IELTS

Why ironing shirts is better than working out

1. Those people who find the idea of joining an exercise class unappealing can sit
back on their sofas and relax. New research shows that doing a few household
chores can be just as effective at lowering your heart rate and reducing your
weight as working out vigorously in the gym.
2. You dont need to follow a structured programme someone else has devised and
wear a fancy outfit to get healthy! says "r #drianne $arman a lecturer in sports
science at %oughborough &niversity.
3. 'n many studies walking stair(climbing gardening and even ironing have been
more closely linked with reductions in heart disease and other serious illnesses
than jogging cycling and playing tennis.
4. )urthermore you can no longer plead lack of time as an excuse for not taking
exercise. The myth that you have to work out for at least *+ minutes a day has
been exploded by #merican researchers. Three ten(minute bouts of brisk walking
spread over the day are as effective as one lasting half an hour.
5. "r #drianne $ardman says that official recommendations from the $ealth
,ducation #uthority and the -ports .ouncil which advice us to exercise at least
three times a week and for a minimum of /+ minutes a time are more geared to
improving fitness than health.
6. 0e need to inject a bit of realism into the whole exercise debate! she says. 'f
doctors really want to improve the populations health then there is no point
talking about high(intensity fre1uent exercise. #ll that does is put off the most
inactive people who are the ones who would gain the most by increasing their
activity.
7. 't is more effective just to encourage everyone to do a little. %ets concentrate on
what is the minimum amount of exercise that is useful.! -he also claims that those
who think the more intense the exercise the better are wrong. 2any benefits of
exercise(reducing the risk of hypertension heart disease diabetes and cancers(can
be achieved from any level of activity.
8. -ome long(term benefits dont just depend on how fit you are but rather on
regular activity! says "r $ardman. 'f you want to get healthier then just use
more energy. 't doesnt matter how you do it.!
. ,ven the smallest level of activity like a brisk walk can reduce heart disease by
altering the way the body deals with fat and carbohydrate. 'n test "r $ardman
found that the blood fat levels in those people who had done some low(intensity
exercise before eating were *+ percent less than those who had done nothing. )at
and carbohydrate from the meal are handled more 1uickly after the activity than
they would otherwise have been! she says. This means that the level of fat in the
blood does not rise so much and the artery walls are less likely to fur up.!
1!. The greatest benefits occur when people who are least active do a little. 3ut you
can overdo it. #s you increase the amount of exercise you also increase the risk
of injury.
4esearch has shown that doing everyday household tasks can prevent the risk of serious
disease. 't has also been found that contrary to popular opinion several short periods of
exercise are as beneficial as longer ones. This is especially good news for those who
rarely take exercise because they are likely to experience the greatest benefits. "r
$ardman takes issue with traditional advice which emphasi5es the need for vigorous
activity believing that this discourages many people. $er overall message is that it isnt
essential to be fit in order to be healthy6 we simply need to be more active.
"hi#$hoo$ obesity goes g#oba#
.hildhood obesity is rapidly becoming a global epidemic. The &- continues to lead the
way with as many as *78 of its children and adolescents carrying around too much fat.
3ut other countries are rapidly catching up. #ccording to statistics presented at the
,uropean .ongress on 9besity in )inland more than /+8 of ,uropean youngsters
between the ages of : and ;7 are either overweight or obese. #sia lags behind the &- and
,urope in its obesity statistics but Thailand 2alaysia <apan and the =hilippines have all
reported troubling increases in recent years. &p to ;+8 of .hinas />+ million children
are already believed to be overweight or obese and that percentage is expected to have
doubled a decade from now. -o across #sia too childhood obesity is on the rise and a
less marked trend has been documented even in urbani5ed areas of sub(-aharan #frica.
0hy do children become obese? 9ne important factor is insulin a hormone which
enables the body to store extra calories as fat. =hysical exercise helps control insulin
levels while ingesting fat combined with starches and sugar can cause surges insulin
levels. # child who sits in front of the T@ for hours on end eating potato chips and
doughnuts is an ideal fat(storage machine.
0hat is urgently needed is for schools health professional parents and children to work
together. ,ncouragingly changing a familys lifestyle in healthy ways does not appear to
be all that difficultA it involves regular exercise slightly smaller portions and slightly
different foods. #nd this say health officials is a message that badly needs to get out.
%inner ti&e then an$ now
=atterns of food consumption in 3ritain are changing rapidly. # major survey by research
group 2intel shows that for the first time convenience meals account for the largest
slice of all consumer spending on food(*+.; per cent of the market. 9ver the past decade
pi55a sales have risen by > per cent. -ales of pasta products have enjoyed a similar
increase.
3ut the trend has resulted in profound changes to eating habits. The proportion of adults
who say they regularly eat a traditional -unday dinner with roast meat and vegetables
has fallen by ten percent over the same period. Now less than half say they usually have
roast each week. 2eat and fish account for a fifth of the &Bs total food market but the
sector has shown no growth over the past decade. -pending on fruit and vegetables
meanwhile has gone up by only six per cent ( despite a huge government education
campaign to get people eating more healthily.
$owever the 2intel survey found that C+ per cent of the population still consider
themselves as traditionalist diners. 'n contrast /7 per cent are convenience seekers who
are happy heating up meals in the microwave. # growing proportion of consumers(*; per
cent(are classed as casual diners people who skip breakfast and eat out most nights not
for pleasure but because they cant be bothered to cook.
't is predicated that more people will become casual diners as changes in society see the
si5e of households declining. This development added to the increasing number of
childless household means that the pressure to cook a balanced meal has declined
2intel suggest.
'n 3ritain convenience meals are no the most popular type of food. )uit and vegetable
consumption has risen and consumption of meat and fish has remained constant
traditional -unday dinner is eaten by fewer people. "espite this almost half the
population are traditionalists in their food habits. <ust over a 1uarter are Dconvenience
seekers while almost a third are Dcasual diners. The number of causal diners is likely to
increase as households become -maller.
=rofits rose from / billion dollars to : billion last 1uarter.
-ince ;>E: the price of houses has increased by /++8.
4oad accedents reached peak of :++++ in November.
.ar sales remained constant at around 7: per month for the rest of the period.
"uring the summer temperatures fluctuate between /+ and *+ degrees.
3y close of business the value of the compnays shares stood at F/:.
This graph shows changes in the popularity of theree different activities in a &B sports
club over a period of /+ years.
'n ;>E* around:+8 of club members participated in swimming so this was clearly the
most popular activity. $owever this figure dipped\decreased steadily to ;:8 in ;>>E and
remained constant\levelled off at this rate until /++*
'n contrast */8 of members did team sports in ;>E* and this rate stood at\reached a
peak of C+8 in ;>>E before dropping\growing to its former level. =articipation rates for
team sports increased\overtook those for swimming and became the highest for all
activities from ;>>* to /++*.
)inally participation in gym activities finished at\stood at only :8 in ;>E* but this
figure fell\grew rapidly from ;>EE to ;>>E eventually leveling off at\reaching a peak of
around /:8 making gym the second most popular activity.
9verall participation in swimming fluctuated\dropped considerably during the period.
Team sports however remained popular while participation in gym activities
declined\rose significantly over the period.
Ta'es(ri't
You will hear a student called <anet talking on the phone to the manager of a sports
center about a job.
)irst you have some time to look at 1uestions ;(:. You will see that there is an example
which has been done for you. 9n this occasion only the conversation relating to this will
be played first.
)1* $ello 0hite 0ater -ports .enter.
+anetA $ello er ' wanted to en1uire about a job at the center.
)1A 4ight 'll just put you through to the manager.
-teveA $ello -teve Thompson speaking.
The managers name is -teve Thompson so -teve Thompson has been written in the
space. Now we shall begin. You should answer the 1uestions as you listen because you
will not hear the recording a second time.
%isten carefully and answer 1uestion ;(:.
)1A $ello 0hite 0ater -ports .enter.
+anetA $ello er ' wanted to en1uire about a job at the center.
)1A 4ight 'll just put you through to the manager.
Ste,eA $ello -teve Thompson speaking.
+anetA $elloer my names <anet 0illis. ,r 'm looking for a part(time job and ' saw an
ad saying that you have some vacancies. ' was wondering what sort of people you were
looking for.
Ste,eA 0ell at present were looking for a part(time pool attendant ' dont know if
youre interested in that?
+anetA 9h yes definitely.
Ste,eA 9k well have you done this sort of job before?
+anetA 9h yes 've spent the last three summers working for a childrens summer camp
so ' did a lot of pool supervision and 'm actually a sports student(water sports is my
special area.
Ste,eA 9k well no need to ask you if you can swim thenG
+anetA No 'm certainly not afraid of the water. -o what does the job at the pool involve?
Ste,eA Youd mainly be responsible for supervising the swimmers(we have to watch
them all the time obviously in case of accidents so youd have regular shifts there.
+anetA 9B.
Ste,eA Then as well as that youd have to look after the e1uipment thats used by the
beginners classes.
+anetA 4ight(and would ' be involved in teaching them at all? 'd be 1uite interested in
that.
Ste,eA 0ell they have their own instructor so thats not really part of the job. The
attendants job does involve taking regular water 1uality testsGbut you wouldnt be
involved in cleaning the pool or anything like that.
+anetA 9B. #nd the ad said you wanted someone just twice a week.
Ste,eA Yes thats right.
+anetA .an ' choose which days?
Ste,eA ,rm well if youd rung up earlier you could have done but 'm afraid its got to be
2ondays and 0ednesdays(weve someone for Tuesdays and Thursdays and the
weekends are already fully staffed. 's that going to be problem for you?
+anetA No that should be alright. #nd the ad said it was evening work right?
Ste,eA Yes you start at H and the pool closes at >.*+ but you wouldnt get away until ;+
by time youve checked the lockers and changing rooms.
+anetA )ine.
3efore you hear the rest of the conversation you have some time to look at 1uestions H(
;+.
+anetA #nd how much do you pay?
Ste,eA The basic hourly rate is F;: but wed go up to F;> for someone with the fight
1ualifications.
+anetA 0ell 've got life(saving certificates and first aid 1ualifications.
Ste,eA 9h with that and your experience youd probably get the maximum rate then.
9bviously youd have to come along for an interview if youre interested?
+anetA 9h it sounds just the job 'm looking for. -hall we fix a time for the interview
now?
Ste,eA 9kGer its <anet isnt it?
+anetA Yeah <anet 0ills.
Ste,eA $ow about )riday morning <anet? #round ;;.++.
+anetA 9h sorry(' have lectures but ' could make the afternoon.
Ste,eA / p.m.?
+anetA )ine. #nd can ' just check on where you areG is it )indon venue?
Ste,eA No its /*(/7 )arndon #venure thats )#4N"9N its off ,ast Iate.
+anetA ,ast IateG. )ine. 'll look forward to meeting you then.
Ste,eA 9k so if you need to phone me before then you can get through to me directly on
+:*/;+.
+anetA 's there anything ' need to bring along to the interview?
Ste,eA 0ell you do need to fill in an application form('ll put one in the post for you so
can you fill that in and bring it along.
+anetA You dont want me to post it back to you?
Ste,eA No just remember to bring it along with you.
+anetA 0hat about references? -hould ' bring any?
Ste,eA No but do have your certificates with you when you come we need to see those.
+anetA Ireat. Thanks very much then 'll see you on )riday. 3ye.
Ste,eA 3ye.
-ra&&ar .nit 2
/ast si&'#e*
# few weeks ago a woman (a##e$ to report a robbery at her house.
$ow $i$ the burglar break in without anybody hearing him?
The burglar (a&e in through the front door 'i(ke$ u' the womans handbag e&'tie$ it
out and stole her purse.
Then the burglar went into the front room o'ene$ all the cupboards and took a
valuable collection of ."s.
0hen her son got older he often went out to visit his friends after school.
3ill 2urphy worke$ for the police force for over ;7 years.
,xplorers at that time be#ie,e$ that the world was flat.
/ast (ontinuous*
't happened at five in the afternoon whi#e she was wat(hing the news on T@.
$e was $oing his homework in his bedroom when the burglar came into the house.
$e was #istening to music and working on his computer.
)or a while last year I was working at the cinema stu$ying for my degree and writing a
column for the local newspaper. Jwe dont know if the actions were completed or not or
whether they happened at the same timeK.
%ast year ' worke$ at the cinema stu$ie$ for my degree and wrote a column for the
local newspaper. Jsuggests all of the jobs are now complete and probably happened in
that orderK
.se$ to an$ wou#$*
-he use$ to kee' the front door locked. Jbut she stopped doing thisK
-he wou#$ #ea,e the door unlocked whenever she was at home.
3ill 2urphy use$ to work for the police force. Jbut he doesnt nowK
3ill 2urphy worke$ for the police force for over ;7 years.
-ra&&ar e0er(ises*
The pace of change in the world of technology is ama5ing. 't wasn1t long ago that the
postal service was our only way to communicate over any distance. 't took days and
sometimes weeks to receive letters from within the same country. #s a result the news in
the letters was already out of date when people re(ei,e$ them. 'n the workplace this
&eant that business was mostly conducted locally over relatively shot distances.
0hen #lexander Iraham 3ell in,ente$ the telephone in ;E7H it #ai$ the foundation for
the communication systems we have today. The telephone a##owe$ two people to
communicate instantly across a great distance. ,ventually computers re'#a(e$
typewriters and dramatically in(rease$ the speed of our daily work life. Nowadays the
internet is an essential part of every business.
$owever it is not just communications that have changed. 9nly :+ years ago most
people $i$n1t own car. =eople wa#ke$ to work of ro$ bicycles. .hanges in travel as well
as the increased speed of communications have led to the global business world that we
have today.
+u&'ing s'i$ers
)or a stalking predator the element of surprise is crucial. #nd for jumping spiders that
sneak onto other spiders webs to prey on their owners it can be the difference between
having lunch and becoming it. Now 5oologists have discovered the secret of these
spiders tacticsA creeping forward when their preys web is vibrating.
The fifteen known species of =ortia jumping spiders are relatively small with adults
being about two centimeters long Jthats smaller than the cap on most pensK. They
habitually stay in the webs of other spiders and in an area of these webs that is as out(of(
the(way as possible. =ortia spiders live mostly in tropical forests where the climate is hot
and humid. They hunt a range of other spiders some of which could easily turn the tables
on them. DThey will attack something about twice their own si5e if they are really
hungry says -timson 0ilcox of 3inghamton &niversity in New York -tate. 0ilcox and
his colleague Bristen Ientile of the &niversity of .anterbury in .hristchurch New
Lealand wanted to find out how =ortia spiders keep the upper hand.
#ll jumping spiders have large eyes that look like binocular lenses and they function
pretty much the same way. 2ost jumping spiders locate their prey visually and then
jump and capture from one centimeter to over ten centimeters away. 9nly a few species
of jumping spiders invade the webs of other spiders and the =ortia spider is among them.
<umping spiders including =ortia spiders prey on insects and other arthropods by
stalking. -ometimes the spiders lure their victims by vibrating the web to mimic the
struggles of a trapped insect. 3ut many web(weaving spiders appear to be wise to these
tricks so stalking is often a better strategy. -ometimes the researchers found =ortia
spiders take advantage of the vibrations created in the web by a gentle bree5e. 3ut if
necessary they will make their own vibrations.
The researchers allowed various prey spiders to spin webs in the laboratory and then
introduced =ortia spiders. To simulate the shaking effect of a bree5e the 5oologists used
either a model aircraft propeller or attached tiny magnet to the centre of the web which
could be vibrated by applying a varying electrical field. The researchers noticed that the
stalking =ortia spiders moved more when the webs were shaking than when they were
still and they were more likely to capture their prey during tests in which the webs were
periodically shaken than in those where the webs were undisturbed. 'f the spiders were
placed onto unoccupied webs they would make no attempt to change their movements.
't is the =ortia spiders tactic of making its victim webs shake that has most intrigued the
researchers. They noticed that the spiders would sometimes shake their 1uarrys web
violently then creep forwards up to five millimeters before the vibrations died down.
DTheyd make a big pluck with one of their hind legs says 0ilcox. These twangs were
much more powerful than the gentler vibrations =ortia spiders use to mimic a trapped
insect and the researchers were initially surprised that the prey spiders did not respond to
them in any way. 3ut they have since discovered that the violent twanging produces a
pattern of vibrations that match those caused by a twig falling onto the web.
9ther predators make use of natural Dsmokescreens or disguises to hide from their preyA
lions hunting at night for example move in on their prey when clouds obscure the moon.
D3ut this is the fist example of an animal making its own smokescreen that we know of
say 0ilcox. D=ortia spiders are clearly intelligent and they often learn from their prey as
they are trying to capture it. They do this by making different signals on the web of their
prey until the prey spider makes a movement. 'n general =ortia spiders adjust their
stalking strategy according to their prey and what the prey is doing. Thus =ortia spiders
use trail(and(error learning in stalking. -ometimes they will even take an indirect route to
reach a prey spider they can see from a distance. This can sometimes take one to two
hours following a predetermined route. 0hen it does this the =ortia spiders is actually
solving problems and thinking ahead about its actions.
/resent /er2e(t
/resent 'er2e(t si&'#e an$ (ontinuous
' have written a rough plan this morning. Jit is still morningK
've collected plenty of information. Jat some pint before now and ' will use it to write
my essayK
'ts the longest 've ever had to write. Jat any point before nowK
've worked really hard for the last two weeks. J've worked hard till nowK
've read all the books on the reading list. J' have the notes nowK
've just got up.
$ave you written your assignment yet?
/resent 'er2e(t /ast si&'#e
've made 1uite a lot of notes. ' made notes on the most important things
$ave you read the leaflet? ' read the leaflets when ' was in the library
've read six articles this week ' red five books last week

/resent 'er2e(t (ontinuous /resent 'er2e(t si&'#e
've been reading for the past two weeks. 've read three articles.
've been writing my essay. 've written my essay.
Jwe dont know if the essay is finished or notK Jthe essay is finished but we dont
know when.K
,xercisesA
' would like to be considered for your degree course in Loology starting in 9ctober next
year. ' feel ' am a good candidate for the course as ' ha,e a#ways been interested in
natural history and even as a child en3oye$ studying animals and insects in my garden.
Your science faculty has a good reputation and ' would very much like to be part of it.
#s you ha,e a#rea$y seen in -ection # of this application ' have a good academic
record and ' ha,e 3ust re(ei,e$ the results of my recent exams. #ll of which were
excellent.
'n addition your university attracts me because ' enjoy sports and ' ha,e rea$ in your
prospectus about the large number of sports on offer. %ast year ' re'resente$ my school
at badminton and ' ha,e '#aye$ in football teams since ' was eleven. ' have recently
joined a basketball team which competes at a notional level.
' ha,e not tra,e#e$ abroad much yet although as a young child ' went to -ingapore and
$ong Bong with my family. ' reali5e that ' ha,e not s'ent much time away from home
up to now but am keen to become more independent.
Lo(ation is e,erything
The estate agent1s a$,i(e $ates ba(k to 35!!4" when the 2irst (ity o2 tra$e took o22.
9ur distant ancestors led pretty simple lives. &ntil around ;++++3. all humans
were hunter(gatherers and lived a nomadic life searching endlessly for food. 't was the
development of agriculture that enabled humans to settle down and live first as farmers
and then as villagers. #round *:++3. small towns began appearing in 2esopotamia
surrounded by defensive high walls and irrigated fields that fed the towns population.
'n the thousand years that followed when agriculture had become more of a
science and crop yields had risen fewer people were needed to produce food.
=eople took other jobs became wealthier and more and more chose to live in town close
to shops and markets. This worked well for centuries. Towns flourished and eventually
one of the grandest 4ome became the worlds first city of more than one million people
around ;++#".
#lthough the fertile lands surrounding 4ome could have people began importing
food and became reliant on long supply chains. The 4oman people began importing food
and became reliant on long supply chains. 0hen Iaiseric the @andal began withholding
vital North #frican grain supplies from 4ome in C::#" the citys power went into steep
decline. The "ark #ges that ensued saw people deserting cities across ,urope and
returning to the countryside.
Light years ahea$
Cheap solar panels could be the answer to Ugandas power shortage, but the are
proving to be a hard sell
5. &ganda may be one of the worlds poorest countries but it has been blessed with
a climate that is almost perfect. 0ith sunshine going spare one &gandan
electrician believes he has the solution to the countrys power shortage ( low(tech
solar panels that can run anything from a radio to a mobile phone.
4. The electrician )red Bajubi belongs to an organi5ation known as the &ganda
.hange #gents #ssociation which helps local people learn skills that can make a
difference to their lives and their communities. 2embers of the organi5ation who
are known as .hange #gents run credit unions set up self(help group in villages
become active in local politics and in 2r Bajubis case promote the use of solar
power. $e has set up his won small company -unshine -olutions which offers
customers a solar panel to meet their every need.
". The materials for the solar panels come from a company in 3ritain called
3io"esign set up five years ago by a retired inventor Iraham Bnight. #fter
seeing a T@ programme on the invention of a radio powered by clockwork 2r.
Bnight decided that in some parts of the world solar power would be a more
effective energy resource for radios and similar everyday e1uipment. $e set up a
firm to make the components for low(cost solar panels for use in #frica and -outh
#merica. These are sent out in kit form together with instructions on how to
assemble them. Iraham Bnights panels which use amorphous silicon are ten
times cheaper than the crystalline silicon panels more commonly used for large(
scale solar power production. -unshine -olutions can therefore sell solar panels
that are much less expensive than the ones available in the shops.
%. 9nly a small minority of &gandans currently have access to mains electricity
which leaves most families reliant on batteries to power their radios and on
kerosene lamps to light their houses. 3ut for just ;:+++ shillings JFE.:+K the
same price as tow months supply of batteries one of the solar panels sold by
-unshine -olutions can run a radio for several years. 'n spite of this its proving a
struggle for the company to persuade people to invest in their solar panels.
#lthough the solar panels work out cheaper than batteries in the long term the
initial cost is more than many people can afford.
E. &ganda plans to bring power to poor villages over the next five years with the
building of a big dam on the Nile. 3ut even if the ambitious plans for rural
electrification succeed there will still be sections of the population that cannot
afford to hook up to the national grid. The experience of the last couple of
decades in developing countries is that ambitious schemes are not effective in
getting power to the poorest people says #ndrew -imms an expert from the
New ,conomics )oundation in %andon. D-mall(scale enterprises have a better
track record at getting energy to the people who need it. 3etter still solar and
other renewable energy sources allow countries to avoid the effects of pollution
caused by heavy reliance on fossil fuels 2r -imms says.
6. ,ven the 0orld 3ank often critici5ed for being obsessed with large(scale power
projects recogni5es that there is place for solar power. #ccording to a 0orld
3ank representative solar power can be an effective complement to grid(based
electricity which is often too costly for sparsely settled and remote areas.
-. 3ut even cheap technology is hard to sell in a country where half the population
lives below the poverty line and there are few effective marketing and distribution
channels. 2r -imms believes that the only solution to spreading solar energy
more widely is government subsidies because the initial costs of the solar power
panels are beyond most household budgets.
7. 'n the meantime 2r Bajubi is pinning his hopes on the spread of micro(credit
schemes that will loan money to families to help them raise the cash for his
products. $is company has yet to make a profit although he says sales are picking
up. $e is planning another trip into the countryside to demonstrate his solar panels
as well as a new solar cooker. #sked if he gets downhearted he points to the
motto on his workshop wallA Never give up it says.
;. Iraham Bnight believes that for some purposes it may be better to use solar
power rather than energy from clockwork mechanisms.
/. -unshine -olutions solar panels are cheap because they use amorphous silicon.
*. #t present the majority of &gandans use batteries and kerosene as sources of
power rather than cheap technology.
C. 'n the long term solar panels are a cheaper source of power for radios than
batteries.
:. 't has been shown that in some places small(scale projects for energy production
are more successful than ambitious enterprises.
H. )ossil fuels cause more damage to the environment than energy from renewable
sources.
)'%% the I#=-
;. 'n <apan the highest proportion of the workforce is in the service sector.
/. 'ndia has many more people employed in the agricultural sector than either <apan
or 3ra5il but it has fewer workers in the industrial sector.
*. 3ra5il has as many workers in the agricultural sector as it has in the industrial
sector.
C. 'n 'ndia most people work in the agricultural sector.
:. The majority of workers in 3ra5il are in the service sector.
H. The lowest proportions of <apanese workers are employed in the agricultural
sector.
7. 9f the three countries <apan has the largest percentage of employees in the
industrial sector.
E. .ountries which have more developed economies seem to have a large percentage
of the workforce in the service sector.
8at(h the e0'ressions be#ow with 'ara##e# e0'ressions.
;. The highest proportion of((((((the largest percentage of
/. =eople employed((((((the working population------the workforce
*. #n e1ual number of((((((the same number of
C. The smallest proportion of (((((the lowest percentage of ------ the fewest.
Lsson 4 se(tion 49 2o(us on #istening 2.
's everyone here? Iood. 0ell last week we talked about the astonished growthest
"L:";I<- ".LT.=ES
What is ti&e> The answer ,aries 2ro& so(iety to so(iety
5 'f you show up a bit late for a meeting in 3ra5il no one will be too worried. 3ut if
you keep someone in New York .ity waiting for ten or fifteen minutes you may have
some explaining to do. Time is seen as relatively flexible in some cultures but is viewed
more rigidly in others. 'ndeed the way members of a culture perceive and use time tells
us about their societys priorities and even their own personal view of the world.
4 3ack in the ;>:+s anthropologist ,dward T $all described how the social rules of
time are like a Dsilent language for a given culture. These rules might not always be
made e0'#i(it he stated but Dthey exist in the air. $e described how ,ariations in the
'er(e'tion of time can lead to misunderstandings between people from separate cultures.
D#n ambassador who has been kept waiting by a foreign visitor needs to understand that
if his visitor just mutters an apology! this is not necessarily an insu#t $all wrote. DYou
must know the social rules of the country to know at what point apologies are really $ue.
" -ocial psychologist 4obert @ %evine says D9ne of the beauties of studying time is that
its a wonderful window on culture. You get answers on what cultures value and believe
in. D%evine and his colleagues have conducted so(called pace(of(life studies in *;
countries. 'n A Geography of Time published in ;>>7 %evine describes how he ranked
the counties by measuring three thingsA walking speed on urban sidewalks how 1uickly
postal clerks could fulfill a re1uest for a common stamp and the accuracy of public
clocks. )rom the data the collected he concluded that the five fastest(paced countries are
-wit5erland 'reland Iermany <apan and 'taly6 the five slowest are -yria ,l -alvador
3ra5il 'ndonesia and 2exico.
% Bevin 3irth an anthropologist has examined time perceptions in Trinidad. 'n that
country 3irth observes Dif you are meeting friends at H.++ at night people show up at
H.C: or 7.++ and say any time is Trinidad time!. 0hen it comes to business however
that loose approach works only for the people with power. # boss can show up late and
just say Dany time is Trinidad time but those under him are expected to be on time. 3irth
adds that the connection between power and waiting time is true for many other cultures
as well.
E The complex nature of time makes it hard for anthropologists and social psychologists
to investigate. DYou cant simply go into a society walk up to someone and say Tell me
about your concept of time! D3irth says. D=eople dont really have an answer to that. You
have to come up with other ways to find out.
6 3irth attempted to get at how Trinidadians regard time by exploring how closely their
society links time and money. $e surveyed rural residents and found that farmers(whose
days are dictated by natural events such as sunrise(did not recogni5e the phrases time is
money budget your time or time management even though they had satellite T@ and
were familiar with 0estern popular culture. 3ut tailors in the same areas were aware of
such notions. 3irth concluded that wage work altered the tailors views of time. DThe
ideas of associating time with money are not found globally Dhe says Dbut are attached to
your job and the people you work with.
- 'n addition to cultural variations in how people deal with time at a practical level
there may be differences in how they visuali5e it from a more theoretical perspective. The
0estern idea of time has been compared to that of an arrow in flight towards the future6 a
one(way view of the future which often includes the expectation that life should get better
as time passes. -ome cultures see time as closely connected with spaceA the #ustralian
#borigines concept of the D"reamtime combines a myth of how the world began with
stories of sacred sites and orientation points that enable the enable the nomadic
#borigines to find their way across the huge #ustralian landscape. )or other cultures
time may be seen as a pattern incorporating the past present and future or a wheel in
which past present and future revolve endlessly. 3ut theory and practice do not
necessarily go together. DTheres often considerable variation between how a culture
views the mythology of time and how they think about time in their daily lives3irth
assert.
34. 5$$ition an$ (ontrast
5 In a$$ition9 &oreo,er9 et(. ?@ an$ AB
0hen you add a second piece of information in a sentence to support the first piece of
information you often use an$9 e.g. The food is excellent and very good value. 0hen
you put this information in two sentences these link words and phrases are commonA
The food is usually very good. 6urther&ore it is one of the cheapest restaurants in
town.
The set menu is F;+ which is excellent value. In a$$ition you get a free glass of wine.
The restaurant has a reputation for excellent food. 'ts a#so very good value.
The food is excellent in that restaurant. 'ts very good value as we## Jor tooK.
You get very good food in that place. What1s &ore its excellent value.
NoteA the first two examples are more formal and more common in written ,nglish. The
last two examples are more common in spoken ,nglish.

4 5#though9 in s'ite o29 et(9 ?@ but AB
0hen you want to contrast two pieces of information in a single sentence and say that the
second fact is surprising after the first you can use these link wordsA
-he still won the game a#thoughCthoughCe,en though she had a bad knee.
They still went for a walk in s'ite o2 the 2a(t that it was pouring with rain.
The service is worse $es'ite the 2a(t that they have more staff.
NoteA
'n these examples you can also begin the sentence with the link wordA
5#though she had a bad knee she still won the game.
't is very common to use still in these sentences to emphasise the surprise Jas in
examplesK.
'n the last two example sentences you can use a noun or(ing formA
They went for a walk in spite of the rain. The service is worse despite having more staff.
#fter although you can only have a nounMpronoun N verb Ji.e. although she had a bad
kneeMher knee was badK.
" Whereas
This word is used to connect a fact or opinion about a person place or thing with
something different about another person place or thing Jyou can also use whi#stK. 'n
other words the second fact is a contrast with the first but not always a surprise Jas in 3
aboveK.
<ohn is very careful whereas .hristopher makes lots of mistakes.
The south is hot and dry whereas the north gets 1uite a lot of rain.
% 7owe,er
You can use howe,er to contrast two ideas in two sentences and say that the second
sentence is surprising after the first Jas in 3K6 and you can use howe,er or on the other
han$ to make a contrast between different peopleMplaces or things Jas in . aboveKA
' dont agree with a lot of his methods. 7owe,er he is a good teacher.
0e didnt like the hotel at all. 7owe,er we still enjoyed ourselves.
2arcel thought it was a great film. <oe howe,erCon the other han$ thought it was
stupid.
2ost big cats such as tigers and leopards are very solitary creatures. %ions howe,erCon
the other han$ spend much of their time in groups.
Exercises
34.1 "ross out the in(orre(t answers. 4oth answers &ay be (orre(t.
;. 5#thoughMin spite of we left late we still got there in time.
/. 't was a fantastic evening althoughMin s'ite o2 the terrible food
*. 0e have decided to go in s'ite o2Mdespite the cost of the tickets.
C. They enjoyed the course e,en thoughCwhereas it was very difficult.
:. ' love the sea furthermoreMwhereas most of my friends prefer the mountains.
H. 0e found a lovely villa near the lake that we can rent. In a$$itionM2oreover it has its
own swimming pool and we have free use of car provided by the owners.
7. 0e both told <ohn the car was too expensive. 7owe,erC:n the other han$ he still
decided to buy it.
E. 2ost people we met tried to help us. They were very friendly tooCas we##.
>. "uring the week the town centre is very busy. #t the weekend on the other
han$Mwhereas it is very 1uite and almost empty.
;+. 2y uncle is the owner of the factory opposite. $e a#soMhowever runs restaurant next
door and the car hire company down the road.
34.2 "o&bine 'arts 2ro& ea(h (o#u&n to 2or& 2i,e short te0ts.
$e went to school today e,en though he didnt feel very well.
$e always did his best at school whereas most of his schoolfriends were very la5y
$es got the right 1ualifications. What1s &ore the help ' gave him.
$e didnt pass the exam in s'ite o2 hes the most experienced.
$e decided to take the job. 7owe,er the pay isnt very good.
34.3 6i## the ga's with a suitab#e #ink wor$ or 'hrase.
6urther&ore taking a map they still got lost.
't took me two hours to do it though the others finished in less than an hour.
The hotel has a very good reputation. In a$$ition9 it is one of the cheapest in the area.
-he managed to get there a#though she had a broken ankle.
'ts not the best dictionary you can buy6 howe,er its better than nothing.
-hes younger than the others in the group and shes better than most of them as we##
34.4 "o&'#ete these senten(es in a #ogi(a# way.
' was able to follow what she was saying even though ' worked hard that time.
' was able to follow what she was saying whereas the other students were not following
her.
0e enjoyed the holiday in spite of the fact it was raining all holiday.
'f you buy a season ticket you can go as often as you like. )urthermore you can get one
of your children for free.
The exam was very difficult. $owever it took an hour to do it.
#lthough it was a very long film we still enjoyed the film.
*: -imilarities differences and conditions
5 Si&i#arities
These are ways of saying that two or more things are similar or have something the
same.
=eter is si&i#ar to ?D#ikeB his brother in many ways. =eter and his brother are very
similar.
=eter and his brother are 1uite a#ike.
2aria and 4ebecca both passed their exams. JO2aria passed and 4ebecca passedK 3ut
neither wants to go to university. JO2aria doesnt want to go and 4ebecca doesnt want
to go eitherK
The two boys ha,e a #ot in (o&&on. JOthey have many things e.g. hobbies interests
beliefs that are the same or very similarK -ee also section 3.
4 %i22eren(es
These are ways of saying that two or more things are different.
$is early films are $i22erent 2ro& his later one.
=aula is Euite un#ike JOvery different fromK her sister.
They ha,e nothing in (o&&on. JOthey have no interests or beliefs that are the sameK
" .sing F(o&'are1
0e want to compare the prices of all the televisions before we decide which one to buy.
They made a (o&'arison of average salaries in different parts of the country.
9ur new flat is very big (o&'are$ withCto our old one. JOif you compare it with the
otherK
'f you (o&'are this one with the others 'm sure youll see a difference.
% E0(e'tions
0hen we make a general statement about things or people and then say that one thing or
person is not included or is different from the others we use these words and phrasesA
't snowed everywhere e0(e't on the west coast.
The two girls are very similar e0(e't that %ouise has slightly longer hair.
The museum is open every day e0(e't ?2orBCa'art 2ro& -undayJsK.
,veryone heard the fire alarm e0(e't ?2orBCa'art 2ro& the two boys in room 7.
NoteA E0(e't can be followed by different words Jnouns prepositions etc.K but e0(e't
2or and a'art 2ro& are followed by nouns or noun phrases.
E "on$itions
$ere are some wordsMphrases which introduce or connect conditions. %ike Di21 they are
used with certain tenses and the rules are 1uite difficult. )or the moment notice the
tenses underlined in the examples and use them in this way until you meet other
examples.
0e will be late un#ess we hurry. JOwell be late if we dont hurryK
.n#ess the weather improves JOif the weather doesnt improveK we wont be able to go.
' must go now otherwise JOif the weather doesnt improveK we wont be able to go.
You can borrow it as #ong as JOon condition thatK you bring it back by Thusday.
NoteA the meaning is very similar to i2 here but the use of as #ong as shows that the
condition is very important to the speaker.
Take your umbrella with you in case it rains. JObecause of the possibility it may rain
laterK ' brought food in case we get hungry. JObecause of the possibility we may be
hungry laterK
Exercises
*H 4eason purpose and result
5 =eason
' went home early be(auseCasCsin(e ' was feeling a bit tried.
NoteA 0ith as or sin(e the reason Jin this example Dfeeling tiredK is often known to the
listener or reader so it is less important. 't is also common to put asCsin(e at the
beginning of the sentenceA D5sCsin(e ' was feeling tired ' went home early. 'n spoken
,nglish many native speakers would use so after the reasonA ' was feeling a bit tired so '
went home early.
0e can also use be(ause of but with a different construction. .ompareA
0e always go there be(ause the weather is absolutely wonderful. JbecauseNnounNverbK
0e always go there be(ause o2 the wonderful weather. Jbecause of N JadjectiveKN nounK
%ue to and owing to have the same meaning as because of but they are more formal and
are often used in sentences which explain the reason for a problemA
The plane was late $ue to bad weather. J$ue to is often used after the verb Dto beK
%ue toC:wing to the power cut last night ' missed the late film on T@.
4 F"ause1 an$ Fresu#t1 ,erbs
There are some verbs which we can use in similar ways to the words aboveA
=olice think the bus (ause$ the accident. JOwas responsible for the accidentK
The extra investment should #ea$ to more jobs. JOresult in more jobsK
D.ause and Dresult verbs sometimes appear together in this wayA
=olice think a cigarette (ause$ the fire witch resu#te$ in the destruction of the building.
" /ur'ose
# Dpurpose is an intention an aim or a reason for doing somethingA
The 'ur'ose o2 buying this book was to improve my ,nglish.
3ut we often introduce a purpose using so ?thatB*
' bought this book so ?thatB ' can improve my ,nglish.
They went home early so ?thatB they could watch the match on television.
0e moved house so ?thatB we could send our children to this school.
NoteA in spoken ,nglish people often just say so Jwithout thatK. 't is also vey common Jas
in the examplesK to use a modal verb e.g. can or could after so that.