
(i) One major problem with many of us is to think of theologi-
cal training is only to work in the churches. We have a limited
understanding of Gods mission. We are satisfied with produc-
ing poojarees to conduct the worship lively, pray and counsel
the congregations and plant churches. We need to raise the
important question - What is the mission of God ? Should the
church be satisfied with worship services, prayer meetings, or-
phanages and evangelistic campaigns ? Is she not called to
establish justice, welfare and peace ? Is she not the agent in
promoting the kingdom values in our society ? Churches exist
for society. They are the salt and light to the world. Churches
without social focus are irrelevant. Society without the Gospel
of the kingdom is meaningless. When the disciples of Jesus
planted Churches, they had a clear vision and mission of the
churches. They are to challenge the socio-political injustice,
bring equality and to function as a model community in the
midst of the corrupt and divided world. Churches were planted
to live and function for the oppressed and powerless. The epis-
tles of Paul, Peter and James reveal their expectations on the
part of the churches planted by them. Transforming the local
context is the purpose of education. Theological training is to
mobilize the ministers and congregations to witness their faith
in proclamation and actions in the society.
(ii) Another problem is to follow the western curriculum which
is written for the western context. Some of our leaders have
more trust in western writers than in our own writers and edu-
cationists. Not only the course outline and books but also illus-
trations and case studies taken from the context of Chicago,
Liverpool and Berlin mentioned in the books are used. Quite
often neither the teacher who follows the syllabus has visited
such context nor students understand the teaching meaning-
fully. On the other hand, western curriculum can promote in-
terest in students to migrate to the west.
(iii) The gap between the Course Writer and Course
Teacher is another problem. The writer of the syllabus should
have experience in the ministry and continuous contact with
the people at the grass-root. Otherwise what the person writes
would be theoretical. The writer should spell out clearly the
general goals, specific objectives, expectations and requirements
in the syllabus. The present syllabus followed by many semi-
naries do not have such details. For some courses, seminaries
do not have syllabus at all and teachers teach such courses
according to their whims and fancies and give marks. This is
Theological Education, Context and Involvement
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Christian Ministry
like a boat without a sail and rudder. Unless the syllabus is
produced like a Study Guide with all details, it is difficult for the
teacher who is not the course writer to understand the objec-
tives and achieve the results in teaching. But more than such
details, the direct involvement of the teacher in the local church
and society helps the teacher to understand the syllabus, de-
velop the teaching skill to relate the syllabus to context and
bring out personal, theological and ministerial formation in the
student.
(iv) Lack of involving women in writing the syllabus and teach-
ing the courses to bring feminist perspectives is so obvious in
many seminaries. Some seminaries do not have single woman
teacher in their faculty list. Theological education is generally
dominated by men. Extra care and deliberate effort should be
taken to incorporate the dimension of women, children and en-
vironment in our theological curriculum.
Curriculum needs periodic revisions and modification. Teach-
ing is relating the curriculum to the context and context to the
curriculum. It is a two way traffic. By relating the context to the
curriculum, we constantly shape the syllabi. By applying the
syllabi through our teaching to the context, we try to transform
our society. This two way traffic could become successful only
when staff and students have involvement in our pluralistic con-
text.
INVOLVEMENT, TEACHING AND EVALUATION
Teaching in a theological college is preferred by many gradu-
ates rather than pastoral ministry or missionary work or social
service. Students look at the teachers in theological colleges
and their life style and like to lead such a life after their gradu-
ation. We are the role models of our students. Our teaching is
not a profession like in the secular colleges but a ministry with
involvement. Only by involving in our society, we can make our
teaching meaningful and mobilize our students to do the minis-
try with burden and concern. Why should we involve in local
churches and socio-political and economic problems of our peo-
ple ?
(i) Our teaching and training is not just to offer degrees but
to serve the people.
(ii) Involvement helps us to re-read the Bible with particular
perspectives and re-interpret the text and make relevance to
the problems faced by the people.
(iii) Teachers gain experience with the people and blend their
experience in teaching the subjects, drawing examples and il-
lustrations from the insights gained out of involvement. Our
teaching becomes more authentic because of real experience.
Students respect our teaching and get challenged. Otherwise
students know that the teacher is having only theoretical knowl-
edge and hesitate to put their confidence in what he/she
teaches.
(iv) Involvement in the local community challenges not only
our intellectual thinking, skill of theological reflections but also
our own spirituality. Many theological teachers and pastors are
not dynamic and become dry to say anything new in teaching
or preaching. They are tired of ministry and become a burden
to the institutions because of saturation in their spirituality.
(v) Involvement wins the confidence of the local community
and enhances credibility for our mission. Unnecessary gossip-
ing and dirty politics in administration are due to lack of in-
volvement in society. More the involvement and suffering for
the people, less the time for gossip and politics in our churches
and institutions.
(vi) Involvement challenges our life style. Many of us are
afraid that we cannot have comfort, accumulate wealth, use the
power and authority as we like if we involve and identify with
the poor. We are not prepared to lose and become powerless.
The poor and powerless repeatedly raise various questions about
God and the role of churches. Such theological questions chal-
lenge our syllabus, teaching methods, programmes, practical
work, infra-structure and force us to find a theological and prac-
tical answers. The inter-action between involvement - curricu-
lum - teaching - involvement alone can keep theological educa-
tion alive and relevant.
How can we involve if we are required to teach so many hours,
complete the syllabus and conduct the exams within the given
time and submit the marks ? Certainly we need these require-
ments and discipline in any educational system. Experiences
of some Roman Catholic and Protestant seminaries in India and
Theological Education, Context and Involvement
272 273
Christian Ministry
Asia prove that teaching and involvement can go together in
theological education. This demands careful planning in cur-
riculum, time-table, academic calendar and requirement for the
degree or diploma. Each student should have gained experi-
ence through involvement to the problems of industrial work-
ers, agricultural community in villages, issues related to reli-
gions by visiting temples, mosques and shrines and involving in
inter-religious dialogue and in the struggles against the viola-
tion of human rights. I classify the involvement programmes for
seminaries as follows :
(i) Emergency Involvement - during the sudden spark of eth-
nic violence, violation of human rights of a community, death of
rape victims or in police custody, etc. After verifying the fact
and collecting reliable information, seminaries can organize pro-
test march, hunger fast, satyagraha, bus or rail rokko, etc., to
get justice. Or else students and staff can join the agitation
organized by local Human Rights groups cancelling the classes
for the day.
(ii) Programmed Week-end Involvement - Either a particular
class or batch of students can be assigned to involve with the
staff-in-charge of weekend programmes like Jail Ministry, Envi-
ronment Protection, Village Adult Education Project, etc.,
throughout the academic year.
(iii) Short Term Involvement - Sending a particular class to
one term/semester internship in a different place to be associ-
ated with Rural/Urban Development Agencies, NGOs and So-
cial Action Group and getting supervised by a team of faculty
members.
(iv) Long Term Involvement - Requiring a class to be involved
for the entire year in a village or slum and helping the local
community to get certain basic facilities such as electricity, wa-
ter, ration card, patta for the land/house from the Government
under the leadership of local people and with the guidance of
the teachers staying with the students. Then our staff and stu-
dents will understand the meaning of struggles against princi-
palities and power.
(v) Summer Vacation Involvement - Requiring the students to
get involved in the programmes of their local church such as
VBS, Evangelistic Team, Sunday School Teachers Association,
Youth Fellowship, to observe the prevailing theological thinking
and the radical change needed in these ministries and report to
the seminaries to modify the curriculum and training.
Evaluation of the performance of the students is so impor-
tant. Many of us do not pay attention to this area in our teach-
ing ministry. We think that our job is to correct the assign-
ments and exam papers and submit the marks. Evaluation is
not taking place at the end of the course but throughout the
academic year. Since we evaluate the personal, theological and
ministerial formation of a student, we have to use various crite-
ria in our evaluation. Evaluation is not to condemn but to build
the student in faith, knowledge, witness and action. The follow-
ing methods can be used to evaluate and shape the student :
(i) Regular Attendance - to the chapel service, classes, prayer
meetings and to the programmes organized by the seminary.
Sermons preached by students year after year should show their
spiritual growth.
(ii) Class Participation - to interact with the teacher and stu-
dents expressing his/her own views and seeking genuine an-
swers. Students should be given freedom and time to question,
clarify and express the views during the class lectures. Teach-
ers should not suppress their freedom or condemn them if they
do not agree with their teaching.
(iii) Assignments & Projects - to express critical analysis of the
issues, relate the Scripture and bring out new interpretation
out of class room teaching, extra reading of books and experi-
ence in the involvement. This should reveal the theological for-
mation taking place in a student.
(iv) Involvement and Contribution - Teachers can study the
interest of students for involvement and commitment to the peo-
ple with whom the students are involved. Some of them may
take it as a requirement and participate for the sake of complet-
ing the requirement and others may take real interest and get
challenged to work for the people. Their questions, difficulties,
problems of the people, and Church give us a clue about the
theological and ministerial formation taking place in them.
(v) Final Examination - is needed to evaluate the progress of
their study, comprehension, reflection and integration of theory
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Christian Ministry
Chapter Nine
Models of Theological Education:
Case Studies
The Case Study method is used extensively in social sciences,
education, commerce and management. A case study is a device
of collecting information about a group of persons, a tribe or
community or an institution, analyzing and interpreting the
collected date. The Case Study method has its own limitation
because the narration of the case is the interpretation of the
researcher. However, this method is needed for various rea-
sons, namely, to document the historical development of a com-
munity or an institution, use the case as a specimen or an ex-
ample to emphasize or illustrate the uniqueness of the case,
learn from their past history and set a new direction for future.
The main purpose of including case studies in this book is to
show the different models of theological education developed
for the training of clergy and laity in India. Although, several
models of theological education can be identified in India, I have
selected only five models which show certain originality and
uniqueness in relating education to context. These institutions
have made some achievements. Their impact can be seen in
churches and society. Because these five institutions are known
to me for the past several years I have selected them for study.
Three of them are involved in training the clergy and the other
two equip the laity. To visit all the institutions in India and study
their educational programme and write about them, although
will be rewarding, require more time and financial support.
Arul Kadal seminary is selected as a case because of its thrust
on rural training. It is regarded as an innovative experiment in
theological education by the Jesuits in India. Tamilnadu Theo-
logical Seminary is selected because of its focus on inner cities
and training students to have exposure to the problems of ur-
and experience expressed through their answers and not mere
reproduction of the notes dictated in the class or text books
used for the course.
(vi) Annual Assessment - of students at the end of the aca-
demic year about their overall development and progress is nec-
essary. This evaluation should not be done by one faculty but
by the entire faculty members and staff-in-charge of the involve-
ment programmes. Students can also be asked to fill in a Self-
Evaluation sheet to have assessment of their spirituality, stud-
ies and involvement. SSC and ATA can prepare and supply
such evaluation sheets for colleges. Seminaries after giving
enough opportunities, counseling and guidance for improvement
can terminate students who are unfit for ministry.
Today, theological education is a costly affair. We cannot
waste resources. We have to plan and work carefully to make
the theological education relevant to our context by modifying
periodically the curriculum, teaching method, involvement and
evaluation procedure. A marked shift is needed in this new
Millennium to give importance and priority towards the training
of the laity in taking up leadership in the churches as well as
being effective witnesses in their own secular professions.
276 277
Christian Ministry
ban context. Furthermore I was the staff advisor of the Off-Cam-
pus Programme of this seminary and involved in training four
batches of students. Madras Theological Seminary and College
is included for their specialized training in evangelism and link-
ing the theological education to planting and caring of the
churches. These three institutions have a goal of training fulltime
clergy to take up challenges of the rural and urban context.
ACTS Institute in Bangalore integrates vocational and theo-
logical education and train men and women laity for effective
witness in secular jobs. Their graduates earn their living by work-
ing in companies, industries and institutions and involve in min-
istry. Very few Christian liberal arts and science colleges in In-
dia give attention to train their students for effective witness in
the society. Lady Doak College is one among them. Although
Lady Doak College is a liberal arts and science college for women,
it offers Christian Studies Programme for all the Christian girls
and train them to be fully equipped in biblical, theological and
contextual reflections. The five case studies included here may
not narrate all the details of these institutions. Researchers who
are interested in these institutions can visit and get other de-
tails needed for them.
LIVING AND LEARNING IN VILLAGES:
INCULTURATION EXPERIMENT
(Arul Kadal Seminary, Chennai)
Seminaries of Roman Catholic Church in India are famous
for their academic excellence, quality in ministerial training,
rigorous discipline and involvement with the local communities.
Arul Kadal is one of the Regional Theologate Centres (RTC) of
the Vidyajoti College in New Delhi for the training of the Jesuit
priests. This Centre is an outcome of a study and search for a
new formation in ministerial training initiated by the Second
Vatican Council which instructed the Roman Catholic Churches
in different parts of the world to explore various kinds of priestly
training rather than continuing with one universal priestly for-
mation. The mandate from the Vatican prompted the Indian lead-
ers to discuss and create new forms of priestly training. The
Jesuit General Congregation 32 (GC 32) issued directives for
new theological formation and emphasized the notion of inte-
gration at three levels viz. personal integration, integration into
the apostolic body of the Society and integration into the re-
gional and national cultures. An expert committee appointed
in 1966 to formulate a new Regional Order of Studies to suit the
Indian context published its proposals in 1969 under the name
The Plan of Jesuit Studies in India. This document affirmed that
the entire formation of Ours in India must be imbued with the
missionary spirit, within the universal goals of the Church and
the Society and the special local situation. Therefore in our coun-
trys special context of tradition and modernity, our young Jesu-
its must be formed to rethink, express and live Christs message
in a manner which is truly personal, Indian and creative (Quoted
from the unpublished paper of Fr. P. Arockiadoss titled Trends
in Jesuit Theological Formation presented at the Seminar on
New Jesuit Madura Mission: A Historical Perspective held from
3-4
th
Dec. 2001, p.2). After extensive discussions, a follow-up
Commission on Inculturation was formed in January 1976 which
identified the areas of failures in Jesuit training and the basic
challenge for inculturation. This Inculturation Commission pro-
posed that we should help train the coming generations of
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Jesuits to be men who have a great apostolic love for the people
of our land, for their freedom and life, men with deep commit-
ment to satya in all its aspects, men who are sensitive to the
needs of others especially the poor and illiterate and ready to
share their lot, men who draw their inspiration for all these
attitudes from their personal faith experience of Jesus Christ in
whom they are rooted and grounded (Fr. P. Arockiadoss paper,
p.4). This Commission, according to Fr. Arokiadoss, Professor of
Arul Kadal, insisted the following four dimensions to become
the integral part of the Jesuit formation (Quoted from the above
paper, p.4-5):
1. Vernacularization: For effective inculturation, the regional
language of the future mission should become increasingly the
normal medium of communication and instruction in the vari-
ous stages of formation. The use of English should be main-
tained as the link language.
2. Regionalization: The early part of formation should be done
in the Regional Centres. During the study of Philosophy and
Theology, the formation could take place partly in the Regional
Centre and partly in the National Centre. Though there cannot
be any true nationalism without regionalism, the dangers of
narrow regionalism should be avoided.
3. Contextualization: The formation should be contextualized
integrating the Indian categories and methodology of reflection
and expression. The pedagogy should be Indian which stresses
more the experiential and personal dimension than the con-
ceptual and impersonal. The formation should further be in the
context of the poor and the marginalized, rather than that of
the elite.
4. Integration or Harmonization: It is true that there are many
dimension of formation: personal, psychological, spiritual, in-
tellectual, social, cultural, apostolic, etc. But all these dimen-
sions should be integrated and harmonized, to enable the emer-
gence of well-integrated human persons.
This Commission emphasized the methodology of experience
and reflection in teaching and learning and a simple life style.
On the basis of these recommendations of the Commission on
Inculturation, the Pilot Project of Tamil Theology (PPTT) was
formed. The Vidyajoti Theological Faculty in New Delhi gave con-
sent to start the Arul Kadal as its RTC. Rt. Rev. Michael Augus-
tine, the Auxiliary Bishop of Madras-Mylapore inaugurated the
Arul Kadal in Aikya Alayam on 10
th
June 1979.
Naming the RTC in Madras as the Arul Kadal is the first step
in inculturation experiment. The Tamil phrase Arul (Grace) Kadal
(Ocean) means the Ocean of Grace. This name selected by the
students is from Thembavani (Part I, Ch.6, stanza 34) written
by Veerama Munivar (Fr. Joseph Constantine Beschi), the Ital-
ian Jesuit missionary who loved the language and culture of
Tamil and addressed God as the Ocean of Grace in his epic.
Describing God as the Ocean of Grace is rooted in the bhakti
tradition of Tamil poets. It is not merely a name taken from
Tamil culture. This phrase is a theological expression to refer to
the integration of theology and praxis. It is God who is the ocean
of grace calls those who do theology to immerse into the ocean
of grace to find the pearl of great price (i.e. the Kingdom of God)
and gain the integral experience of understanding God and in-
volving in society (Fr. Xavier Irudayaraj, Arul Kadal An ongo-
ing Experience in Roots and Blossoms: 1987:89). This seminary
located in the premise of Aikiya alayam in Santhome area of
Madras is closer to the shores of the Bay of Bengal. It is also
symbolic that the ocean nearby Arul Kadal reminds them of
God as the ocean of grace and calling them for doing theology.
Arul Kadal as a Pilot Project of Tamil Theology is meant for de-
veloping Tamil Theology to articulate the self-identity of the
Church in Tamil and not just to translate or teach theology in
Tamil.
The entire programme of B.Th. is for four years. The Tamil
students of Vidyajoti College spend their first and second year
in Arul Kadal. During this period, they are sent to live in vil-
lages selected for the immersion experience. According to Fr.
Alangaram, the Rector of Arul Kadal, the immersion experience
means to be rooted in a context or in a place with its people,
and to be aware of the movement of the Spirit of God and listen
to him in that context (Christ of the Asian Peoples: Towards an
Asian Contextual Christology:2001:7). The programme of living
and learning in the selected villages during their first and sec-
ond year of study at Arul Kadal is called Arul Gram. The stu-
dents spend their third year in the Vidyajoti college to study
and have exposure to the wider national context. In the final
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year, they are sent to parishes in villages to work and prepare
themselves for ordination under the programme called SUPAM
(Supervised Pastoral Ministry). My interest is to high light their
Arul (grace) Gram (village) and SUPAM programmes which pro-
vide ample opportunity for inculturation and contribute for their
theological and ministerial formation.
ARUL GRAM
During the initial years of Arul Kadal, students were sent to
the village parishes on Saturday afternoon and asked to stay on
there till Sunday evening to gain field experience. Very soon
students found the week-end involvement with the villagers was
not enough for contextualizing theology. They suggested to have
a longer experience of immersion into the context of villages.
Students were ready to spend the entire first semester of their
Second Year of B.Th. in Arul Gram. Each batch of students in
Arul Kadal was asked to select a village for one semester involve-
ment. The first phase of this experiment went on from 1984-
1989. The students selected Malligapuram village in the Arch-
diocese of Madras-Mylapore for their Arul Gram experience from
June to October 1984 and worked among the Dalit Christians.
The next year batch selected Thiruvellai Vayal, a sub-station of
Kasimedu Parish in the same Archdiocese mainly because of its
multi-religious population and to get more interaction with the
people of other faiths. During their stay in this village, they
were able to participate in the festivals of these religious groups
and observe the casting out of evil spirits by the village shaman.
However, they realized that they are using the people for their
learning and not contributing to the social, economic and politi-
cal empowerment of the villagers. This evaluation led the next
batch of 1986 to choose Aniladi Olipuram in Pondicherry Dio-
cese to develop an integrated approach to socio-pastoral minis-
tries by involving in the social welfare programmes of the local
parish and the New Education for Liberation (NEL) organized by
the youths as a Non-Governmental Organization to bring aware-
ness among the down-trodden people in that area. Very soon
the students of Arul Kadal learnt to notice the effective contri-
bution of the lay people and recognized the need of co-opera-
tion between the priests and laity for social transformation. The
batch of 1987 went on the same line of socio-pastoral approach
choosing Nallur village in Vellore Diocese where the parish priest
had already integrated both the pastoral and social ministries
and was leading an Action Group for conscientizing dalits and
other landless labourers and mobilizing them to get their jus-
tice from the landlords who belong to the upper caste. Students
realized the power of the oppressive forces and the need of soli-
darity of others particularly the church in the local area towards
the struggles of the poor and marginalized. They could gain
experience in socio-political action. The next batch of 1988 se-
lected Mammbakkam village for their exposure but could not
gain much due to the lack of volunrary agency and action group
in that area except an experience to the realities of the village.
The Arul Gram programme was not going on smoothly. They
had to face a lot of difficulties such as:
1. Selecting a village for each batch and negotiating with the
local parish priest to use the church as the center and to help
in physical arrangements like renting houses in the surround-
ing villages, providing food and allowing the students to involve
in the worship service and social programmes.
2. Shifting sufficient number of library books needed for the
courses of that particular semester to village and bring them
back to the center.
3. Sending teachers to stay with them in the village for a
semester while another batch is continuing in the center at
Madras which also needed faculty to teach the classes.
4. Lack of electricity and sufficient space for private study in
villages
5. Lack of good drinking water in some villages affected the
health of students
6. Providing medical help to students affected by sickness.
The above problems were expected and the students were
prepared well to face the difficulties. These problems did not
affect the continuance of Arul Gram programme rather chal-
lenged them to continue it. Next batches of students went to
Soosaipuram and Pavumchoor villages. After evaluating the first
phase of the progamme, they suggested to live in the chosen
village for a minimum period of one year and to a maximum
period of two years. Accordingly the students of 1989 spent
their entire one year in Shenbaganur in Kodai hills having their
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classes in the Cheshire Home for four days and involving with
the Madhary community, Tribals and the Sri Lankan Tamil Re-
patriates rehabilited in the upper hills for the rest of the three
days. The cold weather affected the health of the students. After
completing one year in Shenbaganur, they wanted to continue
their experience for another year in a village in the plains. They
were placed in Komanagar village in the Kovalam Parish of the
Madras-Mylapore Archdiocese. Meanwhile another batch of stu-
dents in 1990 went to Moolayar situated in a lower altitude of
the Kodai hills. After spending their first year in the hills, they
retuned to Komangar for their second year experience. Keeping
one batch of students in Moolyar and another batch in
Komangar simultaneously caused problems in sparing faculty
members to these villages. Further more, many voluntary agen-
cies and organizations were working in the Komangar village
which created a problem for the students of Arul Kadal to con-
tinue their involvement in Komanagar. For some of these agen-
cies were giving financial aid to the villagers and others were
trying to convert them to Christianity. The villagers could notice
the rivalry between these agencies and denominations working
there. The villagers assumed that the Arul Kadal is receiving
foreign funds for their sake but not distributing to them. So the
students of Arul Kadal were expected to give them financial help.
It was also possible that the villagers were suspicious of the
activities of Arul Kadal and assuming that the students may call
them to convert to Christianity. But conversion was not the pur-
pose of the programme except to train the students in the rural
context. Some youths of the village were instigated now and
then to disturb the tuition centers organized for the Arul Gram
village children. After the intended period of five years stay in
Komanagar (1991-1995), this center was closed down in April
1995. There were no new batches of students for two academic
years ( June,1995- April 1997). Hence no new Arul Gram was
chosen to replace Koman Nagar diaconate. However the Arul
Gram programme shall continue in the following years choos-
ing different villages after consolidating the evaluation.
SUPAM
After completing the third year in Vidyajoti college, the stu-
dents are ready for deacon ordination. They are sent to parishes
as deacons. Arul Kadal took effort to create another programme
called Supervised Pastoral Ministry for these final year students.
Fr. Xavier Irudaiyaraj writes, the purpose of SUPAM, as agreed
upon by the Assistancy Commission for Formation is to train
our new priests in pastoral skills and pastoral attitudes. As such,
it aims at cultivating a contextual pastoral culture and a creative
pastoral taste. It also inter-mixes theo-praxis and theo-logus,
extending thus a solid season of synthesis of all our formative
ventures (Roots and Blossoms:1987:103). Under this programme,
the students of Arul Kadal are sent to new villages where the
local priests could give them more orientation to pastoral minis-
try and use them to develop the church and communities. These
students who are placed in different villages gather twice or thrice
in one of the parishes or at Arul Kadal during the period of
SUPAM for sharing and theological reflection with the faculty of
the Arul Kadal. In their effort to theologize collectively on the
pastoral ministry, they plan and work out possible action plans
and welfare schemes. At the end of the fourth year, they come
to Arul Kadal to write the exams and complete their study. The
final evaluation takes place before ordaining them as priests.
Some of the salient features of Arul Kadal model of training
can be listed below.
1. The theological training of the Arul Kadal is related to the
church on the one hand and to the local context on the other
hand requiring the students and faculty to live in villages and
work through the local parish.
2. Regular visiting of the homes of villagers not only helped
them to have the first hand experience to the problems, views
and attitudes of the villagers but prepared the students for visit-
ing the families in the future parish ministry.
3. By living among the dalits and other poor people, the semi-
narians encounter a living gospel. They are first touched spir-
itually by the poor and moved with the gospel by the Spirit
before bringing further good news to them.
4. Organizing awareness programmes and coaching classes
for the children, youths and women of the villages, involving in
relief and rehabilitation projects and participating in the strug-
gles for justice enabled the students of Arul Kadal to under-
stand the power of oppression, caste domination, negligence on
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OFF-CAMPUS PROGRAMME FOR
URBAN EXPOSURE
(Tamilnadu Theological Seminary, Madurai)
Theological education is not merely what a student learns
within the four walls of the class room. The very nature of Chris-
tian ministry demands theological students to learn not only
from books but also from people and nature. The socio-economic
condition, religious beliefs, world views, encounter with the val-
ues promoted by commerce and mass media and day to-day
struggles of people challenge theological education to address
to the present and future problems and make it more meaning-
ful to people. The emphasis on contextual education and doing
theology has forced the seminaries to work out schemes and
programmes which would provide opportunities to students to
live with the people in a local area for a considerable period of
time during their theological education rather than residing in-
side the hostels in the seminary campus and complete the en-
tire Bachelor of Theology (B.Th) or Bachelor of Divinity (B.D)
studies.
Living context plays a major role in shaping ones personal-
ity, attitude, thinking and involvement. I would like to call the
hostel type of accommodation in the campus providing single
room for each student with cot, fan, washbasin, shelves and
wardrobe and bathroom facilities as Lodging Model. In this mode
of living, a student is like a tourist who rents a room in a hotel
for a short period and lives alone and eats in the dining-hall or
the restaurant without interacting with others. Another model
of living is the Barrack Model a hall of accommodation where
20-30 people are herded together sharing facilities and eating
at the common dinning hall. Although it provides an atmos-
phere for a few people to live together, it has its own disadvan-
tages. The third type is the House Model where 4 or 5 students
live together as a family in a house in a village or city and pre-
pare their meals in the kitchen and shoulder responsibilities
together. This is not an ideal model of living without disadvan-
tages but a better model in terms of team living, coming closer
the side of the government and the difficulties in empowering
people. This experience of socio-political action motivate them
for greater commitment.
5. Accepting the hospitality of the villagers and the simple
food offered by them shape the students to learn humility, sim-
ple life and respect the poor.
6. Involvement in the worship service of the local church pro-
vide the students enough opportunity to learn about liturgy and
worship. In integrating the worship and village context, they
learn the indigenize liturgy and develop skill to communicate to
rural people.
7. Living and learning in villages enabled many students to
write songs on liberation, welfare etc., and publish their views
through news items, stories and articles in magazines.
8. Following the Ignatian pedeogogical dynamics of involve-
ment-reflection-involvement affect their life style, change their
perspectives and inspire more for commitment. They learn the
true meaning of theological education and ministerial train-
ing.
9. This model of theological education does not require a big
infrastructure of buildings with class rooms, hostels and a com-
pound wall which cost a lot of money to construct and maintain
in these days.
Arul Kadal has worked out a flexible and dynamic model of
Jesuit formation. Arul Kadal is an achievement in the effort to
contextualize theology and ministerial training. The faculty and
students are not complacent but in constant struggle to evalu-
ate what they do, modify and improve and evolve new model to
relate to the changing rural context out of their failures and
achievements.
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ond year and Internship Exposure and Rural Theological Insti-
tute training in the third year of their studies. In this paper, I
would like to share my reflections out of my experience as the
Dean of the Off-Campus programme for four years (1990-1994)
and try to trace briefly the history of it and highlight its signifi-
cance for theological education and mission of the churches.
ORIGIN AND OBJECTIVES
A group of five students and a staff member (Rev. Y. David)
volunteered to live in the nearby Chitalkshi slum in 1973-1974
to know more about the life of the slum dwellers and enrich
theological thinking through involvement. The objectives of liv-
ing off-campus are:
identification with the people, empathetic understand-
ing of problem and power structures in the slum, help in
education and sensitization of the people there, help to or-
ganize them so that they become aware of their rights and
responsibilities and create a style of life of responsible
citizenshipdistinctively Christian(Principals Annual
Report, 1973-74, p.5).
The three dimensions of the programme viz. identification
with the people, understanding their problems and power struc-
tures of the society, helping them to be aware of their rights
and responsibilities and relating this experience to their theo-
logical thinking are not easy to achieve and see the success.
However, the interest and initiative of this group to go and live
in the slum provided encouragement for experiment. They over-
came the suspicion of the slum dwellers who wondered why
these theological students training to be priests should come
and live in the huts and establish friendship with them. The
friendship of the slum dwellers led the students to serve them
by helping their children to learn their school lessons daily and
be aware of basic hygene and health. This experience of living
in off campus continued in the following academic year 1974-
75 with the help of volunteering students. The relationship be-
tween the slum and the seminary became closer when other
students started visiting their fellow students living in the slum
and trying to involve in their service rendered to the slum com-
munity. Our understanding of their needs and their cry for help
led us to think about projects for the slum community.
in friendship, understanding each other and helping one an-
other in sickness, cooking and studies and for prayer, discus-
sions and reflections. In our Indian context, house model pro-
vides better opportunities to identify with the local community.
The same may not be suitable in another cultural context where
another model may be better than the house model. A group of
theological students renting a house and living together is a
common phenomenon in the Western countries. Living off-cam-
pus and attending the classes in seminaries go on for several
years. But this practice is not organized as a required and guided
programme of the seminaries in the West when compared to
the off-campus programme of TTS. Seminaries in each country
can decide the suitable model of living for their students which
will enrich their theological education and ministerial training
in their context.
Involvement with the people and reflection on their experi-
ence consequently can bring changes in curriculum, revising
the content of existing courses and develop new subjects suit-
able to their region. Seminaries in our country have worked out
different kinds of programmes, namely, Weekend Outreach, Prac-
tical Work for 2 or 3 weeks, Intensive exposure for one semes-
ter, Summer Vacation training, Arul Gram (living in a village) to
enable their students to gain experience of living with the peo-
ple, learn from them and serve them. Some staff members re-
sponsible for such programmes may accompany the students
and guide them in their involvement and theological discus-
sions.
During the four year theological training at the Tamilnadu
Theological Seminary which is an ecumenical seminary for CSI
and TELC affiliated to the Senate of Serampore, students stay
inside the campus in the first and final year of B.Th or B.D.
studies. Although students have plenty of opportunities to meet
people coming to the campus for various reasons and the local
congregations when students go and assist in the worship serv-
ices, students miss the opportunity to live with people, see
their life style and take part in their struggles. In order to live
with people for a longer period and interact with them, draw
challenges and shape their theological thinking, students have
to undergo three kinds of programmes integrated with the aca-
demic requirement, namely, off-campus programme in the sec-
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theological training and therefore decided to revive it once again
in 1989.
Once again we looked for accommodation in the city for our
students. Instead of renting houses, we negotiated four houses
in different locations on renewable lease for 3 years. One such
house was fixed in the area of S.S. Colony where high caste
Hindus live; another house in Thathaneri, across the Vaigai river
where poor communities such as dhobis (washermen) and bas-
ket-makers live and the other two houses in Ponmeni and Nehru
Street predominantly of middle class Hindus. In addition to these
four houses on lease, we used our own building constructed for
the development work of slum dwellers in the Chitalashi Nagar.
Inba Illam (Old Age Home) in Pasumalai accepted our students
from 1992 to live and gain off-campus experience. These accom-
modations in the area of different class groups and communi-
ties provided a suitable atmosphere to live and look into the
varied problems in an urban context. Some of these houses
lacked water supply, proper drainage and sanitation facilities.
Students, exempting women and married students, were asked
to live in these houses and prepare their meals and attend the
classes in seminary. Cycles were provided on subsidy. Students
usually find the off-campus living difficult at the beginning since
they have to sleep on the floor, tackle water shortage, lacked
cooking experience and do cycling up and down to the class
and to their houses. They overcome these difficulties in one or
two months and try to live as a small team helping each other in
cooking, sickness and preparing their lessons and study
projects. This kind of team living and working contributed not
only to shape their theological thinking but also transform their
personality. In a team living under one roof, each student in the
group realizes his own weakness and strength and understands
others and learn from his friends. The team living brings the
members of the group much closer in their friendship and over-
come their difficulties and tolerate and help one another.
SOCIAL INVOLVEMENTS
The purpose of living in off-campus is to help people and
learn from our social involvements. There is no scheduled pro-
gramme for their involvements. The need of the hour determined
the nature of their involvement. In the months of October and
After evaluating the two year experience of our students liv-
ing in the slum, a formally structured off-campus programme
was introduced in the year 1975-76 to make it a requirement
for all the Second year B.D and B.Th students. Women and
married students were exempted due to the difficulties in se-
curing suitable accommodation for them and admission in
schools for the children of family students. In addition to the
accommodations in the slums, houses and rooms were rented
in different locations of the city for this purpose. Students from
different dioceses and backgrounds were grouped in small num-
bers and asked to live in these accommodations and attend the
classes in the campus every day by providing bicycle and spe-
cial allowance. Special subjects to understand the urban con-
text were offered to these students. Living in off campus led
them to hire utensils, prepare their meals as a team, adjust to
one another, overcome differences in relating to each other and
develop relationship with their neighbours. In the following year
1976-77, some students volunteered to live in the Bethel Farm
(RTI) and attend the classes in the seminary. The enthusiasm of
the students and the impact of living in off campus in their
theological thinking enabled the seminary to continue this pro-
gramme, bit expensive although, up to 1985. A number of prac-
tical difficulties in connection with finding accommodations in
the city, fulfilling their academic requirement of the revised cur-
riculum of the Senate of Serampore and the introduction of one
semester (appx. 5 months) Internship Programme by the semi-
nary in 1977-79 which provided exposure to the third year B.D.
and B.Th students by placing them as different groups in vari-
ous places of Tamilnadu and outside the state with para-church
ministries and social projects and then sending them to RTI for
the second semester affected the off-campus programme and
brought it to a halt in 1986. However, the lapse of this pro-
gramme for three years (1986-89) and allowing the students to
live on the campus in their second year of study created a vacuum
in their exposure experience to the problems of urban living.
The need for off-campus living and exposure to urban problems
could be felt in class room and seminar discussions, assign-
ments written by our students, preaching in the chapel and
involvements in our projects. We strongly felt that the off cam-
pus programme is unique and has its own contribution in our
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tions made our students to realize how much inadequate are we
in answering their questions, solving their psychological trauma
and making our theological education more relevant to the local
context particularly to people of other faiths. In discussing these
questions later in the meeting of off-campus students, it is felt
that religious answers should be developed which will address
to the multi-religious people who were the victims of the flood
than Christians, besides giving social help and create environ-
mental awareness among the people. As a small effort to
conscientize their neighbours, off-campus students, used T shirt
printed with the slogan Protect Nature in 1992. This T shirt
campaign went on in the following years with the slogans Sup-
port Peace and Harmony due to ethnic unrest in 1993 and No
Place Like Home in 1994 reminding the UN International Year
of Family. Off-campus students were encouraged to participate
in the Inter-religious Dialogue Programme of the seminary, par-
ticularly attending the Meeting of Friends Circle organized every
month on a theme for dialogue either in a temple or mosque or
local institution in the city. Their involvement in the Dialogue
programme enabled them to see the various religious perspec-
tives and world views of Madurai people and understand the
religious factors which can cause ethnic violence or unite and
bring harmony among the local communities
RESEARCH PROJECTS AND SOCIAL ANALYSIS
Students of each academic year are required to write a pa-
per out of their research and experience of living off-campus.
This kind of research study is to be in touch with the people
and find out their views, difficulties and interpretations of their
world views rather than reading few books and writing a paper.
Meeting the people and having dialogue with them enable the
students to get first hand information. This is enhanced further
by teaching subjects, namely, Understanding the Indian Soci-
ety and Hinduism, Pentateuch, Synoptic Gospels and other rel-
evant courses for Second Year B.D and B.Th. students. With the
help of learning these subjects, students are able to analyze the
society and religions during their off-campus living. The inter-
action between class room learning and exposure in the off-
campus help them to reflect and write their research projects.
November 1992, Madurai District received so much rain that
the Vaigai river overflowed suddenly and destroyed the huts
erected on both sides of the river. Poor people who have no
place to live have erected these huts on the banks of the river
lost their accommodation, clothes, utensils and tools and were
left homeless. Since these people were not warned much earlier
and evacuated from the river side, the sudden flood in the river
made them homeless. Some of them who left their babies and
old people in the huts and went to work in the night could not
save the lives of some of their beloved ones. Our students in the
off-campus took initiative to visit the area of damage and con-
soled the families. Their effort to bring to our notice the extent
of the calamities of the flood urged the rest of the students and
staff to go and help the victims of the flood providing food pack-
ets, old clothes and utensils. Students surveyed the losses and
reported the Madurai Corporation and urged the local govern-
ment to help these poor people.
The same phenomena repeated in the following year 1993
but people were warned earlier about the flood and asked to
move to safe places in the city. Unfortunately, due to the breach
of a water reservoir, the north region of the river was flooded.
Many houses, shops, schools and roads in the area of Sellur
and Tallakulam were damaged. The flood left so much rubbish
and dirt in these areas that the Corporation sought the help of
student volunteers from various institutions including our semi-
nary to clear the debris, rubbish and help the victims. The whole
student body co-operated with the local government in this emer-
gency.
Social involvements enabled the students to see the plight of
the people and hear their agonies. The victims of the flood ex-
pressed their pain, misery and anger to our students and raised
various questions: Why do we poor always suffer? Why is God
not on our side? Why should the nature punish us? Where is
Gods power to control nature and help us? What is the use of
religion? These are valid questions which we are aware of. But
when these questions are raised by the people suffering and
looking for an answer to their spiritual struggle and immediate
aid to solve their problems, become meaningful and challenge
our spirituality. Aids were provided by the government, other
institutions and social agencies. Finding answers to their ques-
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of the insights taken from the assignments written by the stu-
dents. Their survey and study at the grass-root level brought to
light that there is no systematic teachings in most of these
shrines to educate and unify the understanding of the worship-
pers. As such the people have their own understanding of the
deities and temples.
Various temples such as Meenakshi, Mariamman, Muniyandi,
Murugan, Kali, Hanuman, Karuppasamy and Vinayagar on the
streets of their localities were studied. The temples of
Mariamman, Vinayagar and Kali deserve our attention.
Mariamman, the goddess is originally a rural deity worshipped
by the village folk, protects the people from chicken pox and
small pox and used to have their temple outside or at the en-
trance of the villages in those days. Priestly services and ecstatic
utterances are performed by both men and women in villages.
Sacrifices and offerings are offered annually to appease her that
she will continuously protect the village from these diseases.
This goddess worshipped mostly by non-brahmins, is interpreted
and believed, as none but Parvathi, the wife of Siva but took
different avathars and appeared as Mariamman under different
titles such as Muthu (pox) Mariamman, Karumariamman and
Santhanamariamman in various parts of Tamilnadu. This inter-
pretation attests that the rural folk cult is already incorporated
into Saivism. When the villagers migrated to cities, they brought
Mariamman cult with them and established shrines in their
streets to protect them from diseases. Not only Mariamman but
also the Karuppasamy and Muniyandi cults came to Madurai
from villages.
Karumariamman worship began in Gnanaolivoopuram (an
area within Madurai city) when a tailor, a non-brahmin went
and brought a handful of sand from the Mariamman temple in
Thiruverkadu. He functioned as the first priest since he founded
the cult in his area. But he was replaced by a Brahmin priest as
many started worshipping and the income increased. Temple
building was constructed in 1988 and dedicated in 1989 by the
Minister for Hindu Trusts, Tamilnadu Government. Idols of Saivait
deities such as Murugan, his two wives and sons found their
place in the temple building. No animal sacrifice is offered ex-
cept vegetarian offerings of food, fruits, coconut, milk and flow-
ers. These developments raise the important question of motive
Communities in Unorganized Sector
In the academic year of 1990-91, students were asked to
study the socio-economic aspect of street vendors such as veg-
etable and fruit sellers, aluminum and stainless steel utensil
sellers, teashops, sugarcane juice sellers, rickshaw pullers,
dhobis, barbers, etc. These jobs are done by people belonging
to various castes except the last two-dhobis and barbers by re-
spective caste groups. These people try to earn a living by doing
these businesses on the streets as an unorganized sector of
labour. The study on these people brought to light that the street
vendoring is done as a family- husband and wife or parents and
sons or brothers joining together and borrowing money on in-
terest. Almost every day, they have to bribe the police and the
Corporation officials to keep their goods on the roadsides and
sell them. These officials, many times, show no mercy save throw
away their goods and drive them out of the road in the pretext of
keeping the streets clean and avoiding traffic congestion. Stay-
ing in the open air whether it is hot sun or rain or dust from
morning till night to sell their goods has affected their health.
Husband and wife spending the whole day on their business
neglecting their children has caused a lot of damage to their
family particularly to the care and education of their children.
This unorganized sector has no trade union to protect them or
represent their case to the Government.
Religions: Unite or Divide
Madurai city developed around the ancient Meenakshi Tem-
ple is called the Temple City. In the last four decades small
temples and shrines are mushrooming in the nook and corner
of streets and main roads. It is estimated that more than 300
road-side Hindu temples and shrines are in Madurai. Temple
city has become the City of temples. We cannot ignore such a
development of religion which is a challenge for scholarly as
well as grass-root level analysis. Off-campus students of the
academic year 1991-92 were asked to survey this kind of tem-
ples in their areas of living and find out the opinions and inter-
pretations of the worshippers about their deities, temples and
faith. Their findings should be written out of personal inter-
views with people, priests and temple trustees and not out of
reading a few books sitting inside their homes. I can share some
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cities. But soon such cults allow idols of other deities to have a
place in their temples. We notice, therefore, the mixing of the
folk tradition with caste Hindu traditions in the urban context
and the folk worship which went on at the time of founding the
cult in the city decline to individual worship or families gather-
ing only for the annual festival. Several interpretations given by
the people for mixing up the caste Hinduism with rural folk
tradition in the urban situation were noted by our students, viz.
i. in order to draw people adherent to other traditions and
thus bring people of different Hindu traditions to come closer.
ii. In order to help the people to meet different deities in one
temple and get whatever the benefits they want from such dei-
ties.
iii. To suppress the rural folk cult which is predominantly
non-brahminical.
iv. To sanscritize the rural cult and incorporate into
brahminical Hinduism and keep their dominance over religion.
Secondly, priesthood of Mariamman, Muniyandi and Kali cult
was initially of non-brahmins but Brahmin priest entered these
temples and replaced the original non-brahmin priests if not
serve as an additional priest. Their salaries range from Rs.100-
300 plus the free will offerings given to them by the worship-
pers. In some of these temples, priesthood is hereditary and
perform it as their family or caste tradition to maintain their
social status.
Thirdly, inspite of incorporating various deities in one tem-
ple in the urban context and people of different caste worship-
ping in such temples, the caste difference is still maintained.
No real unity among people of various Hindu traditions is
achieved. Brahmim priests and non-brahmin priests could not
join hands together and serve at the same time except in differ-
ent timings in temples. Still the exclusivism of Saivism and
Vaishanivism is maintained by many. The important question
raised out of the off-campus experience is whether temples can
solve caste differences, enable people to transcend their own
traditions and bring unity and harmony among Hindus or will
uphold the varnashrama?
behind syncrenizing Dravidian folk cult with caste Hinduism.
We find this trend in many temples constructed for village deity
in the city and we will turn to this issue later.
Another famous cult is the worship of Vinayagar (elephant
god) who is otherwise known as Ganapathy or Pillaiyar, particu-
larly in the area where Brahmins live. Our students have col-
lected 40 titles of Vinayagar by which his temples are named.
These titles are adjectives prefixed to the name Vinayagar ex-
pressing the various attributes of this god as perceived by the
worshippers. In surveying the two Vinayagar temples in the State
Bank Colony and S.S. Colony, it is noticed that the priests of
these temples are from high caste Hindus. These temples have
accommodated the idols of deities of Saivaite and Vaishnavite
traditions but not of Mariamman or Muniyandi of village folk
tradition. Sri Kumara Sundara Panchamuha Vinayagar temple
in Palanganatham is famous for its architectural design. This
temple alone has 8 idols of Vinayagar and 10 steps named after
different titles of Lakshmi, goddess of wealth. Vinayagar
Sathurthi, the annual festival is celebrated so far peacefully in
the temple but in the recent days the idol is taken out in pro-
cession which caused ethnic violence elsewhere in the state.
Kali temple which is known as Calcutta Kaliamman on the
main road in Karimedu (another area within Madurai city) was
constructed and administered by people belonging to Thevar
caste because one of the elders of this caste went to Calcutta
and brought a handful of sand from the Kali temple and founded
this cult. Along with the idols of lingam, nine planets and nandhi,
Muthuramalinga Thevar statue is placed in the temple. He is
regarded as their caste leader who struggled for freedom joining
the Forward Bloc Party. Keeping his statue in the temple raises
questions such as whether to make him divine or to represent
the cult for Thevar community. Or else to link the religion with
politics. In contrast to this temple, the Kali temple in S.S. Colony
is visited and worshipped by people of various castes.
It will be rewarding if a detailed comparative study of all the
temples in the city is undertaken. But this is beyond the time
and geographical limit of our off-campus students. However, the
study of road side temples, although done in a limited way,
reveals firstly that migration from villages bring rural folk cult to
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work in tea-shops, building construction work, automobile work-
shops, selling flowers and making incense sticks. Some of them
turn violent and involve in theft and robbery and face harass-
ment from police.
Using rickshaws, public transport or school bus, children of
middle class parents go to schools managed by the CSI Diocese,
TELC, Roman Catholics and other groups. These schools render
good service to these children at a nominal fee collected at the
beginning of each academic year. These schools are aided fi-
nancially by the government. However, schools are over crowded
and the teachers have to manage a large number of students in
each class and therefore unable to give sufficient attention to
students and encourage them for creativity or provide extra-
curricular activities like music, karate, dance, etc. Upper middle
class and the rich who can afford to pay a high fee, send their
children in cars and autos to private English medium Nursery
and Matriculation schools. These schools have obtained recog-
nition from the government. Unlike the other two categories,
they do not get financial grant from the government to pay the
salaries of the staff. Staff members are paid less and have no job
security but have to work hard to show their schools give high
standard of education in the competitive market of private school-
ing. No doubt that these schools update regularly their extra-
curricular activities, introduce new programmes and install elec-
tronic equipments. Children studying in these schools have a
lot of advantage over the children studying in the schools of
other two categories.
Since schools are class oriented, poor children meet only
the poor children and the rich meet the rich. Interaction and
friendship between the poor children and the rich children in
schools are rare after the development of three tier system due
to the liberal policy of the government for the multiplication of
private schools. Educational institutions are the places where
children of different caste, colour and class can come together,
understand each other and learn from others. Unfortunately
the privatization of education due to lack of funds in the govern-
ment has paved the way to segregate the people from their child-
hood.
Children and Education
India has a long history of education. To mention a few im-
portant educational systems used in different periods of history
are Gurusala, private tuition for the royals, open-air teaching
under a tree, British system with English as an important sub-
ject and post-independence policy of education for all and the
recent drive of enabling the illiterate at least to read and write.
Education is important for the society. But we have a high per-
centage of illiterate in certain parts of our country and school
drop-outs are steadily increasing. On the other hand, private
English medium Nursery and Matriculation schools are mush-
rooming as a self-employment scheme and a business. So we
have decided to make this topic of children and education for
our study in the academic year 1992-93.
The survey of schools done by our off-campus students has
brought out the following facts about families, children and
schools. Firstly, the study classified the schools under three
broad categories, namely, schools owned and managed by the
government, Christian mission schools and private English me-
dium schools owned and managed by family and Trusts such as
TVS, YMCA, State Bank Officers Association, Madura Coats, Sev-
enth-Day Adventist, Jeevana, Dolphin, Railways and Nadar
Sangam. On the basis of the analysis of the socio-economic con-
dition of the children attending these schools, we can further
caricature them as a class oriented schools poor, middle class
and rich elite. Schools owned by the Madurai Corporation are
managed badly and in a neglected state due to lack of funds,
sense of direction and attention from the government. Build-
ings are not maintained and basic facilities are not provided for
teachers and students. Poor children only go to these schools
because their parents are unable to pay for private schools and
to get their free mid-day meals. These children from slums and
redundant area neither get good education in these schools nor
at home. Their parents are illiterate and their huts and houses
have no electricity facilities. Both father and mother go for work
to earn their bread leaving the children to play on the streets.
Some of these children are asked to go for work after returning
from their schools to supplement their income. After attending
the school for 4 or 5 years, many of them drop out and go to
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Vigilence Home, either because their families disown them and
drive them out or husbands marry other women while the trial
goes on or relatives look down and use abusive language against
them.
These studies on children and women are an eye-opener to
many of our students. Their problems cannot be solved by so-
cial service projects alone. Alternative education outside schools
is needed for children and parents to counter the values pro-
moted by class oriented schools. Programmes should be designed
in such a way to deal with children belonging to different class
at various levels. Persuade the government to reconsider its policy
of privatizing education and improve the facilities and standard
of its own managed schools is necessary.
Loan and Debts: Vicious Trap
Loans and debts have become unavoidable evil in the lives of
people. Even the rich claim that they have borrowed millions of
Rupees and are living in debts. But the analysis of the purpose
for which the rich have borrowed money and the ways they use
their capital reveals the truth of multiplying their profit and
investments and accumulating more wealth in contrast to the
poor who struggle everyday and borrow money to buy their food.
Loans and debts are a nightmare and serious threat to the lives
of the poor and middle class in our society. Off-campus stu-
dents of the year 1993-94 were asked to study the problem of
loans and debts of the people living nearby tracing the reasons
for their borrowings, kinds of loans and interest and the conse-
quences of loans in their lives. Initially students could not get
details of loans and debts of the people since it is regarded as a
private and sensitive issue and the prestige of the family is at
stake. Some people come forward to share their problems of
debts and their sufferings with our students and asked for fi-
nancial help to clear the debts. In studying the problem of loans
and debts of the poor in the slums and middle class teachers of
two schools and staff of a hospital, we realized the menace of
unauthorized money lenders and the powerlessness of the peo-
ple once trapped to break the shackles of debts. What is more
shocking to us is the silence of the local churches and Christian
organizations on this issue. Regret to say that neither pastors
have preached sermons on loans, debts and interest rate nor
Secondly, families play an important role in the education
and shaping the personality of the children with right values.
Our study of families reveals that the rich and upper middle
class families are able to provide a better atmosphere at home.
Children are taken care Parents spend time with them en-
couraging them to involve in extra-curricular activities outside
their schools, improve their sports and talents and train them
to participate in public competition because they have money,
elitism and other resources. On the other hand, children of poor
families and lower middle class suffer at school and home. Many
of them do not enjoy peaceful atmosphere at home either be-
cause the father is alcoholic addict, batters his wife and quarrel
with her or deserted his wife and married another woman. Par-
ents use abusive language against children and discourage their
education. Loans and debts of the parents make the entire fam-
ily miserable. Some of the children run away from homes and
return after sometime or throw themselves as cheap labour.
Children long for compassion and encouragement and they seek
their happiness in going to the homes where TV sets are and
watching programmes particularly cinemas, dramas and adver-
tisements.
Thirdly, children have good nature. They like to forget their
differences and try to play together. It takes place within the
class groups and local areas. They forgive and forget the mis-
takes of their friends and visit their homes. They are aware that
they are dependent and their freedom is limited. They feel ne-
glected if they are not included in decision making. These ex-
pressions of the children led our students to find out what the
Bible says about the children. They read and listed a number of
texts such as 1 Sam. 3:4-14, 2 Kings 5:2-3, Matt.18:6, Mk.10:14,
Lk.10:21, 16:15-17, Jn. 6:9 related to children. Our study and
reflections on these texts, due to various reasons, were not suf-
ficient to create a theology of children.
Fourthly, two of our girl students studied the problems of
women in the Vigilence Home. These women caught in prosti-
tution are brought by police, court and voluntary organization
to this Home. The Vigilence Home managed by the government
is not having basic facilities or effective rehabilitation programmes
to help them to stand on their own feet after they leave this
Home. Most of them return to prostitution and come back to
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collected for a loan of Rs.100 is Rupee 1 per day. Under this
scheme, the borrower is encouraged to continue to pay the in-
terest than clear the debt so that the lender can earn more than
the amount loaned to the debtor. Collection of weekly and
monthly interest ranging from 3-20 per cent for a loan of more
than Rs.100 is practiced. Money lenders live in the midst of
them or nearby as parasites and are ready to lend money to
these poor who would not oppose them or turn violent but would
pay the interest regularly. No legal action on their unauthor-
ized money lending and the exorbitant interest rate extracted
from the public or police action against these lenders is possi-
ble since their lending goes on without written documents or
evidences. Defaulters, however, are beaten up and the their cy-
cles, shops or huts are damaged by the lenders. Sometimes
these money lenders go to the extent of harassing the members
of the family particularly women and children of the defaulters.
Fear of cruelty from the hands of these lenders make the poor
to pay the interest first and starve in tears. Their vicious poverty
surrenders them to vicious borrowings and debts. These poor
are silenced by force not to tell others about their creditors and
their cruelty. Loans and interests have disturbed the peace in
the families. Debts are their death traps.
Students search the Scripture to know the theology of loans,
debts and interest. They have taken effort to interpret Ex. 22:25;
Lev. 25:35; Dt. 15:8; 28:12-24; 23:20; 24:10-17; Ps. 19:17; 37:21-
26; 112:5; Prov. 6:1; 11:15; 17:18; 20:16; 22:26; 27:13; 2 Kings
4:1; Ezek. 18:8; Neh. 5:6-13; Matt. 18:22-35; Lk.16:1; 7:41 etc.
and pointed out some of the principles connected with lending
money such as the prohibition of collecting interest from an-
other Israelite or entering into the house of the debtor and tak-
ing his belongings by force as security and keeping the mort-
gaged cloak throughout the day without returning it to the poor
in the evening to cover and protect himself; provision of the
Jubilee Year to forgive all the debts and release the debtors to
go free from their masters and Jesus teaching of forgiving the
debtors and write off all the debts whatever be the amount. More
reflections are needed on biblical texts to make a relevant mes-
sages to the money lenders and debtors and plan pragmatic
actions to liberate the debtors and protect them from falling
into the vicious trap.
organizational workers have educated the poor and middle class
on the seriousness of this problem and help them to come out
of the vicious trap.
In money lending business, two basic types of loans are viz.
lending money without demanding security and pledges and
lending with security and pledges such as land, house, jewels,
utensils, watches and clocks, cycles, tools and properties and
clothes. These loans operate with interest on the capital bor-
rowed. The study classifies five different types of money lenders
namely, banks, licensed pawn brokers, unauthorized individual
money lenders, shops and hire purchase, Finances and Chit
Funds and Government. State Government offers loan schemes
through banks to help the poor and middle class to start a small
business at low rate of interest. But rarely the people are able to
get this subsidy from the government because of legal formali-
ties and rampant corruption in the system. However, salaried
middle class members such as teachers in schools are able to
make use of the Festival loans given by the government to buy
clothes and Provident Fund loans to buy jewels. Moreover these
teachers and hospital staff members make use of the hire pur-
chase offers of local shops to buy TV, radio, watches and even
two wheelers. Most of them, although feel the burden of debts,
think that these loans are useful to improve their standard of
living except a few who have borrowed money for higher interest
from some money lenders, failed to clear the dues and lost their
jewels and properties given as security.
The story of the poor is different from the middle class. Most
of these poor in the slums are muslims and dalits who have no
regular monthly income. They have to work every day to earn
their bread. Wages paid for their hard labour is meager. Banks
and Hire purchase Finances are hesitant to lend money to them
because of the fear of default in paying the interest and the
capital. They, therefore, go to individual and unauthorized money
lenders, pledge their utensils, kerosene cookers, clothes and
even their Ration Card which enables them to buy rice, wheat
and oil on controlled price and borrow money to buy food, pay
rent, school fees for their children education or marriage ex-
penses. The terms and conditions of interest for the borrowed
amount varies from one lender to another lender. Daily interest
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MINISTERIAL TRAINING FOR
CHURCH PLANTING
(Madras Theological Seminary and College, Chennai)
The focus of theological training differs from seminary to semi-
nary. Madras Theological Seminary and College (formerly known
as Madras Bible Seminary) in Chennai, Tamilnadu belongs to
the Oriental Missionary Society. The OMS was founded by
Charles E. Cowman in 1901 to preach the Gospel and plant
churches in Japan, Korea and China. He went as a missionary
to Japan in 1901 and established a Bible college. The OMS
started sending missionaries to Korea and China. Due to the
World War and the emergence of Communism in China, mis-
sionaries of OMS were asked to leave China. They came to India
in 1941 and established Bible colleges in Allahabad and Mysore
with a purpose to train nationals to preach the Gospel and plant
churches. Their missionary Rev. G. Phillippe and his wife were
asked to move from Allahabad to Madras to find out the possi-
bility of establishing a Bible college and enhance evangelistic
activities. They arrived in Madras in 1953 and rented a house to
start the Bible school. Mr. D. Samuel who served the YMCA for
a long time was doing personal evangelism on the basis of One-
by-one Band and training evangelists in his Night Bible School
in Madras. Coming together of the missionary G. Phillippe and
D. Samuel to evangelize Madras and start a regular Bible col-
lege paved the way for establishing Madras Bible Seminary (MBS)
on 3
rd
July 1953. Mr. D. Samuel transferred all his students of
the Night Bible School (NBS) to Madras Bible Seminary and
worked as its Dean. The missionary G. Phillippe, the first Prin-
cipal, D. Samuel, the Dean and Rev. Victor Joseph, an Evange-
list cum Pastor were the faculty members. With these three men,
MBS started training 20 students in 1953 with a clear goal to
plant churches in and around Madras city. Dr. David J Rigby
took charge of the seminary in 1955 since the Phillippes had to
leave for USA and emphasized personal evangelism and open-
air preaching and campaigns. Under his leadership, MBS drew
The Madras Plan of evangelism for preaching and planting
churches. They were able to plant churches in Vyasarpadi, West
Many questions may arise out of this extended essay on Off-
campus programme of this seminary. Some of the challenges of
this programme were already highlighted above in this essay.
However, opportunities for evangelism and church planting in
the slums or nearby area of caste Hindus were not taken seri-
ously for some reasons. There is no doubt about the influence
of off-campus programme in the personality development of stu-
dents, seminary curriculum, teaching methods and evaluation.
As a concluding remark, I would like to affirm that social in-
volvements and short term and long term projects could not be
ignored in theological education. They are integral parts of min-
isterial training. A viable interaction between class room learn-
ing and involvement through projects and programmes must be
worked out by each seminary to make theological education
more meaningful. Class room learning without involvement
through projects and programmes, and projects without class
room reflections in Seminary education cannot be more useful
and regarded a holistic training. Seminaries are not only edu-
cational centers but also should become Missions to relate the
training relevantly to the context.
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2. To give the students good theological training, sound spir-
itual life and good Christian discipline.
3. To motivate and mobilize students to plant churches
through weekend evangelism and lay down strong foundation
for pastoral ministry.
4. To absorb most of the graduates to be pastors in the ECI.
5. To fulfill the vision and goal of ECI since MTSC is a de-
nominational seminary of ECI.
From the above mission statement, it is clear to all those
who work or study in MTSC that they are expected to uphold
the thrust of evangelism and church planting. They do admit
that their active involvement in the field of evangelism and achiev-
ing their goal of church planting are more important than aca-
demic or theoretical study within the four walls of the class room.
Dr. D. Sunder Singh, the Principal of MTSC and the Bishops
Commissary, believes that the theological training for church
planting is Gods unique plan and writes in his article Mission-
ary training in India for the most part is a failure as far as pro-
ducing evangelists and church planters are concerned because
there is more theology and less missiology. Almost all the theo-
logical colleges are interested in training their students only in
western theology which is scholastic, idealistic and hence dry.
Unless Missiology finds its place in the curriculum, theological
education in India will not enable the seminaries to produce
church planters. Ideally Missiology should be integrated with
the very theology of the Triune God and lists his proposals for
effective church planting through theological training (Theo-
logical Education and Church Planting in Mission Man-
date:1992:356-362). This seminary has proved in planting more
than 150 churches in Madras city and hundreds of churches in
other parts of Tamilnadu, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh and in some
towns and cities in North India within the short span of 50 years
of its theological education. It is estimated that ECI has more
than 700 churches today all over India planted by the students
of their seminaries. Due to the steady growth of their churches,
ECI has become a powerful denomination in India. The leader-
ship of ECI could raise voice for the rights of Christians, partici-
pate in the Minority Rights Committees, negotiate with the gov-
ernment on political, economic and religious issues and chal-
Saidapet, West Mambalam, Arumbakkam, Aminjikarai, Otteri
and Porur (M.Ezra Sargunam:Multiplying Churches in Modern
India:1974: 69-82). Rt.Rev. Dr. Ezra Sargunam, the present
Bishop of ECI was a student in MBS during 1953 to 1955 and
worked as a pastor in Porur. He narrates the origin and devel-
opment of MBS in his book Multiplying Churches in Modern In-
dia (1974:53-70). In the year 1993, the name of MBS was
changed to MTSC due to the development in their programmes.
The history of MTSC is closely linked with the history of OMS. It
is not my intention to write all the details about the history of
OMS, MTSC and the Evangelical Church of India (ECI) which is
the Indian administrative body like a diocese for all the planted
churches of MTSC. The pattern one could notice here is that
the OMS establishes Bible colleges. The students of their Bible
colleges plant churches. The planted churches are taken care
by their graduates. The churches are linked with and developed
under the administrative body called ECI (S. S. Dhanaraj, The
ECI Model in the book Mission Mandate:1992:561-573). The
pattern is Mission Bible College Churches. These three in-
stitutions are inter-linked as denominational institutions but
function separately with their own offices and staff members.
My interest is to show how the theological education at MTSC
helps the ministry of planting churches and pastoral care of the
planted churches.
THEOLOGICAL BASIS AND MISSION STATEMENT OF MTSC
The Great Commission given by Jesus to the disciples and
recorded in St. Matthews Gospel 28:19-20 is the theological
basis for training students and planting churches. (MTSC Pro-
spectus 1999-2000:2). The missionaries of OMS who founded
this seminary had a deep conviction that the Christian message
must be taken to the unevangelized masses as quickly as possi-
ble. They spelled out their priority for direct evangelism and set
side medical and social service as secondary because social service
could divert or dilute their goal of evangelism and church plant-
ing. On the basis of their theological conviction, the following
mission statements were formulated for the training programme
of MTSC.
1. To equip pastors, evangelists and lay people for pioneer
evangelism and church planting among the marginalized peo-
ple groups.
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upgrade without taking leave or being away from their church
affecting their pastoral ministry. In addition to teaching the sub-
jects of SSC and fulfilling its requirements, MTSC is teaching
other subjects such as Missionary Biographies, Principles of
Church Growth, Perspectives on Mission, Apologetics, Religious
Traditions of India, Scripture Knowledge, Mission Strategies and
ECI Constitution and Manual. Hindi is taught to help the stu-
dents for their practical work in north India. These subjects of-
fered by MTSC motivate and enable the students to learn the
technique of evangelism, church planting and taking care of the
planted churches and how to inter-act with the oppositions from
Hindu fundamentalists or Communists. Classes are conducted
from Tuesday to Friday.
Students, as the first step in practical work, are sent in batches
to preach the Gospel and plant churches on Saturdays and Sun-
days. Practical involvement on week-ends is required of all men
and women studying at MTSC and they are expected to give a
report of their week-end work on Monday morning which is al-
lotted for discussion. The discussions on their report are fol-
lowed by a time of planning for further intensive evangelism
and prayer for the people who showed interest in the Gospel,
converts and build churches for them.
The second step in their practical training is camping for 10
to 14 days in a village or a locality in the city for intensive evan-
gelism. The camping ministry takes place during the holidays
between the semesters and also during summer holidays. Par-
ticular villages or inner city areas are carefully selected by the
faculty or their missionary wing called Indian Missionary Move-
ment for the camps. Students are assigned in teams to these
camps. They distribute tracts and gospels for the first few days
to the families in that area without preaching sermons. As peo-
ple ask questions or request the students and the faculty or
local pastor leading the team to pray for them, they pray for the
people particularly for their health, quarrel in families, finan-
cial problems, employment for husbands or sons and marriage
for their daughters. No assurance for financial help or social
service is given to the people from the side of the teams of MTSC.
However, the prayer ministry continues for the people strength-
ening their contacts with the local community. The last few days
of their camping, students organize public meeting to proclaim
lenge Christians to stand for their conviction and rights. The
success of ECI lies mainly on the way MTSC has taught the
students with the principles of Church Growth, encouraged to
use the spiritual gifts and talents, show concern and care for
converts and become good shepherds to their congregations.
The missiological basis of MTSC has been enhanced by the
teachings of Dr. Donald McGavran and his team for Church
Growth. Dr. Ezra Sargunam trained in Fuller Theological Semi-
nary returned to MTSC to teach as well as pastor a church in
Madras. His previous experience at Porur and M.Th. studies at
Fuller Theological Seminary have broadened the vision for mul-
tiplying churches using the principles and strategies learnt from
Dr. McGavran. Pastors and students were asked to study the
books on Church Growth and attend seminars on Church Plant-
ing. Students are taught to find out the responsive area and
receptive people groups in that area and evangelize them. They
are encouraged to focus on one ethnic group and organize them
as a church. Planting caste churches is an acceptable policy of
MTSC to minimize social dislocation. Converts are encouraged
to bring the rest of their family members to Christianity. Web-
movement is encouraged to bring the entire caste or tribe in the
area to accept the Gospel and join the church. Students are
made aware of the merits and demerits of having several caste
groups in one church which could hinder or contribute to the
web-movement and growth of the churches (Multiplying Churches
in Modern India: 151-178). Using these principles and strate-
gies, MTSC is planting churches and linking them with ECI for
further care and growth. Evangelism and church planting are
not regarded as something wrong done to society. Rather it is
regarded as useful for bringing true reconciliation, new order
and transformation in our society and to be service to the na-
tion. Dr. Graham Houghton, the former Principal of MTSC ex-
presses this understanding of evangelism in his article Our Theo-
logical Task in Evangelism (Mission Mandate:1992:363-371)
THEORY AND PRACTICE
MTSC offers fulltime residential B.Th. degree course in affili-
ation with the Senate of Serampore. It is also an accredited col-
lege of ATA offering its own B.A in ministry and M.Div. through
Distance Education to help those who are already in ministry to
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The advantage is that the pastors and laity of ECI are able to
gather in MTSC for constant updating, refresher programmes,
bible studies, prayer meetings, retreats and guidance. The semi-
nary continues its contribution to the graduates and laity, al-
though they are under the administration of ECI, and encour-
age them in pastoral ministry. The student body involved in
these meetings gain further insights about the churches and
develop themselves. They learn the pastoral problems and diffi-
culties of the laity through these meetings in addition to what
they learn in the class room.
The fifth step in their outreach activities is to recommend to
ECI to extend social help to the needed families in their congre-
gations or to work out relief measures during emergency like
flood or famine in the villages where they have the week-end
activities and camps. The MTSC is aware of the demand of the
people in villages and slums for social help, relief and rehabili-
tation. But MTSC does not carry out the social service. It recom-
mends the needs of the people to the Head Quarters of ECI
which works out with CASA, EFICOR and World Vision. How-
ever students of MTSC are involved in extending their labour
and help through the local pastor to the community in need.
Such opportunities train students to understand the problems
of society and express their help in the struggles of Christians
as well as people of other faiths.
Religious conversion in the pluralistic context of India is a
burning issue. MTSC and ECI believe in converting those who
respond positively to the Gospel and make them disciples of
Christ. They believe that the conversion of the dalits and op-
pressed people to Christianity can help them to improve their
socio-economic status. However, they are aware of the disadvan-
tages in discipling the suppressed communities (M. Ezra
Sargunam, Church Growth among the Poor and the Suppressed
in Mission Mandate: 1992:265-269). Although MTSC has been
criticized by some leaders for their stand on church planting,
their theological training of studying and using the principles
and strategies of Church Growth has led them to plant and take
care of more than one thousand churches today. MTSC and ECI
have created churches which can work as a base for bringing
social transformation.
the Gospel openly and invite people to accept Jesus Christ as
their Lord and Saviour. Those who came forward are not bap-
tized immediately but asked to attend the prayer meetings, bi-
ble studies and worship service organized in the village or slum.
They are nurtured and strengthened for few months till they
make a voluntary decision to be baptized and join the church as
members. Meanwhile, MTSC searches for a rented house or a
piece of land to build a shed for worship. Another strategy
adopted is to start Sunday Schools in villages and the outskirts
of Madras city by the students of MTSC. During their week-end
outreach, they teach the children and adults the biblical truths
through story telling, songs and choruses and showing slides
and film strips. The Sunday School ministry on Saturdays and
Sundays not only trained the students in preaching and teach-
ing but also paved the way to establish contacts, find the recep-
tive people groups and organize them as a fellowship before
making them members of churches.
The third step is to appoint their own graduates as pastors
for the planted churches. Since these graduates were involved
in evangelism during their theological education, they knew very
well the value of their hard work and the risk the converts have
taken to become Christians These graduates work as assistant
pastors for five years before ordination to become the full fledged
pastors of ECI. They give all sorts of pastoral care and strengthen
the congregation in biblical faith, financial giving and Christian
life. All the pastors in and around Madras city are called to meet
at MTSC campus once a month for discussion and planning. In
this monthly forum, they share their experience, problems and
the books reviewed and draw guidance and support from other
fellow pastors.
The fourth step is mobilizing the laity of the churches to
witness and plant churches. Once the planted church grows
enough, the pastor train the congregation to witness for Christ
and plant extension churches. Dr. Ezra Sargunam has docu-
mented such extension churches planted by the laity and ex-
plained the way this approach was implemented (Multiplying
Churches in Modern India: 99-113). He lists the cases of Kilpauk
Congregation of ECI planting a church in Villivalkam, Saidapet
church branching out to Chrompet, Otter and Basin Bridge
churches opening up Ennore Church.
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lected cities in India. The rest of the vast majority of the laity
receives education mainly through preaching in the churches.
This happens usually once a week on Sunday worship service.
Well planned regular Bible studies go on in very few churches
during an evening on a week-day. Lay people who are employed
in secular jobs find it difficult to attend such a Bible study after
their days hard labour. Planned and prepared Christian educa-
tion programmes for children, Youth and adults are used in
very few churches which could afford to spend money on staff
training and printed materials. As this situation prevails in many
churches in South and North India, the laity do not get suffi-
cient training in theological and ministerial formations. This has
been pointed out in the discussions in churches and seminar-
ies over the years.
Laity formation gets less attention and low budget in com-
parison to ministerial training in seminaries, bible institutes
and missionary training centres. Overseas churches and mis-
sion boards too give priority to ministerial training in India rather
than laity training particularly training young men and women
in colleges. Mushrooming of seminaries, Bible colleges and in-
stitutes in the recent years in India is an evidence to that fact.
The main reason stated for this priority and imbalance is that
one clergy when trained will train many lay people. Such an
opinion, we know, is not much realised in the mainline and
independent churches. For many Christians go to the church
three or four times a year during the festival period. These Chris-
tians cannot be reached only by preaching and teachings held
in the Church. Village congregations only occasionally hear ser-
mons from theologically trained clergy since one cleric is as-
signed to many churches. Most of the Sundays, lay leaders such
as local school teachers, youths or evangelists lead the worship
and preach the sermon. City Christians are busy with their jobs,
commuting long distances in buses and trains and attempting
to make time for recreation. Organising these urban Christians
for regular training and teaching in churches is difficult. The
idea that laity, therefore, can be only trained by churches is an
outdated concept. This strategy for the formation of laity does
not work effectively anymore. Churches and Mission Boards
should raise the following questions: Where can we train the
laity more effectively? What is the best period of their life for
LAITY FORMATION IN SECULAR
COLLEGES: EQUIPPING WOMEN
(Lady Doak College, Madurai)
The term laity in a general sense could refer to persons who
are not technically trained for a job or those lacking profes-
sional knowledge of a subject. In the context of the church, it
has a theological meaning referring to the whole people of God
who worship together and are involved in the mission of God.
But, today, one gets the picture of a three tiered hierarchical
division of bishop and clergy as specially trained and ordained
to conduct the worship and administer the sacraments and the
laity sitting in the pew being ministered to by the ordained group
in churches. Lay persons are looked at as not technically quali-
fied to do Gods ministry. They are expected to be a witness to
their faith and practice the ideals of the Bible in their working
places and living context. To witness, practice and to be involved
in society, the laity need religious education, edification, en-
couragement and guidance. Laity formation happens through
various programmes. Being involved in education for the past
twenty years, I have tried to reflect on the role of Christian edu-
cational institutions in laity formation.
CHURCH AND LAITY FORMATION
Secular education and theological education, as in many
countries, are separated in India too. Most of the theological
seminaries offer degree courses in divinity to students who have
earned their first degree either in arts or sciences from a recog-
nized University. Graduates who do not want to be trained in a
residential programme of the seminary to become pastors of the
churches, but would prefer to continue as a lay person can do
theological studies through external programmes of the Senate
of Serampore and Asia Theological Association. Very few lay per-
sons enroll themselves for external studies and equip them-
selves as theologically trained laity. This kind of laity formation
requires the interest and voluntary effort of the individual and
the spending of his or her own money towards tuition, books
and attending contact tutorial classes conducted in a few se-
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and worship, creeds and confessions. In addition to churches,
Christian schools and colleges were able to provide such facili-
ties. Some of these converts who were trained in mission insti-
tutions took the idea of indigenisation of the Gospel, worship
and ministry to suit to the growth of the Indian Christian litera-
ture and theologies. This quality of laity formation and theologi-
cal contribution challenged even the clergy who had special theo-
logical education. This is one contribution of secular institu-
tions towards laity formation.
(iv) Pre-independence society of India valued Christian edu-
cational institutions as liberating forces and the moral instruc-
tions as a transforming force for society. Many political leaders
and social reformers supported the work of Christian schools
and colleges and encouraged the people to study in those insti-
tutions.
(v) Missionaries were able to control the local politics and
the problems of administration in their churches. They did not
interfere in educational institutions, but took care that those
institutions functioned effectively free from church politics and
continued their service to society.
COLLEGES AND LAITY FORMATION
The main objective of secular colleges is to educate the stu-
dents and get qualified with degrees and diplomas. Colleges, in
India, are under pressure to make higher education more ca-
reer oriented rather than emphasizing the holistic development
of students. There are only a few Christian Colleges which do
not experience this tension. The others face the following diffi-
culties in training the laity.
(i) As aided colleges who receive financial grants for staff sala-
ries from the government have to oblige the rules of the govern-
ment. Any religious education is viewed with suspicion as a
propagation of the religion.
(ii) Faculty who are trained in their field of arts and sciences
are not trained and qualified in theological education to teach
theological subjects to the students.
(iii) Aided colleges are not allowed to include theological
courses as part of their curriculum. Religions and Philosophies
such a formation? It is where the lay people study, work and
live.
A Christian child spends the best part of his or her life (age
5-17) in schools and (18-23) in colleges. The time spent (age
18-24) in colleges or in technical institutes is a suitable period
of laity formation. They raise questions about society and the
church and seek theological answers. They are full of emotions
and enthusiasm for involvement in the mission of the churches.
They question the injustice that prevails in our society and are
eager to bring about transformation. Since churches are not
meeting their needs, many youths stop coming to the churches,
join other groups or cults and even go to the extent of regarding
the churches as irrelevant.
Christian colleges and Institutes can meet this need and pro-
duce well trained youth if they can offer Christian studies pro-
grammes with a planned curriculum and trained staff. This is
one reason why missionaries insisted on Christian education
and religious instruction to be offered in the schools and col-
leges they established. They were able to offer religion courses
within the regular time-table of the week. The pre-independ-
ence period of India witnessed much importance in the reli-
gious education of the laity in schools and colleges for the fol-
lowing reasons:
(i) One of the objectives of founding schools and colleges by
missionaries is to teach the Bible, offer more instruction to stu-
dents, particularly the converts, and to transform society with
the values of the Gospel. They knew that training children and
youth during their education at schools and colleges could pro-
vide trained laity for the ministries of churches.
(ii) Educational institutions in the missionary period were
not dependent on the Government for financial aid. They were
able to raise finance abroad and locally. The salaries of the staff
were paid by the Mission Boards. Therefore, the interference of
the Government with the affairs of the schools and colleges was
less. Quality education with religious instructions provided quali-
fied and committed youth to the society.
(iii) Converts were eager to strengthen their Christian faith
and equip themselves with the knowledge of scripture, liturgy
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Voluntary Programmes
Worship Service
Christian staff and students are welcome to attend the morn-
ing and evening worship services held in the chapel. Staff mem-
bers share their thoughts from the Bible. This is an opportunity
for women to lead-and preach which they are not able to do in
the churches. Quoting incidents, experiences and interpreting
the text from feminist perspectives challenges students. Although
a lectionary is not followed for worship, Lady Doak College uses
the liturgies of various church traditions and a list of important
international and national days to be remembered in the wor-
ship, preaching and prayers. This makes the community aware
of the global and national issues and to try to relate Christian
faith and commitment to address these problems. Since many
women do not have the opportunity to attend the Confirmation
courses conducted by the churches, Lady Doak College organ-
izes Confirmation classes to these students. They learn the ba-
sic beliefs of CSI and get confirmed in a special service at the
chapel by the Bishop of Madurai-Ramnad Diocese.
Bible Studies
Those students who are residing in the hostels on the Cam-
pus have the privilege of attending the evening worship service
and to enrich themselves with regular Bible Studies. With the
co-operation of local pastors and professors of the seminary,
students learn to understand the biblical books chapter by chap-
ter.
Seminars
Christian students are requested to attend special seminars
on theological issues organised by SCM and the Christian Study
Centre. Theologians and church leaders are invited to address
the students. Scholars visiting Madurai or on sabbatical arrange-
ment with the college are invited to speak to the students and
staff and, thus, the students are exposed to scholarly discus-
sions.
may be taught, not as theological training, but as academic dis-
ciplines with an approved syllabus by the University for stu-
dents, irrespective of their particular religion. But very few stu-
dents belonging to different religions prefer these courses since
employment opportunities for such graduates are rare. This aca-
demic approach to courses lacks recognition by religious au-
thorities and institutions.
(iv) Due to the pluralistic composition of staff and students
and the multi-faith context, Colleges hesitate to offer theologi-
cal education, emphasizing laity formation.
(v) Some management and staff of colleges feel that laity for-
mation is the responsibility of the local church and hesitate to
add the extra burden of teaching theological courses on teach-
ers, in addition to their field of specialization.
LADY DOAK COLLEGE
Lady Doak College was founded in 1948 by the American
missionary, Miss Kaite Wilcox, with the support of Sir James
and Lady Helen Doaks of UK, exclusively for the higher educa-
tion of women in the region of Madurai and Ramnad. As an
ecumenical institution, it has drawn the members of its govern-
ing board from various Christian churches and organisations,
CSI, UELCI, Madurai-Ramnad Diocese, Christian organisations
along with experts in education. It is affiliated with the Madurai
Kamaraj University with autonomous status granted by UGCand
awarded Five Star status by NAAC. At present approximately
2300 women students are studying in 15 disciplines, of which
50 per cent are Christians belonging to CSI, Lutheran, Breth-
ren, Seventh Day Adventist, Methodist, Pentecostal and Roman
Catholic churches. As a Christian college, it is a duty not only to
give quality education and to train students to be responsible
citizens in society, but also to be trained laity of the churches
and to witness in the secular world. The Kingdom of God, there-
fore, is the focus of the laity training. Laity formation takes
place in various ways which can be brought under two major
headings viz., Voluntary programmes and Required programme
for Christian students.
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Christian Ministry
with the gender issues in the Christian Studies Programme be-
cause women are marginalised in their churches. The pro-
gramme assists the female students when they become moth-
ers and helps to bring up their children in faith. The course also
helps women to understand the problems and ethical issues
connected with their husbands careers.
Challenges
Some of the efforts Lady Doak College had undertaken and
the challenges they face to make the Christian Studies Pro-
gramme more effective are the following:
i. Staff members drawn from different disciplines are given
short term training by the pastors and professors of the semi-
naries and institutes in Tamil Nadu. Guest lectures and re-
fresher courses are organized for the staff members.
ii. This college has a good collection of theological books in
English and Tamil in their Christian Studies Centre and main
library. However, to continuously update the library with recent
theological books, acquiring reference works as well as journals
is costly. As a secular college, the priority in the library budget
is for books and journals on arts and sciences. Financial con-
straints also limit them to organize seminars, set up faculty train-
ing programmes or to sent faculty members abroad for short-
term training.
iii. Since students have to spend money to buy text books of
their discipline, they find it difficult to buy theological books.
Providing printed notes or at least xeroxed materials for each
lesson to staff and students has been found to be helpful.
iv. Although laity formation through their Christian Studies
Programme has been a valuable contribution to the families and
churches to which their students belong, this contribution has
not been brought to the knowledge of the churches. The
churches, therefore, do not provide many opportunities for the
students to be involved in their programmes and ministries.
STUDENTS OF OTHER FAITHS
Students of other faiths are not ignored in their formation.
The Value Education Programme of the College is for all stu-
dents. In addition to VEP, this college also offers Womens Stud-
Required Programme
Christian Studies
While the above three voluntary programmes contribute to
the formation of laity, attendance is optional. These programmes
have their own limitations. Laity formation needs structured
programmes and to be organised as required. Christian Studies
Programme is required of all Christian students who are doing
graduate studies at Lady Doak College. During their three-year
degree programmes, Christian students irrespective of their de-
nominational tradition, have to learn the Old Testament, New
Testament and Theology at a basic level. These subjects are of-
fered each year with a detailed syllabus provided by the Chris-
tian Educational Council. The syllabus of the Old Testament
includes the study of the creation and fall, ancestors of Israel,
bondage and liberation, covenant and law, judges, united and
divided monarchy, leadership, 8
th
and 9
th
century B.C.E. proph-
ets, exile, message of Ezekiel and Daniel, post-exilic period,
psalms and worship and the message of the Old Testament.
The New Testament subjects include the birth, ministry and
teachings of Jesus in the Gospels, resurrection of Jesus, birth
and growth of the new community, mission to the gentiles, gifts
of the spirit, pastoral concerns, doctrinal concerns, message to
the seven churches in Revelation and the idea of new heaven
and new earth.
The Christian Theology Course deals with doctrines like the
Trinity, humanity, incarnation, atonement and cross, resurrec-
tion, work of the Holy Spirit, eschatology and issues related to a
Christian home, vocation, ecology and environment and the role
and status of men and women in ministry-with a view to
strengthen Christian faith and commitment towards immediate
context.
Classes to teach these courses are conducted once a week
in the evening after the regular working hours. Students who
study these courses and take the exam at the end of each year
go with a basic knowledge of the scripture and theological per-
spectives. Some of the students have tried to relate their field of
study with theological issues in their thesis or project writing.
Students and their parents have appreciated the effort to deal
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Christian Ministry
VOCATIONAL AND THEOLOGICAL
INTEGRATED TRAINING
(ACTS Institute, Bangalore)
ACTS is an acronym for Agriculture, Crafts, Trades and Stud-
ies. The motto of ACTS Institute is Work, Worship and Witness.
The basic philosophy of ACTS Institute is that the ministry of
the body of Christ is to serve the Church and Society. Chris-
tians all over the world need to recover the holistic meaning of
ministry and regard their work whether separated for the min-
istry within the local church and para-church organization or
settled in secular job as ministry unto the Lord Jesus Christ.
But many Christians employed in secular jobs do not regard
their vocation as a ministry for the Lord, may be because of lack
of proper understanding of the concept of ministry or problems
in their job. The attitude toward work is marred often because
of the grim situation of the employment. Very few people get
jobs which offer satisfaction. For many people, work is a drudg-
ery and working place is like a hell. They carry on their job
without motivation and satisfaction except for the sake of earn-
ing salary to meet their needs. They raise many questions about
God, society, government and employer and get disillusioned
with their life. Christian youths are not given proper biblical
teaching about work and life either in the families or churches.
Many youths are in need of theological teachings on work and
skilled training in a profession. These two aspects need to be
integrated to lead a meaningful life. Should theological train-
ing be separated from vocational training or vice versa? Should
churches and institutions fail to integrate vocational and theo-
logical training for Christians and develop them as better wit-
nesses in secular profession? ACTS Institute in Bangalore chal-
lenges the dichotomy in understanding the ministry of the
church and the training by integrating work, worship and wit-
ness. It trains Christian men and women to have skilled train-
ing along with theological education and contributes to the for-
mation of laity to be effective witness in our society.
ies Programme (WSP) and Human Rights Course to all students,
irrespective of their religion. The college requires the students
to do the course with the objective to expose them to womens
issues and concerns. Laity formation is not achieved by aca-
demic courses alone, but through various voluntary and struc-
tured programmes is their experience. It is the spiritual ele-
ment which remains a continuous challenge to secular educa-
tion. Building the nation depends on the academic and ethical
formation of youngsters and to develop their personalities in a
holistic manner.
Although, the priority is for secular education, the effort of
Lady Doak College to equip their Women Students with Theo-
logical education, Value Education Programme, Women Studies
Programme, Human Rights, Gandhian Studies, and Inter-Faith
Dialogue programmes certainly contributes to the growth of per-
sonal and academic development of students and staff and pre-
pares them to be leaders at home, work place, worshipping cen-
tres and society. Lady Doak Model is a challenge to Christian
Schools and Colleges in India.
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4. There is a need for Bible training for Christians wherever
they may be called to serve. The contribution of extension
courses, lay training courses etc. is commendable. With a simi-
lar concern we have moved into the building up of people who
will take the Bible into the heart of India. Would not our witness
be far more effective if one day we see as bold a proclamation
going forth from a carpenter, a tailor, an electrician etc as from
a paid pastor or an evangelist?
5. There is a need to provide an atmosphere where individual
gifts can be developed within the context of the body of Christ.
A limitation, though not a failure, in Christian training is that
only a few outstanding gifts have sought to be developed. The
danger is that the gift could become the end in itself. There
needs to be a place where every Christian could find fruitful-
ness in developing his particular gift no matter how small it is,
but within the context of the entire body of Christ.
6. There is a need to develop a self-supporting witnessing
Christian community. We must commend the efforts of several
organizations and churches to become self-supporting. There is
still however, a greater need to educate our community to work
harder on the utilizing of talents and opportunities, that God
gives us to more productive use. We believe that God will be
glorified if we use the little He gives to maximum advantage.
7. There is a need for bridging the gap between the Christian
witnessing community and the working masses of India. Our
witness could be dynamic if as salt we can penetrate the heart
of real India. Could we not get right into villages and towns and
work alongside our countrymen to demonstrate Christ through
our lives before we proclaim Him?
8. There is a need for a stress on evangelism as a persuasion
rather than as a profession. We do not discourage full time evan-
gelists, pastors and teachers. There is need for them. But there
is need for a greater number of practical witnesses whose heart
beat will be evangelism like the Christians in the book of ACTS.
We need people who will be more concerned with the Salvation
of man rather than with the success of a methodology; men
concerned for people more than for a programme.
9. There is need for Christ like servanthood. ACTS Institute
is not concerned with the training up of leaders, but with the
THEOLOGICAL AND MISSIOLOGICAL BASIS FOR
VOCATIONAL TRAINING
ACTS Academy of Higher Education has several institutes
and social projects. One of the units of this Academy is the
ACTS Institute which offers the integrated vocational and theo-
logical training for the past 20 years. This Institute combines
theology of work, worship and witness. Worship of God is at the
center of their training linking the dignity of labour and the
Great Commission of witnessing for Christ. Dr. Ken Gnanakan,
the founder of ACTS Institute explains his vision for India through
this motto (Refer to his book Still Learning,:1995 :89-104). This
motto stands not only as the philosophy of the Institute but also
serves as the theological and missiological basis for the training
(Ken Gnanakan, Work, Worship and Witness in Mission Man-
date:1992:372-376). The following nine concerns explaining fur-
ther their theological and missiological basis are documented
in the unpublished doctoral thesis on Work (Richard Gnanakan,
Work in Gods World: A Biblical Perspective on the significance
of Work for today: 1999:250-252):
1. The programme of ACTS Institute is being implemented
with the firm belief that there is need to integrate the work,
worship and witness of the Christian community in India. The
disparity between our work-attitude has definitely weakened
our witness. We want to learn to glorify God in work as well as in
worship so that together they will constitute an effective wit-
ness.
2. There is a need to see Christian training within the con-
text of life. Theological training needs to have a goal. This defi-
nitely accounts for the success of several seminaries which have
as their goal the training of men as for instance the pastoral
ministry. There is also need, however, to train men and women
for witness within the larger context of life itself. We are inter-
ested in developing people who will go into real life situations
rather than only seek after the security of the traditional pat-
terns of ministry.
3. There is need to stress people rather than a curriculum.
Our traditional educational patterns seem to start with curricu-
lum which then is injected into people, regardless of their abili-
ties and aptitudes. Is it not possible to start with people and
then build a curriculum around them?
Models of Theological Education: Case Studies
322 323
Christian Ministry
and come forward recently to recognize the integrated vocational
and theological degrees of BA and MA in Ministry prgrammes of
ACTS Institute. This is a welcoming change in understanding
Gods call for different people, dignity of labour, gifts and tal-
ents, earning the financial support and witness for Christ. This
is a bold step, in my opinion, in equipping the laity with due
recognition for the integration of technical and theological edu-
cation. It can challenge the myth that the ministerial training
given by the seminaries should be recognized as high and holy
and calls us to value the priesthood of all believers through other
vocations and witness in secular world as equally important. It
is also a challenge to the concept and practice of varnashrama
because the biblical theology of work upholds dignity of labour
and counters the idea of jobs according to the caste or race as
promoted by some fundamentalists of Hindu religion. ACTS ac-
cepts students of all castes, colour and race from different re-
gions of India. The young boys and girls who have completed
their studies in the school are accepted in the one year Certifi-
cate Programme and upgraded to the Diploma Programme in
the second year if they do well. Some of the drop outs of school
are considered on certain reasons to study in the ACTS Insti-
tute. During this period, these drop outs and failures are en-
couraged to complete SSLC (10
th
Standard) or Plus Two (12
th
Standard) directly with the local government getting some tuto-
rial help and special coaching at ACTS. Thus they get a chance
to complete the school as well as gain skills for a profession.
Those who have passed Higher Secondary (Plus Two in school)
or PUC can join BA. A graduate can join MA in ministry to learn
some technical course and theology. The subjects and skill train-
ing vary in standard according to the level of Certificate, Di-
ploma or BA or MA programme.
The technical courses offered at ACTS Institute are Carpen-
try, Tailoring and Dress-making, Community Health (Basic
Nursing), Secretarial Practice ( Shorthand and Typing, Telephone,
Xerox and Fax operation, Emailing), Computer Application, Elec-
trical (Wiring, Repairing household appliances, TV repair), Agri-
culture (Horticulture, Vegetable gardening, Flowering plants,
Land scaping, Environmental work, Recycling waste,
Vermiculture), Sheet-metal work (Windows, Grill, Doors, Arc and
Gas Welding, Fabrication and partitions), Lathe works, Home
equipping of servants. We want to go out to serve our nation in
real humility so they can see Christs servanthood in our lives.
For we do not preach ourselves, but Jesus Christ as Lord, and
ourselves as your servants for Jesus sake 2 Cor. 4:5.
The ACTS Institute had a humble beginning in a rented house
in Koramangala area of Bangalore in July, 1979. Within two
years, the ministry grew that it had to move into a 4 acre cam-
pus on the outskirts of the Hosur Road. This small campus pro-
vided facilities to construct workshops for skilled training, ac-
commodation for the staff and students and to reach out the
nearby villages for witnessing and planting churches during
weekends. The Institute continued its programmes in the cam-
pus from 1980 to 2000. But it had to move in 2001 into the new
campus of 14 acres situated further interior in the rural area of
Rayachandra out of necessity to have more accommodation, class
rooms, library, workshops and a place for games. Part of the
skilled training and Community Health Programme continue in
the old campus. Students move between the old campus and
new campus for study and training.
WORK AND STUDY
ACTS Institute offers at present Certificate in Ministry, Di-
ploma of Ministry, Bachelor of Ministry (BA in Ministry) and
Master of Ministry (MA in Ministry) combining the technical
training and theological education. The technical training pro-
grammes are accredited by the National Open School of the
Government of India, State technical board, Pitman of UK and
City and Guild of UK. Students get recognized Certificates and
Diplomas for their technical training courses. The theological
part of their programmes is recognized by the ACTS Academy of
Higher Education. Since there has not been enough theological
discussion on vocation and witness in the circles of Asian Affili-
ating and Accrediting body for theological institutions so far,
the vocational programme combined with theological education
of ACTS Institute was not accredited by theological Senates or
Associations. The traditional trend is to affiliate or accredit only
theological seminaries and bible colleges meant for the training
of clergies, evangelists and missionaries. While these affiliating
and accrediting boards have dicatomized the vocations as sa-
cred and secular, ATA has broadened its theological perspective
Models of Theological Education: Case Studies
324 325
Christian Ministry
that theology is more important than technical courses. So the
Institute has modified its time-table offering theological and tech-
nical training in the morning and noon. The staff of the Insti-
tute believe that the theology of work is for the entire commu-
nity of ACTS. The community of ACTS is required to have weekly
manual labour in the agriculture fields, building construction,
campus cleaning, eco-projects as their Shramadhan programme
to uphold the dignity of labour.
The two phases in the philosophy of training at ACTS Insti-
tute are discovering gifts and talents and developing such gifts.
In the first two to three months of the academic year, the newly
admitted boys and girls are encouraged to discover their gifts
and talents by introducing them to various departments like
Carpentry, Community Health, Electrical, Mechanical, Tailor-
ing, Computer and Agriculture and enabling them to explore
various opportunities in skill training. They are guided by the
teachers and supervisors and tested for their aptitude. Once
the students discover their interest and skill, they are assigned
to that particular department for developing the skill and qualify
with the Certificate from the government. Vocational training
includes theory of subjects and practice. Students are taught
theories of the particular trade and crafts in the class rooms
and required to do the practices in the workshops, Health Center,
Offices and even in villages for Community Health programmes.
ACTS Institute has links with some of the local industries and
institutions in Bangalore and accepts orders for work. Although
there are a number of businesses and trade groups who take up
tenders for companies and create competitions in the market,
ACTS is bold enough to accept a few orders and involve in pro-
duction at a small scale level. This Institute has done small jobs
of making wooden furniture, steel cabinets, logos, steel grills,
aluminium fabrication, etc for local industries (R.Gnanakan,
ACTS: A unique blend of theory and practice in ACTS Health
Center and Hospital Magazine: August:1998). Those students
who have picked up their skill fast are introduced to the pro-
duction side of the Institute and earn wages for the hours of
work to meet their travel or medical or pocket expenses such as
purchasing clothes, shoes or books during the course of their
study. In addition to earning their pocket money, such an in-
volvement in producing goods for industries and institutions
Management (Cooking, Baking, Juice making, catering, inte-
rior decoration) and Screen and Off set Printing. ACTS is plan-
ning to add some more technical courses. Many of the above
courses are recognized by the National Open School of the
Central Government. Recognitions are sought as and when other
courses are introduced. Students have to learn the theory part
of the courses and do practicals as well. The question papers
are set by NOS and send to the institutions to conduct the ex-
ams. The answer sheets are sent to Delhi for valuation and cer-
tification. Students who cannot write in English or Hindi can
write in their own mother tongue and the NOS appoints exam-
iners to value answer sheets written in regional languages. This
shows how much the Government of India (Ministry of Human
Resource Development) is in favour of vocational training and
developing our young men and women. The Central Govern-
ment should be appreciated for its concern and contribution to
enable men and women to achieve skill with a recognized cer-
tificate or diploma and get a job. The teachers of the vocational
courses are qualified in the technical discipline and holding
approved Diplomas and Degrees.
The theological courses offered for the students of vocational
training vary. Some of the important subjects are viz. Theology
of Work, Introduction to the Bible, Major Religions of India,
Gospels, Christian Doctrine, History of Christianity, Psalms,
Prophetical Movement, Homiletics, Life of Christ, Mission and
Evangelism, Christian Growth, Modern Religious and Secular
Movements, Historical Survey of Self-Supporting Ministry, Life
and Work of a Christian Minister, Christian Ethics, Christian
Education, etc. Advanced level subjects are introduced for BA
and MA students in Ministry. These courses are taught for a
semester of twenty weeks by qualified pastors, teachers and vis-
iting professors of seminaries. In addition to these subjects, stu-
dents are taught the language of English to improve their read-
ing, writing and speaking skill. Some students who come to the
Institute without the ability of speaking or understanding Eng-
lish have remarkably improved their English. This has given
them confidence to seek employment in offices, industries and
clinics in towns and cities. In the early period of the Institute,
students were taught theological courses in the morning and
technical courses in the noon. This has created an impression
Models of Theological Education: Case Studies
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Christian Ministry
as evangelists or preachers but as carpenters, electricians, me-
chanic, health worker, typist, office assistant, gardener and hor-
ticulture experts. They boldly speak of their witnessing out of
their conviction and not as their profession for earning salaries.
Their testimonies and genuine spirit in witnessing have brought
many local people into the House Prayer meetings which have
now grown to 55 in number. Those people who are not given
pastoral care or provided with worship service on Sundays by
other Churches are invited to come and worship in 12 different
centers planted by ACTS and are called as Christalaya Congre-
gations. The Christalaya Congreations include the worshiping
congregation of Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam and Eng-
lish. It includes Christians who migrated from other states to
the region of ACTS Institute for jobs and looking for worship
and pastoral care as well as people of other faiths and ideologies
who showed interest in the Gospel of Christ. The effective wit-
ness and active involvement of the staff and students to organ-
ize the interested people into congregations and providing them
the pastoral care are contributing to the steady growth of the
Christalaya Congregations. The strength of their witness is on
training the students to be skilled persons, giving dignity to
labour and making them to earn their own living out of the
technical training. This dimension of witness of this laity has
attracted others to join their fellowship and worship the Lord
Jesus Christ. Many of the members in the congregation are
labourers and some of them are professionals who could appre-
ciate the witness of the students who are getting training for
work and witness. Some of the staff members of ACTS live in the
area of the congregations and are ordained to provide continu-
ous pastoral care as well as teaching in the Institute. This has
facilitated more the ministerial formation of the students for
witness and leading the worship services, prayer meetings and
bible studies on week-ends. Some of their graduates who went
to start their own trade and business in different states in India
have been successful in continuing their secular job as well as
planting congregations nearby and taking care of them without
depending on the congregation for financial support. Work,
Worship and Witness can be integrated is evident from the train-
ing of ACTS Institute and the successful ministry of their alumni.
It is also admitted by the Institute that not all of their alumni
has given them confidence about their skill and hope of getting
an employment after the completion of their education. It is
estimated that 90 percentage of the students who graduate from
the Institute get a job because of their vocational training or
start their own personal business and make a living (For their
alumni situation refer to: ACTS Ministries: Celebrating 20 Years
of Gods goodness:1999 and other News Letters).
Not only technical formation, but also personal formation
takes place during their training. Students develop their per-
sonality through learning theological courses, inter-action with
staff, living and working together with fellow students. The physi-
cal side of their personality develops by practical training in the
workshop, involvement in the projects in the campus and vil-
lages and games in the evening. By integrating theological and
technical courses, students mental perception about their ca-
reer, life and meaning of being a Christian is constantly shaped.
During my stay at the ACTS Institute and interaction with the
students, I noticed the way they could analyze their past and
present situation and recognize the improvement in their per-
sonal development during their study at ACTS.
WORSHIP AND WITNESS
Worship plays a key role in shaping their spirituality and
outlook of life. Students and staff gather in the hall at 10.30 am
from Monday to Friday for a time of worship. Although staff of
ACTS Institute are responsible for conducting the worship and
expounding the Scripture, students are trained to lead the singing
in different languages, play musical instruments and share their
testimonies. The students get trained in leading the worship
services. The opportunity they get at the Institute help them to
lead the House Prayer meetings in villages during the week-end
outreach programmes. Students are sent in teams on Friday
evening to meet the people in villages and sub-urban area and
lead the bible study and prayer meetings in Christian homes
welcoming their neighbours to join the House cells. The usual
questions asked by the local people are viz. Why do you witness
for Christ? How much are you paid for witnessing? Who are you
by profession? The vocational training students tell about their
past life and the way they found meaning for their life in Christ
and developing the skill for a job. They speak of themselves not
Models of Theological Education: Case Studies
328 329
Christian Ministry
Hindu background? Can the integrated training help Christian
youths to find employment?
4. Is the philosophy of Work, Worship and Witness only for
the school or young college graduates? What about those Chris-
tians who are highly qualified and employed in banks, colleges,
government services for many years? Do they not need such a
training to look at work, worship and witness through Distance
Education? ACTS Academy of Higher Education is taking effort
to provide Distance Education through their Asian Institute of
Theology for laity formation.
5. How effective is the ACTS Institute with their vocation and
theological training in bringing social change and transforming
our society? This question is taken up by the founders, faculty
and students. Their involvement in training the laity for work
and witness necessitated them to create social projects such as
Community Health Programme, Adult Literacy, Hygiene Aware-
ness, Toilet Constructions for slum dwellers, collecting trash
and recycling the plastics, vermiculture, eco-projects as another
unit called ACTS Ministries with separate staff members having
doctors, nurses, teachers, civil engineers, health workers and
volunteers. Their social services in villages and Bangalore city
contribute for social change. These projects provide opportuni-
ties for vocational training students to involve and gain more
insight and meaning.
ACTS Institute has learnt out of their experience of success
and failures in the past 20 years to hold on to the vision of
integrated training and shaping many youths to value the dig-
nity of labour and witness for Christ. It is not without its own
limitations. ACTS Institute, in my opinion, is neither an old
Ashram model nor a traditional seminary model in the strict
sense. But it has combined the merits of Ashram and Seminary
models and created a unique model of integrated training to
relate to the changing context of 21
st
century. This ACTS Model
is not limited to Indian context only. It can be experimented in
different parts of the world with some additions and changes of
courses and training to suit the need of the concerned nation.
Unlike some traditional seminaries, ACTS model provides flex-
ibility for change and growth. It has a universal validity since
work, worship and witness are unavoidable elements in human
life.
are able to plant churches but they continue to witness wher-
ever they are employed.
The founder Dr. Ken Gnanakan, the Executive Director Dr.
Richard Gnanakan and faculty members of ACTS Institute ad-
mit the limitations in their integrated vocational and theological
training and are aware of some of the problems and prospects of
such an integrated training. Let me raise the following few is-
sues related to theology and praxis of work, worship and wit-
ness for further discussion and exploration.
1. The frequent question raised is: How to balance the em-
phasis on work and witness? Some students are so enthusias-
tic for evangelism and ministry that they regard the vocational
training is ultimately for witness. Other students regard work
and labour as the primary calling but recognize witnessing can-
not be ignored in Christian life. Moving between work and wit-
ness is a practical problem which is recognized by staff and
students.
2. Very few of their alumni have left their secular jobs and
went for fulltime ministry as pastors or evangelists. Should we
expect all the graduates to continue in skilled jobs for their life
or allow them to go for fulltime ministry is another question. On
the other hand, can a fulltime pastor or evangelist trained in a
traditional seminary return to jobs like teaching or administra-
tion in companies and institutions or banking or to start private
business? Will the move from ministry back to secular work be
regarded as denial of his or her call and backsliding? What is
wrong in returning to secular jobs and continue witnessing for
Christ when a pastor or evangelist or theological teacher or mis-
sionary could not be effective or feeling miserable for various
reasons in fulltime ministry?
3. Although companies and private business concerns recog-
nize their training and certificate and provide their students
employment, the Dioceses, Churches and Christian Organiza-
tions have not come forward to employ and encourage these
young men and women. In my opinion, churches and organiza-
tions can give priority to these youths who have the integrated
training than preferring people without skilled and theological
training. What is the attitude of Christian leaders towards the
theology of work and integrated training? How can Christianity
challenge varnashrama and help the Dalits particularly from
Models of Theological Education: Case Studies
330 331
Christian Ministry
Conclusion
Christian ministry is an on-going service. Christians cannot
be satisfied with what has been done so far within the church
and society. Churches should move on to make the ministries
more relevant to the changing situation today and to-morrow. I
have highlighted the theological, ecclesiological, contextual, vo-
cational, relational and educational aspects of Christian minis-
try and a few models of ministry and training in the above chap-
ters. Instead of repeating what has been written in the previous
chapters, I like to re-emphasize some of the challenges for Chris-
tian ministry in these concluding pages. They can set new di-
rections for ministry in the future.
Christian ministry, as defined earlier, is done by the whole
church. It is a priesthood of all believers. It is a service to hu-
manity and natural world. The effectiveness of Christian minis-
try depends upon the Christian understanding of the nature,
identity and the role of the Church. Many Christians think of
the Church as a building for worship and prayer. The Church,
according to them, is an institution for gathering, conducting
marriages, baptizing the children, burying the dead and run-
ning schools, orphanages and hospitals. Their understanding is
limited to the idea of institution and rituals. Howard Synder, in
his book, Liberating the Church: The Ecology of Church and
Kingdom, identifies ten areas in the life and ministry of the
church which require renewal in understanding and action and
discusses the need for liberating the Church from the idea of
institution and rituals. His discussion on the liberating models
of the Church is biblical and applicable to the context of various
countries. Another essay entitled, Images of the Church in In-
dia: Assessment and Perspective written by Christopher
Duraisingh presents the various understandings of the Church
in India, namely, the images related to the nature and inner life
of the Church, images related to the mission and ministries of
the Church and the images related to the structure of the
Church. (Christian Perspectives on Contemporary Indian Issues:
A National Colloquium, ed. Ram Singh, 1983:134-162). He brings
332 333
Christian Ministry
out the traditional and distorted views of Christians on the
Church and the criticism of non-Christians on Christianity. One
of the main reasons for the distorted image of the Church, ac-
cording to Duraisingh, is that large numbers of Christians do
not adequately distinguish between the core-visioning of Christ-
through faith and living out that faith within a fellowship and
the relative and time bound institutional expressions of the proc-
ess of visioning. The inner meaning of the Church as a living
and dynamic movement of a people shaped by the core-vision
that was expressed in Jesus Christ and committed to his
messianic mission is lost (1983:137). Bringing a renewal in theo-
logical understanding of the Church among Christians is an
important task ahead.
A paradigm shift from understanding the Church as an in-
stitution to a community is necessary. I had already pointed
out this important aspect of conceptualizing the Church as a
community in this book and explained the meaning of the meta-
phor of body of Christ. This community, on the one hand, is an
exclusive community of believers expressing their faith in the
person and work of Christ and worshipping Jesus Christ as their
Lord and Saviour. On the other hand, it is an inclusive commu-
nity of believers irrespective of their race, caste, colour, class
and culture. It is united in Christ crossing the geographical and
cultural boundaries and its mission is universal. The theologi-
cal dimensions of the Church as the incarnational community,
diakonal community and hermenutical community have been
discussed briefly at the beginning chapters of this book. The
Church is also a relational community since the incarnation of
Jesus was to dwell among the people and serve the communi-
ties. The ministry of the Church is to relate to the members
within the church as well as to those outside the church. The
pluralistic context in which the church exists and continues
the ministries demands a renewal in understanding the church,
ministry and training. The growing interest in the inter-faith
dialogue and understanding the teachings of other religions,
on the one side, are challenging Christian theology of the Church,
Sacrament, Kingdom of God, New Humanity and Ecumenism
and demanding us to bring changes in doing the ministry within
the church and in relation to the people in society. De-western-
izing the church and indigenization of Christianity is another
challenge to make the Christian ministry more acceptable and
meaningful to context.
The emerging problems such as growing religious fundamen-
talism, communalism, violence, injustice, decline of secular ide-
ologies, religionizing politics, increasing unemployment, pov-
erty, environmental degradation, gender discrimination, long-
ing for true spirituality, peace and hope of life, on the other
side, are contextual challenges for Christian ministry. Renewal
in ministry means re-emphasizing the idea of servanthood of
the Church and enhancing the vision for service and giving pri-
ority to train the laity with the theology of work and witness.
Christians in different professions should be given teaching on
the biblical concept of labour and service, witness for Christ
while working in their institutions or companies or offices and
training for serving the communities around them. The last two
Case Studies in this book emphasize the importance of inte-
grating theological education with liberal arts, sciences, man-
agement studies, vocational and professional education in
schools, colleges and universities. Renewal in training requires
re-visioning of curriculum in seminaries and institutes, requir-
ing involvement in local and national context and providing op-
portunities for theological training through distance education
to the members of the churches.
Equally important to the theological and ministerial forma-
tion is the personal formation of those involved in ministry. More
than the methods, strategies, qualification and training, the life
of Christians counts a lot in ministry. Ministers whether in
fulltime or voluntary service are required to be matured spiritu-
ally, grown in Christian faith, academically excellent, theologi-
cally balanced, loving and approachable and ethically commit-
ted to service. What sort of means used in ministry is counted
more important than the goals. The world values more the sin-
cerity and commitment of those who do Gods service than their
achievements. The society builds confidence on such persons
and extends its support in shaping the new humanity created
in Christ.
Conclusion
334 335
Christian Ministry
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344 345
Christian Ministry
Administration 100-112, 237, 242,
247, 255-256.
Alms 183, 186, 191.
Ashram 183
Baal 93-95, 115, 123, 253.
Body of Christ 28-30, 41, 52, 212,
224, 332.
Call 25, 47, 91, 221-224, 246-247,
329.
Case Studies 275-276, 333.
Cassock 87, 228-229.
Caste 57-60, 68-69, 126-129, 143,
179, 227
Charity 183-191
Chronicler 141-145
Church 24, 50-52, 65-68, 98, 120-
121, 133, 142, 163-167, 200-207,
213-221, 231, 238, 297-298, 310,
331-333.
Communication (skill) 257-258
Context 5152, 55-79, 249, 267-
274, 278, 279.
Counselling 192-197
Conversion 68, 70, 71, 100, 167-
170, 178-180, 205, 282, 309, 312.
Creation 31, 49-50, 70, 76, 78, 119,
173, 233
Cross 27, 40, 131, 152, 172, 248
Curriculum 79, 267-270, 288, 302,
313
Debts 116, 184, 298, 299-302
Diakonia 27, 36-37, 177, 187, 332
Discipleship 26-28, 32, 152-153,
160, 266
Ecumenism 156, 332
INDEX
Education 24, 78, 232, 245-261,
263-274, 275-276, 285, 296-299,
303, 312, 313, 318
Elders 34, 100-107, 109, 174, 202-
203, 205-206
Evangelism 99, 150, 155-170,
173-175, 239, 246, 322
Fair-balance 188-191
Faith 31, 53, 54, 89, 173, 175, 197,
206
Gender 60-63, 164, 206, 226
Gifts (Talents) 22, 230-233, 325
History 44-46, 85, 125, 141-145,
171, 216, 254
Holy Spirit 43, 48-49, 155, 159,
161, 165, 170, 172, 174, 216, 221,
225, 230
Judges 32, 101-106, 109, 113, 237
Justice 60, 100-107, 115-118,
145, 192
Kingdom of God 32, 53, 77, 132,
144, 148-149, 153, 157-160, 164-
165, 175, 177, 196, 201, 213-221,
248, 314
Koinonia 177, 187
Laity 224, 233, 274, 308, 310-314,
317, 318
Land 64, 104, 112, 115, 124-125,
140, 184, 273
Leadership 98, 101, 108, 174, 245-
261, 273
Liberation 45-48, 70, 88-100, 150-
153, 201, 280, 283-284
Life-style 202, 260, 271, 284, 333
Living stone 210-213
Magistrate 106-108
346
Christian Ministry
Marduk 195-196, 220
Marriage 62, 123-129
Marxism 74-77, 93, 97-98, 133-
134, 149, 182
Messiah 132, 147-149, 159, 171,
172-173, 176, 215, 217
Metaphors 27, 28, 30, 224
Ministry 21-31, 55, 331
Missionary 156, 163, 170-183,
188, 313
Models 38, 81-82, 206, 267, 285
Ordination 225-230
Partnership 26-27, 46, 126-128,
190, 235-243
Pastor 140, 197-207, 216-217, 255
Patriarchy 60-61
Political 55-57, 81-82, 114-117,
129-136, 199-201
Power 72-73, 103, 110-112, 119,
132-135, 238, 256
Prayer 92, 130-133, 139, 147, 150,
197, 206, 258-260
Priest 32, 82-87, 104, 200, 209-
233, 236-238, 254
Prophet 32, 34, 35, 112-122, 185,
194, 220, 242, 253
Reform 122-129, 241, 242
Sacrifices 83, 86-87, 124, 173, 251
Satyagraha 131
Scripture 23, 24, 26, 43, 53-54, 77-
78, 142, 242, 251-252
Servanthood 19, 35, 38-41, 47,
203, 323
Service 33, 35, 36, 46-47, 70-72
Sharing 193, 206
Shepherd 32. 35, 101, 193-194,
197-207, 250, 265
Sin 145-146, 153, 163, 166-167,
179, 196
Slave 27, 37, 91, 98, 164, 175, 183,
205, 254
Social Action 134-136, 180-183,
240, 259-260
Social Work 70, 108, 164, 181,183,
290-292, 299
Son of Man 146-155, 202, 250
Structures 63, 75-77, 121, 163,
186-187, 235-243
Suffering 40-41, 90-92, 99, 120-
122, 154-155, 177-178, 193, 195,
197, 204, 207, 215
Tax 71, 110-112
Terms (for ministries) 32-37
Training 18, 78-79, 230-233, 245-
261, 263-274, 275-330
Tribe 60, 83, 128, 143
Trinity 43-50
Varna 57-59, 180, 221, 324, 328
Vision 73, 92-93, 118, 249-251,
258, 331
Vocation 24-25, 71, 319-329
Wisdom 136-141, 194, 232
Women 60-63, 138-140, 143, 185,
226-227, 253, 314-318.
Worship 30-31, 36, 95, 118,174,
204, 232, 269, 315, 321-322, 326-
329