UNIT-1

ECOSYSTEMS AND BIODIVERSITY

Concept of Ecosystem
The term Ecology was coined by Earnst Haeckel in 1869. It is derived from the
Greek words ikos! home " logos! st#dy.
$o ecology deals with the st#dy of organisms in their nat#ral home interacting
with their s#rro#ndings.
%n ecosystem is a gro#& of biotic comm#nities of s&ecies interacting with one
another and with their non!living environment e'changing energy and matter.
(ow ecology is often defined as )the st#dy of ecosystems).
The ecosystem is a #nit or a system which is com&osed of a n#mber of s#b#nits
that are all directly or indirectly linked with each other.
They may be freely e'changing energy and matter from o#tside*an o&en
ecosystem or may be isolated from o#tside*a closed ecosystem.
Structure of an ecosystem
The str#ct#re of an ecosystem e'&lains the relationshi& between the abiotic
+nonliving, and the biotic +living, com&onents.
1 B!ot!c Structure
a The &lants- animals and microorganisms &resent in an ecosystem from the
biotic com&onent.
" These organisms have different n#tritional behavio#r and stat#s in the
ecosystems and are accordingly known as .rod#cers or /ons#mers- based
on how they get their food.
# A"!ot!c structure
a The &hysical and chemical com&onents of an ecosystem constit#te its
abiotic str#ct#re.
" It incl#des climatic factors- eda&hic +soil, factors- geogra&hical factors-
energy- n#trients and to'ic s#bstances.
$unct!ona% Attr!"utes
Every ecosystem &erforms #nder nat#ral conditions in a systematic way. It
receives energy from the s#n and &asses it on thro#gh vario#s biotic com&onents and in
facts- all life de&ends #&on this flow of energy.
The ma0or f#nctional attrib#tes of an ecosystem are as follows1
1, 2ood chain- food webs and tro&hic str#ct#re
3, Energy flow
4, /ycling of n#trients +5iogeochemical cycles,
6, .rimary and $econdary &rod#ction
7, Ecosystem develo&ment and reg#lation
&ro'ucers(
.rod#cers are mainly the green &lants- which can synthesi8e their food themselves
by making #se of carbon dio'ide &resent in the air and water in the &resence of
s#nlight by involving chloro&hyll- the green &igment &resent in the leaves-
thro#gh the &rocess of &hotosynthesis.
They are also known as &hoto a#totro&hs +a#to9self: tro&h9food- &hoto9light,.
There are some microorganisms also which can &rod#ce organic matter to some
e'tent thro#gh o'idation of certain chemicals in the absence of s#nlight.
They are known as chemosynthetic organisms or chemo!a#toto&hs.
2or instance in the ocean de&ths- where there is no s#nlight- chemoa#totro&hic
s#l&h#r bacteria make #se of the heat generated by the decay of radioactive
elements &resent in the earth;s core and released in ocean;s de&ths.
They #se this heat to convert dissolved hydrogen s#l&hide +H3$, and carbon
dio'ide +/3, into organic com&o#nds.

Consumers(
%ll organisms which get their organic food by feeding #&on other organisms are
called cons#mers- which are of the following ty&es.
! )er"!*ores +p%ant eaters,( They feed directly on &rod#cers and hence also
known as &rimary cons#mers. e.g. rabbit- insect- man.
!! Carn!*ores +meat eaters,( They feed other cons#mers. If they feed on herbivores
they are called secondary cons#mers +e.g. frog, and if they feed on the carnivores
+snake- big fish etc., they are known as tertiary carnivores<cons#mers.
!!! Omn!*ores( They feed on both &lants and animals. E.g. h#mans- rat- fo'- many
birds.
!* Detr!t!*ores +Detr!tus fee'ers or Saprotrop-s,1 They feed on the &arts of dead
organisms- wastes of living organisms- their castoffs and &artially decom&osed
matter e.g. beetles- termites- ants- crabs- earthworms etc.
Decomposers(
=ecom&osers derive their n#trition by breaking down the com&le' organic
molec#les to sim&ler organic com&o#nds and #ltimately into inorganic n#trients.
>ario#s bacteria and f#ngi are decom&osers.
In all the ecosystems- this biotic str#ct#re &revails.
However- in some- it is the &rimary &rod#cers which &redominate +e.g. in forests-
agroecosystems, while in others the decom&osers &redominate +e.g. dee& ocean,.

$oo' C-a!ns
The se?#ence of eating and being eaten in an ecosystem is known as food chain.
%ll organisms- living or dead- are &otential food for some other organism and
th#s- there is essentially no waste in the f#nctioning of a nat#ral ecosystem.
% cater&illar eats a &lant leaf- a s&arrow eats the cater&illar- a cat or a hawk eats
the s&arrow and when they all die- they are all cons#med by microorganism like
bacteria or f#ngi +decom&osers, which break down the organic matter and convert
it into sim&le inorganic s#bstances that can again be #sed by the &lants!the
&rimary &rod#cers.
$ome common e'am&les of sim&le food chains are1
o .rass / 0rass-opper/ $ro0 / Sna1e /)a21 +.rass%an'
ecosystem,
o &-ytop%an1tons / 2ater f%eas / sma%% f!s- / Tuna +&on' ecosystem,
o 3!c-ens / re!n'eer / Man +Arct!c tun'ra,
Each organism in the ecosystem is assigned a feeding level or tro&hic level
de&ending on its n#tritional stat#s.
Th#s- in the grassland food chain- grassho&&er occ#&ies the I tro&hic level- frog
the II and snake and hawk occ#&y the III and the I> tro&hic levels- res&ectively.
In nat#re- we come across two ma0or ty&es of food chains1
1 .ra4!n0 foo' c-a!n( It starts with green &lants +&rimary &rod#cers, and
c#lminates in carnivores. E'am&le1 Grass@ Aabbit@ 2o'
# Detr!tus foo' c-a!n( It starts with dead organic matter which the detritivores and
decom&osers cons#me. .artially decom&osed dead organic matter and even the
decom&osers are cons#med by detritivores and their &redators.
E'am&les1 Beaf litter@ algae@ crabs@ small carnivoro#s fish@ large
carnivoro#s fish +Cangrove ecosystem,
=ead organic matter@ f#ngi@ bacteria +2orest ecosystem,
5oth the food chains occ#r together in nat#ral ecosystems- b#t gra8ing food chain
#s#ally &redominates.
$oo' 5e"
2ood web is a network of food chains where different ty&es of organisms are
connected at different tro&hic level- so that there are a n#mber of o&tions of eating
and being eaten at each tro&hic level.
In a tro&ical region- the ecosystems are m#ch more com&le'.
They have rich s&ecies diversity and therefore- the food webs are m#ch more
com&le'.
2ood webs give greater stability to the ecosystem.
In a linear food chain- if one s&ecies becomes e'tinct or one s&ecies s#ffers then
the s&ecies in the s#bse?#ent tro&hic levels are also affected.
In a food web- on the other hand- there are a n#mber of o&tions available at each
tro&hic level.
$o if one s&ecies is affected- it does not affect other tro&hic levels so serio#sly.
2or E'am&le1 Hawk eats both mice and birds. /oyote eats mice- rabbits and birds.


S!0n!f!cance of foo' c-a!ns an' foo' 2e"s(
2ood chains and food webs &lay a very significant role in the ecosystem beca#se
the two most im&ortant f#nctions of energy flow and n#trient cycling take &lace
thro#gh them.
They hel& maintain the ecological balance.
2ood chains show a #ni?#e &ro&erty of biological magnification of some
chemicals.
Eco%o0!ca% &yram!'s
Gra&hic re&resentation of tro&hic str#ct#re and f#nction of an ecosystem- starting
with &rod#cers at the base and s#ccessive tro&hic levels forming the a&e' is known as an
ecological &yramid.
Ecological &yramids are of three ty&es1
I &yram!' of num"ers1
a. It re&resents the n#mber of individ#al organisms at each tro&hic level.
b. De may have #&right or inverted &yramid of n#mbers- de&ending #&on the
ty&e of ecosystem and food chain as shown in 2ig.1
c. % grassland ecosystem +2ig. 1, and a &ond ecosystem show an #&right
&yramid of n#mbers.
d. The &rod#cers in the grasslands are grasses and that in a &ond are
&hyto&lankton +algae etc.,- which are small in si8e and very large in
n#mber.
e. $o the &rod#cers form a broad base.
f. The herbivores in grassland are insects while tertiary carnivores are hawks
or other birds which are grad#ally less and less in n#mber and hence the
&yramid a&e' becomes grad#ally narrower forming an #&right &yramid.


2ig1 1. Grassland ecosystem
II &yram!' of "!omass(
a. It is based #&on the total biomass +dry matter, at each tro&hic level in a
food chain.
b. The &yramid of biomass can also be #&right or inverted. 2ig.3. show
&yramids of biomass in an a?#atic ecosystem.
c. The &ond ecosystem shows an inverted &yramid of biomass +2ig. 3,.
d. The total biomass of &rod#cers +&hyto&lanktons, is m#ch less as com&ared
to herbivores +8oo&lanktons- insects,- carnivores +$mall fish, and tertiary
carnivores +big fish,. Th#s the &yramid takes an inverted sha&e with
narrow base and broad a&e'.


2ig13 .yramid of biomass in &ond
III &yram!' of Ener0y1
a. The amo#nt of energy &resent at each tro&hic level is considered for this
ty&e of &yramid of energy gives the best re&resentation of the tro&ic
relationshi&s and it is always #&right.
b. There is a shar& decline in energy level of each s#ccessive tro&hic level as
we move from &rod#cers to to& carnivores. Therefore- the &yramid of
energy is always #&right as shown in 2ig.4.

2ig14. .yramid of energy
Ener0y $%o2 !n an Ecosystem
2low of energy in an ecosystem takes &lace thro#gh the food chain and it is this
energy flow which kee&s the ecosystem going. The most im&ortant feat#re of this energy
flow is that it is #nidirectional or one!way flow. Enlike the n#trients- +like carbon-
nitrogen- &hos&hor#s etc., energy is not re#sed in the food chain. %lso- the flow of energy
follows the two laws of Thermodynamics1
I %a2 of t-ermo'ynam!cs states that energy can neither be created nor be
destroyed b#t it can be transferred from one form to another. The solar energy ca&t#red
by the green &lants +&rod#cers, gets converted into biochemical energy of &lants and later
into that of cons#mers.
II %a2 of T-ermo'ynam!cs states that energy dissi&ates as it is #sed or in other
words- it gets converted from a more concentrated to dis&ersed form. %s energy flows
thro#gh the food chain- there occ#rs dissi&ation of energy at every tro&hic level.
Eco%o0!ca% Success!on
Ecological s#ccession is defined as an orderly &rocess of changes in the
comm#nity str#ct#re and f#nction with time mediated thro#gh modifications in the
&hysical environment and #ltimately c#lminating in a stabili8ed ecosystem known as
clima'.
Ecological s#ccessions starting on different ty&es of areas or s#bstrata are named
differently as follows1
+!, )y'rarc- or )y'rosere1 $tarting in watery area like &ond- swam&- bog
+!!, Mesarc-( starting in an area of ade?#ate moist#re.
+!!!, 6erarc- or 6erosere1 $tarting in a dry area with little moist#re. They can be
of the following ty&es1
Bithosere 1 starting on a bare rock
.sammosere 1 starting on sand
Halosere 1 starting on saline soil
&rocess of Success!on
T-e process of success!on takes &lace in a systematic order of se?#ential ste&s as
follows1
! Nu'at!on1 It is the develo&ment of a bare area- witho#t any life form. The bare
area may be ca#sed d#e to several anthro&ogenic activities.
!! In*as!on( It is the s#ccessf#l establishment of one or more s&ecies on a bare area
thro#gh dis&ersal or migration- followed by ecesis or establishment.
!!! Compet!t!on an' coact!on1 %s the n#mber of individ#als grows there is
com&etition- for s&ace- water and n#trition. They infl#ence each other in a n#mber
of ways- known as coaction.
!* React!on 1 The living organisms have a strong infl#ence on the environment
which is modified to a large e'tent and this is known as reaction.
* Sta"!%!4at!on 1 The s#ccession #ltimately c#lminates in a more or less stable
comm#nity called clima' which is in e?#ilibri#m with the environment
Bet #s consider very briefly two ty&es of s#ccession.
A )y'rosere +)y'rarc-, 1 This ty&e of s#ccession starts in a water body like &ond.
% n#mber of intermediate stages come and #ltimately it c#lminates in a clima'
comm#nity which is a forest.
B 6erosere +6erarc-, 1 This ty&e of s#ccession originates on a bare rock- which
lacks water and organic matter. Interestingly- here also the clima' comm#nity is a
forest- altho#gh the intermediate stages are very different.
$orest Ecosystem
=e&ending #&on the climate conditions- forest may be classified as1
+a, Trop-!ca% Ra!n $orests1 They are evergreen broadleaf forests fo#nd near the
e?#ator. They are characteri8ed by high tem&erat#re- high h#midity and high
rainfall- all of which favo#r the growth of trees.
+", Trop-!ca% 'ec!'uous forests1 They are fo#nd a little away from the e?#ator and
are characteri8ed by a warm climate the year ro#nd. Aain occ#rs only d#ring
monsoon.
+c, Trop-!ca% scru" forests1 They are fo#nd in areas where the day season is even
longer.
+', Temperate ra!n forests1 They are fo#nd in tem&erate areas with ade?#ate
rainfall. These are dominated by trees like &ines- firs- redwoods etc.
+e, Temperate 'ec!'uous forests1 They are fo#nd in areas with moderate
tem&erat#res.
+f, E*er0reen con!ferous forests +Borea% $orests,1 They are fo#nd 0#st so#th of
arctic t#ndra. Here winters are long- cold and dry. $#nlight is available for a few
ho#rs only.
The abiotic environment of forest ecosystem incl#des the n#trients &resent in the
soil in forest floor which is #s#ally rich in dead and decaying organic matter.
&ro'ucers1 .rod#cers are mainly big trees- some shr#bs and gro#nd vegetation.
&r!mary consumers1 .rimary cons#mers are insects like ants- flies- beetles- s&iders- and
big animals like ele&hants- deer- s?#irrels etc.
Secon'ary consumers1 $econdary cons#mers are carnivores like snakes- li8ards- fo'es-
birds etc.-
Tert!ary consumers1 Tertiary cons#mers are animals like tiger- lion etc.
Decomposers( =ecom&osers are bacteria f#ngi which are fo#nd in soil on the forest
floor. Aate of decom&osition in tro&hical or s#b!tro&hical forests is more ra&id than that
in the tem&erate 8ones.
.rass%an' Ecosystem(

The grassland ecosystem occ#&ies abo#t 1FG of the earth;s s#rface. The abiotic
environment incl#des n#trient like nitrates- s#l&hates or &hos&hates and trace elements
&resent in the soil- gases- like /3 &resent in the atmos&here and water etc.
Three ty&es of grasslands are fo#nd to occ#r in different climatic regions1
+a, Trop!ca% 0rass%an's1 They occ#r near the borders of tro&ical rain forests in
regions of high average tem&erat#re and low to moderate rainfall.
+", Temperate 0rass%an's1 They are #s#ally fo#nd on flat- gentle slo&ed hills-
winters are very cold b#t s#mmers are hot and dry.
+c, &o%ar 0rass %an's1 they are fo#nd in arctic &olar region where severe cold and
strong- frigid winds along with ice and snow create too harsh a climate for trees to
grow.
&ro'ucers( .rod#cers are mainly grass and some herbs- shr#bs- and few scattered trees.
&r!mary consumers1 .rimary cons#mers are gra8ing animals s#ch as cow- shee&- deer-
ho#se- kangaroo- etc. $ome insects and s&iders have also been incl#ded as &rimary
cons#mers.
Secon'ary consumers1 $econdary cons#mers are animals like fo'- 0ackals- snakes-
li8ards- frogs and birds etc.
Tert!ary consumers1 =ecom&osers are bacteria- mo#lds and f#ngi- like &enicilli#m-
%s&ergill#s etc. The minerals and other n#trients are th#s bro#ght back to the soil and are
made available to the &rod#cers.
2low chart1 2ood chain
Grass@ Grass ho&er @Bi8ard
Grass @ Aabbit@ 2o' @ Bion
Desert Ecosystem
=esert occ#rs in the region where the average rainfall is less than 37 cm.
The abiotic environment of a desert ecosystem incl#des water which is scarce.
The atmos&here is very very dry and hence it is a &oor ins#lator.
That is why in deserts the soil gets cooled #& ?#ickly- making the nights cool.

=eserts are of three ma0or ty&es- based on climatic conditions1
! Trop!ca% 'eserts like $ahara in %frica and Thar =esert- Aa0asthan- India are the
driest of all with only a few s&ecies.
!! Temperature 'eserts like Co0ave in $o#thern /alifornia where day time
tem&erat#res are very hot in s#mmer b#t cool in winters.
!!! Co%' 'eserts like Gobi desert in /hina have cold winters and warm s#mmers.
&ro'ucers( the chief &rod#cers are shr#bs- b#shes and some trees whose roots are very
e'tensive and stems and leaves are modified to store water and to red#ce loss of water as
a res#lt of trans&iration. Bow &lants s#ch as mosses and bl#e green algae are minor
&rod#cers.
&r!mary consumers1 .rimary cons#mers are animals like rabbits which get water from
s#cc#lent &lants. They do not drink water even if it is freely available. /amel is also a
&rimary cons#mer of the desert.
Secon'ary consumers1 $econdary cons#mers are carnivores like re&tiles having
im&ervio#s skin which minimi8e loss water from the s#rface of body.
Tert!ary consumers1 The tertiary cons#mers are mainly birds which conserve warer by
e'creting solid #ric acid.
Decomposers( =ecom&osers are bacteria and f#ngi which can thrive in hot climate
conditions. 5eca#se of scarcity of flora and fa#na- the dead organic matter available is
m#ch less and therefore decom&osers are also less in n#mber.
2low /hart1 2ood chain
$hr#b@ Aabbits@ Ae&tiles@ 5irds
A7uat!c ecosystems
%?#atic ecosystems dealing with water bodies and the biotic comm#nities &resent
in them are either freshwater or marine. Bet #s consider some im&ortant a?#atic
ecosystems.
+!, &on' ecosystems 1
a. It is a small freshwater a?#atic ecosystem where water is stagnant.
b. .onds may be seasonal in nat#re i.e. receiving eno#gh water d#ring rainy
season.
c. .onds are #s#ally shallow water bodies which &lay a very im&ortant role
in the villages where most of the activities center aro#nd &onds.
d. They contain several ty&es of algae- a?#atic &lants- insects- fishes- and
birds.
e. The &onds are- however- very often e'&osed to tremendo#s anthro&ogenic
&ress#res.
f. They are #sed for washing clothes- bathing- swimming- cattle bathing and
drinking etc. and therefore get &oll#ted.
+!!, 3a1e ecosystems 1
a. Bakes are #s#ally big freshwater bodies with standing water.
b. They have shallow water 8one called Bittoral 8one- an o&en!water 8one
called Bimnetic 8one and dee& bottom area where light &enetration is
negligible- known as &rof#ndal 8one+2ig.6,.
2ig16 Honation in a lake ecosystem
Or0an!sms( Bakes have several ty&es of organisms1
+!, &%an1tons that float on the s#rface of waters e.g. &hyto&lanktons like algae and
8oo&lanktons like rotifers.
+!!, Ne1tons that swim e.g. fishes.
+!!!, Neustons that rest or swim on the s#rface.
+!*, Bent-os that are attached to bottom sediments e.g. snails.
+*, &er!p-ytons that are attached or clinging to other &lants or any other s#rface
e.g. cr#staceans.
Strat!f!cat!on(
The lakes show stratification or 8onation based on tem&erat#re differences.
=#ring s#mmer- the to& waters become warmer than the bottom waters. Therefore- only
the warm to& layer circ#lates witho#t mi'ing with the colder layer- th#s forming a distinct
8onation1
Epy!%!mn!on1 Darm- lighter- circ#lating s#rface layer.
)ypo%!mn!on1 /old-visco#s-non!circ#lating bottom layer
Types of %a1es(
+a, O%!0otrop-!c %a1es which have low n#trient concentrations.
+", Eutrop-!c %a1es which are over no#rished by n#trients like nitrogen and
&hos&hor#s- #s#ally as a res#lt of agric#lt#ral r#n!off or m#nici&al sewage
discharge. They are covered with )algal blooms) e.g. =al lake.
+c, Dystrop-!c %a1es that have low &H- high h#mic acid content and brown waters
e.g. bog lakes.
+', En'em!c %a1es that are very ancient- dee& and have endemic fa#na which are
restricted only to that lake e.g. the Bake 5aikal in A#ssia.
+e, Art!f!c!a% %a1es or !mpoun'ments that are created d#e to constr#ction of dams
e.g. Govindsagar Bake at 5hakra!(angal.
+!!!, Streams(
These are freshwater a?#atic ecosystems where water c#rrent is a ma0or
controlling factor- o'ygen and n#trient in the water is more #niform and land!
water e'change is more e'tensive.
%ltho#gh stream organisms have to face more e'tremes of tem&erat#re and action
of c#rrents as com&ared to &ond or lake organisms- b#t they do not have to face
o'ygen deficiency #nder nat#ral conditions.
This is beca#se the streams are shallow- have a large s#rface e'&osed to air and
constant motion which ch#rns the water and &rovides ab#ndant o'ygen.
Their dissolved o'ygen level is higher than that of &onds even tho#gh the green
&lants are m#ch less in n#mber.
The stream animals #s#ally have a narrow range of tolerance to o'ygen.
That is the reason why they are very s#sce&tible to any organic &oll#tion which
de&letes dissolved o'ygen in the water.
Th#s- streams are the worst victims of ind#strial develo&ment.
+!*, R!*er ecosystems(
Aivers are large streams that flow downward from mo#ntain highlands and
flowing thro#gh the &lains fall into the sea.
$o the river ecosystems show a series of different conditions.
T-e mounta!n -!0-%an' &art has cold- clear waters r#shing down as water falls
with large amo#nts of dissolves o'ygen.
In t-e secon' p-ase on the gentle slo&es- the waters are warmer and s#&&ort a
l#'#riant growth of &lants and less o'ygen re?#iring fishes.
In t-e t-!r' p-ase- the river waters are very rich in biotic diversity. Coving
down the hills- rivers sha&e the land. They bring with them lots of silt rich in
n#trients which are de&osited in the &lains and in the delta before teaching the
ocean.
+*, Oceans(
These are gigantic reservoirs of water covering more than IFG of o#r earth;s
s#rface and &lay a key role in the s#rvival of abo#t 3-7F-FFF marine s&ecies-
serving as food for h#mans and other organisms- give a h#ge variety of sea!
&rod#cts and dr#gs.
ceans &rovide #s iron- &hos&hor#s- magnesi#m- oil- nat#ral gas- sand and gravel.
ceans are the ma0or sinks of carbondio'ide and &lay an im&ortant role in
reg#lating many biogeochemical cycles and hydrological cycle- thereby
reg#lating the earth;s climate.
The oceans have two ma0or life 8ones1 +2ig17,
Coasta% 4one( It is relatively warm- n#trient rich shallow water. =#e to high n#trients and
am&le s#nlight this is the 8one of high &rimary &rod#ctivity.
Open sea1 It is the dee&er &art of the ocean- away from the continental shelf. It is
vertically divided into three regions1
Eup-ot!c 4one which receives ab#ndant light and shows high &hotosynthetic
activity.
Bat-ya% 4one receives dim light and is #s#ally geologically active.
A"yssa% 4one is the dark 8one- 3FFF to 7FFF meters dee&. The abyssal 8one has
no &rimary so#rce of energy i.e. solar energy. It is the world;s largest ecological
#nit b#t it is an incom&lete ecosystem.
Estuary
Est#ary is a &artially enclosed coastal area at the mo#th of a river where fresh
water and salty seawater meet.
These are the transition 8ones which are strongly affected by tidal action.
/onstant mi'ing of water stirs #& the silt which makes the n#trients available for
the &rimary &rod#cers.
The organisms &resent in est#aries show a wide range of tolerance to tem&erat#re
and salinity.
$#ch organisms are known as e#rythermal and e#ryhaline. /oastal bays and tidal
marshes are e'am&les of est#aries.
Est#ary has a rich biodiversity and many of the s&ecies are endemic.
There are many migratory s&ecies of fishes like eels and salmons in which half of
the life is s&ent in fresh water and half in salty water.
2or them est#aries are ideal &laces for resting d#ring migration- where they also
get ab#ndant food.
Est#aries are highly &rod#ctive ecosystems.
The river flow and tidal action &rovide energy for est#ary thereby enhancing its
&rod#ctivity.
Est#aries are of m#ch #se to h#man beings d#e to their high food &otential.
However- these ecosystems need to be managed 0#dicio#sly and &rotected from
&oll#tion.
Introd#ction to 5iodiversity
Def!n!t!on
B!o'!*ers!ty refers to the variety and variability among all gro#&s of living
organisms and the ecosystem com&le'es in which they occ#r.
In the convention of 5iological diversity +1993, biodiversity has been defined as
the variability among living organisms from all so#rces incl#ding inter alia- terrestrial-
marine and other a?#atic ecosystems and the ecological com&le'es of which they are a
&art.
.enet!c '!*ers!ty
Genetic =iversity is the basic so#rce of biodiversity.
The genes fo#nd in organisms can form enormo#s n#mber of combinations each
of which gives rise to some variability.
Genes are the basic #nits of hereditary information transmitted from one
generation to other.
Dhen the genes within the same s&ecies show different versions d#e to new
combinations- it is called genetic variability.
2or e'am&le- all rice varieties belong to the s&ecies ory8a sativa- b#t there are
tho#sands of wild and c#ltivated verities of rice which show variations at the
genetic level and differ in their color- si8e- sha&e- aroma and n#trient content of
the grain. This is the genetic diversity of rice
Spec!es '!*ers!ty
$&ecies =iversity is the variability fo#nd within the &o&#lation of a s&ecies or
between different s&ecies of a comm#nity.
It re&resents broadly the s&ecies richness and their ab#ndance in a comm#nity.
There are two &o&#lar indices of meas#ring s&ecies diversity known as Shannon-
wiener index and Simpson index.
Dhat is the n#mber of s&ecies in this bios&hereJ
The estimates of act#al n#mber vary widely d#e to incom&lete and indirect data.
The c#rrent estimates given by Dilson in 1993 &#t the total n#mber of living
s&ecies in a range of 1F million to 7F million.
Till now only abo#t 1.7 million living and 4FF-FFF fossil s&ecies have been
act#ally described and given scientific names.
Ecosystem '!*ers!ty
Ecosystem diversity is the diversity of ecological com&le'ity showing variations
in tro&hic str#ct#re- food!webs- n#trient cycling etc.
The ecosystems also show variations with res&ect to &hysical &arameters like
moist#re- tem&erat#re- altit#de- &reci&itation etc.
The ecosystem diversity is of great val#e that m#st be ke&t intact.
This diversity has develo&ed over millions of years of evol#tion.
If we destroy this diversity- it wo#ld disr#&t the ecological balance.
De cannot even re&lace the diversity of one ecosystem by that of another.
/onifero#s trees of boreal forests cannot take #& the f#nction of the trees of
tro&hicl decid#o#s forest lands and vice versa.
B!o0eo0rap-!ca% c%ass!f!cat!on of In'!a(
5iogeogra&hy com&rising of &hytogeogra&hy and 8oogeogra&hy deals with the
as&ects of &lants and animals. There are aro#nd ten biogeogra&hic regions in India.
$.(o B!o0eo0rap-!c 8one B!ot!c pro*!nce Tota% area
+s71m,
1 Trans!Himalayan E&&er Aegions 1863FF
3 Himalayan (orth!Dest Himalayas
Dest Himalayas
central Himalayas
East Himalayas
69FF
I3FFFF
134FFF
84FFF
4 =esert K#tch
Thar
Badakh
67FFF
18FFFF
(%
6 $emi!%rid /entral India
G#0arat!Aa0wara
1FI6FF
6FF6FF
7 Destern Ghats Calabar /oast
Destern Ghat Co#ntains
79IFF
994FF
6 =eccan .enins#la =eccan .latea# $o#th
/entral .latea#
Eastern .latea#
/hotta (ag&#r
/entral Highlands
4I8FFF
461FFF
198FFF
31IFFF
38IFFF
I Gangetic .lain E&&er Gangetic .lain
Bower Gangetic .lain
3F66FF
174FFF
8 (orth!East India 5rahma&#tra >alley
(orth!Eastern Hills
673FF
1F63FF
9 Islands %ndaman Islands
(icobar Islands
Bakshadwee& Islands
649I
194F
18F
1F /oast Dest /oast
East /oast
67FF
67FF

Va%ue of "!o'!*ers!ty
The val#e of biodiversity in terms of its commercial #tility- ecological services-
social and aesthetic val#e is enormo#s. The m#lti&le #ses of biodiversity val#e have been
classified by Cc(eely et al in 199F as follows1
+!, Consumpt!*e use *a%ue1 these are direct #se val#es where the biodiversity
&rod#ct can be harvested and cons#med directly e.g. f#el- food- dr#gs- fibre
etc.
a. $oo'1 % large n#mber of wild &lants are cons#med by h#man beings as
food. %bo#t 8F-FFF edible &lant s&ecies have been re&orted from wild.
%bo#t 9FG of &resent day food cro&s have been domesticated from wild
tro&ical &lants. % large n#mber of wild animals are also o#r so#rces of
food.
b. Dru0s an' me'!c!nes(
i. %bo#t I7G of the world;s &o&#lation de&ends #&on &lants or &lant
e'tracts for medicines.
ii. The wonder dr#g &enicillin #sed as an antibiotic is derived from a
f#ng#s called &enicilli#m.
iii. Bikewise- we get Tetracyclin from a bacteri#m. L#inine- the c#re
for malaria is obtained from the bark of /inchona tree- while
=igitalin is obtained from fo'glove which is an effective c#re for
heart ailments.
iv. Aecently vinblastin and vincristine- two anticancer dr#gs- have
been obtained from &eriwinkle &lant- which &ossesses anticancer
alkaloids.
#r forests have been #sed since ages for f#el wood. The fossil f#rls coal- &etrole#m
and nat#ral gas are also &rod#cts of fossili8ed biodiversity.
+!!, &ro'uct!*e use *a%ues1
a. These are the commercially #sable val#es where the &rod#ct is marketed
and sold.
b. These may incl#de the animal &rod#cts like t#sks of ele&hants- m#sk from
m#sk deer- silk from silk!worm- wool from shee&- lac from lac insects etc-
all of which are traded in the market.
c. Cany ind#stries are de&endent #&on the &rod#ctive #se val#es of
biodiversity e.g. Mthe &a&er and &#l& ind#stry- &lywood ind#stry- railway
slee&er ind#stry- silk ind#stry- ivory!works- leather ind#stry- &earl ind#stry
etc.
+!!!, Soc!a% *a%ue1
a. These are the val#es associated with the social life- c#stoms- and religion
of the &eo&le.
b. Cany of the &lants are considered holy and sacred in o#r co#ntry like
T#lsi- &ee&#l- Cango- and Bot#s etc.
c. The leaves- fr#its or flowers of these &lants are #sed in worshi& or the
&lant itself is worshi&&ed.
d. Cany animals like /ow- $nake- and .eacock also have significant &lace in
o#r &sycho!s&irit#al arena.
+!*, Et-!ca% *a%ue1
a. It is also sometimes known as e'istence val#e. It involves ethical iss#es
like )all life m#st be &reserved).
b. The ethical val#e means that we may or may not #se a s&ecies- b#t
knowing the very fact that this s&ecies e'ists in nat#re gives #s &leas#re.
c. De are not deriving anything direct from Kangaroo- Hebra or Giraffe- b#t
we all strongly feel that these s&ecies sho#ld e'ist in nat#re.
+*, Aest-et!c *a%ue1
a. (o one of #s wo#ld like to visit vast stretches of barren lands with no
signs of visible life.
b. .eo&le from far and wide s&end a lot of time and money to visit
wilderness areas where they can en0oy the aesthetic val#e of biodiversity
and this ty&e of to#rism is now known as eco!to#rism.
c. Ecoto#rism is estimated to generate abo#t 13 billion dollars of reven#e
ann#ally.
+*!, Opt!on *a%ues1
a. These val#es incl#de the &otentials of biodiversity that are &resently
#nknown and need to be e'&lored.
b. There is a &ossibility that we may have some &otential c#re for %I=$ or
cancer e'isting within the de&ths of a marine ecosystem- or a tro&ical rain
forest.
c. Th#s o&tion val#e is the val#e of knowing that there are biological
reso#rces e'isting on this bios&here that may one day &rove to be an
effective o&tion for something im&ortant in the f#t#re.
+*!!, Ecosystem ser*!ce *a%ue1
a. It refers to the services &rovided by ecosystems like &revention of soil
erosion- &revention of floods- maintenance of soil fertility- cycling of
n#trients- &revention floods- cycling of water- their role as carbon sinks-
&oll#tant absor&tion and red#ction of the threat of global warming etc.
.%o"a% B!o'!*ers!ty
2ollowing the 1993 NEarth s#mmitO at Aio de Paneiro- it become evident that there
is a growing need to know and scientifically name- the h#ge n#mber of s&ecies
which are still #nknown on this earth.
Tro&ical deforestation alone is red#cing the biodiversity by half a &ercentage
every year.
Terrestrial biodiversity of the earth is best described as biomes- which are the
largest ecological #nits &resent in different geogra&hic areas and are named after
the dominant vegetation e.g. the tro&ical rainforests- tall grass &rairies- savannas-
desert- t#ndra etc.
#t of the 4FFF &lants identified by (ational /ancer Aesearch Instit#te as so#rces
of cancer fighting chemicals- IFG come from tro&ical rain forests.
There is an estimated 1-37-FFF flowering &lant s&ecies in tro&ical forests.
However- till now we know only 1!4G of these s&ecies.
Tem&erat#re forests have m#ch less biodiversity- b#t there is m#ch better
doc#mentation of the s&ecies. Globally- we have ro#ghly 1-IF-FFF flowering
&lants- 4F-FFF vertebrates and abo#t 3-7F-FFF other gro#&s of s&ecies that have
been described.
Table 1 shows the estimated n#mber of some known living s&ecies in different
ta'onomic gro#&s1
Table11 Biving s&ecies estimates +Dorld Aeso#rce Instit#te- 1999,
Ta9onom!c 0roup Num"er
5acteria Q /yanobacteria 7-FFF
.roto8oans 41-FFF
%lgae 3I-FFF
Pelly fish- /orals etc. 1F-FFF
%m&hibians 6-FFF
Ae&tiles 7-FFF
5irds 9-FFF
Cammals 6-FFF
B!o%o0!ca% '!*ers!ty at Nat!ona% 3e*e%
Every co#ntry is characteri8ed by its own biodiversity de&ending mainly on its
climate.
India has a rich biological diversity of flora and fa#na. verall si' &ercent of the
global s&ecies are fo#nd in India.
It is estimated that India ranks 1F
th
among the &lant rich co#ntries of the world-
11
th
in terms of n#mber of endemic s&ecies of higher vertebrates and 6
th
among
the centers of diversity and origin of agric#lt#ral cro&s.
The total n#mber of living s&ecies identified in o#r co#ntry is 1-7F-FFF.
#t of a total 37 biodiversity hot!s&ots in the world- India &ossesses two.
India is also one of the 13 mega!biodiversity co#ntries in the world.
Re0!ona% or %oca% "!o'!*ers!ty
5iodiversity at regional level is better #nderstood by categori8ing s&ecies richness
into fo#r ty&es- based #&on their s&atial distrib#tion as disc#ssed below1
+i, &o!nt r!c-ness refers to the n#mber of s&ecies that can be fo#nd at a single
&oint in a given s&ace.
+ii, A%p-a +, r!c-ness refers to the n#mber of s&ecies fo#nd in a small
homogeno#s area.
+iii, Beta +, r!c-ness refers to the rate of change in s&ecies com&osition across
different habitats.
+iv, .amma +, r!c-ness refers to the rate of change across large landsca&e
gradients.
! richness is strongly correlated with &hysical environmental variables. ! richness
means that the c#m#lative n#mber of s&ecies increases as more heterogono#s habitats are
taken into consideration.
In'!a as me0a '!*ers!ty nat!on
India is one of the 13 mega diversity co#ntries in the world. The Cinistry of
Environment and forests- Govt. of India +3FFF, records 6I-FFF s&ecies of &lants and
81-FFF s&ecies of animals which is abo#t IG and 6.7G res&ectively of global flora and
fa#na.
En'em!sm1 $&ecies- which are restricted only to a &artic#lar area- are known as
endemic. India shows a good n#mber of endemic s&ecies.
Center of or!0!n1 % large n#mber of s&ecies are known to have originated in India.
(early 7FFF s&ecies of flowering &lants had their origin in India.
Mar!ne '!*ers!ty1 %long I7FF km long coastline of o#r co#ntry in the mangroves-
est#aries- coral reefs- back waters etc. there e'ists a rich biodiversity. Core than 46F
s&ecies of corals of the world are fo#nd here. R
% large &ro&ortion of the Indian 5iodiversity is still #ne'&lored. There are abo#t 94
ma0or wet lands- coral reefs and mangroves which need to be st#died in detail.
)ot spots of "!o'!*ers!ty
%reas- which e'hibit high s&ecies richness as well as high s&ecies endemism- are
termed as hot s&ots of biodiversity.
The term was introd#ced by Cyers +1988,.
There are 37 s#ch hot s&ots of biodiversity on a global level o#t of which two are
&resent in India- namely the Eastern Himalayas and Destern Ghats.
These hot s&ots covering less than 3G of the worldSs land are fo#nd to have abo#t
7FG of the terrestrial biodiversity.
%bo#t 6FG of terrestrial &lants and 37G of vertebrate s&ecies are endemic and
fo#nd in these hots&ots.
%fter the tro&ical rain forests- the second highest n#mber of endemic &lant s&ecies
are fo#nd in the Cediterranean +Cittermeier,.
Earlier 13 hot s&ots were identified on a global level.
Bater Cyers et al +3FFF, recogni8ed 37 hot s&ots.
Two of these hots&ots lie in India e'tending into neighbo#ring co#ntries namely-
Indo!5#rma region +covering Eastern Himalayas, and Destern Ghats M $ri Banka
region.
The Indian hot s&ots are not only rich in floral wealth and endemic s&ecies of
&lants b#t also re&tiles- am&hibians- swallow tailed b#tterflies and some
mammals.
+a, Eastern )!ma%ayas1
a. They dis&lay an #ltra!varied to&ogra&hy that fosters s&ecies diversity
and endemism.
b. /ertain s&ecies like $a&ria himalayana- a &arasitic angios&erm was
sighted only twice in this region in the last IF years.
c. #t of the worldSs recorded flora 4FG are endemic to India of which
47-FFF are in the Himalayas.
+", 5estern .-ats(
a. It e'tends along a 1I-FFF Km
3
stri& of forests in Caharashtra-
Karnataka- Tamil (ad# and Kerala and has 6FG of the total endemic
&lant s&ecies.
b. 63G am&hibians and 7FG li8ards are endemic to Destern Ghats.
c. The ma0or centers of diversity are %gastyamalai Hills and $ilent
>alley!Tthe (ew %mambalam Aeserve 5asin.
d. It is re&orted that only 6.8G of the original forests are e'isting today
while the rest has been deforested or degraded.
e. %ltho#gh the hots&ots are characteri8ed by endemism- interestingly- a
few s&ecies are common to both the hots&ots in India.
T-reats to B!o'!*ers!ty
E'tinction or elimination of a s&ecies is a nat#ral &rocess of evol#tion.
In the geologic &eriod the earth has e'&erienced mass e'tinctions.
=#ring evol#tion- s&ecies have died o#t and have been re&laced by others.
The &rocess of e'tinction has become &artic#larly fast in the recent years of
h#man civili8ation.
ne of the estimates by the noted ecologist- E.. Dilson &#ts the fig#re of
e'tinction at 1F-FFF s&ecies &er year or 3I &er dayU This starling fig#re raises an
alarm regarding the serio#s threat to biodiversity.
Bet #s consider some of the ma0or ca#ses and iss#es related to threats to biodiversity.
+!, 3oss of )a"!tat
=estr#ction and loss of nat#ral habitat is the single largest ca#se of biodiversity
loss. 5illions of hectares of forests and grasslands have been cleared over the &ast
1F-FFF years for conversion into agric#lt#re lands- &ast#res- settlement areas or
develo&ment &ro0ects.
There has been a ra&id disa&&earance of tro&ical forests in o#r co#ntry also- at a
rate of abo#t F.6G &er year.
Dith the c#rrent rate of loss of forest habitat- it is estimated that 3F!37G of the
global flora wo#ld be lost within a few years.
Carine biodiversity is also #nder serio#s threat d#e to large scale destr#ction of
the fragile breeding and feeding gro#nds of o#r oceanic fish and other s&ecies- as
a res#lt of h#man intervention.
+!!, &oac-!n0
Illegal trade of wildlife &rod#cts by killing &rohibited endangered animals i.e.
&oaching is another threat to wildlife.
=es&ite international ban on trade in &rod#cts from endangered s&ecies-
sm#ggling of wild life items like f#rs- hides- horns- t#sks- live s&ecimens and
herbal &rod#cts worth millions of dollars &er year contin#es.
The cost of ele&hant t#sks can go #& to V1FF &er kg: the leo&ard f#r coat is sold at
V 1FF-FFF in Pa&an while bird catchers can fetch #& to V 1F-FFF for a rare hyacinth
macaw- a bea#tif#l colo#red bird- from 5ra8il.
+!!!, Man-5!%'%!fe conf%!ct
Instances of man animal conflicts kee& on coming to lime light from several states
in o#r co#ntry.
In $ambal&#r- rissa 197 h#mans were killed in the last 7 years by ele&hants.
In retaliation the villagers killed 98 ele&hants and badly in0#red 4F ele&hants.
$everal instances of killing of ele&hants in the border regions of Kote!
/hamara0anagar belt in Cysore have been re&orted recently.
The man!ele&hant conflict in this region has arisen beca#se of the massive
damage done by the ele&hants to the farmerSs cotton and s#garcane cro&s.
The agoni8ed villagers electroc#te the ele&hants and sometimes hide e'&losives in
the s#garcane fields- which e'&lode as the ele&hants intr#de into their fields.
In the early 3FF6- a man!eating tiger was re&orted to kill 16 (e&alese &eo&le and
one 6!year old child inside the Aoyal /hitwan (ational .ark of Kathmand#.
In P#ne- 3FF6 two men were killed by the leo&ards in .owai- C#mbai.
Cause of Man-an!ma% conf%!cts(
+!, =windling habitats of tigers- ele&hants and bears d#e to shrinking forest cover
com&els them to move o#tside the forest and attack the field or sometimes
even h#mans.
+!!, Es#ally the ill- weak and in0#red animals have tendency to attack man. %lso-
the female tigress attacks the h#man if she feels that her newborn c#bs are in
danger. 5#t the biggest &roblem is that if h#man!flesh is tasted once then the
tiger does not eat any other animal.
+!!!, Earlier- forest de&artments #sed to c#ltivate &addy- s#garcane etc. within the
sanct#aries when the favo#rite sta&le food of ele&hants i.e. bamboo leaves
were not abailable. (ow d#e to lack of s#ch &ractices the animals move o#t
of the forest in search of food.
+!*, >ery often the villagers &#t electric wiring aro#nd their ri&e cro& fields. The
ele&hants get in0#red- s#ffer in &ain and t#rn violent.
+*, The cash com&ensation &aid by the government in lie# of the damage ca#sed
to the farmers cro& is not eno#gh. The agoni8ed farmer therefore gets
revengef#l and kills the wild animals.
Reme'!a% Measures to Cur" t-e Conf%!ct(
+!, Tiger /onservation .ro0ect +T/., has made &rovisions for making available
vehicles- tran?#illi8er g#ns- and binoc#lars to tactf#lly deal with any imminent
danger.
+!!, %de?#ate cro& com&ensation and cattle com&ensation scheme m#st be started.
+!!!, $olar &owered fencing sho#ld be &rovided along with electric c#rrent &roof
trenches to &revent the animals from straying fields.
+!*, /ro&&ing &attern sho#ld be changed near forest borders and ade?#ate fr#its
and water sho#ld be made available for the ele&hants within forest 8ones.
+*, Dild life corridors sho#ld be &rovided for mass migration of big animals
d#ring #nfavorable &eriods.
En'an0ere' spec!es of In'!a
The International Enion for /onservation of (at#re and (at#ral Aeso#rces
+IE/(, &#blishes the Aed =ata 5ook which incl#des the list of endangered
s&ecies of &lants and animals.
The red data symboli8es the warning signal for those s&ecies which are
endangered and if not &rotected are likely to become e'tinct in near f#t#re.
In India- nearly 67F &lant s&ecies have been identified in the categories of
endangered- threatened or rare.
E'istence of abo#t 17F mammals and 17F s&ecies of birds is estimated to be
threatened while an #nknown n#mber of s&ecies of insects are endangered.
% few s&ecies of endangered re&tiles- birds- mammals and &lants are given below1
o Rept!%es( Green sea t#rtle- tortoise- &ython
o B!r's( Great Indian b#stard- .eacock- .elican- Great Indian Hornbill-
$iberian
o Carn!*orous Mamma%s( Indian wolf- red fo'- red &anda- tiger- leo&ard-
Indian- lion- golden cat- desert cat
o &r!mates( Hoolock gibbon- ca&&ed monkey- golden monkey
o &%ants( % large n#mber of s&ecies of orchids- Aododendrons- medicinal
&lants like Aa#volfia ser&entina- the sandal- wood tree santal#m- cycas
beddonei etc
.
The Hoological $#rvey of India re&orted that /heetah- .ink headed d#ck and
mo#ntain ?#ail have already become e'tinct from India.
% s&ecies is said to e e'tinct when it is not seen in the wild for 7F years at a
stretch eg. =odo- .assenger &igeon.
% s&ecies is said to be endangered when its n#mber has been red#ced to a critical
level. If s#ch a s&ecies is not &rotected and conserved- it is in immediate danger of
e'tinction.
% s&ecies is said to be in v#lnerable category if its &o&#lation is facing contin#o#s
decline d#e to overe'&loitation or habitat destr#ction.
$&ecies which are not endangered or v#lnerable at &resent- b#t are at a risk are
categori8ed as rare s&ecies.
En'em!c spec!es(
The s&ecies are only fo#nd among a &artic#lar &eo&le or in a &artic#lar region are
knows as endemic s&ecies.
#t of abo#t 6I- FF s&ecies of &lants in o#r co#ntry IFFF are endemic.
$ome of the im&ortant endemic flora incl#des orchids and s&ecies like sa&ria
himalayana- Evaria l#reda- (e&enthes khasiana etc.
% large n#mber o#t of total of 81-FFF s&ecies of animals in o#r co#ntry is
endemic.
The western ghats are &artic#larly rich in am&hibians and re&tiles.
%bo#t 63Gam&hiians and 7FG li8ards are endemic to Destern Ghats.
=ifferent s&ecies of monitor li8ard- retic#lated &ython are some im&ortant
endemic s&ecies of o#r co#ntry.
Conser*at!on of B!o'!*ers!ty
The enormo#s val#e of biodiversity d#e to their genetic- commercial- medical-
esthetic- ecological and o&tional im&ortance em&hasi8es the need to conserve
biodiversity.
There are two a&&roaches of biodiversity conservation1
+a, In s!tu conser*at!on +2!t-!n -a"!tat,( This is achieved by &rotection of wild flora
and fa#na in nat#re itself. E.g. 5ios&here Aeserves- (ational .arks- $anct#aries- Aeserve
2orests etc.
+", E9 s!tu conser*at!on +outs!'e -a"!tats,( This is done by establishment of gene
banks- seed banks- 8oos- botanical gardens- c#lt#re collections etc.
In S!tu conser*at!on(
%t &resent in o#r co#ntry we have1
I ma0or 5ios&here reserves-
8F (ational .arks-
63F wild!life sanct#aries and
13F 5otanical gardens
They totally cover 6G of the geogra&hic area.
T-e B!osp-ere Reser*es conserve some re&resentative ecosystems as a whole for
long!term in sit# conservation. In India we have1
(anda =evi +E...,-
(okrek +Ceghalaya,-
Canas +%ssam,-
$#nderbans +Dest 5engal,-
G#lf of Cannar +Tamil (ad#,-
(ilgiri +Karnataka- Kerala- Tamil (ad#,-
Great (icobars and $imili&al +rrisa,
A Nat!ona% &ar1 is an area dedicated for the conservation of wildlife along with
its environment. It is also meant for en0oyment thro#gh to#rism b#t witho#t im&airing
the environment. Gra8ing of domestic animals- all &rivate rights and forestry activities
are &rohibited within a (ational .ark. Each (ational .ark #s#ally aims at conservation
s&ecifically of some &artic#lar s&ecies of wildlife along with others.
$ome ma0or (ational .arks of o#r co#ntry are enlisted in the Table 3 below1
Table 3 $ome im&ortant (ational &arks in India
Name of Nat!ona% &ar1 State Important 5!%'%!fe
Ka8iranga %ssam ne horned Ahino
Gir (ational .ark G#0arat Indian Bion
5andi&#r Karnataka Ele&hant
.eriyar Kerala Ele&hant- Tiger
$ariska Aa0asthan Tiger
5!%'%!fe sanctuar!es are also &rotected areas where killing- h#nting- shooting or
ca&t#ring of wildlife is &rohibited e'ce&t #nder the control of highest a#thority. $ome
ma0or wildlife sanct#aries of o#r co#ntry are shown in table 4.
Table 4 $ome Im&ortant Dildlife $anct#aries of India
Name of Sanctuary State Ma:or 5!%' 3!fe
Ghana 5ird $anct#ary Aa0asthan 4oo s&ecies of birds
+incl#ding migratory,
$#ltan&#r 5ird $anct#ary Haryana Cigratory birds
C#damalai Dildlife
$anct#ary
Tamil (ad# Tiger- ele&hant- Beo&ard
>edanthangal 5ird
$anct#ary
Tamil (ad# Dater birds
Dild %ss $anct#ary G#0arat Dild ass- wolf- nilgai-
chinkara

2or &lants- there is one gene sanct#ary for /itr#s +Bemon family, and one for
&itcher &lant +an insect eating &lant, in (ortheast India.
E9 S!tu Conser*at!on(
This ty&e of conservation is mainly done for conservation of cro& varieties. In India- we
have the following im&ortant gene bank<seed bank facilities1
+!, (ational 5#rea# of .lant Genetic Aeso#rces +(5.GA, is located in (ew
=elhi. Here agric#lt#ral and hortic#lt#ral cro&s and their wild relatives are
&reserved by cryo!&reservation of seeds- &ollen etc. by #sing li?#id
nitrogen at a tem&erat#re as low as M 196 degree /elsio#s. >arieties of
rice- t#rni&- radish- tomato- onion- carrot- chilli- tobacco etc. have been
&reserved s#ccessf#lly in li?#id nitrogen for several years witho#t losing
seed viability.
+!!, (ational 5#rea# of %nimal Genetic Aeso#rces +(5%GA, located at
Karnal- Haryana. It &reserves the semen of domesticated bovine animals.
+!!!, (ational 2acility for .lant Tiss#e /#lt#re Ae&ository +(2.T/A, for the
develo&ment of a facility of conservation of varieties of cro& &lants<trees
by tiss#e c#lt#re. This facility has been created within the (5.GA.
2or the &rotection and conservation of certain animals- there have been
s&ecific &ro0ects in o#r co#ntry e.g. .ro0ect Tiger- Girl Bion .ro0ect- /rocodile
5reeding .ro0ect- .ro0ect Ele&hant- $now Beo&ard .ro0ect etc.