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A HISTORY
OF

INDIAN

SHIPPING

IN PREPARATION.
1.

2.

Empire of Chandra Gupta," by

Author and Narendranath Law, M.A.

*The

the

of Indian Economics," by the Author

and Radhakamal Mookerji, M.A.

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INDIAN SHIPPING
A HISTORY OF THE SEA-BORNE TRADE

AND MARITIME ACTIVITY OF THE INDIANS

FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES

BY

RADHAKUMUD MOOKERJI,

M.A.

Premchand Roychand Scholar, Calcutta University

Hemchandra Basu Mallik Professor of Indian History in the National
Coimcil of Education, Bengal

WITH AN

INTRODUCTORY NOTE
BY

BRAJENDRANATH
Principal,

SEAL, MA., Ph.D.

Maharaja of Cooch Behar's

India

College,

LONGMANS, GREEN AND

CO..
HORNBY
30MSAY
8,
ROAD,
;;.';*;; >,
'''"''''
BOWBAZAR STREET, CALCUttA
LONDON AND NEW YORK
.

'.

'*

303,

1912

'" *

,\

LONDON

PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED,

SUKE STREET, STAMFORD STREET, S.E., AND GREAT WINDMILL STREET, W,

"

Do Thou Whose

adversaries, as

if

countenance

is

turned to

in a ship to the opposite shore

a ship across the sea for our welfare."

[J^tg--Veda,

255284

all

sides send off our

do Thou convey us
I., 97, 7 and 8.]

in

PREFACE.
About two

years ago I submitted a thesis which

was approved by the Calcutta University for my
It was subPremchand Roychand Studentship.

As
sequently developed into the present work.
indicated by its title, it is an attempt to trace the
history of the maritime activity of the Indians in
all its

forms from the earliest times.

It deals

with

undoubtedly one of the most interesting,

but at the same time often forgotten, chapters of
Indian history. The subject, so far as my informa-

what

is

tion goes, has not been treated

any writer, and has not received

attention

This

systematically by
by any means the

deserves.

it

excuse for attempting this subject,

but the attempt, from its -very nature, is beset with
is

my

difficulties.

unexplored,

handed.

The

new and almost

and one has to work at it singlehave had to depend chiefly on my own
field

of

work

is

resources for the discovery, collection, and arrangement of the materials.

I

and
I

have indicated

fully,

both in the Introduction

in the footnotes, all the sources of information

have drawn upon.

The

evidences used have been

vii

PREFACE
both literary and monumental. For the collection
of literary evidences I have had to be at great pains
in ransacking the vast field of Sanskrit literature as

well as

which

Pali (especially the ydtakas) throughout

they are scattered, and then in piecing the

evidences

together.

as the Pali,

The Sanskrit

have studied both

texts,

as well

in the

original

and in translations. Besides Sanskrit and Pali,

I have been able to gather some
very valuable
evidences from old Tamil literature with the
help of a book by the late Mr. Kanakasabhai
Pillay,

now

unfortunately out of print, called

The

Tamils Eighteen Hundred Years Ago.

I have
had also to consider and use all the evidences
bearing on my subject that are contained in classical

made

literature,

accessible to Indian students

translations of McCrindle.
too,

Old Bengali

by the

literature,

has been laid under contribution in connection

with the

account of

Bengali

maritime

activity.

Further,
have, with the help of translations, found
out all the evidences bearing on the history of
I

Indian

maritime

Persian works,

activity

that

are

furnished by

most of which have been made

through Sir Henry Elliot's History in

eight volumes.
Lastly, I have had to use the
material supplied by such Chinese and Japanese
accessible

works

as

through translations in
giving an account of Indian maritime intercourse
with the Farther East.
are

accessible

viii

PREFACE
have had also to study MSS. of unpublished
works, both Sanskrit and Bengali, in the original.
I

Much

labour was involved in the search for these

Sanskrit MSS., especially those which belong to the

class of Silpa Sastras, a good number of which I
found in the famous Tanjore Palace Library (con-

some 18,000 Sanskrit works), in the Adiyar

Library, Madras, and in the possession of some

taining

old Indian artists at

Kumbakonam.

have also

derived from local tradition and old folk-lore

very valuable materials for

once famous port of Gaur,

the
the

some

history of the
old capital of

Bengal.

Of

the

MSS.

used, those

are the Yuktikalpataru,

and

specially noticeable
the Arthasdstra of

Kautilya which has been recently published. These

two important and interesting, but hitherto unknown

and

unutilized, Sanskrit

works have great value as

sources of economic history. The former gives an

account of ancient Indian shipbuilding, the like of

which cannot perhaps be found elsewhere

in

the

entire range of Sanskrit literature, while the latter

throws some new light on the economic condition

of Maurya India which will, I trust, materially
advance our knowledge of that brilliant period of
Indian history. I may also refer in this connection
to the Sanskrit work Bodhisattvdvaddna Kalpalatd
of Kshemendra, which

being published under the

This
auspices of the Asiatic Society of Bengal.
is

ix

PREFACE
work
life

also throws light on

in the Maurya epoch.

some

aspects of economic

have also tried to discover and gather all the

The many
evidence derivable from archaeology.
I

representations of ships and boats, and of scenes

of naval activity, that are furnished by old Indian

have been brought together and adduced as

evidence indicating Indian maritime enterprise.
Some of these representations I have myself disart

covered in the course of

not, I think,

boats

of several

that

travels,

and these have

To

been previously published.

kindness of some of
sketches

my

occur

my

artist

owe the
of ships and
sculpture and

friends

representations
in old Indian

painting, such as those of Ajanta,

Indian coins.

the

and also on old

thanks are due to Messrs. Bejoy

Sarkar and Narendranath Sen Gupta,

My

Kumar

my

old

pupils at the Bengal National College, Calcutta,

and now students of the Harvard University,

and also to
U.S.A., for their kind assistance
Mr. Ramananda Chatterji, M.A., editor of the
Modern Review, for the courtesy of his permission
to reprint those portions of my work which appeared
;

in his

Review.

obligation to

my

Nor must
friend Mr.

omit

to express

Benoy Kumar

my

Sarkar,

M.A., Lecturer, Bengal National College, Calcutta,

whose constant help in manifold ways it is alike

my

pleasure and duty to gratefully acknowledge.

PREFACE
have also to express my gratitude to the
Hon'ble Maharaja Manindrachandra Nandy Bahadur of Cossimbazar, and Dr. Rashbehary Ghose,
I

M.A., D.L, C.S.I, CLE., for the generous help

they have accorded me in preparing and publishing
this work.

Radhakumud Mookerji.
Berhampore, Murshedabad,
June, 19 lo.

XI

AN INTRODUCTORY NOTE
(By Principal Brajendranath Skal, M.A., Ph.D.)

Prof. Mookerji's monograph on Indian shipping

and maritime activity, from the earliest times to the
end of the Moghul period, gives a connected and
comprehensive survey of a most fascinating topic of
Indian history. The character of the work as a
learned and up-to-date compilation from the most
authoritative sources, indigenous and foreign, must
not be allowed to throw into the background the
originality and comprehensiveness of the conception.
Here, for the first time, fragmentary and scattered

records and evidences are collated and compared in

and one
a systematic survey of the entire field
;

broad historical generalization stands out clearly

and convincingly, of which all histories of world
culture will do well to take note, viz. the central

position of India in the Orient world, for well-nigh

two thousand

years, not

merely in a

social,

a moral,

a spiritual, or an artistic reference, but also and

equally

in

respect

of

colonizing
xiii

and maritime

INTRODUCTORY NOTE
and of commercial

and

manufacturing
multitude of facts of special significance also come out vividly, and, in several cases,
activity,

interests.

for the first time, in the author's presentation, e.g.

and

the

teeming ports
harbour and other

harbours

maritime

of

India,

the

regulations of

the

epoch, the indigenous shipbuilding craft,

the Indian classification of vessels and their build,

Mauryan

the paramount part played by indigenous Indian

shipping in the expansion of Indian commerce and

and Madareaches of Malaysia and the

colonization from the shores of Africa

gascar to the farthest

Eastern Archipelago

the auxiliary character of the

foreign intermediaries, whether Greek, Arabian, or
the sources of India's manufacturing
Chinese
;

supremacy

for a

thousand

in applied

years in her advances

In establishing these

chemistry, etc.
positions, the author, besides availing himself of the

archaeological (including architectural and numismatic) as well as other historical evidence, has

drawn upon hitherto unpublished manuscripts and

other obscure sources.
But the signal merit of the
that these facts of history are throughout
accompanied by their political, social, or economic

survey

is

interpretation, so that the

monograph

is

not a mere

chronicle of facts, but a chapter of unwritten culturehistory, conceived

and executed

The

in a philosophical

author's style combines lucidity with

terseness, compresses a large mass of facts into a
spirit.

xiv

INTRODUCTORY NOTE
small compass, and is equal alike to the enumeration
of details and the march and sweep of a rapid
historical survey.

One

characteristic

casual reader of this

cannot

volume

his materials as he finds them,

escape the

most

Prof. Mookerji takes

and does not

clip

and

pare them down, in the name of historical criticism,

or handle them after the accredited methods of

By confining himself to
chronology.
landmarks, and traversing his ground by

speculative
settled

rapid strides, proceeding from epoch to epoch, he is

able to avoid the quicksands of Indian chronology.
As for the critical methods of sifting evidence, there

a great deal of misconception in the air, and it is

best to point out that the methods which are imis

perative in testing an alleged fact or event are highly

unsuitable in a review of the formative forces,
agencies, movements, of a nation's history as preserved in the storehouse of national tradition. To

take an example from the so-called Higher Criticism,

to explode the Mosaic authorship is not to
explode

Moses

in

culture-history.

In

fact,

whether

in

Semitic, Chinese, or Indian philology, the destructive

(and explosive) criticism of the seventies and eighties
of the last century is now itself exploded, and has
been followed by a finer and more accurate sense of

and national evolutions.

For the
rest, it must be recognized that, while accuracy and
scientific criticism, in the measure in which
they are
XV
historic origins

INTRODUCTORY NOTE
attainable in the social sciences,

must always be

essential to a right historical method, a first sketch

or mapping of an entire province, the work of scouts,

pioneers and conquerors, cannot usefully employ the

methods of a trigonometrical or a cadastral survey.

Brajendranath Seal.

XVI

CONTENTS.
Introduction.
I.

II.

III.

Isolation

page
and Intercourse
.

BOOK
Part

Chapter
Chapter

I.

,.

6
9

Indications

of Maritime Activity in Indian

Literature and Art.

Direct Evidences from Sanskrit and Literature

IL Direct Evidences from Indian Sculpture, Painting, and
Pali

I.

III.

I. HINDU PERIOD.

Indirect

.......

Coins

Chapter

..... ....

Evidences

Epochs

Evidences

19

32

References and Allusions to

Indian Maritime Activity in Sanskrit and Pali

Literature

Part IL

The

I.

Chapter

II.

Chapter

III.

Rome
IV. The

-53

History of Indian Maritime Activity.

The Pre-Mauryan Period

The Maury a Period
The Andhra-Kushan

Chapter

Chapter

.81

.100
Period
.

Intercourse

with

.116

Period of Hindu Imperialism in Northern

India under the Guptas and Harshavardhana
The Foundation of a Greater India Intercourse

with Farther India

xvii

.142

CONTENTS
Chapter V.

PAGE

The

Hindu Imperialism in Northern

India {continued) The Colonization of Java
Period

of

Chapter

VI. The

Period of

Hindu

India {continued)

Northern

in

Imperialism

The Maritime

Activity of the

Bengalis

Chapter

VII. The

155

Period of Hindu Imperialism in Northern

The Intercourse with China

India {continued)

Chapter

VIII. The

West Coast

The

168

of Hindu Imperialism in Southern

The Rise of the Chalukyas and the

Period

India

Cholas
the

from the Middle

Time

of

the

Northern India

Chapter

X. Retrospect

BOOK
I.

Chapter

II.

Chapter

III.

7 th

Century to

in

.170
.178

II. MAHOMEDAN PERIOD.

....

185

205

Akbar

Chapter

of the

Mahomedan Conquests

The Pre-Mogul Period

The Mogul Period The Reign of Akbar
^The Mogul Period
From the

Chapter

{continued) :
to that of Aurangzeb

Reign of
224

IV. Later Times

243

Conclusion
Indexes
I.

II.

163

Period of Hindu Imperialism in Northern

Maritime Activity on the

India {continued)

Chapter IX.

148

253

Subjects

Proper

Names

'257

xvm

269

ILLUSTRATIONS.
Indian Adventurers Sailing

out

Sculptures of Borobudur.)

the Jagannath Temple, Puri

Sea-Going Vessel.

The Royal

(From

Pleasure-Boat.

Landing of Vijaya

(From the
.

Frontispiece

Facing page
32

36

the Ajanta Paintings.)

40

(From

in Ceylon,

....

Vaital Deul, Bhubaneshvara

...

Sculptures from the Sanchi Stupas

The Royal Barge on

Colonize Java.

to

543

36

the Ajanta Paintings

(From the Ajanta

B.C.

Indian Adventurers Sailing out to Colonize Java.

Sculptures of Borobudur.) No. i

42
Paintings.)

(From

44

the

46

Do.

do.

No. 2

46

Do.

do.

No. 3

48

Do.

do.

No. 4

48

Do.

do.

No.

48

Do.

do.

No. 6

48

Andhra Ship-Coins of the 2nd Centurj

Some Indian

Ships and Boats of the

a.d.

7th Century

Mahratta Grabs and GalUvats Attacking an English Ship

Some Indian

51

{235
(236
242

Ships and Boats of the Earlier Part of the 19th Century

Pinnace

352

Bangles

252
252

Grab

Pattooa

Dony

Brick

View of

Ballasore

252
252
252
252

Roads
xix

LIST OF AUTHORITIES CONSULTED.

Abulfeda.

Reinaud.

Account of Shihab-ud-din Talish

in

MS. Bodleian

589.

Al-Biladuri.

AI-Biruni.
Al-Idrisi.

Anabasis.
Analysis of the Finances of Bengal (Fifth Report).

Ancient Egyptians. Wilkinson.

Ancient India as Described in Classical Literature.

Ancient Ships.

Torr.

Grant.

McCrindle.

Anecdota Oxoniensis.
Archaeological Survey of India
Arthasastra.

Kautilya.

(New

Imperial Series) xv.

Asiatic Nations (Bohn's edition).

Asoka Rock

Assam

Edicts, II.

Ayecn-i-Akbari.

Abul-Fazl.

Bhikshuni Nidana.
Bhilsa Topes, The.
Bible,

and XIII.

District Gazetteer, II.

Cunningham.

The.

Book

of Ezekiel.

Genesis.

Kings.
Proverbs,

Bodhisattvavadana Kalpalata.

Kshemendra.

Gazetteer.

Bombay
Bombay Times

(1839).

xxi

b 2

LIST OF AUTHORITIES
Buddhist India.

Rhys Davids.

Buddhist Records of the Western World.

Beal.

Aufrecht.
Yule.

Catalogue of Sanskrit Manuscripts.

Cathay and the

Chach-nama.

Way

Thither.

Chemical Theories of the Hindus.

Dr. Brajendranath

Seal.

Chilappathikaram.

Edkins.
Christian Topography. Cosmas.
Chinese Buddhism.

Chu-Fan-Chih.

Chao Jukua.

Coins of Southern India.

Sir

W.

Elliot.

Commerce of the Ancients. Dr. Vincent.

Considerations on the
of
Affairs

India.

Lt.-Col. Walker.

Curtius.

Da6akumaracharita.

Das

De
De

Dandin.

alte Indien.

Coutto.

Vita Constant.

Dharma

Sutra.

Baudhayana.
Gautama.
Diodorus Siculus.
Disquisitions concerning Ancient India.

Robertson.

Early History of the Deccan. Bhandarkar.

India.--Vincent Smith.
Early Records of British India.J. T. Wheeler.

Economic Review.
Edicts of

Asoka.V.

Smith.

Epigraphia

Indica, vol. iv.

Epitome of

Roman

(1896-97).

History.

Florus.

Erukkaddur-Thayan-Kannanar-Akam.

Fathiyyah-i-Ibriyyah (Blochmann's translation).

Foe-koue-ki.

Fragments.

Orme.
xxii

LIST OF AUTHORITIES
Geographical Account of Countries round the Bay of Bengal,
A. Thomas Bowrey. (Hakluyt Society publication.)

Ptolemy.

Georgics.
Geography.

Virgil.

Ghatakakarika.

Grammar

of the Dravidian Languages.

Growth and

Vicissitudes of

Bayley.

Gujarat.

Dr. Caldwell.
Dr. Yeats.

Commerce.

Gujarat.

Bird.

Herodotus.
Hist. Anc. Orient (English edition).

History.

Orosius.

Dinesh Chander Sen.

A. Phayre.
Elphinstone.

History of Bengali Literature.

Burma.
India.

Sir

India. Sir H.
Indian Navy.
Java.

Elliot.

Lt.-Col. C. R. Low.

Raffles.

Konkan.

Pegu. Phayre.
Theophrastus.
Brojokishore Ghosh.
Rome. Dion
Mahrattas.

Duff.

Plants.

Puri.

Hist.

Cassius.

Hitopadefia.

Huang-hua-hsi-ta-chi.
Ideals of the East.

Okakura.

Imperial Gazetteer
Ind. Alt, vol.

Chia-Tau.

(New

Edition), vol.

ii.

ii.

India and the Navy.

Sir C. Bridge.

India in the Fifteenth Century.

Indian Antiquary.

(Hakluyt Society publication.)

Fergusson.
Weber.

Architecture.
Literature.

Sculpture and Painting.

Indika. Ctesias (McCrindle's

Industrial Competition of Asia.

E. B. Havell.

translation).

C.

xxiii

Daniell.

LIST OF AUTHORITIES
I-Tsing.

Taka-kusu.

Jatakas (Cowell's Cambridge Edition).

Ajanna.
Baveru.
Bhojajanuya.
Janaka.

Kundaka-Kucchi-Sindhava,

Mahajanaka.

Samudda-Vanija.
Saiikha.

Suhanu.

Supparaka.
Sussondi.

Tandulanali.

Valahassa.

Journal Asiatique.
of the Asiatic Society of Bengal.

Bangiya Sahitya Parishat.

Bombay Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society.
Indo-Japanese Association.

Royal Asiatic Society.

Kalinga Huparani.
Kathasarit Sagara.Somadeva.

Kavikankan Chandi.
Koch Bihar and Assam. Blochmann.

Kwai-Yuen Catalogue of

the Chinese Tripitaka.

Les Hindous. F. Baltazar Solvyns.

Life in Ancient India.Mrs. Spier.
Life of

Godama.Bishop

Bigandet.

Madras Review (1902).

Mahabharata.

Adi parva.
Karna parva.
6anti parva.

Sava parva.
xxiv

LIST OF AUTHORITIES
Mahawa6so.

Mai

Tumour,

Fuzat-i-Timuri,

Manasamangala (an old Bengali manuscript).

Manual of Buddhism. Hardy.

Mdmoires.

Jagajiban.

Reinaud.

Mission Life.

MS. Bodleian 598

(translated

by Mr. Jadunath Sarkar).

MuUaipaddu.
Natural History,

Pliny.

Nihon-ko-ki.
Nitifetaka.

Vartrihari.

Notices of Sanskrit Manuscripts, vol.

Numismata

Orientalia.

Sir

Walter

i.

Elliot.

Oaranara-Puram.

Old Bengali Manuscripts.

Origin and Growth of Religion among the Babylonians.
Dr. Sayce's Hibbert Lectures, 1887.
Origin of the Indian
Orissa.

Hunter.

Brahma Alphabet.

Biihler.

Paddinappalai.
Paintings

the

in

Buddhist

Cave-Temples of Ajanta.

Griffiths.

Panchasiddhantika.

Papers relating to Shipping

Parthia.
Rawlinson,

in Jndia.

Periplus of the Erythraean Sea.

Pitakas.

Anguttara.

Digha Nikaya.
Sanyutta Nikaya.
Sutta.

Vinaya.
Portuguese Asia.

Stevenson.
Danvers.

Portuguese in India.
Nikhilnath Roy.
Protapaditya.

XXV

^Phipps.

LIST OF AUTHORITIES
Provinces of the

Roman

Empire.

Mommsen.

Puranas.

Bhagavata.
Garuda.

Markandeya.

Padma.
Varaha.

Vayu.

Raghuvaiisam.

Kalidasa.

Raja-Tarangini.
Rajavalliya.

Ramayana.

Ayodhya kandam.
Kiskindhya kandam.

Ratnavali.

King Harsha.

Register of Ships Built on the Hugh.

Report on the Old Records of the India Office.Birdwood

Eig-Veda.
Rise of the Portuguese Power in India.

Roman

Empire.

Gibbon.

Whiteway.

Ruijukokushi.

Sacred Books of Ceylon.

Sakuntala. -Kalidasa

Upham.

Sanhita.

Manu.
Vrihat.

Yajnavalkya.
Sanchi and its Remains.

Magh
Sifiupalabadha.

Maisley.

Si-yu-ki.

Spectator.
Statistical

Account of Bengal.

Hunter.

Strabo.

Sungshih.

Suyshoo.
Takmilla-i- Akbar-nama

xxvi

LIST OF AUTHORITIES
Tamils Eighteen Hundred Years Ago, The.
Tarikh-i-Fi rozshahi,

Burni

V. K.

Tarikh-i-Masumi.

Technical History of Commerce.

Dr. Yeats.
Thirty Years in India.
Major Bevan.

Topography of Dacca. Taylor.

Travels of

De

Barros.

Hiuen Tsang.
Marco Polo (Marsden's
Varthema.

Voyages.

Badger.

translation).

Kerr, edited by Stevenson.

Vriksha- Ayurveda.

Wassaf.

Western Origin of Chinese

Yatratattva.

Civilization.

Raghunandan.

Yuktikalpataru (manuscript).

Z.

D. M. G.

xxvu

Pillay.

INDIAN SHIPPING.
INTRODUCTION.
I.

Isolation

and Intercourse.

Even

a superficial view of the physical features of

India cannot fail to show that there is hardly any
part of the world better marked out by nature as a
It is a region, indeed,
region by itself than India.
full of contrasts in physical features and climate,

but the features that divide and isolate

it

from surrounding regions are too clear

looked.
In truth, the whole of India,
assertions to the contrary
is

as a whole

to

be over-

in spite of

made by some geographers,

easily perceived to be a single country

endowed

with a sharply defined individuality, and beneath

her truly manifold and bewildering variety there
is a fundamental geographical unity, a complete
territorial synthesis.

Mountain-guarded and sea-girt as she is on the

north and the south, India looks as if she had been
meant by nature to remain aloof from the rest of
the world and to develop her civilization in isolation,
untouched by the currents that stir humanity abroad.
And yet there is hardly any country in the world

INDIAN SHIPPING
that presents such an eventful record of intercourse
The geography of India
with foreign countries.

points to her natural isolation but the history of

India reveals other facts. And if we study that his;

tory carefully from the earliest times we shall easily

recognize that contact or intercourse with other
\

countries has been a no less potent factor in its

making than isolation. It has been well said that

none of the greatest movements in the world which

have influenced the history of mankind have failed to
touch India and contribute to the development and
richness of her extraordinarily varied culture and
Above all comprehension and beyond
civilization.
all

human

insight
birth
to the
gave

that mysterious impulse

momentous movement of

is

which

Aryan
and
so
with
expansion,
migration
big
consequences,
and by far the most important event in the world's
And it is a commonplace of history that
history.
one of the main streams of this great migration of
the pioneers of the world's civilization entered India

through her

north-western

mountain

passes to
build up her spiritual character, even as the Indus
and the Ganges have broken through the Himalayas
to create her physical character.
I ndo- Aryans pushed on their

For centuries these

work of colonizing

India amid struggles and conflicts with the original

inhabitants of the country, and developed a civilization

that

created.

is

the literature they have

rose Buddhism, the first of world-

reflected

Then

in

INTRODUCTION
a

religions,

product

of

the

Indian

soil

which

beyond its limits over all

countries lying east and north of India from the
steppes of the Mongols and the mountainous
wildernesses of Tibet, through Japan, and on the
south and east far into the Indian Archipelago. For
centuries India stood out as the heart of the Old
extended

its

influence

World, moulding and dominating its thought

and life.
Meanwhile there continued to beat
upon Indian shores successive waves of foreign
influence, such as

from

the

first

the

Iranian

veritable

influence

empire

of

the

flowing
ancient

Orient,
empire of the Achaemenides, which
under Darius included within itself the whole of

the

Sindh and a considerable portion of the Punjab

east

of the Indus, forming his twentieth satrapy and

yielding the enormous tribute of fully a million
sterling,

an influence that

Indian art and architecture

ment and administration

some marks upon

and methods of governleft

the

Hellenic influence

beginning from Alexander's invasion and exercised

by a succession of Greek rulers of the Punjab and
neighbouring

regions,

but "which

touched only
and the Graeco-

the fringe of Indian civilization ";

Roman influence during the time of the

Kushan or

Indo-Scythian kings. Then, also, the two great civilizing forces of the world that next arose did not fail

and contribute to her making, viz. the

Islamic culture and civilization, and the European,
to touch India

B 2

INDIAN SHIPPING
which, following in the wake of foreign invasions and
commerce, has continued to influence Indian thought
and life to this day. India, therefore, is a favoured

country where all the diversities of human culture

have met to build up an extraordinarily rich and

Thus intercourse is as much a

synthetic culture.
characteristic of the history of India as isolation.
convincing than these facts of the
political intercourse of India are the facts of her
commercial intercourse with foreign countries with

Hardly

less

which we are more directly concerned.

have ample evidence to show that for
>/
ll
f

We
full

shall

thirty

centuries India stood out as the very heart of the

Old World, and maintained her position as one of

the foremost maritime countries.

She had

colonies

in

Pegu, in Cambodia, in Java, in Sumatra, in

Borneo, and even in the countries of the Farther

East as

She had trading settlements

in Southern China, in the Malayan peninsula, in
Arabia, and in all the chief cities of Persia and all
over the east coast of Africa. She cultivated trade
far as

Japan.

relations not only with the countries of Asia, but also

with the whole of the then known world, including the

countries under the dominion of the

Roman

Empire,

and both the East and the West became the theatre
of Indian commercial activity and gave scope to
her naval energy and throbbing international life.
thus be seen that instead of the rigid
isolation apparently decreed to her by nature, we
It will

INTRODUCTION
remarkably active intercourse with foreign
countries established by the efforts of man, and a

find a

conquest achieved over the natural environment.

The great and almost impregnable barriers on the
north are pierced by mountain-passes which have

been throughout used as the pathways of commerce

and communication with the external world. To-

wards the south the ocean from its very nature

proved a far more effective and fatal barrier to the
cultivation of foreign relations, till the rapid development of national shipping triumphed over that

obstacle

and converted the ocean

itself into

a great

highway of international intercourse and commerce.

The early growth of her shipping and shipbuilding, coupled with the genius and energy of her
merchants, the skill and daring of her seamen, the
enterprise of her colonists, and the zeal of her mis-

command

oflhe sea for

and long maintain her
_ages, and helped her to attain
proud position as the mistress of the Eastern seas.
sionaries, secured to India the

There was no lack of energy on the part of Indians

of old in utilizing to the full the opportunities
presented by nature for the development of Indian
maritime activity the fine geographical position of

India in the heart of the Orient, with Africa on the

west and the Eastern Archipelago and Australia on
the east, her connection with the vast mainland of
Asia on the north, her possession of a sea-board that

extends over more than four thousand miles, and

INDIAN SHIPPING
finally the
interior.

network of rivers which opens up the

In fact, in India there is to be found the

conjunction or assemblage of most of those specific

geographical conditions on which depends the commercial development of a country.

II.

The

Evidences.

sources and materials available for the con-

shipping and
maritime activity naturally divide themselves into
The Indian
two classes, Indian and foreign.
struction

of

history

of

Indian

evidences are those derived from Indian literature

including sculpture and painting, besides the
evidence of archaeology in its threefold branches,

and

art,

The
epigraphic, monumental, and numismatic.
evidences of Indian literature are based chiefly on
Sanskrit, Pali, and Persian works, and in

some cases

on works in the Indian vernaculars, Tamil, Marathi,

and Bengali. The foreign evidences consist of those
writings of foreign travellers and historians which
contain observations on Indian subjects, and also
of archaeological remains such as those in Java.

The former
ture, in

embedded mostly in classical literaChinese, Arabic, and Persian, to which we

are

have access only through translations.

The way

these various evidences, literary and

monumental, Indian and foreign, will be arranged,

and the order in which they will be presented,
6

INTRODUCTION
require to be explained at the outset.
Bearing in
"
mind the well-known dictum that the literature as
well as the art of a people tells its life," I have
thought that the case for India's maritime activity
cannot be held to be sufficiently made out until in

the

first

instance

it

is

supported by the evidence

supplied by her own native literature and art, great

as they are.
The first proofs of Indian maritime

and of the existence and growth of an

Indian shipping by which that activity realized
itself, must accordingly be sought in the domain of
Indian literature and art, and the want or paucity of
these can hardly be compensated for by the abundance of evidences culled from foreign works. The

activity,

evidences that will therefore be

presented will
be all Indian, being those supplied by Indian literature and art, and after them will follow the evidences
first

derived from foreign sources.

Again, as the dates
of most of the Indian literary works to which
reference will be

made

unhappily not yet a

could not make the evidences
are

matter of certainty, I
drawn from them the basis of any historical treat-

of the subject or regard them as any help

to a chronological arrangement of the facts regarding
the shipping, sea-borne trade, and maritime activity

ment

Accordingly, the evidence from Indian

literature that will be first adduced will serve only
as an introduction to the whole subject, preparing

of India.

the ground and

making out
7

the case for

it,

so to

INDIAN SHIPPING
The

speak.

of

real historical narrative

of the naval

India will be built

up of materials
supplied by such foreign and also Indian works as
labour under no chronological difficulties.
The passages from ancient Indian works will be
activity

presented, as far as possible, in the order determined

by tradition. In the opinion of the late Professor
v/

Biihler,

the far-famed

German

"

orientalist,

there

are passages in ancient Indian works which prove

the early existence of a navigation of the Indian

Ocean and the somewhat

later occurrence of trading

voyages undertaken by Hindu

shores of the Persian Gulf and

merchants

to the

These
proofs, however, will be found mostly to supply an
indirect kind of evidence
they contain no direct
information regarding the existence and development of a national shipping which is certainly
implied in the existence, development, and continuance of that maritime trade to which they so
For it is a commonplace of
conclusively refer.
history, and quite stands to reason, that no commerce can spring up, and much less thrive, especially
its rivers."

in early times, unless

it

is

fostered

by a national

Accordingly, the direct proofs that are

regarding Indian shipping and naval
activity will have precedence over the indirect ones,
and they will include illustrations of the typical
shipping.
available

ships and boats that are represented in old Indian

art, in

sculpture and painting, and on coins.

INTRODUCTION
III.

Epochs.

The epochs
various

of Indian history round which these

evidences regarding the shipping and

maritime activity of India will be grouped,

roughly indicated as follows
1.

may be

The Pre-Mauryan Epoch, extending from

the earliest times to about the year B.C. 321.

For
this period we shall discuss the evidences that can

be gleaned from some of the oldest literary records

and some
of the old Pali and Tamil works, as also from
the finds of Egyptian and Assyrian archaeologists,
of

humanity

like the Rig-Vecla, the Bible,

regarding the early maritime intercourse of India

with the West.
Evidences for this period are also
to be derived

from the writings of the Greek authors

Herodotus and Ctesias,

in

the

5th century

containing references to India.

The Mauryan Epoch

B.C.,

For
321-184).
this period the available evidences are those preserved in the works of many Greek and Roman
2.

authors

who

essayed to

(b.c.

the story of Alexander's

recorded the observations

tell

Indian campaign and

made on India by the Greek ambassadors to the
courts of the

Maurya emperors.

These Greek and

Roman

notices of India have been mostly made

accessible to Indian students by the translations of

Mr. McCrindle.

More important and

than these foreign evidences

is

interesting
the evidence fur-

INDIAN SHIPPING
nished by a recently published Sanskrit work, the
Arthasdstra of Kautilya, which is a mine of information regarding the manifold aspects of a highly
developed material civilization witnessed by Maurya
India.
Bearing on this period also is the evidence of

monumental work of the

Kashmirian poet Kshemendra called Bodhisattvdvaddna Kalpalatd, which is now being published
tradition preserved in that

by the Asiatic Society of Bengal

Indica series.
of this

work

in the Bibliotheca

The

seventy-third pallava or chapter

relates a story which throws some light

on the sea-borne trade and maritime activity of

India during the days of the Emperor Asoka.
3.

The Kushan Period

Andhra Period

in

India was at

height

in the north

and

the

the south, extending roughly

from the 2nd century B.C. to the 3rd century a.d.
This was the period when Roman influence on

/
y
(

its

in fact, the

whole of the

Andhra dynasty was

communication with Rome, while the

under the
^southern peninsula
/in

direct

conquests in Northern India tended still further to

open up trade with the Roman Empire, so that

Roman

gold poured into all parts of India in payment for her silks, spices, gems, and dye-stuffs.

The

evidences proving this are the remarkable finds

of Roman coins, more numerous in the south than

together with the references in the

"
ancient Sanskrit and Pali works to
Romaka," or
in

the north,

the city of

Rome, and

in ancient

10

Tamil works

to the

INTRODUCTION
"

"

Yavanas or Greeks and Romans, and to the important South Indian ports like Muchiris and Pukar,
of which full descriptions are given in old Tamil
Besides evidences from ancient

poems.

Indian

on Indian commerce with Rome,

there are also definite evidences from important
literature bearing-

foreign

The

works.

chief

of

these

are

Pliny's

Natural History, the Peripius of the Erythraean

Sea, and Ptolemy's Geography, besides the incidental
allusions to Indian commerce and shipping thrown
out by writers like Agatharcides and Strabo.

The Period of Hindu Imperialism in

Northern India under the Guptas and Harsha4.

vardhana, extending from the 4th century to the 7th

century a.d. This was the period of the expansion

of India and of

much

colonizing activity towards

the farther East from Bengal, the Kalinga coast, and

Coromandel.

Parts of

Burma and Malacca were

chiefly from Kalinga and Bengal, as

shown in Sir A. P. Phayre's History of Burma, 2ind
testified to by Burmese sacred scriptures and coins.

colonized,

The main evidences

for the

remarkable maritime

activity of this period are supplied by the accounts

of the numerous Chinese pilgrims to India, of whom

Fa-Hien was the first and Hiuen Tsang the most

famous.
These accounts are now all accessible
through translations. Among foreign works supplying valuable materials for the history of the
period may be mentioned the Christian Topography
II

INDIAN SHIPPING
of Cosmas.

Some

very valuable evidences regarding the early commerce between India and China
are furnished by Chinese annals like the Kwai-

Yuen Catalogue
Cathay and the

many

of the Chinese Tripitaka. Yule's

Thither also has recorded

Way

Indian intercourse with

facts relating to the

China.

For the reign of Harsha the most im-

portant source of information is the Travels of

Hiuen Tsang, that " treasure-house of accurate

indispensable to every student of

Indian antiquity, which has done more than any

information,

archaeological discovery
remarkable resuscitation

to

render

of

lost

possible

Indian

the

history

which has recently been effected."

The Period of Hindu Imperialism in
5.
Southern India and the rise of the Cholas, extending from the middle of the 7th century up to the
Mahomedan conquests in Northern India. During
this period Indian maritime intercourse was equally
The
active with both the West and the East.
colonization of Java was completed, and the great
temple of Borobudur remained a standing monument of the hold which Buddhism had on that
/island.
The field of Indian maritime enterprise was
extended as far as Japan, which is testified to by
Japanese tradition and official annals made acces-

'

through the efforts of Japanese scholars like

Dr. Taka-kusu. The record of I-Tsing, the famous

sible

Chinese

traveller, contains

12

many

interesting details

INTRODUCTION
regarding Indian maritime activity in the Eastern
waters and intercourse with China in the latter half
of the 7th century.
Chinese annals also furnish
evidences regarding the maritime intercourse of the

Cholas with China,

the Sung-shih.

The Musalman {pre- Mogul) Period, extending

6.

from the
of

e.g.

nth

evidence

century to the 15th. The sources

for this, and indeed the whole of

mostly imbedded in
Persian works which have been made accessible to

the

Musalman

period,

are

by the monumental History of India by

For information
Sir H. Elliot, in eight volumes.
regarding maritime enterprise and activity in Sindh
our authorities are Al-Bildduri and Chach-ndma,
scholars

translated in Elliot, vol.

i.

The

early

Musalman

throw much light upon Indian affairs of

this period.
Al-Biruni is our authority for the
nth century and Al-Idrisi for the 12th.
In the
travellers

13th century a very valuable source of information

regarding Indian shipping and commerce is furnished by a foreign traveMer, the Venetian Marco

Wassaf

our guide in the next century, as

well as Tdrikh-i-Firozshdhi.
In the 15th century
Polo.

we

is

have, in the Chinese account of

Mahuan, the
of India after Marco

most important foreign notice

Polo, which relates the exchange of presents between
the kings of Bengal and the emperors of China.
To the same century also belong the foreign
travellers Abd-er-Razzak, Nicolo Conti, and Hiero13

INDIAN SHIPPING
nimo

Santo Stefano, who

di

are

also

valuable

sources of information regarding the shipping and

In the earlier part of the
trade of the period.
1 6th
century, when the .Portuguese first appear
as

a factor in

Indian

details

regarding
Indian maritime activity are derivable from Portuguese annals like De Coutto, utilized in some of the
politics,

standard works on the history of the Portuguese

power in India. About the same time the foreign

Varthema has

traveller

left

very

interesting

account of shipbuilding in Calicut.

7.
1

The Period of Mogul Monarchy, from

6th century to the

Akbar

to

reign of

i8th,

i.e.

from the

the
of

reign

that of Aurangzeb.
The evidence
the
for

Akbar

is

derived,

firstly,

Abul-Fazl's

information,

from that mine of

Ayeen-i-A kbari,

which

gives a very valuable account of Akbar's Admiralty

and, secondly, from the abstract of Ausil Toomar
;

given in Grant's Analysis of the Finances

of Bengal in the Fifth Report, in which are con-

yumma
tained

many

interesting

details

regarding

the

organization and progress of the Imperial Nowwara

or shipping stationed at Dacca, the sources of

revenue for

its

maintenance, the materials for ship-

and the like. The Chach-ndma in Elliot,

vol. i., and Abul-Fazl's Ayeen~i-Akbari give some
details about the shipping and ports of Sindh.
building,

Some

details regarding

commerce, and

Hindu maritime

activity,

shipping in Bengal are also derived

INTRODUCTION
from

Takmilla-i-A kbarnama

in

Elliot,

vol.

vi.,

from the Sanskrit work Ghataka-kdrikd, from the

Portuguese accounts of De Barros and Souza, from
the records of other foreign travellers like Varthema
and Ralph Fitch, and lastly from some old Bengali

poems and songs preserving local tradition. In the

reign of Aurangzeb the principal sources of our
information regarding the maritime activities of
the Ferenghies and of the imperial fleet are the
Fathiyyah-i-ibriyyah, translated by Blochmann, and
the contemporary Persian Account of Shihab-tid-dm

Talish in

MS. Bodleian

Catalogue, which

is

589, Sachau and Ethe's

translated by Professor Jadunath

Sarkar, M.A. Among foreign travellers who supply

us with information for this period we may mention

Thomas Bowrey,

in

whose account of the countries

round the Bay of Bengal we have many interesting

details regarding shipping and commerce.
Dr.
also another similar source of our informa-

Fryer

is

tion.

The same

period also witnessed the develop-

ment of Maratha shipping and maritime activity

under Sivaji and the Peshwas, details regarding
which may be derived from some of the standard
works on Maratha history.

15

BOOK

I.

HINDU PERIOD.

PART

I.

Indications of Maritime Activity in Indian Literature

and Art.

17

BOOK L PART
CHAPTER

I.

I.

Direct Evidences from Sanskrit and

Pali Literature.
It has been already pointed out that though Sanskrit

and Pali

literature

abounds

in references to the

trading voyages of Indians, they unfortunately

furnish but few references having a direct bearing
on the ships and shipbuilding of India which

enabled her to keep up her international connections.

I have, however, been able to find one Sanskrit
work,^ which is something like a treatise on the art
of shipbuilding in ancient India, setting forth many
interesting details about the various sizes and

kinds of ships, the materials out of which they were

and it sums Up in a condensed
built, and the like
;

form

all

the available information

and knowledge

about that truly ancient industry of India. The

book requires a full notice, and its contents have to

be explained.
It is not a printed book but a MS., to be found in the Calcutta Sanskrit
College Library, called the Yuktikalpataru. Professor Aufrecht has noticed
Dr. Rajendralal Mitra has the followit in his Catalogue of Sanskrit MSB.
it
Sanskrit
on
comment
MSS., vol. i., no. cclxxi.) '^Yttkti{Notices of
ing
It treats of jewels, swords,
a
is
kalpafaru
compilation by Bhoja Narapati.
1

horses, elephants,

ornaments,

flags,

umbrellas,

seats,

ministers,

ships,

and frequently quotes from an author of the name of Bhoja, meaning

probably Bhoja Raja of Dhara."
etc.,

19

C 2

INDIAN SHIPPING
The

ancient shipbuilders had a good knowledge

of the materials as well as the varieties and properties of

wood which went

to the

of ships.
According to the Vriksha-Aytirveda, or the Science
of Plant Life (Botany), four different kinds of wood ^

making

are to be distinguished the first or the Brahman

class comprises wood that is light and soft and can
:

be easily joined to any other kind of wood the

second or the Kshatriya class of wood is light and
hard but cannot be joined on to other classes the
;

wood

that

is soft

Vaisya class

wood

and heavy belongs

to the third or

while the fourth or the Sudra class of

characterized by both hardness and heaviness.

There may also be distinguished wood of
the mixed (Dvijati) class, in which are blended
is

properties of two separate classes.

to Bhoja, an earlier authority on shipbuilding, a ship built of the Kshatriya class of wood

According

brings wealth and happiness.^ It is these ships that

are to be used as means of communication where
the communication

is difficult

20

owing

to vast water.^

HINDU PERIOD
Ships, on the other hand, which are made of timbers
of different classes possessing contrary properties
are of no good and not at all comfortable.
They do

not last for a long time, they soon rot in water, and
they are liable to split at the slightest shock and to
sink down.^

wood which is
down a very im-

Besides pointing out the class of

best for ships, Bhoja also lays

portant direction for shipbuilders in the nature of a

He
carefully noting.^
says that care should be taken that no iron is used
in holding or joining together the planks of bottoms
warning which

is

worth

intended to be sea-going vessels, for the iron will

inevitably expose them to the influence of magnetic
rocks in the sea, or bring them within a magnetic
Hence the planks
field and so lead them to risks.
of bottoms are to be fitted together or mortised by
means of substances other than iron. This rather

quaint direction was perhaps necessary in an age

when Indian ships plied in deep waters on the main.
Besides Bhoja's classification of the kinds of

wood used

in

making ships and

boats, the Yuktikal-

pataru gives an elaborate classification of the ships

The primary
themselves, based on their size.
^

^w

f^fwsnffTT^wrs'^rr-rrT

-^

f%M-^d "^^ "T^^ "ifWT

5T'$'5r

21

'TTfq' tt<^i*< 'ft^T

TW

rr^fll^ ^ft^:

II

INDIAN SHIPPING
division

(Samanya)
traffic

or

into

is
:

two

classes

(a)

Ordinary

ships that are used in ordinary river

waterways

fall

Special (Visesa), comprising

under

this

class

(b)

only sea-going vessels.

There are again enumerated ten different kinds of

vessels under the Ordinary class which all differ in
their lengths, breadths, and depths or heights.
Below are given their names and the measurements
of the three dimensions ^
:

HINDU PERIOD
Of

the above ten different kinds of Ordinary

ships the Bhima, Bhaya and Garbhara are liable to

bring ill-luck, perhaps because their dimensions do

not make them steady and well-balanced on the water.

Ships that

fall

under the class Special are

all

sea-going.^
They are in the first instance divided
into two sub-classes^: (i) Dirgha (^^), including
ships which are probably noted for their length, and

Unnata

comprising ships noted more for

their height than their length or breadth.
There
(2)

(^"^fTT),

are again distinguished ten varieties of ships of the

Dirgha (?^) class and five of the Unnata ('^^rfn)

Below are given their names and the

measurements ^ of their respective lengths, breadths,
and heights

class.

(3)
I.

Dirgha, 42 (length),
Names.

5:^

Special.

(breadth),

4^ (height)

INDIAN SHIPPING
Names.

HINDU PERIOD
The YMktikalpatani
tions for decorating

and

also gives elaborate direcfurnishing ships so as to

make them
kinds

Four
quite comfortable to passengers.
of metal are recommended for decorative

purposes, viz. gold, silver, copper, and the compound

of all three.
Four kinds of colours are recommended
respectively for four kinds of vessels a vessel with
four masts is to be painted white, that with three
:

masts

to

be painted red, that with two masts

is

to

be a yellow ship, and the one-masted ship must be

painted blue. The prows of ships admit of a great
these comprise
variety of fanciful shapes or forms
:

the heads of lion, buffalo, serpent, elephant, tiger,

birds such as the duck, peahen or parrot, the frog,

and man, thus arguing a great development of the art

of the carpenter or the sculptor.
Other elements of
decoration are pearls and garlands of gold to be
attached to and hung from the beautifully shaped
prows.^

^Tcff ^rsTfi' fTT^ f^^^i\

-^

ii-rr5frww

ii

f^T^r^f^

^Tf^fVr:

Tfr^^

^g'iijirr

fnnrrHT f^nfin "^^ijfir^

xr^

Wirt"

^Ntt

injTsi^ "^"^^

25

^^^rs'^^

ii

INDIAN SHIPPING
There are also given interesting details about
the cabins of ships.
Three classes ^ of ships are
distinguished according to the length and position
of their cabins.
There are firstly the Sarbamandira
have the largest cabins
(w^-s^^n) vessels, which
extending from one end of the ship to the other.^
These ships are used for the transport of royal
treasure,
horses, and women.^
Secondly, there
are the Madhyamandira (^w^f^Ti) vessels,'^ which
have their cabins just in the middle part. These
vessels are used in pleasure trips by kings, and they
are also suited for the rainy season.
Thirdly, ships
may have their cabins towards their prows, in which
^
(^^tr^f^^rr).
they will be called Agramandira
These ships are used in the dry season after the

case

rains have ceased.

long voyages and

It

was probably

are eminently suited for

also to be used in naval warfare^

They

in these vessels that the first naval

Indian literature was fought, the

vessel in which Tugra the Rishi king sent his son

fight recorded in

26

HINDU PERIOD
Bhujyu against some of his enemies in the distant
island, who, being afterwards shipwrecked with all
"
his followers on the ocean,
where there is nothing to
give support, nothing to rest upon or cling to," was
rescued from a watery grave by the two Asvins in
their hundred-oared galley.^
It was in a similar
ship that the righteous Pandava brothers escaped
from the destruction planned

for them, following the

friendly advice of kind-hearted Vidura, who kept a

ship ready and constructed for the purpose, provided

necessary machinery and weapons of war,

Of the same description
able to defy hurricanes.^

with

all

hundred ships mentioned in the

Rdmdyana^ in which hundreds of Kaivarta young
men are asked to lie in wait and obstruct the

were also the

five

inr: sr^rf^ff^ ft^if f^^Tr-q-

^t"^^

Mahdbhdrata, "^if^'^r^
^

TTTT

wn^

TT^T^ ^^srr Wfi ^fr^

Ayodhya Kdndam.

27

INDIAN SHIPPING
And, further, it was in these
passage.
ships that the Bengalis once made a stand against
the invincible prowess of Raghu as described in
enemy's

Kalidasa's Raghuvansa, who retired after planting

the pillafs of his victory on the isles of the holy

Ganges.^
The conclusions as to ancient Indian ships and
shipping suggested by these evidences from Sanskrit

literature directly bearing

on them are also

confirmed by similar evidences culled from the Pali

The

literature.

Pali literature, like the Sanskrit,

abounds with allusions to sea voyages and seaborne trade, and it would appear that the ships
employed for these purposes were of quite a large
size.
Though indeed the Pali texts do not usually
give the actual measurements of the different dimenalso

sions of ships such as the Sanskrit texts furnish,

still they make definite mention of the number

of passengers which the ships carried, and thus

enable us in another very conclusive way to have

precise idea of their

to the Rdjavalliya, the

size.

ship

Thus, according
which Prince

in

Vijaya and his followers were sent away by King

Sinhaba (Sinhavahu) of Bengal was so large as to
accommodate full seven hundred passengers, all

-^irrsr-fr^rg -fRr^T

%Tn

28

"spwnnrr^frrsr

HINDU PERIOD
and children,
making up more than seven hundred, were also cast
adrift in similar ships.^ The ship in which the lionprince, Sinhala, sailed from some unknown part of
Jambudvipa to Ceylon contained five hundred merchants besides himself.^ The ship in which Vijaya's
Pandyan bride was brought over to Ceylon was also
of a very large size, for she is said to have carried
no less than 800 passengers on board.^
The
mentions
a
ship that was wrecked
yanaka-ydtaka
with all its crew and passengers to the favourite
Their

followers.^

Vijaya's

number

wives

Buddha

of seven hundred, in addition to

himself in an earlier incarnation.^

So

also the

ship in which Buddha in the Supparaka-Bodhisat

incarnation made his voyages from Bharukaccha
''

the Sea of the Seven

(Broach) to
seven hundred merchants besides

Gems "

himself.

carried

The

wrecked ship of the Vdlahassa-ydtaka carried

five hundred merchants.^
The ship which is

mentioned
large

as

Samudda-Vanija-ydtaka was so
accommodate also a whole village

in the

to

Upham's Sacred Books of

Ceylon,

ii.

28, 168.

Tumour's Mahdwaiiso,

46, 47^

Tumour's Mahdwa^so,

Si-yu-ki,
*
*

46.

241.

Tumour's MahdwaAso,

51.

Bishop Bigandet's Life of Godama, 415.

YLdiXdy's
'

ii.

"

Now

it

Manual of Buddhism,
happened

that five

13.

hundred shipwrecked traders were cast

ashore near the city of these sea-gobUns."

29

INDIAN SHIPPING
of absconding carpenters numbering a thousand
who failed to deliver the goods (furniture, etc.) for

which they had been paid in advance.^ The ship

in which the Punna brothers, merchants of
Supparaka, sailed to the region of the red-sanders was so
big that besides accommodating three hundred mer-

was room left for the large cargo of

that timber which they carried home.^
The two
Burmese merchant-brothers Tapoosa and Palekat
chants, there

crossed the
full

five

of Bengal in a ship that conveyed

hundred cartloads of their own goods,

Bay

besides whatever other cargo there

may have been

The

ship in which was rescued from a

watery grave the philanthropic Brahman of the
Sdnkha-ydtaka was 800 cubics in length, 600
in

it.^

and 20 fathoms in depth, and had

The ship in which the prince of the

cubits in width,

three masts.

Mahdjmiaka-ydtaka

sailed with other traders

from

Champa (modern Bhagalpur) for Suvarnabhumi

(probably either Burma or the Golden Chersonese,
or the whole Farther-Indian coast) had

seven

caravans

with

Ddthd dhdtu wanso,

their

on board

Lastly, the
the story of the

beasts.

in relating

conveyance of the Tooth-relic from Dantapura to

Ceylon, gives an interesting description of a ship.
^ "
There stood near Benares a great town of carpenters containing
a thousand families." (Cambridge translation of ydtakas?)

Hardy, Manual of Buddhism, 57, 260.

Bishop Bigandet's Life of Godama, loi.

30

HINDU PERIOD
The

royal pair (Dantakumaro and his wife) reached

"
a vessel
the port of Tamralipta, and found there

bound for Ceylon, firmly constructed with planks

sewed together with ropes, having a well-rigged,
lofty mast, with a spacious sail, and commanded
by a skilful navigator, on the point of departure.
Thereupon the two illustrious Brahmans (in disguise),

in

ditiously

their

made

anxiety to reach Sinhala, expeoff to the vessel (in a canoe) and

explained their wishes to the commander."

31

INDIAN SHIPPING

CHAPTER

II.

Direct Evidences from Indian Sculpture,

Painting, and Coins.

The

conclusions pointed to by these literary evidences seem further to be supported by other kinds
of evidence mainly monumental in their character.

They

are derived from old Indian art

sculpture and painting

and also from Indian

These evidences, though meagre

with the

available

from Indian

literary

in

coins.

comparison

evidences, native

and

foreign alike, have, however, a compensating directness and freshness, nay, the permanence which Art
confers, creating things of beauty that remain a joy
for ever.
Indeed, the light that is thrown on
ancient Indian shipping by old Indian art is not yet

extinguished, thanks to the durable character of old

Indian monuments, thanks also to the labours of
the Archaeological

Department

for their preserva-

and maintenance.
There are several representations of ships and
boats in old Indian art. The earliest of them are
tion

the Sanchi sculptures

belonging to an age so far back as the 2nd century
B.C.
One of the sculptures on the Eastern Gateway

those to be found

of No.

Stupa

at

among

Sanchi represents a canoe made

up of rough planks rudely sewn together by hemp

32

i3o%

m^i^mm
SCULPTURES FROM THE SANCHI STUPAS.
[To face p.

32.

HINDU PERIOD
"It represents a river or a sheet of fresh
water with a canoe crossing it, and carrying three
or string.

men

in the ascetic priestly costume,

two propelling

and steering the boat, and the central figure, with

hands resting on the gunwale, facing towards four
ascetics,

who

are

standing in reverential attitude

the water's edge below." ^

According to Sir
A. Cunningham,^ the figures in the boat represent
Sakya Buddha and his two principal followers
at

and Buddha himself has been compared in many

Buddhist writings to " a boat and oar in the vast
ocean of life and death." ^
But General F. C.
"
Maisley is inclined to view this sculpture as representing merely the departure on some expedition
or mission of an ascetic, or priest, of rank amid the
His main
reverential farewells of his followers."'*
reasons for supporting this view are, firstly, that no
representations of Buddha in human shape were
resorted to until several centuries later than the

date of these sculptures

and, secondly, because the

representation is that of a common thong-bound

canoe and not of a sacred barge suiting the great

Buddha. There is another sculpture to be found

on the Western Gateway of No. i Stupa at Sanchi
which " represents a piece of water, with a barge
^

General F. C. Maisley, Sanchi and Us Remains,

The Bhilsa Topes, 27.

Foe-koue-ki, ch. xxiv., note 11.

Sanchi and

its

Remains,

p. 42.

p. 43.

33

INDIAN SHIPPING
whose prow is formed by a winged
gryphon and stern by a fish's tail. The barge
contains a pavilion overshadowing a vacant throne,
over which a male attendant holds a chatta, while
floating

on

another

man

it

man

has a chaori ; a third

is

steering
or propelling the vessel with a large paddle.
In the
water are fresh-water flowers and buds and a large
shell
and there are five men floating about, holding
;

on by spars and inflated skins, while a sixth appears

to be asking the occupant of the stern of the vessel
for help out of the water." ^
This sculpture appears
simply to represent the royal state barge, which quite
anticipates its modern successors used by Indian
nobles at the present day, and the scene is that of
the king and some of his courtiers disporting themselves in an artificial piece of water but it is also
capable of a symbolical meaning, especially when we
;

consider that the shape of the barge here shown is

that of the sacred Makara, the fish avatara or Jataka
of the Buddhist, just as the Hindu scriptures

make

the Matsya, or

Vishnu,

whose

fish,

latest

the

first

of the avatars of

was

incarnation

Buddha.

According to Lieutenant Massey, however, this

sculpture represents the conveyance of relics from
India to Ceylon which is intercepted by Nagas.^
In passing it may be noted that the grotesque
^

Sanchi and

Mrs. Spier's Life in Ancient India,

its

Remains,

34

p. 59.
p.

320.

HINDU PERIOD
and

shapes given to the prow herein

represented are not the invention or innovation of
an ingenious sculptor trying his wit in original
fanciful

they are strictly traditional, and conform to

established standards/ and are therefore identical
with one or other of those possible forms of the

design

prow of a ship which have been preserved for us

in the slokas of the Sanskrit work Yttktikalpataru
quoted and referred to above.
Next to Sanchi sculptures in point of time we

may mention
the

in

the sculptures in the caves of

small island of Salsette near

Kanhery
Bombay,

belonging, according to the unerring testimony of

their inscriptions, to the 2nd century a.d., the time
of the Andhrabhritya or

S'atakarni

king Vashi-

shthiputra (a.d. 133-162) and of Gotamiputra II.

(a.d. 177-196).
Among these sculptures there is a
representation of a scene of shipwreck on the sea

and two persons helplessly praying for rescue to

god Padmapani who sends two messengers for the
purpose. This is perhaps the oldest representation
of a sea voyage in Indian sculpture.^
I have come across
other representations of
ships and boats in Indian sculpture and painting.

The

form of the prow of the Sanchi barge with that

may incline one to hazard the conjecture that
the work may be compiled from works at least as old as the Sanchi
monument, or at any rate the portions treating of prows.
identity of the

given in the Yuktikaipataru

See Bombay Gazetteer,

vol. xiv., p. 165.

35

INDIAN SHIPPING
In the course of a journey I made through Orissa
and South India I noticed among the sculptures of
of Jagannath at Puri a fine, wellpreserved representation of a royal barge shown in
relief on stone, of which I got a sketch made.
The
the

Temple

representation appears on that portion of the great

Temple of Jagannath which is said to have been

Kanaraka

once a part of the Black Pagoda of

belonging to the 12th century a.d. The sculpture

shows in splendid relief a stately barge propelled
by lusty oarsmen with all their might, and one

almost hears the very splash of their oars the water

through which it cuts its way is thrown into ripples
;

and waves indicated by a few simple and yet

and the entire scene is one of
masterly touches
dash and hurry indicative of the desperate speed of
;

a flight or escape from danger. The beauty of the

cabin and the simplicity of its design are particuthe rocking-seat within is quite an
larly noticeable
;

innovation, probably meant to be effective against

sea-sickness, while an equally ingenious idea is that
of the rope or chain which hangs from the top and
is grasped by the hand by the master of the vessel
to

steady himself on the rolling

difficult to ascertain

Shastras

what

waters.

It

is

particular scene from our

It is very probably
here represented.
not a mere secular picture meant as an ornament.
is

The

interpretation put upon

priests of whom I inquired,

36

by one of the many

and which seems most
it

THE ROYAL BARGE ON THE JAGANNATH TEMPLE, PURL

.iy:^:,-p'M<,i

VAITAL DEUL.
[To face p.

36.

HINDU PERIOD
being suggested by the surrounding sculp-

likely,

was

that the scene represented S'ri Krishna

being secretly and hurriedly carried away beyond
It will also
the destructive reach of King Kansa.
tures,

be remembered that the vessel herein represented

that of the

Madhyamandira type

Yuktikalpataru.
In Bhubaneshwara there

is

as defined in the

an old temple on the

west side of the tank of Vindusarovara which reis

quires to be noticed in this connection. The temple

is called l^aitdl Deid after the peculiar form of its

roof resembling a ship or boat capsized, the word

vaitdra denoting a ship. The roof is more in the

some

of the Dravidian temples of Southern

India, notably the raths of Mahavellipore, than of

style of

Orissan architecture.

There are a few very fine representations of old

Indian ships and boats among the far-famed
paintings of the Buddhist cave-temples at Ajanta,
whither the devotees of Buddhism, nineteen centuries or more ago, retreated from the distracting
cares of the world to give themselves up to conThere for centuries the wild ravine
templation.

and the

basaltic rocks

tion of labour,

that

went

skill,

were the scene of an applicaperseverance, and endurance

to the excavation of these painted palaces,

standing to this day as monuments of a boldness of

conception and a defiance of difficulty as possible,

we

believe, to the

modern as
37

to the ancient Indian

INDIAN SHIPPING
character.

The worth

of the achievement will be

further evident from the fact

that

"

much

of the

work has been carried on with the help of artificial

light, and no great stretch of imagination is necessary to picture all that this involves in the Indian
climate and in situations where thorough ventilation
^
About the truth and precision of
impossible."
the work, which are no less admirable than its bold-

is

ness and extent, Mr. Griffiths

glowing testimony

has the following-

During my long and careful study of the caves I have not been able to
detect a single instance where a mistake has been made by cutting away
too much stone ; for if once a slip of this kind occurred, it could only have

been repaired by the insertion

blemish.^

of a piece which would have been

According to the best information, the execution

of these works is supposed to have extended from
the 2nd century B.C. to the yth or the 8th century
A.D., covering a period of more than a thousand
years.

The

12, 10, 9, 8,

namely the numbers

earliest caves,

13,

arranged in the order of their age, were

made

under the Andhrabhrityas or S'atakarni

kings in the 2nd and ist centuries B.C., and the date
of the latest ones, namely the numbers 1-5, is
By the time of
placed between 525-650 a.d:

Hiuen Tsang's visit their execution was completed.

Hiuen Tsang's is the earliest recorded reference
^

J. Griffiths,
2

The Paintings

in the

Buddhist Cave-Temples of Ajanta.

Ibid.

38

HINDU PERIOD
we have

The Chinese

pilgrim did
not himself visit Ajanta, but he was at the capital
of Pulakeshi II., King of Maharastra, where he
heard that " on the eastern frontier of the country
to these caves.

a great mountain with towering crags and a

continuous stretch of piled-up rocks and scarped
In this there is a Sangharam (monasprecipice.
is

On the four
dark valley.
sides of the Vihara, on the stone walls, are painted
tery) constructed in a

different

scenes

in

the

life

of

the Tathagata's
These scenes

preparatory life as a Bodhisattva.

have been cut out with the greatest accuracy and
.

finish."

The

representations of ships and boats furnished

by Ajanta paintings are mostly in Cave No. 2, of
which the date is, as we have seen, placed between

525-650 A.D. These were the closing years of the

age which witnessed the expansion of India and
the spread of Indian thought and culture over the

The vitality
greater part of the Asiatic continent.
and individuality of Indian civilization were already
fully developed during the spacious times of Gupta
imperialism, which about the end of the 7th century
even transplanted itself to the farther East, aiding
in the civilization of Java,

Cambodia, Siam, China,

the
After
and even Japan.
passing away of the
Gupta Empire, the government of India was in the
^

Beal, Buddhist

Raords of the Western World^

39

vol.

ii.,

p. 257.

INDIAN SHIPPING
opening of the 7th century a.d. divided between
Harshavardhana of Kanauj and Pulakeshi II. of the
Deccan, both of whom carried on extensive interThe fame of Pulacourse with foreign countries.
"

keshi spread beyond the limits of India and reached

the ears of Khusru II., King of Persia, who in
the thirty-sixth year of his reign, 625-6 a.d., even
received a complimentary embassy from Pulakeshi.

The

courtesy was reciprocated by a return embassy

sent from Persia, which was received in the Indian
court with due honour."

There

is

a large fresco

painting in the Cave No. i at Ajanta which is still

easily recognizable as a vivid representation of the

ceremonial

attending the presentation

credentials by the Persian envoys.

As might

be naturally expected,

it

of

was

their

also the

golden age of India's maritime activity which

reflected,

though dimly,

in

the

national

art

is

of

The

imperial fleet was thoroughly

and a
organized, consisting of hundreds of ships
naval invasion of Pulakeshi II. reduced Puri,
the

period.

"which was the mistress of the Western seas." ^

About this time, as has been already hinted at,
swarms of daring adventurers from Gujarat ports,
anticipating the enterprise of the Drakes and
Frobishers, or more properly of the Pilgrim Fathers,
^
"^

Vincent A. Smith, Early History of Lidia, pp. 384, 385.

See Dr. Bhandarkar's Early History of the Deccan, ch. x.

40

A SEA -GOING VESSEL.

(From

the Ajanta Paintings.)

[To /ace

p. 40.

HINDU PERIOD
sailed in search of plenty till the shores of Java
arrested their progress and gave scope to their

colonizing ambition.

The

representations of ships and boats in the

Ajanta paintings are therefore rightly interpreted
by Griffiths as only a "vivid testimony to the

Of the two repreancient foreign trade of India."

"
a
sentations herein reproduced, the first shows
sea-going vessel with high stem and stern, with
three oblong sails attached to as many upright

Each mast

masts.

is

surmounted by a

truck,

and

carried a lug-sail.
The jib is well filled
sort of bowsprit, projecting from a
with wind.

there

is

kind of gallows on deck,

flying jib, square
recent times by

appears to

in

is

indicated with the out-

form,"

European
be decked and has

like

that

vessels.
ports.

borne

The

till

ship

Steering-oars

sockets or rowlocks on the quarter, and

eyes are painted on the bows. There is also an oar
behind and under the awning are a number of jars,

hang

in

while two small platforms project fore and aft.^ The

vessel is of the Agramandira type as defined in the
Yuktikalpafarti, our Sanskrit treatise on ships.
The second representation is that of

the

'*

emperor's pleasure-boat, which is like the heraldic

lymphad, with painted eyes at stem and stern, a
pillared canopy amidships, and an umbrella forward,
^

Griffiths,

The Paintings

in the

Buddhist Cave-Temples of Ajanta^

41

P- i7-

INDIAN SHIPPING
the steersman being accommodated on a sort of
ladder which remotely suggests the steersman's
chair in the

rower

is

modern Burmese row-boats

in the

bows."

The

vessel

is

while a

Ma-

of the

dhyamandira type, and corresponds exactly to the

form of those vessels which, according to the Yuktikalpataru, are

to

be used in pleasure

trips

by

kings.

The

from the Ajanta

representation
paintings reproduced here is that of the scene of
the landing of Vijaya in Ceylon, with his army
third

and his installation. The circumstances

of Vijaya's banishment from Bengal with all his
followers and their families are fully set forth in the
Pali works, Mahawanso, Rdjavalliya, and the like.
The fleet of Vijaya carried no less than 1,500

and

fleet,

After touching at several places which,

according to some authorities, lay on the western
coast of the Deccan, the fleet reached the shores of
passengers.

Ceylon, approaching the island from the southern

The date of Vijaya's landing in Ceylon is
side.
said to have been the very day on which another

very important event happened in the far-off fatherland of Vijaya, for it was the day on which the
Buddha attained the Nirvana. Vijaya was next
installed as king,
"

and he became the founder of the

Great Dynasty."

Griffiths,

2 he Paintings

in the

Buddhist Cave-Tempks of Ajanta^

42

P- i7'

if^^^^^^:
Al/\NrA.
MMKHMaitfSiMHlMMHaMlMM

THE ROYAL PLEASURE-BOAT.

(From the Ajanta

Paintings.)
[

To face

p. 42.

HINDU PERIOD
The conquest

of Ceylon, laying as

foundation of a Greater

India,

it

was a

achievement that was calculated to

stir

did the
national

deeply the

popular mind, and was

naturally seized by the

imagination of the artist as a fit theme for the
exercise of his powers.
It is thus that we can

explain its place in our national gallery at Ajanta

as we can explain that of another similar representation suggestive of India's position in the Asiatic

system of old I mean the representation

of Pulakeshi II. receiving the Persian embassy.
political

Truly, Ajanta unfolds

of Indian history.

some of the

forgotten chapters

The

explanation of the complex picture before

us can best be given after Mr. Griffiths, than whom

no one

more competent

speak on the subject.

On the left of the picture, issuing from a gateway,
is a chief on his great white elephant, with a bow
is

to

and two minor chiefs, likewise on

They are
elephants, each shadowed by an umbrella.
accompanied by a retinufe of foot-soldiers, some of
w^hom bear banners and spears and others swords
The drivers of the elephants, with
and shields.
in

his hand;

goads in their hands, are seated, in the usual manner,

on the necks of the animals. Sheaves of arrows are
attached to the sides of the howdahs. The men are
dressed in tightly-fitting short-sleeved jackets, and
loin-cloths with long ends hanging behind in folds.
Below, four soldiers on horseback with spears are

43

INDIAN SHIPPING
and to the right are represented again
the group on their elephants, also in boats, engaged
in a boat,

in

battle,

as the principal

figures have just

dis-

The elephants sway their

charged their bows.
trunks about, as is their wont when excited. The
shown

trumpeting, and the

''
These may
swing of his bell indicates motion.
be thought open to the criticism on Raphael's
near one

is

in the act of

cartoon of the Draught of Fishes, viz. that his boat

is too small to carry his figures.
The Indian artist

has used Raphael's treatment for Raphael's reason

preferring, by reduced and conventional indication
;

of the inanimate

and merely accessory

vessels, to

find space for expression, intelligible to his public,

of the elephants and horses and
their riders

necessary to his story."

Vijaya Sinha, according to legend, went (b.c. 543)

to Ceylon with a large following. The Rakshasis or
female demons inhabiting it captivated them by
but Vijaya, warned in a dream,
their charms
He collected an
escaped on a wonderful horse.
;

army, gave each soldier a magic verse {mantra), and

returned.
Falling upon the demons with great
impetuosity, he totally routed them, some fleeing
the island and others being drowned in the sea. He

destroyed their town, and established himself as king

in the island, to which he gave the name of Sinhala.^
^

See Tumour's Mahdwanso, chs. 6-8.

44

LANDING OF VIJAYA IN CEYLON (ABOUT

543 B.C.).
\To face p.

44.

7.

HINDU PERIOD
now

present a very important and interesting series of representations of ships which are
found not in India but faraway from her, among the
I

shall

magnificent sculptures of the Temple of Borobudur

in Java, where Indian art reached its highest expression amid the Indian environment and civilization transplanted there.

Most of the sculptures show

in splendid relief

ships in full sail and scenes recalling the history of

the colonization of Java by Indians in the earlier
centuries of the

Mr. Havell
ship,

Christian era.

Df one

thus speaks in appreciation

of

them
"

magnificent in design and movement,

The
is

more plainly than

words the perils which the Prince of Gujarat and
his companions encountered on the long and
difficult voyages from the west coast of India.
But
masterpiece in

itself.

these are over now.

It

The

tells

sailors are

hastening to

and bring the ship to anchor." There

are other ships which appear to be sailing tempesttossed on the ocean, fuHy trying the pluck and
dexterity of the oarsmen, sailors, and pilots, who,
however, in their movements and looks impress
furl the sails

us with the idea that they are quite equal to the

These sculptured types of a 6th or
occasion.

7th century Indian ship and it is the characteristic

of Indian art to represent conventional forms or

E. B. Havell's Indian Sculpture and Paintings p. 124.

45

INDIAN SHIPPING

mind
when

things carry our

back to the beginning of the 5th century a.d.,
a similar vessel also touched the shores of

Java

after a

types

rather

than

individual

more than three months' continuous

from Ceylon with 200 passengers on board

It
including the famous Chinese pilgrim Fa-Hien.

sail

noteworthy that
a smaller one as
is

"

astern of the great ship

a provision in case of

was
the

larger vessel being injured or wrecked during the

voyage."^

The form

of these ships closely resembles that

of a catamaran, and somewhat answers to the fol-

lowing description of some Indian ships given by

Nicolo Conti in the earlier part of the 15th century
"
The natives of India build some ships larger than
:

ours, capable of containing 2,000 butts, and with

The lower part is
five sails and as many masts.

constructed with triple planks, in order to withstand

the force of the tempests to which they are much
But some ships are so built in compartexposed.

ments that should one part be shattered the other

remaining entire may accomplish the
portion
voyage."^

These ships
of vessels.

They
^

ii.,

To

will be

the

first

found to present two types

type belong Nos. i, 3, 5, 6.

are generally longer

Beal,

India

Buddhist Records,
iji

the Fiftemth

vol.

and

broader than the

ii., p. 269.
Century, in the Hakluyt Society publications,

p. 27.

46

INDIAN ADVENTURERS SAILING OUT TO COLONIZE JAVA.

No.

I.

(Reproduced from the Sculptures of Borobudur.)

INDIAN ADVENTURERS SAILING OUT TO COLONIZE JAVA.

No.

2.

(Reproduced from the Sculptures of Borobudur.)

[To face p.

46.

HINDU PERIOD
vessels of the second type, have more than one mast,
are many-ribbed, the ribs being curved, not straight.

These vessels are

built so

narrow and top-heavy

necessary to fit outriggers for safety. An

outrigger is a series of planks or logs joined to the
boat with long poles or spars as shown in Fig. i.
that

it

is

customary when a large amount of sail is being

carried for the crew to go out and stand on the outIt is

rigger as

shown

in Fig. 5.

has got two masts and one long sail.

No. 3 has got square sails and one stay-sail in front.
In No. 5 the crew appear to be setting sail or taking

No.

No. 6 has been interpreted by Mr. Havell

as representing sailors "hastening to furl the sails
and bring the ship to anchor," but this suggestion seems to be contradicted by the sea-gulls or
albatrosses of the sculpture flying around the vessel,
which without doubt indicate that the ship is in
mid-ocean, far away from land.
No. I shows probably a wooden figure-head and
not a man so also do Nos. 3, 5, 6. There is also
sail

down.

a sort of cabin in each of the vessels of the

type.

Again, in No.

first

the figure aft appears to be a

compass.^
1
This is the suggestion of a European expert, Mr. J. L. Reid, member
of the Institute of Naval Architects and Shipbuilders, England, at present
Superintendent of the Hugh Docks, Salkea (Howrah). In connection with

Mr. Reid's suggestion, the following extract from the Bombay Gazetteer,
"
will be interesting
The early Hindu
xiii.. Part ii.. Appendix A,

vol.

47

INDIAN SHIPPING
No. 5 appears

to be in collision with

some other

perhaps it shows a smaller vessel which

used to be carried as a provision against damages

vessel, or

or injury to the larger one from the perils of navigation.

This was, as already pointed out, true of the

merchantman
Ceylon to

which Fa-Hien took passage from

No. 5 illustrates also the use of
Java.
in

streamers to indicate the direction of winds.

There is another type of ships represented in

Nos. 2 and 4. The fronts are less curved than in
the first type there is also only one mast.
No. 2
shows a scene of rescue, a drowning man being
No. 4
helped out of the water by his comrade.
;

represents a merrier scene,

themselves in catching

the

party

disporting

fish.

Some of the

favourite devices of Indian sculpture

to indicate water may be here noticed.
Fresh and

sea waters are invariably and unmistakably indicated

by fishes, lotuses, aquatic leaves, and the like. The

makara^ or

alligator,

showing

its

fearful

row of

teeth in Fig. 2, is used to indicate the ocean

also are the albatrosses or sea-gulls of Fig. 6.

so

The

curved lines are used to indicate waves.

astrologers are said to have used the magnet as they still use the modern
compass, in fixing the North and East, in laying foundations, and other
The Hindu compass was an iron fish that floated in
religious ceremonies.

a vessel of oil and pointed to the North. The fact of this older Hindu
compass seems placed beyond doubt by the Sanskrit word maccha-yantra,
or fish machine, which Molesworth gives as a name for the mariner's

compass."

48

INDIAN ADVENTURERS SAILING OUT TO COLONIZE JAVA.

No.

3.

(Reproduced from the Sculptures of Borobudur.)

INDIAN ADVENTURERS SAILING OUT TO COLONIZE JAVA.

No.

4.

(Reproduced from the Sculptures of Borobudur.)

IToface p.

48.

INDIAN ADVENTURERS SAILING OUT TO COLONIZE JAVA.

No.

5-

(Reproduced from the Sculptures of Borobudur.)

INDIAN ADVENTURERS SAILING OUT TO COLONIZE JAVA.

No.

6.

(Reproduced from

.the

Sculptures of Borobudur.)
[To face p.

HINDU PERIOD
The

and

appear probably to demarcate one scene from another in the sculpture.

Finally, in the Philadelphia Museum there is a
trees

pillars

most interesting exhibit of the model of one of these

"
Hindu-Javanese ships, an
outrigger ship," with
the following notes
Length 60

Method

feet.

Breadth 15

feet.

...

cage-work of timber above a great log

answering for a keel, the hold of the vessel being formed by planking
inside the timbers ; and the whole being so top-heavy as to make the outrigger
of construction.

essential for safety.

Reproduced from the frieze of the great Buddhist temple at Borobudur,

About 600 a.d.
Java, which dates probably from the 7th century a.d.
there was a great migration from Guzarat in ancient India near the mouths
of the Indus to the island of Java, due perhaps to the devastation of Upper
India by Scythian tribes and to the drying up of the country.^

Lastly,
Temple at

it

may

be mentioned that in the Great

Madura, among the fresco paintings that

cover the walls of the corridors round the Suvar-

napushkarini tank, there is a fine representation

of the sea and of a ship in full sail on the
main as large as those among the sculptures of

Borobudur.

We

shall

now

refer to the available

numismatic

evidence bearing on Indian shipping for besides

the representations of ships and boats in Indian
;

^
The Javanese chronicles relate that about a.d. 603 a ruler of Gujarat,
forewarned of the coming destruction of his kingdom, started his son with
5,000 followers, among whom were cultivators, artisans, warriors, physicians,

and writers, in 6 large and loo small vessels, for Java, where they laid the
foundation of a civilization that has given to the world the Sculptures of
Borobudur.

49

INDIAN SHIPPING
sculpture and painting, there are a few interesting
representations on some old Indian coins which

point unmistakably to the development of Indian

shipping and naval activity. Thus there has been

a remarkable find of some

Andhra coins on the east

2nd and 3rd century a.d., on

belonging to the
which is to be detected the device of a two-masted
coast,

"

evidently of large size." With regard to the

meaning of the device Mr. Vincent Smith has thus
ship,

remarked
ship

**
:

Some

pieces bearing the figure of a

the inference that Yajna S'rl's

suggest

^
184-213) power was not confined to the land."
Again: "The ship-coins, perhaps struck by Yajna

(a.d.

S'ri, testify to

the existence of a sea-borne trade on

Coromandel coast

the

Christian era."

in

the

This inference

century of the
of course, amply

ist
is,

supported by what we know of the history of the

Andhras, in whose times, according to R. Sewell,
"
there was trade both by sea and overland with
Western Asia, Greece, Rome, and Egypt, as well
as China and the East."^
In his South Indian Buddhist Antiquities,^
Alexander Rea gives illustrations and descriptions
of three of these ship-coins of the Andhras.

3
*

Early History of India,

Z.D.M.G.,
Imperial

p.

613.

Gazetteer,

They

p. 202.

(On Andhra Coinage.)

New

Edition, vol.

Archaeological Survey of India,

New

50

ii.,

p.

825.

Imperial Series, xv.,

p. 29.

No.

No.

ANDHRA

I.

3.

SHIP-COINS OF

No.

No.

2.

4.

THE SECOND CENTURY

A.D.
[To face p.

51.

HINDU PERIOD
of lead, weighing respectively loi grains,
65 grains, and 29 grains. The obverse of the first
shows a ship resembling the Indian dhoni, with bow
are

all

to the

right.

The

section at each end.

round

pointed in vertical
the point of the stem is a

vessel

On

is

The

rudder, in the shape of a post with

spoon on end, projects below. The deck is straight,
and on it are two round objects from which rise two
ball.

Traces of
masts, each with a cross-tree at the top.
rigging can be faintly seen. The obverse of the
second shows a ship to the right.
The device
resembles that of the first, but the features are not

The deck in the specimen is curved.

quite distinct.
The obverse of the third represents a device similar
showing even more distinctly than
the first.
The rigging is crossed between the masts.
On the right of the vessel appear three] balls, and
under the side are two spoon-shaped oars. No. 45
in the plate of Sir Walter Elliot's Coins of Southern
India is also a coin of lead with a two-masted ship
on the obverse.
Besides these Andhra coins there have been
discovered some Kurumbar or Pallava coins on the
Coromandel coast, on the reverse of which there is
"
two-masted ship like the modern
a figure of a
to the preceding,

coasting vessel or d'honi, steered by means of oars

from the stern." The Kurumbars were a- pastoral
tribe living in associated
for

communities and inhabiting

*'

some hundred years before the 7th century the

E 2
51

INDIAN SHIPPING
country from the base of the tableland to the Palar

and Pennar Rivers.

They

are stated to have

been engaged in trade, and to have owned ships and

^
carried on a considerable commerce by sea."
^

37.

Sir

Walter Elliot in the Numismafa Orientalia, vol.

(Coins of Southern India.)

52

iii.,

Partii., pp. 36,

HINDU PERIOD
CHAPTER

III.

Indirect Evidences References and

Allusions to Indian Maritime Activity in
Sanskrit and Pali Literature.
:

HAVE already

though ancient Indian

literature furnishes rather meagre evidences directly
bearing on Indian shipping and shipbuilding, it
abounds with innumerable references to sea voyages
and sea-borne trade and the constant use of the
I

said

that

ocean as the great highway of international intercourse and commerce

which therefore serve as
;

evidence pointing to the existence and

development of a national shipping, feeding and

indirect

We

shall theresupporting a national commerce.

fore now adduce those passages in ancient Indian

works which,

opinion, "prove the early

existence of a complete navigation of the Indian
Ocean, and of the trading voyages of Indians."

The

in Biihler's

oldest evidence

on record

supplied by the
Rig-Veda, which contains several references to sea
voyages undertaken for commercial and other
purposes.
having a

One passage

(I.

is

25. 7) represents

Varuna

knowledge of the ocean routes along

which vessels sail. Another (II. 48. 3) speaks of
merchants, under the influence of greed, sending out
full

ships to foreign countries.

^

Origin of the Indian

A third

Brahma

53

passage

Alphabet, p. 84.

(I.

56. 2)

INDIAN SHIPPING
mentions merchants whose

field of activity

knows

no bounds, who go everywhere in pursuit of gain,

The fourth
and frequent every part of the sea.
passage (VII. 88. 3 and 4) alludes to a voyage
undertaken by Va^istha and Varuna in a ship
skilfully fitted out, and their "undulating happily
in the prosperous swing."

The

which is the
3), mentions a

fifth,

most interesting passage (I. 1 16.

naval expedition on which Tugra the Rishi king
sent his son Bhujyu against some of his enemies in
the distant islands

Bhujyu, however,

by a storm, with

all

his followers,

is

shipwrecked

on the ocean,

"

where there is no support, no rest for the foot or

the hand," from which he is rescued by the twin
brethren, the Asvins, in their hundred-oared galley}
^

The

five

passages are

(I. 25. 7-)

\i

(I. 48. 3-)

(I. 56. 2.)

(VII. 88. 3

(I.

54

&

4.)

116. 3.)

HINDU PERIOD
other passages may be mentioned that which
invokes Agni thus " Do thou whose countenance

Among

is

turned to

sides send off our adversaries as

all

do thou
in a ship to the opposite shore
"
in a ship across the sea for our welfare
;

convey us

which Agni

is

if

or that in

prayed to bestow a boat with oars.

The Rdmdyana

also contains several passages

indicate the intercourse between India and

which

distant lands

by way of the

In the Kish-

sea.

kindhyd Kdndam, Sugriva, the Lord of the Monkeys,

in

giving directions to

of Sita, mentions

all

monkey

to

to the cities

go

of the sea

^
;

in

In one passage he asks

The passage in question

{Kishkindhyd Kdndam^ 40. 25.)

The

passage in question

(^Kishkindhyd

^T^
the

and mountains

in the islands

another the land of the Kosakaras

Ravana

possible places where

could have concealed her.

them

leaders for the quest

Kdndam^

40. 23.)

is

is

^^Ji*i(JlT^r^ T^WfTT^^

'^'^'^

<*1v*K|-^t

The commentator

T^^lf^

^fw^

-^

l*ldl4<.rHI

explains wl*(<*"lTIal

as ^T^'I'fr"^''Tr^^r'^'qfTi-^rr'5rHfrT-irt y^^^ or the land where grows

The silken cloth for
yields the threads of silken clothes.

worm which

which China has been famous from time immemorial has been termed

in

Sanskrit literature ""^tTflj^ and ^l-t-^W to point to the place of its

Thus in Kalidasa's Saknntald we come across the following
origin.

passage

In the Ydtrdtattva of Raghunandana we find the following

The

following further evidence of a Western scholar

55

may be adduced

to

INDIAN SHIPPING
is

mentioned as the

likely place of Sita's conceal-

ment, which is generally interpreted to be no other

country than China a third passage refers to the
^

Yavana

Dvipa and Suvarna Dvipa,

which

usually identified with the islands of

Sumatra of the Malaya Archipelago
;

are

Java and
while the

fourth passage alludes to the Lohita Sagara or the

China was the prime producer of silk " The manufacture of
silk amongst the Chinese claims a high antiquity, native authorities tracing
it as a national industry for a period of five thousand
From China
years.
the looms of Persia and of Tyre were supplied with raw silk, and through
these states the Greeks and the Romans obtained the envied luxury of silk

show

that

tissues.

The

missionaries

introduction of silkworm eggs into Europe was due to two

who brought them concealed

in

bamboo

to Byzantium.

The food
Chinese

also of the silkworm, the white mulberry {Alorus alba), is of

{Growth and Vicissitude of Commerce, by J. Yeats,
origin."

LL.D., F.G.S., F.S.S., etc.) The same author, in his Technical History of
"
Fabrics of silk and cotton are of Oriental origin.
Commerce, p. 149, says
For 600 years after its introduction from China (a.d. 552), silk cultivation
:

was isolated within the Byzantine Empire. The rearing of the worms and
the weaving of the silk was practised in Sicily during the 12th and in Italy
during the 13th century, whence it was subsequently introduced into France
and Spain."
*

The

passages alluded to are

*
'3fc

.%

Ptolemy adopted the Sanskrit name of the island of Java and mentioned
Greek equivalent, while modern writers like Humboldt call it the Barley
Alberuni also has remarked that the Hindus call the islands of the
Island.
Malay Archipelago by the general name of Suvarna Island, which has been
interpreted by the renowned French antiquarian Reinaud to mean the
islands of Java and Sumatra.
{fonrnal Asiatiqne, tome iv., IVe
its

Sdrie, p. 265.)

56

HINDU PERIOD
In the

red sea.

Ayodhyd Kdndam

there is even a

passage which hints at preparations for a naval

fight/ thus indirectly indicating a thorough know^

ledge

and

Rdmdyana

use

universal

also mentions merchants

beyond the sea and were

who

trafficked

in the habit of

presents to the king.

In the Mahdbhdrata

The

of waterway.

accounts

the

bringing
of

the

Rajasuya sacrifice and the Digvijaya of Arjuna and

Nakula mention various countries outside India
with which she had intercourse. There is a passage
in

its

Sabhd Parva which

how Sahadeva,

states

the youngest brother of the five Pandavas, went to

the several islands in the sea and conquered the

Mlechchha inhabitants
^

^r^

thereof.^

'arwT^t tr^rsrt <*=niMt ^rrr

The well-known
-jni*

{Ayodhyd Kdndam,

84. 78.)

[Let hundreds of Kaivarta young men lie in wait in five hundred ships
the enemy's passage).]
obstruct
(to
The following sloka from Manusanhitd, while enumerating the various

and possible methods and means of warfare, includes also naval

means of ships
^^^T^: -^^ ^-^^^ ^fT^-^-tTT
:

fight

by

(Manu,

7.

192.)

[The magnanimous Sahadeva conquered and brought

under

his

subjection the Mlechchha kings and hunters and cannibals inhabiting the
several islands in the sea, including the island called Tamra, etc.]

57

INDIAN SHIPPING
story of the churning of the ocean, in the Mahdbhdrata, in the boldness of its conception is not without

a significance.

In the

Drona Parva

there

passage alluding to shipwrecked sailors

who

is

"

are

an island."
In the same Parva
there is another passage in which there is a reference
to a "tempest-tossed and damaged vessel in a wide
^

safe if they get to

ocean."

In the

Karna Parva we

find the soldiers

Kauravas bewildered like the merchants

"whose ships have come to grief in the midst of
the unfathomable deep." ^ There is another sloka
in the same Parva which describes how the sons
of the

Draupadi rescued their maternal uncles by

supplying them with chariots, "as the shipwrecked
In
merchants are rescued by means of boats."
the Sdnti Parva the salvation attained by means
of Karma and true knowledge is compared to the
gain which a merchant derives from sea-borne

of

But the most interesting passage in the

Mahdbhdrata is that which refers to the escape of

trade/

fwrsNrr ^^t^tw^ ft^wiwT'^

v"^^

ffr^fri:

ij'^^^rsr iir<*T: ^rrwTT^^

58

ii

HINDU PERIOD
the
for

Pandava brothers from the destruction planned

them in a ship that was secretly and specially

constructed

the purpose

for

kind-hearted Vidura/

The

under orders of the

was

of a large size,
kinds of weapons

ship

provided with machinery and all

of war, and able to defy storms and waves.

But besides the

epics, the vast

mass

of Sutra

without evidences pointing to the

commercial connection of India with foreign countries
literature also is not

by way of the

sea.

That these evidences are

suffi-

ciently convincing will probably be apparent from

the following remarks of the well-known German
"

References
authority, the late Professor Blihler
to sea voyages are also found in two of the most
:

ancient
2.

ii.

2,

Dharma
forbids^

Sutras.

them

to

Baudhayana, Dh. S.
the orthodox Brahmans,

and prescribes a severe penance

for a transgression

of the prohibition, but he admits,^ Dh. S. i. 2. 4,

that such transgressions were common among the
'

Northerners

by

"

'

or,

strictly

speaking,

the

Aryans

Now (follow the offences) causing loss of caste, (viz.) making voyages

sea."
^ "

(Biihler's translation in

S.B.E.)
customs
(the
peculiar) to the North are, to deal in wool, to
drink rum, to sell animals that have teeth in the upper and in the lower

Now

jaws, to follow the trade of arms, to go to sea."

59

{Ibid.)

INDIAN SHIPPING
living north of the author's

home, the Dravidian

districts.
The forbidden practices mentioned in the
same Sutra as customary among the Northerners,
such as the

traffic in

wool and

in

animals with two

rows of teeth (horses, mules, etc.), leave no doubt

that the inhabitants of Western and
North-

western India are meant.

It follows

of course that

was

their

trade

as a matter

carried

on with

Western Asia. The same author,^ Dh. S. \. i8. 14,

and Gautama,^ x. 33, fix also the duties payable by
ship-owners to the king." The later Smritis also
contain explicit references to sea-borne trade.

Manu

^
158) declares a Brahman who has gone
to sea to be unworthy of entertainment at a Srdddha.

(iii.

In chapter

viii.

again of Manu's Code* there

interesting sloka laying

^

"The

down

"

Hereby

an

the law that the rate

duty on goods imported by sea

article, ten Panas in the hundred."

is

is,

after

deducting a choice

(Biihler's translation in

(the taxes payable by) those

S.B.E.)

who support themselves by

personal labour have been explained, and those payable by owners of

ships

and

carts."

{Ibid.')

An incendiary, a prisoner, he who eats the food given by the son of

[**
an adulteress, a seller of soma, he who undertakes voyages by sea, a bard,
an oilman, a suborner to perjury."]

[" Whatever rate

men

fix,

who

are expert in sea voyages

and able

to

calculate (the profit) according to the place, and the time, and the objects
(carried), that (has legal force) in such cases with respect to the payment
(to

be made)."]

60

HINDU PERIOD
of interest on the

on bottomry is to be
fixed by men well acquainted with sea voyages or
In the same chapter there is
journeys by land.
another passage^ which lays down the rule of
fixing boat-hire in the case of a river journey and a
sea voyage.
But perhaps the most interesting
passages in that important chapter are those which
are found to lay down the rules regarding what

may

lent

money

One

be called marine insurance.

of

them

holds the sailors collectively responsible for the

damage caused by their fault to the goods of
passengers, and the other absolves them from all
responsibility if the damage is caused by an accident

beyond human

Manu

control.^

also

mentions a

[" For a long passage the boat-hire must be proportioned to the places
times.
Know that this (rule refers) to passages along the banks of
rivers ; at sea there is no settled (freight)."]

and

The

passages in question are

irxT^TT

^TTr-5f

^wJTHr ^frrs>-fr:

ii

{Afauu,

viii.

409. 9.)

["Whatever may be damaged in a boat by the fault of the boatmen,

that shall be made good by the boatmen collectively (each paying) his
share.

"

This decision in suits (brought) by passengers (holds good only) in

case the boatmen are culpably negligent on the water; in the case of
(accident) caused by (the will of) the gods, no fine can be (inflicted

on them)."]

61

INDIAN SHIPPING
Hindus entrusted with the
business of conducting trade, and upon them was
particular

enjoined

caste

of

necessity of making themselves acwith the productions and requirements

the

quainted
of other countries, with various dialects and languages, and also with whatever has direct or indirect
reference to purchase or sale.
Sanhitd^ there is a passage

the

Hindus were

In the Ydjnavalkya

which indicates that

in the habit of

making adventurous

sea voyages in pursuit of gain.

The astronomical works also are

of passages
that hint at the flourishing condition of Indian
shipping and shipbuilding and the development of

Thus

full

Vrihat Sanhitd has

several passages of this kind having an indirect
bearing on shipping and maritime commerce. One
of these indicates the existence of shippers and
sailors as a class whose health is said to be
influenced by the moon.^ Another^ mentions the
sea-borne trade.

the

stellar influences affecting the

fortunes of traders,

^ ^^f?^ ?^JT ^^ TZ^^T ^f^^^UTT^

^5"^ r==^?r f^^ ^RTT^' iTTf^ ^if'ff ^^:
1

STT^fcl Sf F'^^r?i:l\S-l

(4. 8.)

(7. 6.)

62

4JJI

HINDU PERIOD
physicians, shippers,

and the

like.

The

third,

also,

mentions a particular conjunction of stars similarly

The fourth pasaffecting merchants and sailors.
sage^ mentions the existence of a class of small
shippers who probably are confined to inland
navigation.

The

fifth

mentions the causes which

bring about the sickness of passengers sailing in

sea-going vessels on voyages, and of others. The
last passage^ I would cite here is
that which

recommends as the place for an auspicious sea-bath

the seaport where there is a great flow of gold due
to multitudes of merchantmen arriving in safety,
after

disposing

of

laden

with

also furnish references to

mer-

exports

abroad,

treasure.

The Purdnas^

chants engaged in sea-borne trade.

The Vardha

(9- 3I-)

(lo. 3-)

(lO. lO.)

(44. 12.)
^

E.g. the

Vayu Purdna, the Mdrkandeya Put ana, and the Bhdgavata

Purd^a.

63

INDIAN SHIPPING
Purdna mentions a childless merchant named
Gokarna who embarked on a voyage for trading
purposes but was overtaken by a storm on the sea

The
nearly shipwrecked.
contains a passage which relates
and

embarked on a voyage

in

same

how

Purdna

a merchant

a sea-going vessel

in

quest of pearls with people who knew all about

them.
In the Mdrkandeya Purdna ^ also there is

a well-known passage repeated as mantram by

thousands of Brahmans which refers as an illustra-

dangerous plight of the man sailing on

the great ocean in a ship overtaken by a whirlwind.
But besides the religious works like the Vedas,
the Epics, and the Sutras and Purdnas, the secular
tion to the

works of Sanskrit poets and writers are also

full

of references to the use of the sea as the highway of commerce, to voyages, and naval fights.

Thus in Kalidasa s Raghuvansa (canto 4, sloka 36)

we find the defeat by Raghu of a strong naval

IJ^ W^

^Sn"^ ^'^Tnf

!!l<UIU*|^

TJTTT^fT^'rr: ^"^ TrtTf^^WtfTfTT

2

^T'Slf^'JTT'^TnmTr^-^W^W

64

II

HINDU PERIOD
with

force

which

the

kings

him, and his planting the

the

isles

formed

midst

the

in

of Bengal attacked
pillars of victory on

The Raghuvansa

Ganges.^

the

of

also

River

mentions

the

carrying even into Persia of the victorious arms

of Raghu, though of course he reached Persia^

by the land

But

route.

this express reference to

land route implies that the water route was well

known. In Kalidasa's Sakuntald we have already

noted the reference to China as the land of silk

The Sakuntald also relates the story of a

merchant named Dhanavriddhi whose immense
fabrics.

king on the former's

perishing at sea and leaving no heirs behind him.
The popular drama of Ratndvalt, which is usually
devolved

wealth

attributed to

to

the

relates the story^ of the

King Harsha,

Ceylonese princess, daughter of King Vikramavahu,

^

1TTTW ^TT^rPU TIT^T

-^T

^fT^rN "il <J d T"ir

[" Having by his prowess uprooted the Vaagas (Bengalis) arrayed for
(Raghu) posted pillars of

battle with a naval force, that excellent leader

victory

on the

^7?TT<I^rtT

isles

formed

Tf^T^T^T:

in the

^"WT^^

midst of Ganga."]

[" Otherwise how was the attainment of a plank possible of the daughter
of the king of Siiihala, shipwrecked on the sea, with her desire kindled by

the faith
state

by

bom

of the words of saints

the merchant of

How

also

was she observed

Kausambi returning from Ceylon ? "]

65

in thai

INDIAN SHIPPING
being shipwrecked in mid-ocean and brought thence
by some merchants of the town of Kausambi. In

Dasakumdracharita of Dandin there is the story

of a merchant named Ratnodbhava who goes to an

the

island called Kalayavana, marries there a girl, but

while returning home is shipwrecked and another

of Mitragupta,^ who goes on board a Yavana ship,
;

an

and, losing his way,

arrives

from his destination.

The S'isupdlavadka

at

different

isle

of the

Magha contains an interesting passage which

mentions how S'ri Krishna, while going from Dvaraka
poet

Hastinapura, beholds merchants coming from

foreign countries in ships laden with merchandise
to

and again exporting abroad Indian goods.

[Then, anxious to see his brother, Ratnodbhava, with the permission of

Pushpapur (Patna) on board a ship with his
The vessel sank in the water of the sea,
wife, having her eyes rolling.

his father-in-law, started for

being beaten by rolling waves.]

[At

this

very

Yavanas were

moment a fleet of many ships was in

Then like dogs attacking a boar

afraid.

pursuit.

the

The

pursuing

vessels very soon surrounded the ship.]

frrtv TT^Tq^-qr^wT^ ^t^Tf't <* ! cm fH ^^JTsrs^'rr a

(Sri Krishna) was glad to see merchants of distant islands, after
I

[He

realizing great profits from the sale of the products of

reload their vessels with merchandise of Indian origin.]

66

many

countries,

HINDU PERIOD
In

the vast

Sanskrit literature of fables and

many allusions to merchants

and sea-borne trade. Thus the Kathdsarit Sdgara
of the Kashmirian poet Somadeva bristles with
fairy tales also there are

sea voyages and intercourse with

In the 9th book or Lambaka,
foreign countries.
1st chapter or Taranga, there is the story of Prithvi
references

to

Raj going with an

Muktipura

a ship to the island of

the 2nd chapter relates the voyages of

a merchant and

artist in

his wife to

an

and

island,

their

the 4th
separation after a shipwreck by storm
chapter describes the voyage of Samudrasura and
;

another merchant to the Suvarna Island for commerce, and their shipwreck the 6th chapter recounts
the quest of his son by Chandrasvami, who goes to
;

Ceylon and other islands

many a merchant's
and so on. The Hitopade^a
in

vessel for the purpose

also mentions the story of Kandarpaketu, a merIn the Hitopadesa a ship is described as a
chant.
;

necessary requisite for a man to traverse the ocean,

and a story is given of a certain merchant who,
after
last

having been twelve years on his voyage,

home with a cargo

NUi^ataka of Vartrihari

returned

In the

TTSi

-W\ vf^

-irif^

TT^

f^f^^-iTT

67

at

of precious stones.
there is a passage

^TTT^-f^^T W^\

F 2

INDIAN SHIPPING
which

refers to ships as the

means of crossing

the

illimitable

expanse of water, even as lamps destroy

darkness.

The Rdja-Taranginl^

describing the
on the sea.
Lastly,

misfortunes

we may

notice

contains a passage
of a royal messenger

connection the

this

in

frequent mention in ancient Sanskrit literature of

pearls and references to pearl fishery as one of the

important national industries of India, and especially

Tamils towards the south. It is

in the land of the

hardly necessary to point out that pearls could not

have been procured without the aid of adventurous

mariners and boats that could breast the ocean wave

and brave the

perils of the

According to

deep.

Varahamihira, Garuda Purdna, and Bhoja, pearlfishing was carried on in the whole of the Indian

Ocean as
were
shtra,

taka,

far as the Persian Gulf,

and

its

chief centres

off the coasts of Ceylon, Paralaukika,

Saura-

Tamraparnl, Parasava, Kauvera, Pandyava-

and Haimadesha.

chief centres of Indian

to Agastya, the
pearl-fishing were in the

According

neighbourhood of Ceylon, Arabia, and Persia.

Pearls were also
manufactured by
artificially
Ceylonese craftsmen, but the Tamils were through-

^r^ TTT

f?rf(nn'?TfTrfVT-g7qr5r

[The royal messenger

and a whale devoured him

fell
;

fsdw-

ii

on a vessel,
he came out and

into the sea while proceeding

but ripping open

crossed the sea.]

68

its

belly,

HINDU PERIOD
out the most famous

among Indians for pearl fishery,

the Gulf of Mannar the name of

and they gave to

Salabham, "the sea of gain."

Thus Sanskrit
as

the

Vedas,

literature in all its

the

Sutras,

the

forms

such

Purdnas, poetry

is replete with
epic and dramatic, romance, etc.
references to the maritime trade of India, which

prove that the ocean was freely used by the Indians

in ancient times as the great highway of international

commerce.
pointed to by these

Further, the conclusions

evidences

from

Sanskrit

literature

receive

their

confirmation again from the evidences furnished

by the Buddhistic literature the ancient historical

works or the chronicles of Ceylon, the canonical

books, and the ydtakas or Re-birth stories. The
accounts of the Vijayan legends as set forth in
the Mahdwanso and other works are full of references
to the sea

and sea-borne

According to the
Rdjavalliya, Prince Vijaya and his seven hundred
followers were banished by the king Sinhaba
(Sinhavahu) of

Bengal

trade.

for

the oppressions

they

and they were put on

practised upon
board a ship and sent adrift, while their wives and
children were placed in two other separate ships and
his subjects,

sent

away

similarly.

The

ships

started

from a

place near the city of Sinhapura, and on their way

touched at the port of Supara, which, according to Dr.

Burgess, lay near the modern Bassein on the western

69

INDIAN SHIPPING
"
Vijaya landed in Ceylon on
the successor of former Buddhas

coast of the Deccan.

the

day

that

two delightful Sal-trees

to attain Nirvana," approaching the island from
"
southwards, and became the founder of the Great
reclined in the arbour of the

Vijaya then sent a present of precious

stones to the king of Pandya, and caused to be

Dynasty."

brought a princess whom he took to wife, and also

seven hundred women attendants whom his followers

According to Tumour's Mahdwanso, the

which Vijaya's Pandyan bride was brought
Ceylon was of a very large size, having the

married.

ship in
over to

accommodate eighteen officers of state,

seventy-five menial servants and a number of slaves,
besides the princess herself and seven hundred other
capacity to

virgins

who accompanied

regnum followed

her.

after the death

"

period of inter-

of Vijaya without

attended by thirty-two
nephew,
ministers, embarked from the city of Sagal," reached

issue

till

his

and assumed the reins of sovereignty.

There are two further sea voyages mentioned in
this connection, the first undertaken by a princess
who afterwards became the consort of Vijaya's
nephew, and the second by her six brothers, both of
which had the same starting-point in the city of
Morapura on the Ganges, and the same destination,
Ceylon,

Upham's Sacred and Historical Books of

Mahdwanso, 55.

nour's

70

Ceylon,

i.

71

ii.

177.

Tur-

HINDU PERIOD
Ceylon, and the latter voyage, according to
Tumour's Mahdwanso, occupied twelve days.

viz.

Next

importance to the Vijayan legends,^ so

far as sea-borne trade is concerned, are the legends
of Punna, a merchant of Supparaka, who carried on
in

a large trade,

partnership with his younger

brother Chula Punna, with the distant region of
in

At Sravasti he heard Buddha

and became his disciple, and afterwards

Northern Kosala.
preach,

induced his former mercantile associates of Supparaka to erect a Vihara with a portion of the

Punna and his

three hundred associate merchants brought home
on one of their sea voyages. The ship in which
they made their trading voyage was of so large a
red-sanders

timber which Chula

accommodating over three hundred

merchants there was room left for the cargo of that
The legends
timber which they brought home.
size that besides

next requiring notice in this connection are those of

the two Burmese ^ merchant brothers Tapoosa and

who

crossed the

of Bengal in a ship
that conveyed full five hundred cartloads of their
Palekat,

Bay

own

goods, which they landed at Adzeitta, a port in

Kalinga in the northern section of the eastern coast,

on

their

way

to

Suvama

in

Magadha.

Again, in

the legend of the conveyance of the Tooth-relic, as

Hardy, Manual of Buddhism, 56, 57, and

Bishop Bigandet's Life of

71

Godama,

loi.

60.

INDIAN SHIPPING
related in the

Ddthddhdtuwanso, there is mention

Dantakumara conveying the relic
from Dantapura to Ceylon.
The voyage was
performed in one of those ships which carried
on a regular and ceaseless traffic between the
port of Tamralipta in Bengal and the island of
of the voyage of

Ceylon.

The Tibetan legend of the Sinhalese princess

Ratnavali may also be mentioned, which tells of the
voyage of the merchants of Sravasti who were
driven down the Bay of Bengal by contrary winds,
but who subsequently completed their voyage to
Ceylon and back.

Again, in one of the Chinese

legends of the lion-prince Sinhala,^ it is related

how the boat in which the daughter of the Lion was
cast

away was driven by

the winds westwards into

the Persian Gulf, where she landed and founded a

"
in the country of the Western women."
colony

The

embodied in the Dipavansa version

of the legend makes her land on an island which
was afterwards called the " Kingdom of Women."
tradition

As

the Rev. T. Foulkes^ remarks, ''underneath the

legendary matter we may here trace the existence of

a sea route between India and the Persian coasts in
the days of Buddha."

Si-yu-kif
^
^

ii.

246.

Si-yu-ki, xiii. 55.

Indian Antiquary, 1879.

72

HINDU PERIOD
Vinaya mentions a
Hindu merchant named Poorna who made six sea
voyages, and in the seventh voyage he was in the
company of some Buddhist citizens of Sravasti
and was converted by them to Buddhism. The
Sutta Pitaka contains also several allusions to

Among

the Pitakas, the

voyages in distant seas far remote from land. In

the Sanyutta Nikaya (3, p. 115, 5. 51) and in the
127) there are interesting passages
mention voyages, lasting for six months, made

Anguttara
which

(4.

in ships {ndva,

which means boats) which could be

drawn up on shore in the winter.

Very interesting and conclusive evidence is supplied by a
passage in the Digha Nikaya (i.. 222) which
mentions sea voyages out of sight of land.
describes how merchants carrying on sea-borne

distinctly
It

would take with them

trade

in

their

sea-going
vessels certain birds of strong wing which, when
the vessels were out of sight of land, would be let
loose and used to indicate in which direction the
land

lay.

If the shore

were not near or within easy

the birds woiild return

the ships after

flying in all directions to get to land, but if there
were land within a few miles the birds would not
reach,

to

return.

Some

very definite and convincing allusions to

sea voyages and sea-borne trade are also contained

body of Buddhist literature known as the

ydtakas, which are generally taken to relate themin the vast

73

INDIAN SHIPPING
selves to a period of one thousand years beginning

from 500
points to

B.C.

the

The Baveru-ydtaka without doubt

^

existence of commercial intercourse

between India and Babylon

The

in

pre-Asokan days.

significance of this important ydtaka is

thus expressed by the late Professor Biihler " The
full

now well-known Baveru-ydtaka,

to

which Professor

Minayef first drew attention, narrates that Hindu

merchants exported peacocks to Baveru.
The
identification of Baveru with Babiru or Babylon is
not doubtful," and considering the " age of the
materials of the ydtakas, the story indicates that
the Vanias of Western India undertook trading

voyages

to the shores of the Persian

Gulf and of

its

rivers in the 5th, perhaps even in the 6th century

B.C. just as in our days.
This trade very probably
existed already in much earlier times, for the

ydtakas contain

several other stories,

describing

and perilous adventures by

voyages
sea, in which the names of the very ancient Western
ports of Surparaka-Supara and Bharukaccha-Broach
to distant lands

are occasionally mentioned." The Samudda-Vanija^

^
ydtaka tells the story of the village of wood^
wrights who, failing to deliver the goods (furniture,
^

Jataka iii., no. 339, in the Cambridge Edition.

Jataka iv. 159, no. 466.
^ "
There stood near Benares a great town of carpenters containing a
thousand families." Ibid.
* "
The carpenters from this town used to profess that they would make
a bed or a chair or a house." Ibid.
^

74

HINDU PERIOD
which they had been paid in advance, built a
ship secretly, embarked their families, and emigrated
down the Ganges and out to an island over-sea.^
etc.) for

The

Vdlahassa-yataka (jFat.
mentions - five hundred dealers
passengers on an ill-fated ship.

ii.

128,

no.

196)
were fellow

who
The Supparaka-

138-142) records the perilous

adventures on the sea undergone by a company of

ydtaka^

{jfat.

iv.

seven hundred merchants

who

town of Bharukaccha^

port

in

from the seaa vessel under the

sailed

The

pilotage of a blind but accomplished mariner.^

Mahdjanaka-ydtaka {ydt. vi. 32-35, no.

" There
they sailed at the wind's
that lay in the midst of the sea."
Ibid.
^

will until

they reached an island

Valahassa-Jdtaka relates how "some shipwrecked mariners

Ibid.
city of goblins by the aid of a flying horse."

The

escaped from a
3

"

Now

it

happened

hundred shipwrecked traders were cast

that five

ashore near the city of these sea-goblins."

*

"The

assessor

539)

and

how

story mentions
valuer,

Ibid.

a blind mariner was

and how he was

perilous seas of Fairyland."

pilot to

made

the king's

a vessel which traversed the

Ibid.

" It
happened that some merchants had got ready a ship and were
Now there were seven hundred souls
about
for a skipper.
casting
^

aboard the ship."

Ibid.

" There was a

seaport town

named Bharukacch or Marsh of Bharu.

was born into the family of a master mariner
Afterthere.
They gave him the name of Supparaka Kumara.
With
wards, when his father died, he became the head of his mariners.
him aboard no ship ever came to harm." Ibid.
^

At

that time the Buddhisatta

.

' "
Four months the vessel had been voyaging in far-distant regions ;
and now, as though endowed with supernatural powers, it returned in one
Ibid.
single day to the seaport town of Bharukacch."

IS

INDIAN SHIPPING
recounts the adventures^ of a prince who, with other
^
from Champa
traders, is represented as setting out

with export goods

ship which

bhumi

is

"

Chersonese

and

for

Suvannabhumi on

wrecked

is

same

in

probably either
'

the

mid-ocean SuvannaBurma or the Golden

Farther-Indian coast
'

"

or the whole

ydtaka also shows that the Ganges was

navigable right away to the sea from Champa or
modern Bhagalpur.
The Sdnkha-ydtaka ijdt.
vi. 15-17, no. 442) tells the
story of a Brahman
this

who

a ship for the Gold

Country in quest of riches by which he can replenish

given to charity

sails in

the store* his philanthropy was exhausting.

was a native of Benares, and gave away daily
^

The

following

is

a brief summary of

its

his brother, without reason, rebels against him,

story

and

He
in

kills

prince suspects
him. The king's

consort, being with child, flees from the city. Her son is brought up without
knowledge of his father, but when he learns the truth goes to sea on a
merchant venture.
He is wrecked, and a goddess brings him to his

kingdom, where, after answering some difficult questions, he marries

the daughter of the usurper.
By-and-bye he becomes an ascetic, and is
followed by his wife. (Cambridge edition of the Jdtakas.)
^ "
Having got together his stock-in-trade (viz. store of pearls, jewels, and
diamonds) he put it on board a ship with some merchants bound for
father's

Suvannabhumi, and bade his mother

sailing for that country."
^

farewell, telling her that

he was

Ibid.

"

There were seven caravans with their beasts embarked on board.

In seven days the ship made seven hundred leagues, but having gone too
/did.
violently in its course it could not hold out."
* "
One day he thought to himself, My store of wealth once gone I shall
have nothing to give. While it is still unexhausted I will take ship, and sail

'

Gold Country, whence

I will bring back wealth.

So he caused a ship
with merchandise, and, bidding farewell to his wife and
find.
child, set his face towards the seaport, and at mid-day he departed."

for the

to

be

built, filled

it

76

HINDU PERIOD
alms 600,000 pieces of money. His ship, how^
in mid-ocean, but he is
ever, sprang a leak
miraculously saved by a kind fairy in a magic
with the seven treasures of gold, silver,
The
pearls, gems, cats'-eyes, diamonds, and coral.
Sussondi-y dtaka {Jat. iii. 188, no. 360) mentions
ship^

filled

the voyage of certain merchants of Bharukaccha

for the Golden Land,^ from which, as also from

ydtakas such as the Mahdjanaka-ydtaka,

it is evident that besides
Ceylon, Suvannabhumi
or Burma was another commercial objective of
other

traders

ports
several

coasting around India from western seasuch as Bharukaccha.

Lastly, there are
other

explicitly

of

in

ydtakas
a

successful,

birds between Babylon

and

which

we

are

told

sporadic, deal in
^
Benares, and of horses
if

"

When they were come to the high seas, on the seventh day the ship
sprang a leak, and they could not bale the water clear." Ibid.
The following contains a full description of the ship " The deity,
^

"^

well pleased at hearing these words, caused a ship to appear made of the
seven things of price ; in length it was 800 cubits, 20 fathoms in depth ; it
had three masts made of sapphire, cordage of gold, silver sails, and of gold
Ibid.
also were the oars and the rudders."

the

" At that time certain merchants of Bharukaccha were

setting

Golden Land."

sail for

Ibid.

Jdtaka i. 124, or Tandulanali-Jdtaka, no. 5, which tells the story of an

incompetent valuer declaring five hundred horses worth a measure of rice,
which measure of rice in turn he is led to declare worth all Benares, contains
"
At that time
a passage of which the following is the English translation
there arrived from the North Country a horse-dealer with five hundred
:

horses."
*'

Some

horses."

Similarly, Jdtaka ii. 31, Suhanu-Jafaka, no. 158, has the following :
horse-dealers from the North Country brought down five hundred

Again,

Jdtaka

ii.

287, or Kundaka-Kticchi-Sindhava-Jdtaka,

77

INDIAN SHIPPING
imported by hundreds from the North and from
Sindh.i

The

conclusions regarding the state of Indian

trade to which these various hints in the jFatakas
point

may

be thus

Rhys Davids
Communication
caravans and water.

summed up

in the

words of Mrs.
'

both inland and foreign was of course effected by

The caravans are described as consisting of five

hundred carts drawn by oxen. They go both east and west from Benares
and Patna as centres. The objective was probably the ports on the west
coast, those on the sea-board of Sobira (the Sophir (Ophir) of the SeptuaFrom here there was intergint) in the Gulf of Cutch or Bharukaccha,
sea
with
Baveru
and
change by
(Babylon)
probably Arabia, Phoenicia,
and Egypt.
Westward merchants are often mentioned as taking ships
from Benares, or lower down at Champa, dropping down the great river,
and either coasting to Ceylon or adventuring many days without sight of
land to Suvannabhumi (Chryse Chersonesus, or possibly inclusive of all the
.

coast of Farther India). ^

"
Boddhisatta was born into a trader's family
no. 254, mentions how the
in the Northern Province; and five hundred people of that country,
horse-dealers, used to convey horses to Benares and sell them there."
^

Jdtaka

dhisatta

i.

came

"
Bod178, or Bhojajanuya-Jdtaka, no. 23, mentions how
to life as a thoroughbred Sindh horse."
Jdtaka
Similarly,

181, or the Ajamia-Jdtaka^ no. 24, refers to a warrior \dio fought from a
chariot to which were harnessed two Sindh horses.
i.

"^

Economic Jotirnal

dXi^L J.

R. A. S.

for 1901.

78

BOOK I. PART
The History

of Indian

11.

Maritime Activity.

I. PART

BOOK

CHAPTER

I.

The Pre-Mauryan
Both Brahminical and

II.

Period.

Buddhistic texts are thus

replete with references to the sea-borne trade of

India that directly and indirectly demonstrate the

existence and development of a national shipping

It is now necessary to narrate
and shipbuilding.

the facts of that trade, and for this we shall have to

draw upon all sorts of evidence, literary, inscriptional,

and numismatic, and both Indian and

For

foreign.

India alone has not the monopoly of these evidences

and if she really had commercial connection with

the outside world

it is

and

natural,

in fact necessary,

that they be also supplied by those countries with

which she carried on her intercourse, thus con-

firming those conclusions that are reached by a

study of the purely Indian evidences. And so do

we

find, as

a matter of

abundant allusions

fact, in

various foreign works

to India's

commerce,

arts,

and

manufactures, indicating the glorious position she

once occupied and for long maintained as the Queen
of the Eastern Seas.
8i

INDIAN SHIPPING

x/^

Indeed,

show

that

the evidences available will clearly

for full thirty centuries India stood

all

out as the very heart

cultivating trade

of

the

relations

commercial

world,
successively with the

Phoenicians, Jews, Assyrians, Greeks, Egyptians,

in ancient times, and Turks, Venetians,

and Romans

Portuguese, Dutch, and English in modern times.

genial climate and a fertile soil, coupled with the
industry and frugality of the Indian people, rendered

them

virtually independent of foreign nations in

respect of the necessaries of life, while their

secondary wants were few. Of the latter, tin, lead,

glass, amber, steel for arms, and perhaps coral and
to a small extent medicinal drugs, were all that
India had need to import from Europe and Western
Asia, while to Arabia she was indebted for the

supply of frankincense used in her temples. On the

other hand, India provided Europe with wool from
the fleeces of the sheep bred on her north-western

mountain ranges, famous since the days of Alexander

the Great with onyx, chalcedony, lapis-lazuli, and
;

with a
jasper, then esteemed as precious stones
with
resinous gum, furs, assafoetida, and musk
;

and coloured carpets

embroidered
which were as highly prized in Babylon and Rome
as their modern reproductions are in London and
But the most valuable
Paris at the present day.
of the exports of India was silk, which, under the
woollen fabrics

Persian Empire,

is

said to have been exchanged

82

by

HINDU PERIOD
weight with gold. It was manufactured in India,
as well as obtained for re-export from China.
Next
to silk in value were cotton cloths ranging from
coarse canvas and calicoes to muslins of the finest

India also supplied foreign countries with

oils, brassware, a liquid preparation of the sugarcane, salt, drugs, dyes, and aromatics, while she had
also a monopoly in the matter of the supply of
texture.

pepper, cinnamon, and other edible spices, which

were

in great request

Through ages
position

in

throughout Europe.
India thus occupied a unique

the commercial

world as

the

main

As a consequence
supplier of the world's luxuries.
she throughout had the balance of trade clearly in
her favour, a balance which could only be settled
by the export of treasure from European and other
countries that were commercially indebted to her.
For India desired nothing which foreigners could
Thus has she
give her but the precious metals.

been

centuries the final depository of a

large portion of the metallic wealth of the world.
Her supply of gold she obtained not as did
for

many

Europe from America in the i6th century by conquest or rapine, but by the more natural and peaceful
method of commerce, " by the exchange of such of
her productions as among the Indians were superfluities but were at the same time not
only highly
prized by the nations of Western Asia, Egypt, and

Europe, but were obtainable from no other quarter

G 2
83

INDIAN SHIPPING
from the farther East by means of
"
"
It was this flow or
the Indian trade. "^
drain of
gold into India that so far back as the i st century

^except

India, or

was the cause of alarm and regret to Pliny, who

calculated that fully a hundred million sesterces,
A.D.

Delmar, to ;^70,ooo of
modern English money, were withdrawn annually
from the Roman Empire to purchase useless Oriental
according

equivalent,

to

products such as perfumes, unguents, and personal

It was probably also the same flow of
ornaments.^
gold into India from outside that even earlier still,
in the 5th century B.C., at least partially

enabled the

Indian satrapy of Darius, naturally the richest and

most populous part of his empire (including as much

of Afghanistan, Kashmir, and the Punjab as the
Persian monarchs could keep in subjection), to pay
him " the enormous tribute of 360 Euboic talents
of gold-dust or 185 hundredweights, worth fully a
million sterling, and constituting about one-third of
the total bullion revenue of the Asiatic provinces."^
shall now enter upon a relation of the facts

We

of this trade

which served

of Ind," a brief survey of

doubtedly

the

is

its

an important, though neglected, aspect

C. Daniell, F.S.S., I.C.S., Industrial Competition of Asia, p. 225.

See also Mommsen's Provinces of
Pliny, Natural History, xii. 18.

Roman Empire,
3

"the wealth
course which un-

to create

Herodotus,

iii.

vol.

ii.,

299-300.

(V. A. Smith's Early History of India,

P- 34)-

84

New

Edition,

HINDU PERIOD
of Indian history, the story of her old, abounding
international life.

The

antiquity of this trade will be evident from

the fact that it is foreshadowed even in the &g-

Veda, one of the oldest literary records of humanity,

which, as I have already shown, speaks in many
places of ships and merchants sailing out into the
open main for the sake of riches, braving the perils

of the deep, " where there is no support, nothing to

rest upon or cling to."
India thus began her sea-

borne trade with the very beginning of recorded time,

and the trade of the Rig- Veda was very probably
carried on with countries on the west like Chaldaea,
I do not feel myself comBabylon, and Egypt.
petent to deal with this subject of India's prehistoric trade relations
Egyptologists or Assyrio;

I can but
logists alone can do full justice to it.
briefly refer to some of the conclusions reached in

regard to this subject and the evidences on which

they are based.
According to Dr. Sayce,^ the

famous Assyriologist, the commerce by sea between

India and Babylon must have been carried on as
early as about 3000 B.C., when Ur Bagas, the
king of United Babylonia, ruled in Ur of

This

first

the

proved by the finding of Indian

Mr. Hewitt is of opinion
teak in the ruins of Ur.
Chaldees.

is

See his Hibbert Ledtires for 1887 on the Origin and Growth of

Religion

among

the Babylonians.

85

INDIAN SHIPPING
wood must have been

sent by sea from

some port on the Malabar coast, for it is only there
that teak grew near enough to the sea to be exported
that this

with profit in those early times. Again, Dr. Sayce

points to the use of the word sindhu for muslin in

an old Babylonian
"

list

of clothes as the clearest

was trade between Babylonia and

people who spoke an Aryan dialect and lived in the
country watered by the Indus." This trade must
have been sea-borne, and the muslin must have
proof

that there

been brought by

sea, for, as

Mr. Hewitt points out,

Zend-speaking traders had brought it by land they

would have called the country by the Zend name,
Hindhu, altering the s into an h} These conclusions
if

of Dr. Sayce and Mr. Hewitt regarding the extreme

antiquity of the Indian maritime trade with Babylon are not, however, accepted

by

Mr.

all scholars.

Kennedy,^ for instance, in a learned article on the

subject, says that he "can find no archaeological or

J.

maritime trade between India

but
and Babylon prior to the yth century B.C.
literary evidence for a

for the

6th century

coming."

B.C.

direct

evidence

This direct evidence, which

is

is

forth-

so very

be thus presented after him

Mr. Rassam found a beam of Indian cedar in

interesting,
(i)

may

J.R.A.S., 1888, p. 337. Mr, Hewitt, late Commissioner of Chota

Nagpur, is the author of many works on primitive history,
^
See J.H.A.S., 1898, on the Early Commerce between India and
Babylon,

86

HINDU PERIOD
the palace of Nebuchadnezzar (604-562 B.C.) at Birs
Nimrud, part of which is now exhibited in the
British

Museum.

(2)

In the second storey of the

Moon-god at Ur, rebuilt by Nebuchadnezzar and Nabonidus (555-538 B.C.) Mr.

Temple of

the

"
Taylor found two rough logs of wood, apparently
teak, which ran across the whole breadth of the

shaft,"
"

and Mr. Rassam thus says of

it

in a letter

Most probably the block of wood which Taylor

discovered was Indian cedar like the beam I discovered in the palace of Nebuchadnezzar.

There

is

no doubt that this wood was imported into Babylonia from India."
(3) The Baveru-ydtaka, as we
have already seen, relates the adventures of certain
Indian merchants who took the first peacock by sea
to Babylon.
Mr. Kennedy remarks, " the ydtaka
itself may go back to 400 B.C., but the folks-tale on
which it is based must be much older." We have
already cited the opinion on this Jdtaka of the late
Professor Biihler, according to whom, if the age of
the materials of the
story indicates that

"
ydtakas be considered, the
the Vanias of Western India

undertook trading voyages to the shores of the

Persian Gulf or its rivers in the 5th, perhaps even
in the 6th century B.C., just as in

our days.

This

trade very probably existed already in much earlier

for the ydtakas contain
times
several other
;

describing voyages to distant lands and

perilous adventures by sea, in which the names of
stories,

87

INDIAN SHIPPING
the very ancient

and

Western

ports of Surparaka-Supara
Bharukaccha-Broach are occasionally men-

tioned."

We

that in the

also note in this connection

may

Digha Nikaya

(i.

222) of Sutta-Pitaka,'

the date of which has been placed by Mr. Rhys

Davids ^ in the 5th century B.C., there is an explicit
reference

"

ocean-going ships out of sight of

land."
(4) Certain Indian commodities, e.g. rice,
peacocks, sandal-wood, were known to the Greeks
to

under their Indian names in the 5th

"It follows that they were imported
century b.c.
from the west coast of India into Babylon directly
aiid others

by sea; and

this conclusion

is

borne out by the

statements of the Baveni-ydtaka. And we must

further conclude that they were first imported into
in the 6th century B.C., not

only because
direct intercourse
between Babylon and India
practically came to an end after 480 B.C., but

Babylon

and peacocks must have reached Greece

at the latest in 460 or 470 B.C. in order to become
common at Athens in 430 B.C." After this review
of the evidence Mr. Kennedy puts forward the
because

rice

"
The evidence warrants us
following conclusion
in the belief that maritime commerce between India
:

.and

more

Babylon flourished

in

the

7th and 6th, but

especially in the 6th, centuries B.C.

Origin of the Indian

Brahma

Alphabet^ p. 84.

See/.Ji.A.S., April, 1899, p. 482.

88

It

was

HINDU PERIOD
hands of Dravidians, although Aryans
had a share in it and as Indian traders settled
afterwards in Arabia and on the east coast of Africa,
and as we find them settling at this very time on
chiefly in the

the coast of China,

we cannot doubt

their settlements in

Babylon

remarks
lon

"
:

The

and India

also."

that they had

And he further

history of the trade between Babysuggests one remark the normal

:

trade route from

the

Persian Gulf to India can

never have been along the inhospitable shores of

Gedrosia."

Mr. Rhys Davids,^ who has also dealt with

this subject, has thus stated his conclusions
(i)
Sea-going merchants, availing themselves of
:

the monsoons, were in the habit, at the beginning

of the 7th (and perhaps at the end of the 8th)

century b.c, of trading from ports on the southwest coast of India (Sovira at first, afterwards
Supparaka and Bharukaccha) to Babylon, then a
(2) These merchants
great mercantile emporium.
were mostly Dravidiai)s, not Aryans. Such Indian
names of the goods imported as were adopted in the

West (Solomon's

and peacocks, for

rice ") were adaptations
instance, and the word
not of Sanskrit or Pali, but of Tamil words.
The same view of this Indian trade with the
apes,

ivory,

"

West

has been

held

by Mr. A. M. T. Jackson,

Buddhist India,

89

p. ii6.

INDIAN SHIPPING
I.C.S.^

"

the Buddhist yatakasof the Sanskrit law-books^ tell us that

According to him,

and some
ships from

Bhroach and Supara traded with

Babylon (Baveru) from the 8th to the 6th cen-

tury B.C."

There have been also other scholars who are disposed to view this maritime commerce of India with
the

West

as of very great antiquity.

Recording to
Lenormant, the bas-reliefs of the temple of Deir-el-

Bahari at Thebes represent the conquest of the land

"
of Pun under Hatasu.
In the abundant booty
loading the vessel of Pharaoh for conveyance to the
land of Egypt appear a great many Indian animals
and products not indigenous to the soil of Yemen

elephants' teeth, gold, precious stones, sandal-wood,

and monkeys." Again, " The labours of Von Bohlen

Xfia altej^tdien, vol. i., p. 42), confirming those of

Heeren, and in their turn confirmed by those of
Lassen {Ind. Alt., vol. ii., p. 580), have established
the

existence of

maritime

commerce between

India and Arabia from the very earliest period of

humanity.'"^ The principal commodities imported
from India were gold, precious stones, ivory, etc.

*
^
*

Bombay

City Gazetteer^ vol.

ii.,

ch. vi., p. 3.

Nos. 339 and 463 (FausboU).

S.B.E.,

ii.

228;

xiv. 146, 200, 217.

Hist. Anc. del Orient^ English edition, vol.

228.

J. A., vol. xiii., p.

90

ii.,

pp. 299, 301, quoted in

HINDU PERIOD
Further, according to Wilkinson/ the presence of
indigo, tamarind-wood, and other Indian products

has been detected in the tombs of Egypt, and

Lassen also has pointed out that the Egyptians

dyed cloth with indigo and wrapped their mummies

in Indian muslin.
Lastly, this early maritime commerce of India,
first vaguely hinted at in the Rig-Veda, and proved

by the evidence of Egyptian and Assyrian archaeology, is further supposed by many competent
authorities to be alluded to in several places in the
Bible itself.
"Even in the Mosaic period (1491-

precious stones which were to a great

extent a speciality of India and the neighbouring

1450

B.C.)

countries appear to have been well known and were

It is probable that some of
already highly valued.
the stones in the breast-plate of the high priest may
In the Book of
have come from the far East."^

Genesis ^ there

mention of a company of traders

with their camels bearing spicery, balm, and myrrh,
is

going to Egypt. In the days of Solomon (about

1015 B.C.) there could be supplied from India alone
^

Ancient Egyptians,
of Statistics, U.S.A.
2

237, quoted by Delmar, Director of the Bureau

Professor V. Ball, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., in his highly valuable

on "
Geologist's Contribution to the History of Ancient India," in

article

the

ii.

I. A. for

August, 1884.

"
Gen. xxxvii. 25
Behold, a company of Ishmeelites came from
Gilead with their camels bearing spicery and balm and myrrh, going to
^

carry

it

down

to Egypt."

91

INDIAN SHIPPING

the ivory, garments, armour, spices, and peacocks

which found customers in ancient Syria.
In the

Book of I Kings it is stated how the ships of

Solomon came to Ophir and fetched from thence
gold, plenty of almug trees, precious stones, and the
In the Book of Ezekiel, which dwells on the
like.
commerce of Tyre, there are mentioned commodities
which are undoubtedly of Indian origin.^ Thus the
ivory and ebony included in them are characteristic
^

Indian products and were recognized as such by

writers like Megasthenes,^ Theophrastus,'^
Besides, another proof that the Bible
Virgil.^

classical

md

really refers to the foreign

found in the

trade of India

may be

that there have been discovered

fact

some old Dravidian words in the Hebrew text of

the Books of Kings and Chronicles of the Old
"

And King Solomon made a navy of ships

in Ezion-geber, which is beside Eloth, on the shore of the Red Sea .
And
Hiram sent in the navy his servants, shipmen that had knowledge of the
^

Kings

jx.

26, 27,

28

And they came to Ophir, and fetched

sea, with the servants of Solomon.
from thence gold, four hundred and twenty talents, and brought it to King
"
Solomon."
i Kings x. 1 1
And the navy also of Hiram, that brought
gold from Ophir, brought in from Ophir great plenty of almug trees and
:

precious stones."
"
Ezekiel xxvii. 24
These were thy merchants in all sorts of things,
in blue clothes, and broidered work, and in chests of rich apparel, bound
^

with cords."

Ibid. 15

"They

brought thee for a present horns of ivory

and ebony."
^
*

Sirabo, xv. 37

"Ebony grows

History of Plants,

iv. 4, 6,

there."

quoted by McCrindle.

"India produces ivory." The Periphis also mentions

Georg.
57
of
logs
ebony exported from Barygaza-Broach.
i.

92

HINDU PERIOD
Testament, where there
articles of merchandise
or

Ophir

Thus

the

in

word

for

list

from

brougfht
"

"

peacock

tukim

poetical, purely
is

the

given

Solomon's ships "about

tuki in Kings,

cock

is

Tarshish
looo B.C."

Hebrew

in the

Chronicles, while

of the

"

text is

the ancient,

Tamil-Malayalam name of the pea-

tokei, the

bird with the

Again, the Hebrew words ahalim

(splendid) tail."^
or ahaloth for the

fragrant wood called "aloes" in Proverbs vii. 17,

etc., is derived from the Tamil-Malayalam form of

the

word aghil.
Without dwelling

any further length on the

meaning of these Biblical allusions, I quote below
at

the following interpretation put upon

learned bishop Dr. Caldwell, in his

work,

Comparative
Languages
:

Grammar

them by the
monumental

of the Dravidiaii

It seems probable that Aryan merchants from the mouth of the Indus
must have accompanied the Phoenicians and Solomon's servants in their
voyages down the Malabar coast towards Ophir (wherever Ophir may have
been) or at least have taken part in the trade. ... It appears certain from
notices contained in the Vedas that the Aryans of the age of Solomon

practised foreign trade in ocean-going vessels, but

what parts

Bishop Caldwell's opinion

another erudite
^

it

remains uncertain to

their ships sailed.^

clergyman

further supported by
and scholar, the Rev.

is

Dr. Caldwell, in his Grainmar of the Dravidiaii Languages^ p. 91.

remember also in this connection the well-known reference in the

We may

Baveru-Jdtaka to voyages made by Indian merchants to Babylon, in the

second of which they took thither the first peacock for sale.
^

Grammar

of the Dravidian Languages^

93

p. 122.

INDIAN SHIPPING
T. Foulkes,^ who, in a very learned essay, comes to
the same conclusion, and says
:

The

fact is

now

scarcely to be doubted that the rich Oriental mer-

chandise of the days of King Hiram and King Solomon had its startingplace in the seaports of the Dakhan ; and that with a very high degree of
probability some of the most esteemed of the spices which were carried
into Egypt by the Midianitish merchants of Genesis xxxvii. 25, 28, and by
the sons of the patriarch Jacob (Gen. xliii. ii), had been cultivated in the

spice-gardens of the Dakhan.

\/ Thus

the

first

trade of India of which there

is

any record was with Western Asia and Palestine.

King Solomon tried to appropriate a share of this
trade for the Jewish people by creating facilities for
his Eastern traders both on land and sea routes.

On

the land

caravans the
(Heliopolis),

route
cities

he built as resting-places for

of Tadmor (Palmyra), Baalbec

and Hamath (Epiphania), and

his fore-

sight in protecting these caravan routes bore fruit

in the great trading centres of Mesopotamia, viz.

Babylon, Ctesiphon, Seleucia, and Ossis, which all

flourished for a long time on the profits of their

commerce with the East.

The Jewish monarch
was also equally interested in the sea-borne trade of
the East.
His fleets made periodical voyages to
and from the head of the Red Sea and the ports in
the Persian Gulf, and we know from Holy Writ that
"

Ezion-geber, which is beside Eloth on the shore

of the Red Sea in the land of Edom," was the

The Indian Antiquary,

94

vol. viii.

HINDU PERIOD
Syrian port for the arrival and departure of the
Their cargoes were
fleets sent on these voyages.

by caravans to Petra and distributed some

Egypt and others to Rhinocolura, a port of the

carried
to

Mediterranean, for transhipment to Europe. The

Phoenicians also took an active part in this trade,
with Tyre as their headquarters. After the conquest
of Tyre by Alexander the Great, and the foundation
of Alexandria, the Egyptians came into the field,

and

after

the

successive

decline

of

the

Jewish,

Phoenician, and Persian powers in Western Asia,

they retained with the Arabians a monopoly of this

commerce for about 900 years between Alexander's

death and the conquest of Egypt by the Musalmans
in the year

640 a.d.
We have now dealt with the foreign trade of
India in the age of the Bible, and proceed to consider

the notices
of the

left

by the Greek writers of

international

intercourse

of

this period

India.

The

probably, is that of Herodotus (450 B.C.), the

father of history, whose reference to the Indian
earliest,

contingent

of Xerxe^' army, clad in

cotton gar-

ments and armed with cane bows and iron-tipped ^

cane arrows, is well known.
Herodotus also speaks
^

V. A. Smith remarks: "The

Herodotus, vii. 65, viii. 13, ix. 91.
archers from India formed a valuable element in the army of Xerxes, and
shared the defeat of Mardonius at PJataea."
"

V. Smith, Early History of India, p.- 35

Indian troops used iron in 480 B.C. is worth noting."
Cf.

95

The

fact that the

INDIAN SHIPPINCx
of the inclusion of a part of India as the twentieth
satrapy of the Emperor Darius/ a fact which in the

opinion of scholars accounts for the traces of Persian

influence^ on old Indian art, architecture, and
administrative methods.

Indian products
Herodotus noted the wool which certain wild trees

bear instead of

Among

"
fruit,

excels that of sheep,"

that in beauty and quality

of which Indians make their

clothing.

also gives us some insight into the

extent of certain Indian mineral pro-

\/ Herodotus
nature and

Babylon obtained precious stones and

dogs (probably Tibetan mastiffs) from India.^ In
the enumeration of the nations and tribes which
ductions.

paid tribute to the Persian monarch Darius, the

Indians alone, we are told, paid in gold, all the
The amount of this gold
others paying in silver.

was 360 Euboic

talents, equivalent to ;^i, 290,000.

Herodotus also pointedly speaks of India as being

^
rich in gold," and he relates the famous and widespread fable of the gold-digging ants, which has
"

been shown by Sir Henry Robinson and Dr. Schiern^

^

Herodotus, iii.
See Smith's Early History of India, pp. 137, 153, 225, for an account
of this Persian influence.
3
in
Herodotus, iii. 106, in McCrindle's Ancient India as Described
2

Classical Literature.
*

Ibid.,

i.

Ibid.,

iii.

192.

io6.

I. A., vol. iv.,

pp. 225

ff.

96

HINDU PERIOD
have originated in the peculiar customs of the
"
Tibetan gold-miners and the name " ant gold was
to

possibly

first

given to the fragments of gold-dust

Tibet on account of their shape and

brought from
size.
The " horns of the gold-digging ants " mentioned by Pliny and others have been supposed to
be simply samples of the ordinary pickaxes used by

miners, which in Ladakh and Tibet were made of the

horns of wild sheep, mounted on handles of wood.
Herodotus may also have meant the gold-diggers of
the desert of Gobi,

who were

in the habit of excavat-

ing gold from beneath the earth, and from them

Indian traders of the Punjab neighbourhood could
obtain their supply of gold. The portion of India
conquered by Darius was situated chiefly to the north-

west of the Indus, and, according to the authoritative

testimony of Professor V. Ball, F.R.S., the eminent
"

geologist,

the Indus

tributaries, is

known

itself,

as well as

some of

to be auriferous."

its

Professor

Ball also rejects the view held by Lassen, Heeren,

and many others that gold (and silver) was not indi-

genous to India, but iniported from abroad, e.g. from

^
for as he points out,
Tibet, Burma, or even Africa
"
our most recent knowledge of India affords evidence
;

amount of gold derived from indigenous

sources must have been very considerable before
that the

the alluvial deposits were exhausted of their gold."

^

Asiatic Nations (Bohn's ed.), vol,

97

ii.,

p. 32.

INDIAN SHIPPING
The

further remarks of Professor Ball in this

connection are worth quoting in

When

it

is

remembered

that about

full

80 per cent, of the gold raised

throughout the world is from alluvial washings, and when this fact is considered in connection with the reflection that wide tracts in Australia and

America, formerly richly productive, are now deserted, being covered with
exhausted tailings, it can be conceived how these regions in India and
which are known to be auriferous, may, in
there are very many of them
the lapse of time, after yielding large supplies of gold, have become too

exhausted to be of much present consideration. More than this, however,

recent explorations have confirmed the fact, often previously asserted, that
in Southern India there are indications of extended mining operations
having been carried on there.
Evidence exists of the most conclusive kind of large quantities of gold
having been amassed by Indian monarchs, who accepted a revenue in golddust only from certain sections of their subjects, who were consequently

compelled to spend several months of every year washing for

it

in the

rivers.^

In Ctesias' Indica (400 b.c), the earliest Greek

treatise on India, is to be found, among other things,

the existence of a really Dravidian word which

Ctesias used for cinnamon.^ The word used by

Ctesias

is

karpion, which Dr. Caldwell derives from

Tamil-Malayalam word karuppa or karppu^ to

which is akin the Sanskrit word karpura " camphor."^
the

I. A.,

August, 1884.

by McCrindle, p. 29. His Indica embodies the

"
he
had
information
partly from the reports of
gathered about India,
Persian ofificials who had visited that country on the King's service, and
partly also perhaps from the reports of Indians themselves who in those
days were occasionally to be seen at the Persian Court, whither they
resorted either as merchants or as envoys bringing presents and tribute
from the princes of Northern India, which was then subject to Persian
rule."
3

Ctesias^ translated

(McCrindle's Ctesias^ Introduction,

Dr. Caldwell in his

p. 3.)

Grammar of the Dravidian

98

Languages,

p. 105.

HINDU PERIOD
Ctesias also refers to a lake in the country of
the Pygmies upon the surface of which oil is pro-

duced.

This

where there
and where

is

"

is

supposed to mean Upper Burma,

a tribe answering to this description,

there are also the only largely pro-

ductive petroleum

know

to

deposits, which,

have been worked since the

moreover,

we

earliest times."

being obtained on
"
inhabited by
certain
high-towering mountains
the Griffins, which have been recognized as Tibetan
Ctesias

also
"

mentions

gold

"

specimens of which, by the way, appear

to have been taken to the Persian Court as ex-

mastiffs,

amples of the gold-digging ants

Herodotus." 2

Professor Ball in the /.A., vol.

Udd.

99

first

xiii., p.

described by

230.

INDIAN SHIPPING

CHAPTER
The Maurya

We

now

II.

Period.

Mauryas, which
may be taken roughly to begin from the date of
In
Alexander's Indian campaigns, about 325 B.C.
the accounts of these campaigns by Greek writers
reach

the age of the

and others, interesting light is

thrown on the economic life of the

like Arrian, Curtius,

sometimes
period.

Thus

it

shipbuilding was

back as 325

may be

stated with certainty that

in those very ancient days (so far

a very flourishing industry giving

to many, and the stimulus to its

B.C.)

employment

development must have come from the demands of

both river and ocean traffic. Alexander's passage
^
of the Indus was effected by means of boats

\)

flotilla of boats was

supplied by native craftsmen.
also used in bridging the difficult river of the

Hydaspes.^

Nearchus ^

For purposes of the famous voyage of

down the rivers and to the Persian Gulf,

available country boats were impressed for the

all

service,

"^

and a stupendous

was formed, num-

v. A. Smith's Early History of India^ p. 55.

60 " He found the fleet of
Ibid.^ pp. 59,

readiness.'
3

fleet

galleys, boats,

Also Arrian,

v. 8.

Ibid., p. 87.

100

and

rafts in

HINDU PERIOD
according to Arrian/ about 800 vessels,
according to Curtius and Diodorus about 1,000
bering,

vessels, but according to the

"

more

reliable estimate

of Ptolemy" nearly 2,000 vessels, which between

them accommodated 8,000 troops, several thousand

and vast quantities of supplies. It was

indeed an extraordinarily huge fleet, built entirely of
In
Indian wood by the hands of Indian craftsmen.
this connection the remarks made by the two great
authorities on the history of ancient Oriental commerce, namely Dr. Vincent and Dr. Robertson, are
horses,

of considerable interest.

Says Dr. Vincent

The Ayeen Akbari reckons the Panje-ab as the third province of the
Mogul Empire, and mentions 40,000 vessels employed in the commerce of
the Indus,
It was this commerce that furnished Alexander with the means
of seizing, building, hiring, or purchasing the fleet with which he fell down
the stream
and when we reflect that his army consisted of 124,000 men,
with the whole country at his command, and that a considerable portion of
;

had been left at the Hydaspes during the interval that the main body
advanced to the Hyphasis and returned to the Hydaspes again, we shall
have no reason to accuse Arrian of exaggeration when he asserts that the
fleet consisted of 800 vessels of which 30 only were ships of war and the
rest such as were usually employed in the navigation of the river.
Strabo mentions the proximity of Emodus, which afforded plenty of fir,
pine, cedar, and other timber ;^ and Arrian informs us that Alexander in the

these

country of the Assaconi, and before he reached the Indus, had already
which he sent down the Koppenes to Taxila. All these cir-

built vessels

cumstances contribute to prove the reality of a fact highly controverted ;

and even though we were to extend the whole number of the fleet, comprehending tenders and boats, with some authors to 2,000, there
improbability sufficient to excite astonishment.^

Indica, ch. xix.

Commerce of the Ancients,

lOI

vol.

i.,

p. 12.

is

no

INDIAN SHIPPING
Dr. Robertson also expresses the same opinion

numerous should have been collected in so short a time

But as the Punjab country is full
first sight incredible.
the
intercourse
which
all
on
of navigable rivers,
among the natives was
carried on, it abounded with vessels ready constructed to the conqueror's
If we could give credit
hands, so that he might easily collect that number.
to the account of the invasion of India by Semiramis, no fewer than 4,000
That a

is

fleet so

apt to appear at

assembled in the Indus to oppose her fleet {Diod. Sicul., lib. ii.,
remarkable that when Mahmud of Ghazni invaded India,
cap. 74).
a fleet was collected on the Indus to oppose his, consisting of the same
number of vessels. We learn from the Ayeen Akbari that the inhabitants
of this part of India still continue to carry on all their communication with
each other by water ; the inhabitants of the Circar ot Tatta alone (in Sindh)
vessels were

It is

have not

less

than 40,000 vessels of various construction.^

Further, we have the actual mention made by

Arrian of the construction of dockyards, and the
supply by the tribe called Xathroi of galleys of
thirty oars
built

and transport vessels which were

all

by them.^

All this clearly indicates that in the age of the

was a regular and

industry of which the output was quite

Mauryas shipbuilding
flourishing

in India

The

industry was, however, in the hands of

rthe State and was a Government monopoly for, as
large.

N Megasthenes informs us, while noticing the existence of a class of shipbuilders among the artisans,

they were salaried public servants and were not

permitted to work for any private person.
^

^
3

Disquisition concerning Ancient India,

Anab.,

vi. 15,

and

Curtius,

T^.

These

196.

ix. 9.

But the armour-makers and shipbuilders receive

wages and provisions from the kings for whom alone they work."
Strabo, xv. 46

'*

102

HINDU PERIOD
ships built in the royal ship-yards were, however,
as Strabo ^ informs us, let out on hire both to

those

who undertook voyages and

to professional

merchants.

few more interesting details regarding the

shipping and navigation of the period are given by

in his description of

Taprobane (Ceylon)
"The sea between the island of Ceylon and India
is full of shallows not more than six
paces in
depth, but in some channels so deep that no
anchors can find the bottom.
For this reason
Pliny^

ships are built with prows at each end, for turnIn

ing about in channels of extreme narrowness.

Taprobane mariners make

of the stars, and indeed the

making sea voyages

no

observations

Greater Bear

the

not visible to them, but they take

birds out to sea with them which they let loose
from time to time and follow the direction of
their

vessels,

which

said to be 3,000 amphorae, the

is

Strabo, xv. 46.

Fliny,
3

as they make for land."^

Pliny also
the tonnage of these ancient Indian

flight

indicates

is

vi.

22,

vi.

22.

Fliny,
direction in which

quoted

in

McCrindle's Ancient India,

p. 55.

The

fact of mariners using birds for ascertaining the

the land lay is also alluded to in the Digha Nikaya

Mr. Rhys Davids places

222) of Sutta-Pitaka, the famous Pali text.
the date of the Diglia in the 5th century B.C. and takes this reference to be
" the earliest in Indian
books to
ships out of sight of land."
(i.

ocean-going

{See /.F.A.S., April, 1899,

p.

432.)

103

INDIAN SHIPPING
amphora being regarded

as

weighing

about

fortieth of a ton.^
r

The development

of this national shipping made

necessary the creation and organization

possible and
of a Board of Admiralty ^ as one of the six Boards
which made up the War Office of Emperor Chandra

Gupta (321 B.C. to 297 B.C.), ''one of the greatest

and most successful kings known to history." Fortunately, for information regarding this Board of
Admiralty and the Naval Department we can depend
not only on foreign notices like those of Megasthenes and Strabo, but also on the much more
elaborate and reliable account given in the invaluable Sanskrit work of the period, the Arthasdstra
of Kautilya, which is undoubtedly one of the most
important landmarks not only in the literary history
of India but also in the history of Indian civilization
itself.

The book ^

requires to be thoroughly studied,

^
With regard to the equivalent of the amphora and
Pliny ^ vi. 22.
"
The amount of
the tonnage of these ancient vessels, McCrindle says
carried
ancient
the
was
talent or the
by
ships
generally computed by
cargo
each
of
which
of
The largest
about
a
fortieth
a
ton.
weighed
amphora,
:

The talent and the amphora

ships carried 10,000 talents or 250 tons.
each represented a cubic foot of water, and as the Greek or Roman foot
97 of an English foot, the talent and the amphora each
weighed very nearly 57 lbs. See Torr's Ancient Ships, p, 25."

measured about

V. A. Smith's Early History of India, p. 124. Cf. also Strabo,

"
Next to the city magistrates there is a third governing body
52:
which directs military affairs. This also consists of six divisions with five
"^

XV.
1

members to each.

One

division

is

associated with the Admiral of the Fleet."

In using this book for my purposes I was greatly helped by the

translations of Pandit R. Syama Sastry in the Mysore Review.

104

HINDU PERIOD
being a unique production of its kind in the entire
Sanskrit literature, and a most valuable historical

document, conveying as

it

does a perfectly complete

picture of the extraordinarily rich and varied civilization that was developed in Maurya India over

have, therefore, no hesitation in

drawing largely upon the contents of this remarkable work of Chanakya and placing before the
I

2,000 years ago.

such passages as tend to throw any light

on the condition of the national shipping, navigation, and sea-borne trade of India in the glorious
reader

all

age of the Mauryas.

The Naval Department seems to have been very'^

At its head was placed an officerC
well organized.
who was called the ^tttut^ or the Superintendent C
He was entrusted with the duty of
of Ships.
^

dealing with all matters relating to navigation,

including not only navigation of the oceans, but
also inland navigation on rivers and lakes, natural

The

matters relating to navigation

were of course manifold. The Superintendent of

or

artificial.^

Ships seems to have been something like a modern

Port Commissioner, and his first duty was to see
that all the dues of his port were paid, and not one
evaded.

Artha^dstra, bk.

ii.,

ch. xxviii.

105

INDIAN SHIPPING
The kind and degree

of the maritime activity of

the period will be evident from the various kinds of
Thus villages on seaport-taxes that were levied.

shores or on the banks of rivers and lakes had to

pay regularly a fixed amount of tax.^ Fishermen

had to yield one-sixth of their haul as fees for
Merchants also had to pay the
fishing license.^
^
Passengers
customary tax levied in port towns.
or
on
the
board
State
the
arriving
king's ship had
to pay the fixed and requisite amount of sailing
fees.^
State boats were also let out to those who
wanted to use them for pearl-fishery or for fishing
for conch shells, and they had to pay the required
amount of hire ^ but they were also free to use
;

own

boats for the purpose.^

Besides these
taxes payable to the Port Commissioner, there were
their

the various sorts of ferry fees, which are also very

interesting and equally indicative of a brisk trade and

a throbbing commercial

life.

A man

quadruped carrying some load had

r:

-ara

06

^^:

with a minor
to

pay a

ferry

fee of

one

HINDU PERIOD
masha} A load carried on

the head, a

and a horse
had each to pay two mashas} Four mashas were
demanded for each camel or buffalo that was transported across the river.^ Five mashas were levied
for a small cart, six mashas for a cart of medium size
that was drawn by bulls, and seven mashas for a big
cart."^
Four mashas had to be paid for a load of merload carried on the shoulders, a cow,

chandise whether for sale or not.^

Again, for big

rivers involving greater risks, double the ferry fees

above mentioned were charged.^ Thus conveyances

and beasts of burden as well as loads of merchandise

were subject

to ferry fees.

But besides seeing

to the realization

and

collec-

tion of all proper taxes and dues, the Superintendent

of Ships was also entrusted with the duty of en-

forcing

many humane harbour

regulations.

Thus

whenever any weather-beaten, tempest-tossed ship

arrived at his port, his first duty was to lend her
the protecting hand of a father."
He was also

"'

^T^TTrnrfrt ^t fq^^r^^z^l^Tir

INDIAN SHIPPING
exempt from toll any ship laden with
merchandise that was damaged and spoiled by
water, or to charge only half the due toll, and then

empowered

allow

it

to

to sail

approached.^

when

the proper time for setting sail

Again, whenever a ship laden with

merchandise foundered owing to want of hands or

on account of ill-repair, it was the duty of the Superintendent of Ships to make good the loss of meras the case might be, because
presumably the loss was due not to any fault of the
merchants but to defects in the State vessel, and

chandise in part or

therefore

full,

must be made good from State funds. ^

But besides relieving ships in distress the Superintendent had to adopt many preventive measures

Thus during the

Ashadha till the month

to ensure safety.

yth day of

when

period from the

of Kartika, i.e.

to rains, the crossing

State or licensed ferries was strictly

rivers are swollen

owing

of rivers by
enforced.^ Again, in those large rivers which cannot
be forded during either the winter or summer

seasons the Superintendent of Ships had to see

that large

and

perfectly safe vessels

08

were launched,

HINDU PERIOD
manned with

necessary officers and hands, viz.

a captain, a steersman, and a number of servants
who would hold the oars and the ropes and bale out
water.^

all

Small boats were launched only

in small

rivers that overflowed during the rainy seasons.^

To ensure safety there were also in force many

regarding the fording or crossing

Fording or crossing of rivers without

strict regulations

of rivers.

permission was prohibited in order to ensure that

no traitor or enemy could escape.^ The time and

even the place for fording and crossing rivers were

so that any person fording and
crossing outside the proper place and in unusual
times was punished with first amercement ^ and
definitely fixed,

the

man who

place

and

pay a

fine oi

forded or crossed a river at the usual

time

but without

permission

had

to

Exceptions to this stringent rule were, however, allowed in the interests of

trade and public good.
Thus the following ^ were
26% panasJ'

109

INDIAN SHIPPING
allowed to cross

freely

place

rivers

at

any time and

Fishermen, whose business would be

ously hampered by the above regulations.
(i)

seri-

Carriers of firewood, grass, flowers and fruits

gardeners and vegetable dealers who had to go far
(2)

and wide

to find the things they dealt in.

(3)

Persons pursuing suspected criminals.

(4)

Messengers following other messengers go-

ing in advance.
(5) Servants engaged to carry things (provisions

and

orders) to the army.

(6) Persons using their

own

ferries

and

Dealers supplying villages of marshy diswith seeds, necessaries of life, commodities,

other accessory things.
Again, Brahmans,

(7)

tricts

and

aged and afflicted, royal

messengers, and pregnant women had all to be
provided by the Superintendent with free passes to
There was also another regulation
cross rivers.^
ascetics,

children,

the

permitting foreign merchants who had often been

visiting the country, as also those who were well

known

to

local

merchants, to land freely in port

towns.^

the Superintendent of Ships was also

entrusted with the duty of punishing all violations
Lastly,

no

HINDU PERIOD
of harbour regulations, and miscreants that were
Thus to destruction
dangerous to public peace.

were doomed the ships of pirates, the ships which

were bound for the enemy's country, and the ships
that violated the customs

rules in force in port

Superintendent had also to arrest

The

towns.^

and

^
persons of the following descriptions
Any person
who eloped with the wife or daughter of another
:

one who carried off the wealth of another a suspected person one having a perturbed appearance
one who had no baggage one who attempted to
;

conceal or evade the cognisance of a valuable load in

his hand
one who had just put on a different garb
;

one who had just turned out an ascetic one who

pretended to be suffering from a disease one who
seemed to be alarmed a person stealthily carrying
;

valuable things a person going on a secret mission

a person carrying weapons or explosives or holding
;

and lastly, one who came

poison in his hand
from a long distance without a pass. The Superintendent finally was to direct the confiscation
;

of the commodities of those

travel without a pass

^K'^wraft ^<^t

f^'rt

and of

^Tg^^-s^

III

who were found to

those also who with

^f^fr^rf^

VT^'lirfi

^jt^vt^^

INDIAN SHIPPING
a heavy load forded a river at an unusual place

and

time.^

We
the

now have some

Naval

idea of the organization of

Department, the development of the

national shipping, and the abounding commercial

life in the India of the
Mauryas. All this no doubt

was due to the vast extent of the empire founded by

Chandra Gupta that extended over the whole of
Northern India from sea

to sea, including

even the

provinces of the Paropanisadai, Aria, and Arachosia,

beyond the modern frontiers of British India. The

emperor was courted

even by the potentates of the Hellenistic world of
The consequence of this vast and varied
his time.
realm was no doubt the constant stream of visitors,
travellers, and envoys to and from India, and the
alliance of such a powerful

resulting growth of elaborate regulations for their

care and entertainment which were framed by

Chandra Gupta.
watched by officials,

the municipal commission under

"All foreigners were closely

who

provided suitable lodgings, escorts, and, in

As Mr.
case of need, medical
attendance.'"^

Vincent Smith remarks, " the existence of these

elaborate

Maurya

regulations is conclusive proof that the

Empire in the 3rd century B.C. was in

"^

V. A. Smith's Early History of India^

112

p. 125.

HINDU PERIOD
constant intercourse with foreign states, and that
large numbers of strangers visited the capital on

So

great was the growth of foreign

that the mere taxes on imports formed a

business."^

L
/

commerce
good and expanding source of revenue.
In the days of Asoka, whose empire embraced a

much wider
was

area than that of his grandfather, India

brought into systematic connection with the

distant

monarchies of

Hellenistic

Cyrene, Macedonia, and

Egypt,
she soon

Syria,

Epirus,^ and

of merchants, and missionaries preaching the gospel of universal brotherhood, at once the commercial and spiritual centre,

became, through the

efforts

the very heart, of the Old World.

This was possible
only through the instrumentality of an efficient
national shipping and system of communications.

As Mr. V. A. Smith observes " When we remember Asoka's relations with Ceylon and even
more distant powers, we may credit him with a
:

sea-going fleet as well as an army."^

In that monumental work called Bodhisattvd-

vadana Kalpalatd, by the Kashmirian poet Kshemendra, of the loth century

preserved a
very interesting story regarding Indian mercantile
the Eastern waters, which clearly
activity in
a.d., is

V. A. Smith's Early History of India,

Hock Edicts

'

Edicts of Asoka^ Introduction, p.

II.

and

p. 125.

xiii.

113

viii.

INDIAN SHIPPING
indicates that the progress of the foreign intercourse
and naval activity of India during the days of the

Emperor Chandra Gupta was continued also in the

days of Asoka the Great. The 73rd Pallava or
chapter of Kshemendra's work above referred to
relates

how

the

Emperor Asoka, seated on

the throne

in the city of Pataliputra, while holding his court,

was one day approached by some Indian merchants

who

traded to the distant islands.

They informed

him

of their losses and complete ruin brought about

by the depredations of seafaring pirates called
Nagas (probably the Chinese, who are worshippers

of the Dragon),

who

destroyed

all

their ships and

said that if the

plundered their treasure.

They
was
to
be
indifferent
to them they
Emperor
disposed
would no doubt be forced to take to other ways of
earning their livelihood, but the imperial exchequer
in that case was liable to be emptied owing to
absence of sea voyages (i.e. if there was a slackening
of the sea-borne trade
in the export

and a consequent

and import

duties).

how Asoka,

Then

falling off

the story

bestowing some
thought on the seafaring Nagas, was persuaded by a
Buddhist priest to issue a sort of edict (which we
may call Asoka's Marine Edict) inscribed on a

goes on to relate

after

which was, however, contemptuously

It
set at naught by those for whom it was meant.
was only when Asoka became a devout Buddhist
copper

that he

plate,

was able

to

make
114

the

Nagas

respect his

HINDU PERIOD
and give up all their booty, which was afterwards distributed among the merchants robbed.^
We have now narrated some of the facts in the
sea-borne trade of India from the earliest times
edict

the glorious epoch of the Mauryas,

seeking humbly to unroll the ample pages of one of
the many forgotten but brilliant chapters in the

recorded to

early history of our country.

li

^^f'^^ ^VTT^^
<)**,<

JusiTi+Tfrr:

^^m^^

XffT

"^f^-

^^MJllflTiT:

wnr^r^ ^Psrw^:

^f^^rnr^r^-T^T

"^^

f^TTt"^

-^fTiraft

-g-

-^

f^^

^TT TTWT ^*^T-^rr5|<:

fT'R-J^Tft

^TJTT-^T^ ^f^-^:j:

^nTTni'?rTf^?r^RfwT^*rTx:T:

115

^^??^:

II

INDIAN SHIPPING

CHAPTER

III.

The Andhra-Kushan Period

Intercourse

WITH Rome.

The

age of the Mauryas, of Chandra Gupta and

Asoka, was followed by the age of the Andhras of

and Kushans of the North, which

witnessed an equal development of the foreign
trade and intercourse of India. This is apparent not
only from the writings of Greek, Roman, and other
foreign authors, but also from the numismatic
the

South

With

regard

commerce of the Andhra period (200

B.C. to

evidences discovered in India

to the

itself.

R. Sewell, the well-known authority on

the early history of Southern India, makes the

A.D. 250),

"
The Andhra period
following general remarks
seems to have been one of considerable prosperity.
There was trade, both overland and by sea, with
:

Western Asia, Greece, Rome, and Egypt, as well as

with China and the East. Embassies are said to
have been sent from South India to Rome. Indian
elephants were used for Syrian warfare.
Pliny
mentions the vast quantities of specie that found its
way every year from Rome to India, and in this he
is confirmed by the author of the Periplus.
Roman
coins have been found in profusion in the Peninsula,

116

HINDU PERIOD
and especially

In a.d. 68 a number

in the south.

Roman persecution, seems to

among the friendly coast-people

of Jews, fleeing from

have taken refuge

of South India, and to have settled

in

Malabar."

In respect of the same period. Dr. Bhandarkar,

also, remarks, "trade and commerce must have been
in a flourishing condition during this early period."^
In the north, under the Kushans, there was a
great development of the intercourse of India with
"
the West.
During the Kushana period the Roman
influence on India

was

at its height.

When

the

world, excepting India and

China, passed under the sway of the Caesars, and
the Empire of Kaniska marched, or almost marched,

whole of the

civilized

with that of Hadrian, the ancient isolation of India

was infringed upon, and Roman

arts

Roman

travelled with the stream of

and ideas
gold which

flowed into the treasuries of the Rajas in payment

for the silks, gems, and spices of the Orient."^

The
of

result of

Indian

art of the

the

art,

admitted on

it

all

was the

hands

to

"^

school
is

Augustan and

in the

at

its

best

between

Indian coins were also affected like

Imperial Gazetteer,

Early

new

be closely related to the

Antonine periods, and was

school of Gandhara, which

Roman Empire

A.D. 100-300.

rise of

New

Edition, vol.

History of the Deccan, p. 32.

J.R.A.S.y January, 1903,

p. 56.

117

ii.,

p. 325.

INDIAN SHIPPING
Indian

art.

"

Kadphises

I.,

who

struck coins in

bronze or copper only, imitated, after his conquest

of Kabul, the coinage either of Augustus in his
later years, or the similar coinage of Tiberius (14 to

When

Roman

gold of the early

^emperors began to pour into India in payment for

38

A.D.).

the

the silks, spices, gems, and dye-stuffs of the East,

Kadphises II. perceived the advantage of a gold
currency, and struck an abundant issue of Orientalized aurei, agreeing in weight with their prototypes,
In Southern
and not much inferior in purity.

which during the same period maintained an

active maritime trade with the Roman Empire, the
India,

kings did not attempt to copy the imperial

aurei, which were themselves imported in large
quantities, and used for currency purposes just as
local

English sovereigns are now

world."

in

many

parts of the

Numismatic evidences point unmistakably to

/the growth of an active Indian commerce with the
/West, chiefly Rome. They also show that the main
centre of this commercial activity was towards the
/

'

Tamilakam, the land of the Tamils, which

so largely in the early history of the com-

south, in
figures

For we have already seen how,

merce of India.

in

the ancient days of Solomon, this land supplied the

merchandise of his ships and kept up a commercial

Early History^

118

p. 238.

HINDU PERIOD
intercourse that has resulted in the incorporation of
several Tamil words into the language of the Bible

The Roman

itself.

coins found in Southern India

and near the Coimbatore district and at Madura

are more numerous than the finds in the north.^
in

The

chief reasons for the dearth of coins in the

north are that the export to

have mention

in classical

Rome

writers, in

of which

we

exchange for

Roman

coins were brought to India, was

mostly of products of South India and the Deccan,^
while the Kushan kings had the Roman coins \

which

melted down in a mass and new coins issued from

the metal having exactly the weight of the aurei.
Besides this significance of these finds of Roman

/
'

one interesting feature of the Andhra coins

deserves to be carefully noted in this connection,
"^

coins,

conveying as
merce,

viz. that

the east coast

masted
tion of

it

does a sure hint at maritime com-

on many of these coins found on

is to

is

came from

**

Roman

the

sugges-

quite clear.

The stimulus

be detected the device of a two-

ship, "evidently of large size," the

which

to this Occidental trade of India

Roman Empire under

Augustus.

Coins found in India," by Robert Sewell in the J.R.A.S.,

1904.

Imperial Gazetteer, New Edition, vol. ii., p. 324; V. A. Smith's Early

"
Some pieces bearing the figure of a ship . . suggest
History, p. 202
the inference that Yajna Sri's (184-213 a.d.) power was not confined to
2

the land."

119

'

INDIAN SHIPPING
Before that time India carried on her trade chiefly
whose king, Ptolemy Philadelphus
with Egypt
;

(285-247

whom Asoka

with

B.C.),

founded the

intercourse,^

the Great had

city of Alexandria,

afterwards became the principal

between East and West.

emporium

that

of trade

With Alexandria com-

munication was established of two seaports founded

on the Egyptian coast, viz. Berenica and Myos

Hormos, from which ships sailed to India along the

Strabo^ mentions
coasts of Arabia and Persia.
that in his day he saw about 120 ships sailing from
Myos Hormos to India. There were of course
other overland routes of commerce between India
and the West, such as that across Central Asia along
the Oxus to the Caspian and the Black Seas, or that
through Persia to Asia Minor, or that by way of the
Persian Gulf and the Euphrates through Damascus
But this caravan
and Palmyra to the Levant.

was by no means of any great importance,

and was further reduced by the Parthian wars.
"It was by the sea, and after Claudius by the open
traffic

sea, that the

bulk of merchandise from Indian south-

coast ports

was

Alexandria."

carried to the Arabian marts

and

The Egyptian Greeks were

the

principal carriers of this extensive trade in Indian

Rock Edict

"^

Strabo,
3

ii.

"Roman

II.

v. 12.

Coins," /^^'S'., 1904.

120

HINDU PERIOD
commodities that sprang up under the Ptolemies,
and as usual this commercial intercourse has left
some marks on their language. Thus the Greek
names for rice {oryza), ginger {zingiber), and

cinnamon {karpion) have a close correspondence

with their Tamil equivalents, viz. arisi, inchiver,
and karava respectively and this identity of Greek
with Tamil words clearly indicates that it was Greek
merchants who conveyed these articles and their
names to Europe from the Tamil land. Again, the
name Vavana, the name by which these Western
merchants were known, which in old Sanskrit
;

poetry is invariably used to denote the Greeks,^ is

derived from the Greek word laones, the name of
The same
the Greeks in their own language.

Tamil poems, and is

On
exclusively applied to the Greeks and Romans.
this point the remarks of the late Mr. Pillay, our
authority on Tamil literature, require to be quoted.
The poet Nakkirar addresses the PanHe says
O
dyan prince Nan-Maran in the following words
Mara, whose sword is ever victorious, spend thou thy
days in peace and joy, drinking daily out of golden

word

also occurs in ancient

**

'

by thy handmaids, the cool and

fragrant wine brought by the Yavanas in their good
"
The Yavanas alluded to by these poets were
ships.'
undoubtedly the Egyptian Greeks, because, as stated

cups, presented

Weber's Indian Literature,

121

p. 220.

INDIAN SHIPPING
Ain the Periplus,

who brought
/

it

was Greek merchants from Egypt

wine, brass, lead, glass,

Muziris and Bakare, and

etc., for

sale to

who purchased from

these

ports pepper, betel, ivory, pearls, and fine muslins.^

These Greek traders sailed from Egypt in the month

of July and arrived at Muziris in forty days. They

stayed on the Malabar coast for about three months

and commenced

their return

voyage from Muziris

December or January.
\/The activity of this Occidental

in

breached

trade of India

during the earlier days of the

/ Roman Empire, especially the period from Augustus
)to Nero, the period of Rome's Asiatic conquests
^
which made her a world power controlling the trade
its

height

Then a great
demand arose on the part of the wealthy Romans for
the luxuries of the East, which shocked the more
Thus we find
sober-minded citizens of Rome.
routes between the East and the West.

Pliny (about a.d. 77) lamenting and condemning

the wasteful extravagance of the richer classes and

on perfumes, unguents,
and personal ornaments, saying that there was " no
year in which India did not drain the Roman Empire
of a hundred million sesterces,"^ sending in return
their reckless expenditure

The Tamils Eighteen Hwidred Years Ago,

Natural History,

to
;;^i,ooo,ooo, of which _;^6oo,ooo went to Arabia and ;^40o,ooo
vol.
the
Roman
see
Mommsen's
Provinces
ii., pp. 299-300.
Empire,
;
of

India

yi\\,

ch.

iii.

i8.

122

HINDU PERIOD
wares which were sold

hundred times their

so dearly do we pay for our luxury
original value,
and our women." What gave a great impetus to
this Roman trade, and increased considerably its
volume and variety, was, besides this steady and
for a

"

growing demand, the discovery of the regularity of

the monsoons in the Indian Ocean.
This discovery

was made about the year 47

a.d.

by a

pilot

named

Hippalus,^ and ships began to sail direct to the port

of Muziris (Muyirikolu) in Malabar a circumstance
which added immensely to the security of the cargoes

which no longer had

to fear the attack of

caravans crossing the deserts or of pirates

hugging the

The

Arabs on
on vessels

coast.

of this

articles

chiefly (i) spices

Roman

and perfumes,

(2)

trade

comprised

precious stones

muslins, and cotton. The

consumption of aromatics in Rome was stimulated
Incense was
by religious and funeral customs.

and

pearls,

and

(3) silks,

burnt at every worship. At the funeral of Sylla

210 loads of spices were strewn upon the pile. Nero
reported to have burnt at the funeral of Poppoea
fully a year's produce of cinnamon and cassia.
is

These spices were supplied to Rome by Arabians,

who obtained them from India, famous from time
immemorial as the land of aromatics.
Pliny
'^

Periphis of the Erythraean Sea, ch.

Natural History,

xii. 7

123

(14).

Ivii.

\y

INDIAN SHIPPING
the

to

refers

pepper^ and

demand

ginger of

them

India and

Rome, where they

were bought by weight like gold and silver. Besides
aromatics and spices, the articles for which there was
the great

a great inquiry in

for

in

Roman

markets were precious

minerals, which have been

and
^
with a
carefully noticed and described by Pliny
skill rivalling that of a modern lapidary.
The most
highly prized of these stones was the beryl, found in
India in only one place, namely Padiyur in the
Coimbatore district, or at most in two, Vaniyambadi
in the Salem district being said to also possess a
mine and these beryls were believed to be the best
and purest in the world. And it is in the neighbourhood of these mines that the largest number of
stones,

pearls,

Roman

coins has been found.

Thirdly, the

demand

Cf. McCrindle, Ancient India, p. 121 : "Pepper was in ancient times

chiefly in those parts of India which adjoin the Malabar coast.

produced

The

author of the Periplus names Tyndis, Muziris, Nelkynda, and Bacare

as the ports from which pepper was exported.

which frequent these ports are of a large size

amount and bulkiness of the pepper and

their
vol.

cargoes."

ii.,

p.

301

already become
the

Roman

betel

The

ships,

he

tells

us,

on account of the great

which form the main part of

Cf. also Mommsen, Provinces of the Roman Empire,

" In
the Flavian period, in which the monsoon voyages had
regular, the
far

merchants as

whole west coast of India was opened up to

down

as the coast of Malabar, the

home

of

the highly esteemed and dear-priced pepper, for the sake of which they
visited the ports of Muziris (probably Mangulura) and Nelcynda (in Indian
doubtless Nilkantha, from one of the surnames of the god Shiva, probably

modern Nileswara). Somewhat farther to the south, at Kananor,

numerous Roman gold coins of the Julio-Claudian epoch have been found,

the

formerly exchanged against the spices destined for the

"^

Natural History, xxxvii.

c. i.

124

Roman

kitchens."

HINDU PERIOD
on India in
cotton,

Rome was

also for silk, muslin,

which were sold

and

at fabulously

high prices.
In the reign of Aurelian, silk was worth fully its
weight in gold. Tiberius Caesar had to pass a law
forbidding transparent silk as an indecent dress.
Mr. Vincent A. Smith has thus summarized the

regarding the Roman trade with

Southern India: "Tamil land had the good for-

information

tune to possess three

precious

commodities not

procurable elsewhere, namely pepper, pearls, and

Pepper fetched an enormous price in the
beryls.

markets of Europe.
Southern Sea, which

The

pearl-fishery of the

productive and valuable, had been worked for untold ages, and always
The mines
attracted a crowd of foreign merchants.
still

is

of Padiyur in the Coimbatore district were almost

the only source known to the ancient world from

which good beryls could be obtained, and few gems

were more esteemed by both Indians and Romans.
The Tamil states maintained powerful navies, and
were visited freely by ships from both east and
west, which brought merchants of various places
eager to buy the pearls, pepper, beryls, and other
choice commodities of India, and to pay for them
with the gold, silver, and art ware of Europe."^
'

Numismatic evidences bring

that the Indian trade with

to

light the fact

Rome was most

Early History,

p.

400.

active

INDIAN SHIPPING
during the period of eighty years from Augustus to

Nero

(a.d.

68)

for the largest

number

of coins

\discovered in Southern India refers to this period.

As already noticed, the locale of these discoveries

points also to the conclusion that the things which

India exported comprised mostly spices and precious

In the long interval between Nero and
stones.
Caracalla (a.d. 217) there must have been a decline
of this trade, considering the very small number of
coins discovered which belong to this period, and the
finds have been mostly in cotton-growing districts,
so that the conclusion is irresistible that the trade

Rome

such luxuries as spices, perfumes, and

precious stones must have ceased after the death of
Nero, and only a limited trade in necessaries, such
as cotton fabrics, continued.
This fact is almost in

with

in

keeping with, and indeed explained by, the

new

era in social

manners

in

Rome

rise of

at this period

words of Merivale,
^ the simpler habits of the Plebeians and the Pro\vincials prevailed over the reckless luxury and
dissipation in which the highest classes had so long
under Vespasian, when,

to use the

"

"
According to Sewell, Roman Coins," in the J.R.A.S. for 1904,
coins and 1187 silver, besides hoards discovered which are

"612 gold

'

of gold coins a quantity amounting to five

of
coins
loads'
and
silver
;
cooly(i) 'a great many in a plate,' (2) 'about
*
500 in an earthen pot,' (3) 'a find of 163,' (4) some,' (5) some thousands,'
severally described as follows

'

also (6) of metal not stated,

fifty-five

separate

discoveries,

a potfuU.'

mostly in

districts."

126

These coins are the product of

the Coimbatore and Madura

HINDU PERIOD
indulged." The trade with
from the days of Caracalla,
to confusion, both internal

Rome was at a low ebb

when Rome was a preyand

external,

and her

inhabitants could hardly think of spending large

sums of money on spices, perfumes, and ornaments.
There have been accordingly but few finds of coins

belonging to this period, while the discoveries in the

north are larger than in Southern or Western India.

The

Occidental trade revived again, though slightly,

The localities of
under the Byzantine emperors.
the

coins discovered suggest

the

conclusion that

precious stones, cottons, and muslins were not in

much request in Rome, but that an export trade was
brisk in pepper and spices shipped from the southern
And so the fact
ports both on the east and west.

need not surprise us that when Alaric spared Rome

in A.D. 408 he demanded and obtained as part of
the ransom 3,000 pounds of pepper.^ The most
interesting discoveries of this period are the finds at
Madura, comprising two classes of Roman coins, the

copper issues of the regular Roman coinage, and

small copper coins locally minted for daily use and
;

the suggestion has been made that Roman commercial agents took up their residence in some of
the capitals

and marts of South India

for

trade

purposes at a time when the Roman Empire was

being overrun by barbarians. Vincent Smith is
^

Gibbon, ch. xxxi.

127

INDIAN SHIPPING
also of the

same opinion, and remarks

good reason

"There

^
:

is

to believe that considerable colonies of

Roman

subjects engaged in trade were settled in

Southern India during the first two centuries of our

and that European soldiers, described as powerful Yavanas, and dumb Mlecchas (barbarians) clad
in complete armour, acted as bodyguards to Tamil
kings, while the beautiful large ships of the Yavanas
era,

lay off Muziris (Cranganore) to receive the cargoes

of pepper paid for by Roman gold."

More interesting and conclusive is the evidence derived

from the Tamil literature which may be adduced

"
Roman
here in the words of Mr. Pillay again^
soldiers were enlisted in the service of the Pandyas
:

and other Tamil kings." " During the reign of the

Pandya Aryappadai- Kadantha- Nedunj - Cheliyan,
Roman soldiers were employed to guard the gates of
*
A poet of this period describes
the fort of Madura."
a Tamil king's tent on a battlefield as follows "A
:

tent with double walls of canvas firmly held

by iron
chains, guarded by powerful Yavanas, whose stern
looks strike terror into every beholder, and whose
long and loose coats are fastened at the waist by
means of belts, while dumb Mlecchas, clad in complete armour,

"^

'

who

could express themselves only by

Early History of India, pp. 400-401.

The Tamils Eighteen Hundred Years Ago,
Chilappathikaratn, xiv.

ii.

128

66-67.

ch.

iii.

HINDU PERIOD
gestures, kept close watch throughout the night in the
outer chamber, constantly moving round the inner

apartment, which was lighted by a handsome lamp."^

It is evident from this description that Yavana and
other Mlechchhas or foreigners were employed as
bodyguards by ancient Tamil kings. Mr. Vincent

Smith further says

truly, that

"
:

It is

even stated, and no doubt

a temple dedicated to Augustus existed at

Another foreign (Yavana) colony was

settled at Kaviripaddanam, or Pukar, a busy port
situated on the eastern coast at the mouth of the
Muziris.

Both

northern branch of the Kaviri (Cauveri) river.

town and harbour disappeared long since, and now lie

buried under vast mounds of sand. The poems tell
of the importation of Yavana wines, lamps, and vases,
and their testimony is confirmed by the discovery
in the Nilgiri megalithic tombs of numerous bronze
vessels similar to those known to have been produced in Europe during the early centuries of the
Christian era, and by statements of the Peripius!'
We have now dealt with the numismatic
evidences that point unmistakably to the trade of
India with Rome.
But the fact of this Roman
intercourse

further very satisfactorily established

the various references ^ we find in the native

by
^

is

Mullaipaddu^

ii.

59-66.

These references have been dealt with

Series, vol.

ii.,

in

ihe/.A.S.B.

for 1906,

by Dr. Satischandra Vidyabhusana, M.A., Ph.D.

129

New

INDIAN SHIPPING
literature of India, in the ancient Sanskrit

and

Pali

Romaka

Mahdbhdrata

or the city of Rome. Thus the

speaks of the Romaka or Romans

to the

Emperor Yudhisthira with precious

works, to

coming

presents on the occasion of the Rajasuya Yajna at

^
In the five famous astroIndraprastha or Delhi.

nomical

works

named

Paitdmaha,

Vdsishtha^

Suryya^ Paulisa, and Romaka Siddkdntas, some

of which were compiled in the 3rd or 2nd century a.d.,

Romaka

is

often mentioned as a

tana, or Visaya,

i.e.

a great

Mahdpuri, Pat-

city, state,

or dominion.

Varahamihira, who flourished about a.d. 505, also

mentions Romaka in his well-known works Pancha-

Siddhdntika and Vrihat-Sanhitd. In a passage *

in the former work he says that while there is sun-

Lanka there

midnight at Romaka, and in the

1 6th
chapter of the Vrihat-Sanhitd he speaks of the
Romaka ^ or Romans standing under the influence

rise at

is

Pitaka
mentioned the Romaka-ydtaka, which

of Chandra or the moon.

Romaka

is

describes a

sham

Lastly, in the Pali

priest killing a pigeon to eat

{Mahdbhdrata, Sabha Parva,

2

^^^f^^fr^WT ^T^: f^T^' ^^^-^

130

ch. 51.)

it

HINDU PERIOD
contrary to Buddhist practices, evidently to show
the contrast of a Buddhist ascetic with a Roman
ascetic.

Besides these evidences from

ancient

Indian

works regarding the intercourse with Rome, there

are also evidences from foreign works bearing on"
the subject.
We have already referred to the
enumeration and description of the vegetable and
mineral products which India sent abroad, by Pliny,
who calls India " the sole mother of precious stones,"
the great producer of the most costly gems."
Even as far back as 177 B.C., Agatharcides, who
was President of the Alexandrian Library, and is
mentioned with respect by Strabo, Pliny, and
Diodorus, describes Sabaea (Yemen) as being the
centre of commerce between Asia and Europe,
'*

and very wealthy because of the monopoly of the

Indian trade. He also saw large ships coming
from the Indus and Patala.
But the more important works in this connection are undoubtedly
the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (a.d. 100) and

The Periplus, a
Ptolemy's Geography (a.d. 140).
sort of marine guide-book, is the record of an
experienced sailor who navigated the Red Sea,
Persian Gulf, Malabar and Coromandel coasts, and
resided for many years at Barygaza-Bharoach.

According to the Periplus, Bharoach was the principal distributing centre of Western India, from
which the merchandise brought from abroad was
131

INDIAN SHIPPING
carried to the inland countries.

Paithan, situated
at twenty days' journey to the south of Barygaza,
and Tagara, ten days' east of Pithan (modern

Dharur

in the

Nizam's

territory),

were two inland

towns of great commercial importance, of which the

former sent into Bharoach for export waggons
containing large quantities of onyx stones, and the
ordinary cottons, muslins, mallow-coloured
The
cottons, and other articles of local production.
latter

other seaport towns mentioned in the Periplus are

Souppara (modern Supara, near Bassein), Kalliena

(modern Kalyan), a place by the way "of great

commercial importance, since a good many of the
donors whose names are inscribed in the caves at
Kanhiri and some mentioned in the caves at Junnar
were merchants residing in Kalyan," ^ Semulla
(identified with Chembur by some and Chaul by
others),

Mandagora (modern Mandad), Palaipatamai

near Mahad), Melizeigara (modern

To the south three great
Jayagad), and others.
emporia are mentioned, viz. Tyndis, Muziris, and
(probably Pal

Nelkynda, from which were exported pepper, spices,

pearl, ivory, fine silks, and precious stones, such as
\

diamonds, rubies, and amethysts. It may also be

mentioned that the P^^^i^^^ noticed large Hindu
ships off East African, Arabian, and Persian ports

J.B.B.R.A.S.,

vol. vi.

Arch. Sur.

Bhandarkar's Early History of the Deccan,

132

W.

India, No. lo;

and Dr.

HINDU PERIOD
and Hindu settlements on the north coast of Socotra.7
In

"

as pointed out by Dr. Vincent,

in the age
of the Periplus, the merchants of the country round
fact,

Barygaza traded

to

Arabia

for

gums and

incense, to

the coast of Africa for gold, and to Malabar and

Ceylon for pepper and cinnamon,^ and thus completed the navigation of the entire Indian Ocean."
The Periplus also throws some light on the shipping
of the period.
According to it, the inhabitants of

Coromandel coast traded in vessels of their own

with those of Malabar, and at all seasons there
was a number of native ships to be found in the
harbour of Muziris. Three marts are mentioned
on the Coromandel coast in which " are found the
native vessels which make coasting voyages to
Limurike the monoxyla of the largest sort, called
sangara, and others styled colandiophonta, which are
vessels of great bulk and adapted to the voyages
made to the Ganges and the Golden Chersonese." ^
the

Commerce of the AndentSyyiS^.

ii.,

p. 404.

Dr. Vincent makes the following interesting comment in this con" The different sorts of vessels constructed in these
nection
ports are
:

correspondent to modern accounts; the monoxyla are still in use, not

canoes, as they are improperly rendered ; but with their foundation formed
of a single timber, hollowed, and then raised with tiers of planking till they
will contain 100 or 150 men.
Vessels of this sort are employed in the
intercourse between the two coasts

but the colandiophonta, built for the

;
trade to Malacca, perhaps to China, were exceedingly large and stout,
resembling probably those described by Marco Polo and Nicolo di Conti."

Varthema

likewise mentions vessels of this sort at

that were of

1000 tons burthen

(lib.

vi.,

Tamasari (Masulipatam)

ch. 12) designed for this very

INDIAN SHIPPING
Some

details are also

down

the

given regarding the traderoutes.

The ships carrying on the Indian trade
started from Myos Hormos or Berenika, and sailed

Red Sea

to

Mouza

(twenty-five miles
south of Mokha) and thence to the watering-place
Okelis at the straits.
They then followed the

Arabian coast as

far as

Indian traders.

From Kane

Kane, passing on the way

Eudaimon (Aden), Arabia, once a great mart for

diverge,

some ships

Barygaza, and
rike

to

sailing to the Indus and on to

others direct to the ports of Limy-

There was also another

Limyrike, starting from Aromata (Cape

(Malabar

route

the routes to India

coast).

In all three voyages the ships made

Guardafui).
use of the monsoon, then called Hippalos, starting

from Egypt

in July.

Ptolemy's Geography describes the whole sea

coast from the mouths of the Indus to those of the

Ganges, and mentions

commercial importance.

many towns and ports of

These are, among others,

Syrastra (Surat), Monoglosson (Mangrol) in Guzerat,

Ariake (Maharasthra),^ Soupara, Muziris, Bakarei,
Maisolia (Maslipatam), Kounagara (Konarak), and
other places.

Bishop Caldwell has pointed out that

The other vessels employed on the coast of Malabar,

and
it is not necessary to describe
Kotumba,
Trapagga
;
they have still
the Eastern Ocean germs, trankees, dows, grabs, galivats, praams, junks,

trade to Malacca.
as
in

champans,
^

etc."

{Commerce of the Ancients,

Grammar of the Dravidian

Languages,

vol.

ii.,

p. 94.

p.

521.)

HINDU PERIOD
Natural History, ]

in these three works, viz. Pliny's

the Peripiiis, and Ptolemy's Geography, is to be\

found the largest stock of primitive Dravidian words (

contained in any written documents of ancient times.

More interesting and reliable information re-

garding some of these South Indian ports

by the

Tamil

contained

is

supplied

which are
magnitude and

literature of the times, in

descriptions

of

magnificence which cannot

their
fail

to bring

home

to our

minds the throbbing international life pervading

Thus Muchiri, an important
entire Tamilakam.
seaport near the mouth of the Periyar, is described
"
The thriving town of
by a Tamil poet as follows
:

Muchiri, where the beautiful

ships of the
splashing the white
large

Yavanas, bringing gold, come

foam on the waters of the Periyar which belongs to
the Cherala, and return laden with pepper."^ "Fish
bartered for paddy, which is brought in baskets
"
sacks of pepper
to the houses," says another poet
is

are brought from the houses to the market

the
gold received from ships, in exchange for articles
;

brought to sHore in barges at Muchiri, where

the music of the surging sea never ceases, and where
Kudduvan (the Chera King) presents to visitors the

sold, is

The
rare products of the seas and mountains."^
description given of Kaviripaddinam (the Kamara
*

Erukkaddtir Thayan Kannanar-Akam, 148.

Oaranar-Puram, 343.

INDIAN SHIPPING
of the Periplus and Khaberis of Ptolemy) or Pukar
are equally important and inspiring.
It was built

on the northern bank of the Kaviri river, then a

broad and deep stream into which heavily laden
ships entered from the sea without slacking sail.
The town was divided into two parts, one of which,

Maruvar-Pakkam, adjoined the sea-coast. Near the

beach in Maruvar-Pakkam were raised platforms and
godowns and warehouses where the goods landed
from ships were stored.
Here the goods were
stamped with the Tiger Stamp (the emblem of the
Chola kings) after payment of customs duty, and
Close by
passed on to merchants' warehouses.^
were the settlements of the Yavana merchants, where
many attractive articles were always exposed for
sale.
Here were also the quarters of foreign traders
who had come from beyond the seas and who spoke
various tongues. Vendors of fragrant pastes and
powders, of flowers and incense, tailors who worked
on silk, wool, or cotton, traders in sandal, aghil,
coral, pearl, gold, and precious stones, grain merchants, washermen, dealers in fish

blacksmiths,

braziers,

and

carpenters,

salts,

coppersmiths,

painters, sculptors, goldsmiths, cobblers,

makers
all
had their habitation in

Pakkam.^

Another account thus

Paddinappalai^ 134-136.
Chilappathikarant.

butchers,

and toyMaruvar-

describes

the

HINDU PERIOD
markets of Kaviripaddinam " Horses were brought
from distant lands beyond the seas pepper was
:

brought in ships gold and precious stones came

from the northern mountains
sandal and aghil
;

came

from the
pearls from the

the

mountains towards the west

Southern seas, and coral from
;

The produce

Eastern seas.

of the

regions
on the

watered by the Ganges all that is grown

banks of the Kaviri articles of food from Elam or
;

"

(in
Ceylon and the manufacturers of Kalakam
of
were
to
the
markets
Burma)
Kaviripadbrought
dinam.^ What is again worth noting is the fact
that in these Chola ports there were lighthouses
built of brick and mortar which exhibited blazing

It is also
lights at night to guide ships to ports.
said that the palace of the Chola king in the city of

Kaviripaddinam was built by ''skilled artisans from

Magadha, mechanics from Maradam, smiths from
Avanti, carpenters from Yavana, and the cleverest
workmen in the Tamil land." ^
be noted in passing that in the period we
are considering, India also maintained a sort of
It

may

connection with Rome, besides the commercial.

Strabo ^ mentions that a mission or an
political

embassy was sent

to

Augustus Caesar

in

20

b.c.

Paddinappalai, 1-40.

The Tamils Eighteen Hundred Years Ago, pp.

'

Book

XV., ch. iv., 73.

16, 24, 25,

and

26.

by

INDIAN SHIPPING
the Indian king Pandion.
It is now settled beyond
doubt that Pandion was the king of the Pandyas of
the south, who were then the only people in India
that perceived the advantages of a European
alliance that was first entered into in the days of the

Mauryan emperors of Northern India. Strabo also

mentions the name of Zarmano-Khegas, i.e. one of
the Germanae, still called Sarmanes by the Hindus,
as one of the ambassadors from Porus, king of 600
kings, to Augustus, who burnt himself at Athens
"
his epitaph was,
Here rests Khegas or Khegan the
;

Jogue, an Indian from Barugaza (or Bhroach), who

rendered himself immortal according to the custom
{

of his country."^
also alluded to by

^^ Orosius.^

Augustus are
Dion Cassius,- by Florus,^ and

Dion Cassius

Trajan receiving

With

The embassies

to

(a.d. 180)

many embassies

also speaks of
from Indians.

regard to this embassy Mr. Vincent A. Smith

remarks

"
:

The Indian embassy which

offered its

congratulations to Trajan after his arrival in

Rome

99 A.D. probably was dispatched by Kadphises II.

^
to announce his conquest of North- Western India."
in

\#

Dr. Vincent's Commerce of the Ancients, vol.

Hist. jRomey

Epitome of Roman History,

History, vi. 12.

ix.

i.,

p. 19.

73.
iv,

12.

Dion Cassius also says (Lxvii. 28) : " Trajan

Hist. Rome, ix. 58.
the
ocean
reached
(at the mouth of the Tigris) saw a vessel setting
having
sail for India."
*

Early History of India,

New

Edition, p. 238.

HINDU PERIOD
Eusebius Pampheli

speaks of Indian ambassadors

bringing presents to Constantine the Great and
Ammianus Marcellinus^ of embassies sent by'
;

Indians to the Emperor Julian in 361 a.d.

The explanation of this intercourse of India

Rome

found

to be

with\A

"

from the time

of Mark Antony to the time of Justinian, i.e. from
B.C. 30 to A.D. 550, their political importance as
allies against the Parthians and Sassanians, and
is

in the fact that

commercial importance as controllers of one of

the main trade routes between the East and the
their

West, made the friendship of the Kusans or Sakas,

who held the Indus Valley and Baktria, a matter of
the highest importance to Rome."^
How close was
the friendship is shown in a.d. 60 by the Roman
general Corbulo escorting the Hyrcanian ambassadors up the Indus and through the territories of
the Kushans or Indo-Scythians on their return from
their embassy to Rome.*
This close connection
between India and the Roman Empire during the
period of the Kushans also explains the mass of
accurate information regarding the Indus valley
and Bactria which Ptolemy in the ist century a.d.,
and the author of the Periplus had been able to
record, while

^
^
*

it

De

also accounts for the special value

Vita Constant^

iv.

50.

xxii. vii. 10,

Bombay

Gazetteer, vol.

Rawlinson's

/'d'r/'/^ia,

i.,

271.

Part

i.,

p.

490.

INDIAN SHIPPING
of the gifts which the Periplus notices were set
One other result of
apart for the rulers of Sindh.
this long-continued alliance was, as

has been already

the gaining by the Kushan and

rulers of the Peshawar and the Punjab of a
ledge of Roman coinage and astronomy.
indicated,

other

know-

After Pliny, Ptolemy, and the Periplus, the next

important foreign notice of Indian commerce is that

.^f^Cosims Jn^icopleust^ (a.d. 535), which, though

of a later date, may be most conveniently considered

His Christian Topography furnishes some

the
interesting particulars respecting Ceylon and
Malabar coast, included in which he preserves
He speaks of
for us also a few Tamil words.
Mala or Malabar as the chief seat of the pepper
trade, and mentions the five pepper marts of
here.

Poudopatana, Nalopatana, Salopatana, Mangarouth, and Parti, and also other ports farther
northward on the western coast, such as Kallyan
and Surat. He describes Ceylon under the name
''
were imported the
of Serendip as the place where
silk of Sinae-Roman China and the precious spices
of the Eastern countries, and which were conveyed

parts of India and to other countries."

then considers Ceylon ^ as the centre of commerce

thence to

He

all

between China and the Gulf of Persia and the Red

"
a great resort of ships from all
It was also
Sea.
^

McCrindle's Ancient India, p. i6i.

140

HINDU PERIOD
parts of India
like

manner

He

ports."

and from Persia and Ethiopia, and

in

dispatches many of its own to foreign

"
is the first Western author who
fully

it

asserts the intercourse

by sea between India and

China," and alludes to the Eastern trade of India,

of which we now must give an account.
^

Dr. Vincent's Commerce of the Ancients, vol.

141

ii.,

pp. 507-600. -^

INDIAN SHIPPING

CHAPTER

IV.

The Period of Hindu Imperialism

Northern India under the Guptas and HarThE FOUNDATION OF A

SHAVARDHANA
Greater India Intercourse with Farther
in

India.

Throughout

the centuries

when India

carried

on

her maritime and political intercourse with Rome

she also maintained an equally active commerce

with the farther East.

alone was unable

to

The
give

trade with the

full

West

scope to her

We

have already indithrobbing international life.

cated some of the evidences supplied by Buddhist
texts belonging to a period of a thousand years

from 600

B.C.,

tion of the

which

Bay

point to a complete navigaof Bengal and the Indian Ocean and

all

the flow of a steady and ceaseless

traffic

between

Those
Bengal and Ceylon, Madras and Burma.
evidences have been set forth in great detail, and
need not be reproduced here. As Elphinstone has
pointed out, "the inhabitants of the coast of Coromandel seem early to have been distinguished by
^

^History of India^ p. 185.

142

HINDU PERIOD
their maritime enterprise from their countrymen onA
the west of India."
Mr. Vincent Smith ^ also says : /
"

Ancient Tamil literature and the Greek and

Roman

authors prove that in the first two centuries of the

Christian era the ports on the Coromandal or Chola
coast enjoyed the benefits of active commerce with
both West and East. The Chola fleets did not

confine themselves to coasting voyages, but boldly

crossed the Bay of Bengal to the mouths of the

Ganges and the Irrawaddy, and the Indian Ocean to

Of the
the islands of the Malay Archipelago."
precise part played by the Tamils and their trade
with Eastern nations, no detailed accounts are
available, but according to our authority on this
subject,

Mr.

Pillay,

ancient Tamil

there are

poems

to

many

allusions in

voyages undertaken by

merchants and others to Nagapuram in Chavakam

(Sumatra or Java), Kalakam in Burma, and seaThus a ship sailing
ports in Ceylon and Bengal.

from the coast of Madura to Chavakam (Java) is

said to have touched at Manipallavam, an island
between Ceylon andTndia on which was one of the
sacred seats of Buddha.
Again, in another Tamil
of the ist century a.d. it is said that ships
from Kalakan (the ancient name of Kaddaram in

poem

Burma) brought articles of merchandise to Kavirippaddinam, the great emporium at the mouth of the
*

Early History of India,

p.

415.

INDIAN SHIPPING
Lower Burma

Pegu was conquered

by emigrants from the Telugu kingdoms bordering
on the Bay of Bengal, and consequently the people
of Pegu have long been known to the Burmese and
Kaveri.^

or

to all foreigners by the name of Talaing.^

Next to the Tamils in the eastward

activity of India the pioneering

maritime

work seems

to

have

been done and the lead taken by the ancient kingdom of Kalinga on the eastern sea-board, which is
said to have been founded

before Christ,"^

"

at least eight centuries

and which extended from the mouth

"

of the Ganges to the mouth of the Krishna.

It
^
formed one of the five outlying kingdoms of ancient
India, with

and

its

capital

about halfway

down

the coast

surviving in the present city of Kalinga-

still
^

patam."

This

kingdom was

ruled

for

many

by princes of the Buddhist persuasion,

a religion which did not tolerate any antipathy
centuries

The materials for the

against foreign nations.
early history of this kingdom are mainly monu-

Some

mental in their character.

of the inscriptions
speak of navigation and ship-commerce as
forming part of the education of the princes of
"

'

Paddinappalaiy
Sir

1.

191.

A. P. Phayre's History of Burma, pp. 28 and 31.

Hunter's Orissa, p. 188.

Viz. Anga, Banga, Kalinga,

'

Hunter's Orissa^ vol.

i.,

Shuma, and Pundra.

p. 170.

144

HINDOk PERIOD
days made
an excellent harbour for anchorage, "crowded with
ships from distant countries."^ The conjecture mayKalinga."^

The Chilk^Lake

in those

be hazarded that the great sea-king Bali of the Rdmayana might have been no other than a monarch of
the sea-coast

kingdom of Kalinga.

At

first

confining

their maritime efforts to Ceylon, the Klings from

mere coasting soon began to make bolder voyages

across

the

Bay

From

of Bengal.

the

evidences

furnished by the Buddhagat, or the sacred scripture

of the Burmese in particular, it is clear that a steady

commercial intercourse was cultivated with Burma

by the Buddhist merchants of Kalinga, which soon

led to missionary undertakings for the propagation
of their religion, and afterwards to the assumption

of political supremacy in the land.^ One of Asoka's

religious missions was to Suvarna-bhumi or Burma,
and one of the most famous of Hindu settlements,
the remains of which

still

exist,

was Thara-khetra

Hunter's Orissa, vol. i., p, 197. Hunter remarks " This and others
of the inscriptions prove, in the opinion of the scholar to whom we owe
^

Kalinga was at that time an emporium of trade.

from other sources that, shut out as Orissa was from the general
policy of India, it boasted of fabrics which it could send as valuable
So fine was the
presents to the most civilized monarchs of the interior.
linen which the prince of Kalinga sent to the King of Oudh, that a
priestess
who put on the gauzy fabric was accused of appearing naked." (" Cosma's
their decipherings, that

We know

Analysis of the Dulva," Journal As. Soc. of Bengal^

2

History of Puri, by Brojokishore Ghosh.

"

History of the
1864, and no. 2, 1868.

Burma Race," by

145

vi.,

1837.)

Col. Sir A. Phayre, A.SJ., no.

i,

INDIAN SHIPPING
According to R. F. St. Andrew St.
somewhere about 300 a.d. people from the
John,^
west coast of the Bay of Bengal founded colonies
on the coasts of the Gulf of Martaban, of which
near Prome.^
"

the

principal

appears

Saddhammanagara."
Kalinga and Burma

to

have

The

been

Thaton or
between

intercourse

also appears from Sir A. P.

Phayre's statement of coins and medals with Hindu
symbols being found in Pegu.^ "That there was

intercourse also with Malacca

is

evident from

many

Malayan language which Marsden has

To this day
traced to an Indian or Sanskrit origin.
there are Klings or descendants of settlers from
words

in the

ancient Kalinga at Singapore." The Klings are the

lowest class of Indians, and their name is derived

from Kalinga in India, from whence they are said

to have come.
Indians, moreover, of a higher
grade, Madrasees, Tamils, etc., are also called Klings
at Singapore.^
With reference to this ancient trade
Sir Walter Elliot observes: ''There is no doubt

that the intercourse between the east coast of India

and the whole of the opposite coast of the Bay of

Bengal and the Straits of Malacca was far greater in
ancient times. ... It had attained its height at the
time the Buddhists were in the ascendant,
1

"

History of the

Burma Race," by

J.R.A.S., 1898.
History of Burma, p. 31.
Mission Life, May, 1867.

146

i.e.

Col. Sir A. Phayre in

during

A.SJ.

HINDU PERIOD
the

first five

The first great

or six centuries of our era.

Buddhist persecution both checked

it

^ ^\^
v

(y^

and also drove

numbers of the victims to the opposite coast.

The Tamil and Telugu local histories and tradition

great

are

full

of such narratives.

prince, brother of the

new kingdom

at

King

When

of Kalyan,

the Chalukya

was founding

Rajamundry, which involved the

rooting out and dispersion of the pre-existing rulers,

nothing is more probable than that some of the
fugitives should

One Tamil MS.

have found their way to Pegu.

refers to a party of Buddhist exiles,

headed by a king of Manda, flying

from the coast."

in

their ship

Sir

A. p. Phayre, " History of Pegu," in A.SJ., 1873.

147

^^

INDIAN SHIPPING

CHAPTER

V.

The Period of Hindu Imperialism in Northern

India (continued) The Colonization of Java.
:

Perhaps
in

the most interesting and conspicuous fact

connection with the Indian maritime activity

towards the East

is

the

Hindu

colonization of Java,

one of the most glorious achievements recorded

And

the entire history of the country.

yet the

in

first

impulse to this colonizing activity and expansion of

India had its origin in the obscure kingdom of
Kalinga, whose early history nobody knows or cares
As far back as the 75th year of the
to know.
Christian era a band of Hindu navigators sailed

from Kalinga, and, instead of plying within the

usual limits of the Bay of Bengal, boldly ventured
out into the open limitless expanse of the Indian

Ocean and arrived

at the island of Java.

There

the adventurous navigators planted a colony, built

towns and cities, and developed a trade with the

mother country which existed

The

history of this

Hindu

for several centuries.

colonization of Java
"

is

The histories of
thus briefly put by Elphinstone
Java give a distinct account of a numerous body of
Hindus from Clinga (Kalinga) who landed on this
:

148

HINDU PERIOD
island, civilized the inhabitants,

and who

fixed the

date of their arrival by establishing the era still

subsisting, the first year of which fell in the 75th
year after Christ. The truth of this narrative is

proved beyond doubt by the numerous and magnificent Hindu remains that are still existing in Java,

and by the

fact that,

although the

common language

Malay, the sacred language, that of historical and

political compositions and of most inscriptions, is a
is

dialect of Sanskrit.

proved by

decisively

The

early date is almost as

the journal of the Chinese

end of the 4th century who

Java entirely peopled by Hindus, and who
from the Ganges to Ceylon, from Ceylon to
and from Java to China in ships manned by
pilgrim in the

found
sailed

Java,

crews

^
professing the Brahminical religion."
That Kalinga had a large share in the coloniza-

Java and the adjacent islands is hinted at

not only in the native chronicles of Java but is also
accepted as truth by many competent scholars.
Crawford (a.d. 1820) held that all Hindu influence
in Java came from Kalinga or North-East Madras.
"
^
The splendid remains
Fergusson also observes
at Amravati show that from the mouths of the
Krishna and Godavari the Buddhists of North
and North-West India colonized Pegu, Cambodia,
tion of

History of India, Cowell's Edition,

Indian Architecture,

p. 103.

149

p. 185.

INDIAN SHIPPING
and eventually the island of Java." Tavernier^ in
"
A.D. 1666 remarked that
Masulipatam is the only
place in the Bay of Bengal from which vessels
sailed eastwards for Bengal, Arrakan, Pegu, Siam,

Sumatra, Cochin China, and the Manillas, and west

to Hormuz, Makha, and Madagascar." Inscriptions
also

bear out the correctness of

the

connection

between the Kalinga coast and Java which Java

Besides, as Dr. Bhanlegends have preserved.^
darkar has pointed out ^ in his article on the eastern
passage of the Sakas, certain inscriptions also show
a Magadhi element which may have reached Java

from Sumatra, and Sumatra from the coast either

It is further observed, in the
of Bengal or Orissa.
"
Bombay Gazetteer, that the Hindu settlement of
Sumatra was almost entirely from the east coast of

and that Bengal, Orissa, and Masulipatam

had a large share in colonizing both Java and
India,

Cambodia cannot be
There

doubted."'^

however, another legend preserved in

the native chronicles of Java which transfers the
credit

of

is,

its

colonization

from

Kalinga on the

eastern coast to Gujarat on the west.

Ball's Translation, i,

174

Indian Antiquary^ v. 314,

Gazetteer, vol. i.. Part i., p. 496.
3

Journal,
Vol.

i.,

Bombay Branch

Part

i.,

According

p. 493.

vi.

356;

referred

of R.A.S., xvii.

to

in

the

Bombay

HINDU PERIOD
and powerful prince from
Gujarat named Aji Saka made his descent on the
island about a.d. 75, but was soon compelled to
withdraw in consequence of a pestilence or some
other calamity. This story was perhaps invented
to this legend, a great

only to show the connection of the ancient royal

dynasty of Java with the Saka kings of Northern

The Javanese

India.

chronicles, however, record,

besides this abortive attempt, another more successful attempt^ at colonization, made again from the

west coast of India, about a.d. 603, when a ruler

from Gujarat, forewarned of the coming destruction
of his kingdom, started his son with five thousand
followers,

among whom were

cultivators, artisans,

warriors, physicians, and writers, in six large and a

hundred small vessels towards Java. After some
difficulty they got to the western coast of Java, and
built there the town of Mendang Kumulan.
The
son soon sent for more men to his father, who dis-

patched a reinforcement of 2,000, including carvers

in stone and brass. An extensive commerce sprang
up with Gujarat and other countries, and the foundations were laid of temples that were afterwards
known as Prambanam and Borobudur, the grandest

specimens of Buddhist

art

in

the whole of Asia.

These legendary facts are probably connected with

some central event in a process which continued
*

History ofjava^ by Sir Stamford Raffles, vol.

ii.,

p. 82.

INDIAN SHIPPING
century before and after the
beginning of the 7th century, a process of Saka
migration that was stimulated by the then confor at

least

half a

was almost a
sequence of the final collapse of the Saka power
at the beginning of the 5th century, when the Saka
kingdom of Surashthra or Kathiawar was conquered
by Chandra Gupta 11.,^ and Brahmanism supplanted
Buddhism as the dominant State religion in India.
Then " the Buddhist art-traditions went with the
Saka immigrants into Java, where they reached
of

dition

Northern

India,

and

their highest expression in the magnificent sculpture

^
There were, however, other forces
of Borobudur."

work which conspired to bring about a general

movement among Northern Indians. The defeat of
the White Hunas bySassanians and Turks between
A.D. 550 and 600 intercepted their retreat north-

at

wards

were

conquests of
Prabhakaravardhana, the father of S'ri-Harsha of
;

secondly,

there

the

Magadha, who defeated the king of Gandhara, the

Hunas, the king of Sindh, the Gurjjaras, the Latas,
and the king of Malava and thirdly, there followed
close upon them the further defeats inflicted by
;

S'ri-Harsha himself about twenty years later (a.d.

610-642), so that there would be quite swarms of
refugees at the Gujarat ports eager to escape further
^

See v. A. Smith's Early History of India, pp. i86, 187.

Indian Sculpture and Fainting, by E. B. Havell,

p. 113.

HINDU PERIOD
If we
attack and to share in the prosperity of Java.
add to these the following further events which all

took place during the second half of the 7th century,

viz. the advance of the Turks from the north, and
of the Arabs both by sea (a.d. 637) and through
Persia^ (a.d. 650-660), the conquering progress ^ of

a Chinese army from Magadha to Bamian in a.d.

645-650, the overthrow (a.d. 642) of the Buddhist
Saharais by their usurping Brahmanist minister
Chach, and his persecution of the Jats, we have
a concatenation of circumstances which sufficiently
explains the resulting movement, fairly constant, of
Northern Indians southwards from the ports of

Sindh and Gujarat, a movement which, though

caused by fear, would be strengthened by the tidings
of Javan prosperity reaching the leaders.
For the
same enterprise and ambition that led Alexander to
put to sea from the mouths of the Indus, Trajan
from the mouth of the Tigris, and Mahmud of
Ghazni from Somnath, must also have driven the
In 637 A.D. raiders attacked Thana from Oman and Bhroach, and
Sindh from Bahrein. Reinaud's Memoire sur Plnde, 170, 176.
^

The Chinese emperor sent an ambassador, Ouang-h-wuentse, to SriHarsha, who, on his arrival, found he was dead (a.d. 642) and hi% place
usurped by a minister who drove him off. The envoy retired to Tibet, and
with help from Tibet and Nepal he returned, defeated the usurper, and

The passage was forced, the army

river.
the
and
their
sons
were led prisoners to China, and
captured,
king, queen,
cities
the
surrendered
580
;
magistrates proclaimed the victory in the Temple
pursued him to the Gandhara

of the

Ancients,

ambassador.

and the emperor raised the rank of the triumphant

INDIAN SHIPPING
Saka, Huna, and Gurjjara chiefs to lead their
south to the land of rubies and gold/

men

*
In comparing the relative importance of the western and eastern
Indian strains in Java, it is to be remembered that the western element has
been overlaid by a late Bengal and Kalinga layer of fugitives from the

Tibetan conquest of Bengal in the 8th century and during the gth and
later centuries by bands of Buddhists withdrawing from a land where their
religion was no longer honoured.
Bombay Gazetteer^ vol. i., p. 498.

154

HINDU PERIOD

CHAPTER

VI.

The Period of Hindu Imperialism in

Northern India {continued) The Maritime
\

Activity of the Bengalis.

There was

also another people that played a very

prominent part in the sea-borne trade and colonizing
The testimony
activity of India towards the East.

that history bears to

the

military,

religious,

and

maritime enterprise and achievements of the ancient

Buddhistic Bengali in the earlier centuries of the

now

scarcely wins belief and acceptYet it is an incontrovertible fact that Bengal

ance.
of old gave birth to men who marched armies
beyond the frontiers of modern India and ruled for

Christian era

a time as the paramount power in the land who

braved the perils of the deep in armed galleys, and
;

carried

home

It is
foreign itinerants in their ships.
also equally noteworthy that from very early times
she has been the home of many a religious move-

ment whose
her limits.

influence penetrated to lands far

It

beyond

known

that
hardly sufficiently
few centuries of the Christian era
is

during the first

an enthusiastic band of devoted Bengalis, burning
with a proselytizing zeal, went as far as China, Corea,
and Japan, carrying with them the torch of the
155

INDIAN SHIPPING
Buddhistic

faith,

while her Buddhistic scholars and

reformers, like Atisha, Dipankara,

achieved an Asiatic fame, and were

out the wider Buddhistic world.

and S'ilabhadra,

known through-

It is also

a recent

discovery that some of the scriptures of the Japanese

priests preserved in the Horiuzi temple of Japan
are written in Bengali characters of the nth century,^
thus testifying to the extraordinary vitality of Bengali religious activity that
in the Land of the Rising
critics also see in the

made
Sun.

itself

Artists

felt

and

even
art-

magnificent sculptures of the

Burobudur temple in Java the hand of Bengali

artists who worked side by side with the people of
Kalinga and Gujarat in thus building up its early
civilization.
And the numerous representations of
ships which we find in the vast panorama of the
bas-reliefs of that colossal temple reveal the type of
ships which the people of Lower Bengal built and

used in sailing to Ceylon, Java, Sumatra, China,

and Japan,
commercial
missions.

works
^

The

tell

in pursuit of their colonizing ambition,

interests,

and

artistic

and

religious

The Mahdwansa and other Buddhistic

us how as early as about 550 B.C. Prince

priests of the

temple worship the manuscript of a Buddhistic

work called Usnisa Vijaya Dharmi, written in a character considered by

experts to be identical with that prevalent in Bengal in the 6th century.
Vide Anecdota Oxoniensis, vol. iii. For information regarding this and
some other points connected with ancient Bengali enterprise, I am indebted
to Srijukta Dineshchander Sen, the learned author of the History of Bengali
Literature.

156

HINDU PERIOD
Vijaya of Bengal with his 700 followers achieved
the conquest and colonization of Ceylon, and gave
to the island the name of Sinhala after that of his

dynasty an event which is the starting-point of

Sinhalese history.
It is also said that in a still
earlier period the Bengalis of

Champa, near Bha-

galpur, founded a settlement in Cochin China, and

named it after their famous native town.^ No less
creditable also were
^

the artistic achievements of

we have

seen, influencing the

art of Borobudur, Bengali art has influenced that

Bengal

besides, as

of Nepal through the schools of painting, sculpture,

and works in cast metal founded about the middle

of the 9th century by Dhiman and his son Bitpal,

inhabitants of Barendra, and from Nepal the art of
the Bengali masters spread to
parts of the Buddhistic world.

China and other

This tradition of Bengalis being once famous

for their maritime enterprises and
commercial
activities has also been, as may be naturally

No
expected, well preserved in their literature.
folk-lore is so popular in Bengal as those volumes of
poetry evoked by devotion

Rhys David's Buddhist

Indian Antiquary,

and Painting, writes

"
:

to

the

goddesses of

India, p. 35.

Mr. Havell, in his Indian Sculpture

the seaports of her eastern and western coasts
colonists, missionaries, and craftsmen all over

vol. iv., p. loi.

From

India sent streams of

Southern Asia, Ceylon, Siam, and far-distant Cambodia. Through China

and Korea Indian art entered Japan about the middle of the 6th century."

INDIAN SHIPPING
Chandi and Manasa, and

in

them are contained

accounts of the maritime adventures of merchants

Dhanapati, S'rimanta, and Chand Saodagara,

which, in spite of the miraculous details invented and
imported into them by a pious imagination and warm
like

religious feeling, contain a nucleus of truth, and

unmistakably point to one of the ways through which

the national genius of the country chose to express

In the same manner that Shakespeare's
itself.
'*

an argosy bound for Tripoly, another

for the Indies, a third for Mexico, and a fourth for
England," is our Indian S'rimanta represented to

Antonio had

possess merchantmen trading to the Coromandel

coast, to Ceylon, to Malacca, Java, and China.
The vast collection of poems known as the Padma

Purdfia or Manasdmangala is formed by the contributions of more than fifty authors who have all
described sea voyages.
About eight or nine poems
form the group of poems celebrating the glories of
the goddess Chandi, and in nearly all of them are
also contained accounts of sea voyages.
These

works belong to so late a period as the i6th century,

and their value lies in the fact that they thus carry

down

to comparatively late times the tradition of the

Bengalis being once known for their commercial and

maritime pursuits.

The

oldest record in Bengali

of Narayanadeva, a poet who

lived about the latter part of the 13th century, and
who has given a graphic account of the sea voyage
literature

is

that

158

HINDU PERIOD
Chand Saodagara.

Another account, free from

exaggerations and fabulous details, and hence more
reliable, is that given by Ban^i Dasa, who of course
profusely borrows from Narayanadeva.
These poems together throw a great light on the
Sailors for
then condition of commerce in Bengal.
sea-going vessels were then, as now, recruited from
the people of East Bengal, who have been the object
of

of genial banter in the writings of Kavikankana,

Ketakadasa, Kshemananda, and others. Ships had

more poetical names in those days than now. In

Manasdmangala poems we come across such names

as Gangdprasdd (^nsTti^nTttf), Sdgarafend (>rt^f?c^Rl),
Hansarava (^^t^), Rdjavallava i^Awm^)^ and the
like.

There

is

a very detailed account of the

fleet

Dhanapati sailing towards Ceylon in Kavikankana Chandf, which is well worth a notice.^ It
of

v2f^ ^f%^ fswi

^tf*f ^1^

^U

5^tT

^f^

159

^^;i^

^tCSF CRT

INDIAN SHIPPING
made up of seven vessels. The head ship is
called Madhukara (t^^), generally meant for
its cabin is made all of
princes and big merchants
The second ship is named Durgdvara, the
gold.
is

third

Gooardkhi,

the

fourth

Sankshachura,

the

Sinhamukht, shining like the sun, the sixth

Chandrapdna, which is used for goods, and the
seventh Chotamukht, meant to carry provisions.^
The whole fleet sailed merrily, propelled by the
There were also trading
lustily singing oarsmen.
fleets carrying merchandise and
provisions for
and worthless things were often
long voyages
fifth

exchanged

in

distant countries for very valuable

ones.^

The

great trading centres of Bengal

\5f5<^

c^tc!5?

^?

^sr^ f5Wl

Ttf^

tcTt

in those

II

^f^ ^tc^ fs^l c^dTt? V^'m

-w:^

f^ ^m^

i6o

(f^ ^^)

HINDU PERIOD
days were Satgaon, called Tcharitrapoura in the
time of the Chinese pilgrim's visit, and described

by Ptolemy as a royal

city of

immense

size,

as

well as Sonargaon, the great harbour of Eastern

Champa or Bhagalpur was also one of the
Bengal.

commercial centres from which merchants could

sail

SMbarnabhumi or the Burmese coast. But by

far the most important emporium of ancient Bengal
was Tamralipta, the great Buddhist harbour of the
for

Bengal

sea-board.

It

is

referred

to

in

the

Mahdwanso (ch.'xix.) as

Tamalitta, and was probably

meant by the author of Per ip 1ms when he spoke of
"a great commercial city near the mouth of the

Ganges, the trade of which consisted

cloths

of the

most

chiefly

in

and extreme
of very great antiquity, and

delicate

texture

beauty." The place is

existed prior to the days of Asoka, for it figures
even in the sacred writings of the Hindus. The

Chinese pilgrim, Fa-Hien, when he visited India in

A.D. 399-414, found it a maritime settlement of the
"

There are twenty-four Sangharamas

in this country," he says; ''all of them have resident
After his residence there for two years
priests."
he shipped himself on board a great merchant
vessel which he found in the harbour of Tamluk,
and putting to sea, they proceeded in a southwesterly direction, and catching the first fair wind
of the winter season (i.e. of the N.E. monsoon),
they sailed for fourteen days and nights, and arrived
Buddhists.

161

INDIAN SHIPPING
Two

hundred and fifty years later, a

yet more celebrated pilgrim from China speaks of
Tamluk as still an important Buddhist harbour,
with ten Buddhist monasteries, a thousand monks,
and a pillar by Asoka 200 feet high.
It was
"situated on a bay, could be approached both by
land and water, and contained stores of rare and
precious merchandise and a wealthy population."
And another Chinese traveller, I-Tsing, who followed Hiuen Tsang, thus wrote of the Bengal port
at Ceylon.

ioviy yojanas south from the eastern

limit of India.
There are five or six monasteries

"Tamalipti

is

the people are rich.

we embarked when
^

This

is

the

place
"^
to
China.
returning
.

Takakusu's I-Tsing,

162

xxxiii., xxxiv.

where

HINDU PERIOD

CHAPTER
The Period of Hindu
Northern India

{continued)

VII.

Imperialism in
:

The Intercourse

WITH China.
It was also in the age of the Guptas and Harshavardhana that we find the field of Indian maritime
activity in

the

eastern

China and Japan

seas

extending as far as

beyond the
As Mr.
small colonies of Java and Sumatra.
Down to the days of
Kakasu Okakura remarks,
in the farthest East,

''

Mohammedan

conquest went, by the ancient

highways of the sea, the intrepid mariners of the
the

founding their colonies in Ceylon,

Java, and Sumatra, and binding Cathay (China)
and India fast in mutual intercourse."^ The inter-'

Bengal

coast,

course of India with China by way of the sea began

at least as early as the commencement of the
"
Christian era, while the Chinese did not arrive in
the Malay Archipelago before the 5th century, and
they did not extend their voyages to India, Persia,}

and Arabia

till

a century

Ideals of the East, pp.

later."

Throughout the

i, 2.

Mr. G. Phillips in the J.R.A.S., 1895, p. 525. According to Professor Lacouperie {Western Origin of Chinese Civilization) the maritime
intercourse of India with China dates from a much earlier period, from
"
"
about 680 B.C., when the sea-traders of the Indian Ocean," whose chiefs

163

INDIAN SHIPPING
1st

and 2nd centuries of the Christian

era,

during the

reigns of the Chinese Emperor Hoti (a.d. 89-105)

and of the Emperor Hiwanti (a.d. 158-9), there

according to Chinese annals, many embassies from Indian sovereigns bringing merchandise under the name of tribute to the Chinese court,
arrived,

which alone had the monopoly of the trade with

Thus, as the Milinda Panha
foreign nations.^
informs us (pp. 127, 327, 359), during the 2nd
century after Christ, when under the great Satrap

Rudradaman

(a.d.

143-158) the Kshatrapa dynasty

of Kathiavad was at the height of its power, challenging the supremacy even of the great Andhra

Empire, Indians of the Tientes, i.e. Sindhu, brought

Chinese annals point
presents by sea to China.
also

to

a continued

Ceylon with
which was due to a

intercourse of

China by way of the

sea,

national worship.
Among those men who
shared in the propagation of Buddhism and in the

common

were Hindus," founded a colony called Lang-ga, after the Indian name
of Ceylon, about the present Gulf of Kiao-tchoa, where they arrived
in vessels having the prows shaped like the heads of birds or animals

Lanka

and exemplified in the

These Indian colonists had, however, to retreat before the gradual advance of the Chinese till they became
merged in the kingdom of Cambodia, founded by Hindus in the IndoChinese peninsula about the ist century a.d. But throughout this period
the monopoly of the sea-borne trade of China was in their hands, and the
articles of this trade were the well-known Indian products, such as rubies,
pearls, sugar, aromatics, peacocks, corals, and the like.
after the patterns specified in the Yiiktikalpataru

ships and boats of old Indian

art.

See/.Ji.A.S., 1896, pp. 64-66.

164

HINDU PERIOD
translations of its scriptures in China, there were
many who took the sea route between India and

Some particulars about them are contained in

China.

Kwai-Yuen Catalogue of the Chinese Tripitaka

The first eminent Buddhist
compiled in a.d. 730.^
who succeeded in finishing a sea journey from Ceylon
to China was of course the well-known Fa-Hien.
But a little before him an Indian called Buddhathe

bhadra, a descendant of the Sakya prince Amitodana, arrived in China in 398, i.e. two years before

Fa-Hien entered India. He embarked from Cochin

for China after travelling through Northern India
After him the Kwai-Yuen Cataand Indo-China.
Chinese works, mentions a
series of names of Buddhist priests who sailed

logue, as well as other

between Southern India and China. Thus

in a.d.

420

Sanghavarmi, a Sinhalese and the translator of the

Mahisasaka Vinaya, arrived in China. In a.d. 424

Gunavarman, grandson of an ex-king of Kabul,

arrived at the capital of the

had

sailed

way,

like

dynasty.

He

from Ceylon and visited Java on the

Fa-Hien. In the year 429 a.d., in the

reign of the

China.

Sung

Emperor Wun,

Again,

it

is

three Sinhalese visited

mentioned

Bhikshuni Niddna that

in

in the

work

called

the year 433 a.d. the

ship called Nandi brought to China a second party

of Sinhalese nuns who established the Bhikshuni

Professor

M. Anesaki

in

Xhe/.R.A.S., April, 1903.

165

INDIAN SHIPPING
In a.d. 434 there arrived in China
quite a number of Sinhalese nuns, under the leadership of a certain Tissara, to further Gunavarman's
order in China.

work for the foundation of the monastic system in

China after the model of Sinhalese Buddhism. In
435 Gunabhadra, the translator of the Sanyukta-dgama (of which the MS. was brought by
Fa-Hien from Ceylon), arrived at the province of
A.D.

Kau

in

lated

Buddhaghosa's Sdmantapasadika

China from Ceylon.

Again, in a.d. 438
another group of eight Bhikshunis came from
In a.d. 442 Sanghavarman, who had
Ceylon.
come to China by the overland route, sailed from
the southern coast of China for India.
In a.d. 453
a Chinese Buddhist called Dharmakrama took the
sea route from Southern India on his way back to
China. Sanghabhadra, who was born in a western
country but educated in Ceylon, came to China
with his teacher, a Tripitak-Acharyya, and transin a.d. 488.

In the 6th century there was a continued development of the maritime intercourse between India

and China.

In the year 526 a.d, Bodhidharma,

the great patriarch of Indian Buddhism, who was
the son of a king of Southern India, embarked in
his old

sea."

age from India, and "reached Canton by

He was received with the honour due to his

age and character, and invited to Nanking, where

the

Emperor

of South

China held

his court.

As

the Chinese geographer, Chia-Tau, also records in

166

HINDU PERIOD
his

"

Huang-hua-hsi-ta-chi,

Ta-mo

dharma) came floating on the sea

^

Canton)."

The

impetus
in China, where

of

arrival

to

great

it

Indian

to

(i.e.

Bodhi-

Pan-yu

(i.e.

Bodhidharma gave
missionary

activity
is recorded that there were at

work at one time and in one province, viz. Lo-Yang,

"more than 3,000 Indian monks and 10,000 Indian
families to impress their national religion and art
on Chinese soil."^ Specific mention of individual

sea voyages to China also appears in Chinese works.

Thus the Kwai-Yuen Catalogue records that in a.d.

548 Paramati, who was a native of Ujjaini, being

invited by the Emperor Wu, of the Llan dynasty,
arrived on the southern

coast of China.

In the

Suyshoo, a Chinese history of the Suy dynasty, it

"
is stated that in a.d. 607 the
King of Ceylon sent
the Brahman, Kewmo-lo, with 30 vessels to meet
the approaching ships which conveyed an embassy
from China." Ceylon had at that time a fully

developed national marine which, according to the

Mahdwanso
A.D.

(ch.

xl.),

was

founded

495 by the king Mogallana

as

early

for the defence of

the coast.

J.R.A.S., 1896, and Edkins' Chinese Buddhism,

Okakura's Ideals of the East,

167

p. 113.

as

p. loo.

INDIAN SHIPPING

CHAPTER

VIII.

The Period of Hindu Imperialism in

Northern India {conitnued) Maritime Activity
:

ON THE

During

West

Coast.

the latter days of the Gupta Empire, i.e.

the 5th and 6th centuries a.d., Indian

during
maritime activity was equally manifest towards the
West. In the 5th century, according to Hamza of
Ispahan, the ships of India and China could be
seen constantly moored at Hira, near Kufa, on
the Euphrates.^ The ports of Sindh and Gujarat

appear

among

prise of the

the chief centres of this naval entertime.

It

was from these

ports that

In
the Indian adventurers sailed to colonize Java.
a.d. 526 Cosmas found Sindhu or Debal and

Soratha or Veraval, as leading places of

In the 6th century, apparently
trade with Ceylon.^
Orhet,

i.e.

driven out by the

White Hunas,

the Jats from the

the islands in the

Indus and Cutch occupied

Bahrein Gulf. About the same time, as Fergusson
has pointed out, Amravati, at the mouth of the
Krishna, was superseded as the port for the Golden
Chersonese by the accomplishment of the direct
voyage from Gujarat and the west coast of India.
^

Yule's Cathay^

I,

Ixxviii.

168

Ibid. I, clxxviii.

HINDU PERIOD
In

time of

the

the

empire of

S'ri

Harsha,

Guptas,
people of
succeeding
Surastra were described by Hiuen Tsang (about
A.D. 630) as deriving their livehood from the sea
that

in

by engaging

He

modities.^

cities of Persia,

of

the

the

commerce and exchanging comfurther

that

notices

Hindus were

in

the chief

settled enjoying the

of their religion.^
Again, the Jats
were probably the moving spirit in the early
Mahomedan sea raids (a.d. 630-770) against the
full

practice

Gujarat and Konkan coasts.

During the 7th and
8th centuries, when the chief migrations by sea

from Gujarat
taken place,

Java and Cambodia seem to have

Chinese fleets visited Diu under the
to

pilotage probably of the Jats. On the Sindh, Cutch,

and Gujarat coasts, besides the Jats there were
other tribes that showed notable energy at sea.

Thus

the 7th and 8th centuries the Gurjjaras,

chiefly of the Chapa or Chavada clan, both in
Dwarka and Somnath, and inland, rose to power,
in

and about a.d. 740 established themselves at

Anahilavada Patari. They tried to put down the
piracy of the Jats, but afterwards themselves became
more dangerous pirates.
^

Beal, Buddhist Records^ vol.

Reinaud's Abulfeday ccclxxxv.

169

ii.,

p.

269.

INDIAN SHIPPING

CHAPTER

IX.

The Period of Hindu Imperialism in Southern

India
The Rise of the Chalukyas and
:

THE ChOLAS FROM THE MiDDLE OF THE 7TH

Century to the Time of the Mahomedan
Conquests in Northern India.

The

succeeding that of the Guptas and

period

Harshavardhana was
remarkable

also equally characterized

outbursts

colonizing activity,
pansion of India.

of

naval

enterprise

by
and

bringing about a further exThe field of maritime activity

was considerably widened.

For along with the intercourse of India with China
there was developed in this period the intercourse

in

the Eastern waters

with Japan in the farthest East. As regards the

intercourse with China we have fresh facts to record.

The Chu-fan-chih

of

Chao Jukua, a

traveller of the 13th century, relates that

periods
(a.d.

Cheng-Kuan

690-692) of the

T'ien-chu
China.^

to

during the

627-650) and T'ien-shou

Tang

dynasty, the people of

India) sent envoys with tribute to

According to the Kwai-Yuen Catalogue,
(i.e.

Punya-upachaya,

came

(a.d.

Chinese

who was

China from

a native of Central India,

Ceylon in a.d. 655, while

See/.Ji.A.S., 1896, p. 490.

170

HINDU PERIOD
Jnana-bhadra, a Buddhist from Palyan of the
"
Southern Ocean," came to China for the second

time after having visited India from China by sea.

Some very interesting facts regarding the maritime
intercourse between China and India are furnished

by the famous Chinese

traveller

I-Tsing,^

who

India in a.d. 673.

He has recorded the
itineraries of about sixty Chinese pilgrims who
visited India in the 7th century a.d., from which it
visited

was constant traffic across the sea

The whole coast of
between India and China.
Farther India from Suvarnabhumi or Burma to
China, and also of the islands of the Malay
Archipelago, was studded with prosperous Indian
colonies and naval stations, which ocean-liners
is

clear that there

regularly plying

in

the

Eastern waters between

China constantly used as convenient

I-Tsing refers to more than ten
halting-places.
such colonies where Indian manners, customs, and
India and

religious practices prevailed together with Sanskrit

These

learning.

Kalinga

in

were

S'ri-Bhoja

Java, Mahasin

in

in

Sumatra,

Borneo, and

the

Bhojapara, etc., which had all

Indian names, and afforded to Chinese pilgrims to
India a good preparatory training.
In these

islands

of

Bali,

colonies or naval stations passengers often changed

their ship, though many would come direct to
1

I-Tsing, by Dr. Taka-kusu.

INDIAN SHIPPING
Bengal, like I-Tsing, who disembarked at the port
of Tamralipti, while others would halt at Ceylon,
that sacred place of Buddhism, to re-ship themselves for Bengal, like Fa-Hien.
I-Tsing has also
recorded the names of some of his contemporaries
who like him visited India by way of the sea. One

was Tao-lin, the Master of the Law, who came to

Tamralipti by way of Java and Nicobars. Another
was Ta-tcheng-teng, who came by way of Ceylon
and lived at the monastery named Varaha in
Tamralipti.

Throughout
notices

devotees

in

we have

this period

Chinese

visiting

annals

China,

as

of

also frequent

Indian

we have

Buddhist
those

of

Chinese Buddhists visiting India with the permission of their emperor.

Thus the Kwai-Yuen
Catalogue, to which we have already referred,
mentions the name of the Indian Vajrabodhi, who

came

China by sea and entered the capital in

A.D. 720
He was born in Malaya, a mountainous
district in either Southern India or Ceylon, translated many Mantra texts, and became the founder
The son of an
of Mystical Buddhism in China,
to

Indian king, Manju Sri by name, a very zealous

Buddhist, came to China, but left the royal court

through misunderstanding, and went off indignant

to the southern coast to embark in a merchant
vessel for India.

988)

At

Buddhist

the time of Yung-hsi (a.d. 984devotee,

172

by

name Lo-hu-na,

HINDU PERIOD
arrived in China

by sea

he called himself a native

of T'ien-chu (India).
In Col. Yule's Cathay and
the IVay Thither we have a record of the various

China and India

times downwards, both by sea and

instances of intercourse between

from the

earliest

land.

As

regards the intercourse with Japan, which

also developed during this period, we have a few
conclusive facts and evidences to adduce.
tradition records the

who

Japanese

names of Indian evangelists

Japan to propagate the Buddhistic

faith.
Thus Bodhidharma, of South India, after
working in China, came to Japan and had an
interview with Prince Shotoku (a.d. 573-621).
visited

Subkakara was another Indian, a native of Central

India, who, while working in China (716-735),
privately visited Japan and left at the Kumedera
Temple, in the province of Yamato, a book of the
Mahdvairochanabhisambodhi Sutra, consisting of
seven books, the fundamental doctrines of BudTantrism.^

dhistic

The

visit

of

the

Indian

missionary, Bodhisena, to Japan in ad. 736

is

Bodhisena had originally gone to

see a Chinese sage, Manju S'ri, and while

historical fact.

China

to

staying in a temple there came in contact with a

Japanese envoy to the Celestial court, and was

Rev. Daito Shimaji on " India and Japan in Ancient Times," in the
Journal of the Indo-Japanese Association, January, 1910.
^

INDIAN SHIPPING
persuaded by the

latter to visit

Japan.

He

settled

and taught Sanskrit to Japanese priests.

He was most bountifully provided by the Imperial
Court, and most devotedly loved by the populace.
But India contributed not only to the religion of

in Japan,

Japan but also

to her industry.

of Japan record

how

eleven

The

official

centuries

annals

ago cotton

was introduced into Japan by two Indians. The

eighth volume of the Nihon-Ko-Ki records how in
July, 799, a foreigner was washed ashore in a little
boat somewhere on the southern coast of Mikwa
Province in Japan.
He confessed himself to be a
"
man from Ten-jiku," as India was then called in

was found something

like grass-seeds, which proved to be no other than
some seeds of the cotton-plant. Again, it is written
Japan.

Among

his

effects

in the 199th chapter of the

Ruijukokushi (another
official record) that a man from Kuen-lum was cast
up on Japanese shores in April, 800, and that the
cotton-seeds he had brought with him were sown in
the provinces of Kii, Awaji, Sanuki, Jyo, Tosa, and

These two records are enough to convince

us that cotton was introduced into Japan through
the Indians who were unfortunately carried over to
Kyushu.

"
^
by the black current."
sjowards the end of the loth and the early part

that country

Dr. Taka-Kusu on "

What Japan Owes

the Indo-Japanese Association, January, 1910.

to India

"

in the

Journal of

HINDU PERIOD
of

the

nth

century,

remarkable

Southern

India witnessed

under
the strong government of a succession of Chola
outburst

of

naval

activity

kings. The first of this line of rulers was Raja-raja

the Great, who ascended the throne in a.d. 985.
He began his career of conquest by the destruction

Chera fleet in
(probably on the west

of

the

the

Kandalur
passed from

roads of

coast),

and

victory to victory till, in the course of a busy reign

of twenty-seven years, he made himself beyond
dispute the Lord Paramount of Southern India,

ruling a realm which included the whole of the

Madras Presidency and a large part of Mysore,
together with Kalingam, which he conquered in the
sixteenth year of his reign.
Ceylon (Ham) also was

added to his empire in the twentieth year, for he

built up a powerful navy, and his operations were
not confined merely to the land.
Raja-raja Chola
984-1013) was succeeded by his son Rajendra
Choladeva I., under whose long and brilliant rule
from A.D. 1013 to 1044 the power of the Cholas
(a.d.

high-water mark and their empire its

In inscriptions dated in the twelfth
widest extent.
reached

its

year of his reign (a.d.

1025) he

is

said to have

conquered Orissa, Gujarat, Behar, and Bengal, and

reached the banks of the Ganges, for which he

assumed the

who

of Gangaikonda-chola (the Chola

seized the Ganges).
In the inscriptions of his

thirteenth

title

year detailing his conquests

175

we

find

INDIAN SHIPPING
"
the whole kingdom of Ham
that he also conquered
(Ceylon) in the raging ocean girt by the crystal
waves of the sea," as well as " countless old islands

(about 12,000 in number) in the midst of the ocean

which conches resound," which were probably

the Laccadives and Maldives.
In the same inscription it is also recorded that he achieved a great
naval victory over " Sangrama Vijayottunga Varin

man, the King of Kadaram,

whom

he caught by

dispatching (his army in) many ships across the

stormy sea and his huge elephants furious as the
"
This " stormy sea was no doubt
roaring sea."
of Bengal if Kadaram is identified with
the ancient kingdom of Prome or Pegu, also known
as Tharekhettra.
The inscription also describes

the

Bay

Kadaram

as

"difficult

being

defended by the sea."

All

to

attack,

being

this, therefore, indicates

power of the Cholas was considerably

developed, making itself felt even on the opposite
that the naval

coast

of

Kadaram

In addition to
Bengal.
there were also taken on the same coast
the

Bay

of

the flourishing seaports of Takkolam (the Takola

of Ptolemy, where, according to the Indian Anti"
cables, ropes, and other
quary, vol. xxi., p. 383,
vestiges of sea-going vessels are still frequently
dug up ") and Matama or Martaban. Then followed

the annexation of the whole of the kingdom, which

was named S'rl Vishaya and Nakkavaram or the

Nicobar and

Andaman

Islands.

176

These

exploits are

HINDU PERIOD
thus

referred

Huparani

"
:

to

in

the

Tamil

The war-elephants

poem ICalinga

of the Chola drank

water of the Ganges at Mannai

and Kadaram,
where the roaring crystal waves washed the sand
"
mixed with red gold, was annexed
(canto viii.,
:

stanza 25).^
The naval activity of the Chola emperors was
not, however, confined within the limits of the Bay
of Bengal.
They appear to have carried on their
intercourse with countries of the farther East as far

Chinese work, the

names of the two Chola kings are mentioned who
sent embassies with tribute to China, viz.
in
In the Smigshih,

as China.

a.

A.D. 1033,

Raja

Shih-li-lo-ch'a-yin-to-lo-chu-lo, i.e. S'ri

Indra Chola; and again in a.d. 1077, Ti-wa-

which may stand for the Chola king Kulotunga (a.d. 1 077- 1 1 18). The last embassy consisted
of 72 men it was probably, like most of the missions
ka-lo,

nothing better than a trading

expedition on joint account, the 72 ambassadors
to the coast of China,

being the shareholders or their supercargoes.^

^

The

authorities consulted for the Chola history are V, Kanakasabhai's

on " Raja-Raja Chola," " The Conquest of Bengal and Burma by
the Tamils," and S. Krishnaswami Aiyangar's article on " The Chola
Ascendancy in Southern India," in the Madras Review for 1902, vol. viii.
articles

J.R.A.S., 1896, pp. 490

ff.

177

INDIAN SHIPPING

CHAPTER

X.

Retrospect.

We have now set forth

at

some length

the available

evidences bearing on the history of the shipping,

sea-borne trade, and maritime activity of India from
the earliest times

down

Musalhave con-

to the period of the

We

man

conquests in Northern India.

sidered the kind of maritime activity and commerce

which India had

long and ancient period

before the Mauryan in the light of the evidences
from both literary works and archaeological finds,
in the

and are quite prepared for the remarkable outburst

of naval activity and growth of foreign intercourse
which has been established beyond doubt or dispute
to

be the characteristic of the Mauryan period.

have next seen how the impetus given to the

We

development of India's international

life

under the

Mauryan Empire in the days of Chandra Gupta and

Asoka survived that empire itself and continued to
gain in force and volume amid the vicissitudes of
her

domestic

succeeded
in the

to

land,

Dynasty after dynasty

the position of paramount power
but the course of commerce ran
politics.

smooth through
centuries
political

of

the

these changes.
The opening
Christian era, which saw the

all

unity of India divided

178

by the Kushans

HINDU PERIOD
of the north and the Andhras of the south, with
the Vindhyas as their mutual boundary, were also,
as

we have

seen, the period of a remarkable

growth

of foreign commerce, especially with Rome, that

was shared equally by the north and the south.

shown, on the one hand, unmistakably by

the books of Roman writers with their remarkably
accurate details regarding Indian exports and im-

This

is

ports, ports,

and harbours, and, on the other hand,

by the unimpeachable testimony of many finds

of Roman coins both in Northern and Southern
India.

consideration of the kind of things which

India sent abroad in exchange for the things she

imported and a glance at the list of Indian exports

and imports, such as that given in that most in-

work on Oriental commerce, the Periplus

of the Erythraean Sea, will reveal certain peculiar
teresting

features regarding the economical system of ancient

India, to which has been traced the proverbial
"
"
wealth of Ind by many scholars. As remarked

by Major J. B. Keith, in a recent article in the

Asiatic Quarterly Review (July, 19 lo), "the old
prosperity of India was based on the sound principle, which is, that after clothing and feeding
your own people, then of your surplus abundance
For it will appear that the
give to the stranger."
chief items of Indian export were the "renowned
art industrial fabrics, and exports were not multi179

INDIAN SHIPPING
plied

on the reprehensible practice of depleting a

country of

its

The

food-stufifs."

result

was the

development of an external trade to which we owe,

on the one hand, the great cities like Baalbek and
and, on the other hand,
those great monuments of art which India was
enabled to erect after clothing and feeding her

Palmyra

in the

desert,

"

own

people."

And

Darius India was

the

of

also, as

many

satrapies

of

we have

seen, the only

her tribute in gold

one which could afford to pay

to him.
Finally, we should not miss the point of
Pliny's famous complaint about allowing India to
find a market for her superfluous manufactured
luxuries in

Rome and

thereby suck out her wealth

and drain her of gold.

was her
wonderful achievements in applied chemistry more
than her skill in handicraft which enabled India to
command for more than a thousand years (from
It

may

also be noted in passing that

it

Pliny to Tavernier) the markets of the East as

well as the West, and secured to her an easy

and universally recognized

the

nations of the world

factures.

Some

of

the

pre-eminence
in exports

Indian

among

and manu-

discoveries

in

chemical arts and manufactures are indicated as

early as the 6th century a.d. by Varahamihira in
Thus he mentions several
the Vrihat'Sanhitd.

preparations of cements or powders called Vajralepa, "cements strong as the thunderbolt," for
1

80

HINDU PERIOD
which there was ample use in the temple architecture of the times, whose remains still testify to
strength of these metal or rock
Varahamihira also alludes to the experts

the adamantine

cements.

machinery and the professional experts in the

composition of dyes and cosmetics, and even
artificial imitations of natural flower-scents which
in

bulked so largely in the Indian exports to Rome.

Broadly speaking, there were three great discoveries
applied chemistry to which
capture of the world markets, viz.

India

in

owed her

the preparation
of fast dyes for textile fabrics by the treatment of
natural dyes like manjishtha with alum and other

chemicals

(2)

from

(i)

the extraction of the

principle

of

by a process
which, however crude, is essentially an anticipa"
and (3) the
tion of modern chemical methods
"
in a manner worthy of advanced
tempering of steel
metallurgy, a process to which the mediaeval world

indigotin

the

indigo

plant

"

owed

its

Damascus swords."

Besides the
the

Roman

trade,

and the trade with

West

with

it

generally, there was also developed along

a trade with the East.
The West alone could

not absorb the entire maritime activity of India,

which found another vent in a regular traffic in the

Eastern waters between Bengal and Ceylon, Kalinga,

Brajendranath Seal, M.A., Ph.D., in

Chemical Theories of the Ancient Hindus."

181

his

learned thesis on

"The

INDIAN SHIPPING
and Suvarnabhumi, and a complete navigation, in
fact, of the Bay of Bengal and the Indian Ocean,
This Eastern maritime enterprise reached its climax
age of the Gupta emperors, when India once
more, as in the days of Chandra Gupta and Asoka,
asserted herself as a dominant factor in Asiatic
in the

politics,

and even showed symptoms of a colonizing

activity that culminated in the civilization of Java,

Sumatra, and Cambodia, and laid the foundation of

a Greater India.

Towards

the later days

Gupta Empire, Indian maritime

activity

of the
in

the

Eastern waters had a vastly extended field, embracing within its sphere not only Farther India and
the islands of the

Indian Archipelago,

but also

China, with which a regular and ceaseless traffic by

way of the sea was established and long continued.
Lastly,

we

find the sphere of this Eastern naval

widening still further during the days of

Harshavardhana and Pulakeshi, the Chalukyas and
the Cholas, till Japan in the farthest East is brought
within the range of Indian influence, and becomes
the objective of Indian missionary and colonizing
activity

activity.

182

BOOK

II.

MAHOMEDAN

PERIOD.

BOOK

II.

MAHOMEDAN

CHAPTER

I.

The Pre-Mogul

We

now

shall

Period.
the

narrate

briefly

Indian maritime enterprise

PERIOD.

history

the advent

after

of

and

conquests of the Musalmans.

begin first with the history of Sindh, and

We

particularly of its Arab conquests, which furnishes

many instances of Indian naval activity and enter-

The immediate cause

prise.

was

of the

Arab conquests

exaction of vengeance for the plunder,

by the Meds and other pirates of Debal and the
Indus mouths, of eight vessels, which the ruler
the

of Ceylon
to

secure

Khalifa

the

dispatched,

Mahometan

pilgrims,
slaves,

had

in

the
the

orphans,

good

with

fitted

-will

and
of

presents,

Abyssinian
Hajjaj

and

8th

It
century (a.d. 712).
will be remembered that these Indian pirates had

been carrying on their

activities

times.

with

They

Al-Biladuri

inspired

Elliot, vol.

i.,

p.

185

ii8

from very early

alarm the Persian

also

Appendix,

p.

429.

INDIAN SHIPPING
monarchy even in the days of its most absolute
power. According to Strabo and Arrian it was to
protect their cities against these piratical attacks
that the Persians made the Tigris entirely inaccessible for navigation, till Alexander, on his return

from

India,

to

commercial

further

intercourse

caused to be removed the masses of stone by which

the course of the stream was obstructed.
It has

by the same dread,

also been supposed that, inspired

and not from religious motives, the Persians built

no city of any note upon the sea-coast.^
Muhammad ibn Kasim, the Arab conqueror of
Sindh, arrived at Debal in ships carrying his men,
arms, and warlike machines, one of which, the
manjanik, required 500 men to work it.^ He had
also to construct bridges of boats in order to effect
his passage of the rivers of Sindh. ^

From

the 9th century

we get

The commerce

the Arabs.

notices of India

of the Arabs

was

by

at its

highest activity under the Caliphs of Bagdad, under

whom the Arabs conquered Egypt, closed Alexandria

Europeans, and founded Bussora (a.d. 635) at

the head of the Persian Gulf, rivalling Alexandria
to

as the centre of the Eastern trade.

Sindabad the Sailor belong

^

See

Al-Biladuri

Elliot, vol.

Chach-nama

i.,

p.

to the

513.

Elliot, vol.

in Elliot, vol.

186

The voyages

i.,

i.,

p. 120.
p.

167.

of

9th century.

MAHOMEDAN PERIOD
About

A.D. 851

Suleiman, a merchant of Bussorah,

speaks of the Sea of Lar (which washes Gujarat and

of Serendip

Malabar),

Masudi of Bagdad

(a.d.

or

Ceylon,

and the

like.

890-956) visited India, and

mentions nutmegs, cloves, camphor, and sandalwood as Indian products.^

In the

Akbari

ith century, according to the Tabakat-i-

Nizamuddin Ahmed, the 17th expedition

of Sultan Mahmud was directed against the Jats
of

who had molested

Somnath.

It

was a

his

army on

return from

brilliant naval fight,

described by the historian

He

his

and

is

thus

when he arrived there he

was armed with three firm
iron spikes, projecting one from the prow and two from the sides, so that
everything which came in contact with them would infallibly be destroyed.
In each boat were 20 archers, with bows and arrows, grenades, and
naphtha, and in this way proceeded to attack the Jats, who, having
intelligence of the armament, sent their families into the islands and
led a large force towards Multan, and
built, each of which

ordered 1,400 boats to be

prepared themselves for the

conflict.
They launched, according to some,
4,000 boats, and according to others 8,000 boats, manned and armed,
Both fleets met, and a desperate
ready to engage the Mahammadans.
conflict ensued.
Every boat of the Jats that approached the Moslem

when it received the shock of the projecting spikes, was broken

and overturned. Thus, most of the Jats were drowned, and those who

fleet,

were not so destroyed were put to the

sword.'*

Al-Biruni gives some interesting details regarding the Indian maritime and commercial activity of
the

nth
Sir

century.

He

has referred to the pirates

G. Birdwood in his Report on the Old Records of the India

Office.
*

Elliot, vol.

ii.,

p.

478.

187

INDIAN SHIPPING
named Bawarij, who
commit their depre-

infesting the western coast,

"
are so called because
they

dations in boats called Baira."

The

coasts of Gujarat were the scene of

much

from which sugar from Malwa,

badru (bam) and baladi were exported in ships to
all countries and cities.^
commercial

activity,

Malabar also was in those days the " Key of

Hind," whose productions, such as rubies, aromatics,
carried to Irak, Khurasan,
grasses, and pearls, were
It has also a great
Syria, Rum, and Europe."
**

of entrepot trade, for " large ships, called in

the language of China junks,' bring various sorts

amount

of choice merchandise and cloths from China and

Machin, and the countries of Hind and Sindh."^

Wassaf

speaks of these junks as sailing

like mountains with the wings of the winds on the
(a.d. 1328)

surface of the water.

2th century, Al-Idrisi found Debal to be

station for the vessels of Sindh and other

In the

"

came the

countries," whither

"

vessels of

China

and ships laden with the productions of Uman."

Baruh (Broach) was a port for the vessels coming
from China, as also for those of Sindh.* He also
mentions

"

the

cotton

fabrics

Rashiuddin from Al-Biruni,"

in Sir

H.

of Coromandel,

Elliot's

the

History of India, vol.

p. 65.
2

Ibid., p. 67.

Jlid,^ p, 69.

188

Ibid., pp. 77, 87,

i.,

MAHOMEDAN PERIOD
pepper and cardamomes of Malabar, and the lemons
of

Mansura on

Mehran

"

(Indus).

Again, in

2th century, intercourse with the farther East

proved by the fact that Gupta (a.d. 319-500) and

the
is

"

the

White Huna

(a.d.

500-580) coins were said to have

been in use in Madagascar and the islands of the

Malaya Archipelago,^ and, according to Abul-Feda,
the merchants of Java could understand
the

language of the natives of Madagascar.^

In the 13th century an important naval expedition was directed by Ghiyas-ud-din Balban
(1266-86 A.D.) against Tughril Khan, Governor of
Bengal, who declared himself independent of Delhi,

and assumed royal insignia. Two previous attempts

"
to subdue him having failed, the Sultan
resolved
to march against the rebel in person, and ordered a
large number of boats to be collected on the Ganges
and the Jumna.
Proceeding into Oudh, he
ordered a general levy, and two lakhs of men of all
classes were enrolled.
An immense fleet of boats
was collected, and in these he passed his army over
the Sarau (the Saraju or Gogra).
The rains now
came on, and, although he had plenty of boats, the
passage through the low-lying country was difficult."
Tughril fled from Lakhnauti to Jajnagar (some.

Sir

George Birdwood

in his

Report on the Old Records of the India

Office.
^

Reinaud's Mkmoires^

p. 236.

189

Reinaud's Abulfeda, ch.

xxii.

INDIAN SHIPPING
where near modern Tiperrah).
Balban marched
from Lakhnauti in pursuit of the rebel with all
speed, and in a few days arrived at Sunar-gnaw.
The Rai of that place, by name Danuj Rai, met the
Sultan, and an agreement was made with him that
he should guard against the escape of Tughril by
water.
The expedition ended in the death of
Tughril, and the complete defeat of his army, and
"
such punishment as was inflicted on Lakhnauti

had never been heard of in Delhi, and no one could

remember anything like it in Hindusthan."^
foreign travellers who visited India towards
the latter part of the same century were Abulfeda of

The

Damascus and

the famous

Marco

Polo.

Abulfeda

1273-1331) mentions the pepper of Malabar

and the fine cotton manufactures of Coromandel.
(a.d.

Marco Polo

Coromandel coast
a great centre of pearl-fishing, and the Gujarat
These pirates sailed
coast of desperate piracy.
every year with their wives and children in more
than a hundred corsair vessels, staying out the
whole summer. They are also said to have joined
in fleets of twenty to thirty, and made a sea cordon
Marco Polo also found
five or six miles apart.
(a.d.

292) found the

Sokotra a prey to multitudes of Hindu pirates who

He
encamped there and sold off their booty.
also mentions Call (Kayal in the Tinnevelly dis^

Barni's Tarikh-i-Firozshahi, in Elliot, vol.

190

iii.,

pp. 1 15-12

1.

MAHOMEDAN PERIOD
trict)

come

'*
all the ships touch that
as the city where
laden with horses and other
from the West
.

"

a
things for sale." Of Coilum (Quilon) he says,
great deal of brazil is got here, also ginger and

The merchants from

pepper, and very fine indigo.
Arabia and Persia come hither with their ships."
"

He

speaks of Tana (Thana) where grow no pepper

There is much
or spices, but plenty of incense.
traffic

here and

many

ships and merchants frequent

a great export of leather and

the place, for there is

buckram and cotton."
"

says,

it

buckram

Of Cambaet (Cambay) he
produces indigo in plenty, and much fine

there is a
exported hence
great trade in ktdes, which are very well dressed!'
He speaks of Aden as a " port to which many ships

cotton

is

He also
cargoes."
mentions Indian vessels sailing as far as the island

of

come with

India

their

which they took twenty days

reaching from Coromandel, but three months
of Zanguebar,
"

so strong does the current

returning,
the south."

Marco Polo has also

left

lie

in
in

towards

some very important

and interesting details regarding Indian ships which

are well worth a notice.
According to him, the
ships that are employed in navigation are built of
fir-timber
they are all doubled-planked, that is,
;

they have a course of sheathing boards

laid

over

These are caulked with

oakum both within and without, and are fastened
the planking

in every part.

191

INDIAN SHIPPING
with iron

nails.

The bottoms

are

smeared over

with a preparation of quicklime and hemp, pounded

together and mixed with oil procured from a certain

which makes a kind of unguent that retains

viscous properties more firmly and is a better
'*

tree,
its

material than pitch."

Besides the construction of Indian ships,

Polo gives details regarding their

fittings,

and the mode of

repairing.

Marco
size, form, and
He saw ships

of so large a size as to require a crew of 300 men,

and other ships that were manned by crews of 200

and 150 men. These ships could carry from five

to six thousand baskets (or mat bags) of pepper, a
^)^
fact which indicates to some extent the
tonnage of
these Indian vessels.
These ships were moved with
oars or sweeps, and each oar required four men to
work it. They were usually accompanied by two
or three large barks with a capacity to contain one
thousand baskets of pepper, and requiring a crew of
These small
sixty, eighty, or one hundred sailors.

were often employed to tow the larger vessels,

when working their oars, or even under sail, provided, of course, the wind be on the quarter, and not
craft

when

right aft, because in that case the sails of the

larger vessel must becalm those of the smaller,

which would

consequence be run down. Besides

these barks, these ships carried with them as many
in

as ten small boats for the purpose of carrying out

anchors, for fishing, and a variety of other services.

192

MAHOMEDAN PERIOD
As

in

modern steamers and

ocean-liners, these boats

were slung over the sides of the main ship and

lowered into the water when there was occasion to
use them. The barks also were in like manner

The larger
provided with their smaller boats.
vessel had usually a single deck, and below the
deck the space was divided into sixty small cabins,
fewer or more according to the size of vessel, and
each cabin afforded accommodation for one merchant.

was also provided with a good helm, with four

Some ships of the
masts, and as many sails.
It

larger class had, besides the cabins, as many as

thirteen bulkheads or divisions in the hold, formed

of thick planks let into each other {incastrati,

mortised or rabbeted). The object of these was to
against accidents which might make the
"
vessel spring a leak, such as
striking on a rock or
For if water
receiving a stroke from a whale."

guard

chanced to run
the

in, it

could not, in consequence of

boards being so well

fitted,

pass

from one

and the goods might be easily

removed from the division affected by the water.

division to another,

In

case

of a

ship needing repair, the practice

was to give her a course of sheathing over the
original boarding, thus forming a third course, and

she needed further repairs, was repeated even

to the number of six layers, after which she was

this, if

condemned as unserviceable and not seaworthy.

Marco Polo has also left a very interesting
o
193

INDIAN SHIPPING
It was
description of the pearl-fishings of Malabar.
conducted by a number of merchants who formed

themselves into several companies, and employed

many vessels and boats of different sizes, well
provided with ground-tackle by which to ride safely
at anchor.
They engaged and carried with them

who were

persons

skilled in the art of diving for

oysters in which the pearls were enclosed.

These the divers brought up in bags made of netting
that were fastened about their bodies, and then

the

repeated the operation, rising to the surface when

they could no longer keep their breath, and after a
short interval diving again. ^
In

the

14th century,
of the voyage across the

Odoric^

we have

in the

account

Indian Ocean of Friar

a ship that carried full

700 people, a striking proof of the capacity and

maritime

(a.d.

1321),

in

Rajput sailors of Gujarat;

who could successfully manage such large vessels.^
There is even an earlier mention of Rajput
skill

ships

sailing

China

in

of the

Sumena (Somnath) and

To the same century
Cathay,

between

Yule's

belonged Ibn Batuta, the greatest Arab

^

The Travels of Marco Polo (Marsden's Translation),

traveller,

ed.

Thomas

Wright.
" This is
a confirmation of the account we
from
the time of Agatharcides down to the
have of those large ships
1 6th century; the ships of Guzarat which traversed the Indian Ocean in
2

all

Dr. Vincent remarks

ages."
'

Stevenson, in Kerr's Voyages,

xviii.

194

324.

MAHOMEDAN PERIOD
who

spent twenty-four years (a.d. i 325-1 349) in

Being sent by Muhammad Tughlak on
travelling.

an embassy

he embarked from Cambay,

adventures at Calicut, Ceylon

to China,

and after many

and Bengal he at last took his passage toward
China in a junk bound for " Java," as he called it,
but in fact Sumatra.
Returning from China, he
sailed direct from the coast of Malabar to Muscat
and Ormuz. He confirms the statement of Marco
Polo regarding the maritime and piratical habits of
the Malabar people, who, however, captured only
those vessels which attempted to pass their ports
without the payment of toll.
Wassaf, in the same century, speaks of the large
importation of Arab and Persian horses to Mala-

which in the reign of Abu Bakr even reached

the modest figure of 10,000 horses every year.^
This horse trade was also noticed by Marco Polo
_(^^Dr-^3o8), who remarks that "the greater part of
bar,

cW^

the revenue of the country is employed in obtaining

the horses from foreign countries."
Wassaf also
'^

notices the entrepdt trade of

produce of remotest China

Malabar by which the

was consumed

in the

farthest West.^

In Northern India, in a.d. 1353 and a.d. 1360,

'
^

Elliot, vol.

iii.,

pp. 28, 32, 33,

Travels^ Murray's Edition, p. 296.

Elliot, vol.

iii.,

p. 35.

195

O 2

INDIAN SHIPPING
two expeditions were directed against Lakhnauti by"
Sultan Firoz Shah Tuglak, in both of which many
barrier-breaking boats (kistiha-i-bandkushan) were
used, in which his whole army, consisting of a lac of
troops, had to embark in crossing rivers round the
^
In a.d. 1372,
islands of Ekdala and Sunar-gnaw."

with an army consisting of 90,000 cavalry and 480

elephants, Firoz Shah led an expedition against
Thatta, in which he collected and used a fleet of as
many as 5,000 boats, in which the army descended
the River Indus and in a few days reached Thatta.^
In A.D. 1388 Timur crossed the mighty river of

marched

means

of a bridge of boats constructed

afterwards he
space of two days
to capture the island of Shahabuddin in

the Indus by
in the short

the River Jhelum, though Shahabuddin effected his

Shahabuddin's
escape down the river in 200 boats.
of boats was, however, completely destroyed
near Multan. Timur again had to fight several naval
fleet

on the Ganges.

battles

On

one occasion he had to

encounter a force of Hindus coming down the river

in 48 boats, which afterwards fell into his hands.^
After Marco Polo, the most important foreign
notice of India is the account of Mahuan,^ the

2
'
*

Tarikh-i-Firozshahi, in Elliot, vol.

Ibid.^ pp.

pp. 293

ft.

321-322.

Malfuzat-i-Timuri, in Elliot, vol.

George

iii.,

iii.,

pp. 408-12, 453.

Phillips in the J.R.A.S., 1896, pp.

196

204

ft".

MAHOMEDAN PERIOD
Mahomedan Chinaman, who was attached as interpreter to the suite of Cheng-Ho when he made his
voyages to India and other places at the beginning

He describes Calicut (a.d.

of the 15th century.
1409) as a great emporium of trade, frequented by
"

when a ship
quarters, and says
arrives from China the King's Overseers, with a
merchants from

all

go on board and make an invoice

of the goods, and a day is fixed for valuing the
cargo." According to Mahuan, the Ming-shih, or
chitti (capitalist),

history of the

Ming

dynasty, records that Ai-ya-

sei-ting (Ghiyas-ud-din Azam

A.D. 1 385- 1 457), the King of

who

Shah,

reigned

Pang-Kola, sent to
the Chinese court in 1408 an embassy with presents
including horses and saddles, gold and silver ornaments, drinking vessels of white porcelain with
azure flowers, and many other things and that in
;

1409 the same king, called Gai-ya-syu-ting, sent

In a.d. 141 2 the
another embassy to China.

Chinese ambassador of the return embassy met

Indian envoys bringing the usual presents, and

them that the king had died and had

been succeeded by Saifuting (Saif-ud-din Hamza
Shah, 1407-10). According to Chinese annals he,
too, sent an embassy to the Chinese emperor, with
a letter written on gold-leaf, and presenting a giraffe.
This embassy arrived in China in the 12th year of
learnt from

Vung-lo, A.D. 141 5. In this year also a Chinese

embassy under Prince Tsi-chao, with presents, was
197

INDIAN SHIPPING
received by the Bengal king, his queen and ministers.^
Thus, in the first half of the 15th centuiy, an active
sea-borne trade and commercial intercourse were

going on between Bengal and China and the silver

money of Bengal used at this period to be called
Tung-kia, weighing about 163*24 grains.
;

For the 15th century Abd-er-Razzak^

has

(a.d. 1442)

a highly interesting account of the impor"

tant harbour of Calicut, which is regarded as
one
left

of the greatest shipping centres of the world in this

period."
Says he
From Calicut are vessels
:

continually sailing for Mecca, which are for

the most part laden with pepper.
The inhabitants of Calicut are adventurous sailors, and pirates do not dare to attack the vessels of Calicut.
In
this

harbour one

Again
Security

may

find everything that can

be desired.

and

justice are so firmly established in this city that the

most

wealthy merchants bring thither from maritime countries considerable

cargoes, which they unload, and unhesitatingly send into the markets and
the bazaars, without thinking in the meantime of any necessity of checking
the account or of keeping watch over the goods. The officers of the custom-

house take upon themselves the charge of looking after the merchandise,
over which they keep watch day and night. When a sale is effected they
levy a duty on the goods of one-fortieth part ; if they are not sold they
make no charge on them whatsoever. In other parts a strange practice is

When a vessel sets

adopted.
driven by a decree of Divine

for a certain point, and suddenly is

Providence into another roadstead, the
inhabitants, under the pretext that the wind has driven it there, plunder the
But at Calicut, every ship, whatever place it may come from, or
ship.
sail

it may be bound, when it puts into this port

and has no trouble of any kind to put up with.

wherever
vessels,

"^

y'
i.

George

Phillips in ihe J.R.A .S., 1896, pp.

204

is

treated like other

ff.

India in the Fifteenth Century (Hakluyt Society's publication),

19.

198

i.

14,

MAHOMEDAN PERIOD
Nicolo Conti

was

of the

earlier part

another

15th century

traveller

who

in

gives

the

some

regarding Indian shipbuilding

Thus he says " The natives of

interesting details

and commerce.

India build some ships larger than ours, capable of

containing 2,000 butts, and with five sails and as

many

masts.

The lower

triple planks, in

part

constructed with

order to withstand the force of the

tempests to which they are

some ships

is

are so built in

much

exposed.

But

compartments that should

one part be shattered, the other portion remaining

entire may accomplish the voyage."
On the banks
of the Ganges he was astonished to see bamboos

and thick, of which

fishing boats are made and skiffs adapted to the
navigation of the river." Of the Indian merchants
of the south he makes a wonderful statement which

growing

supremely

high

"

deserves
rich,

so

to be

carefully noted: "They are very

so that some will carry on their

much

business in forty of their own ships, each of which

is valued at \ ^,000
gold pieces!'

Hieronimo

Santo Stefano,^ a Genoese merchant, visited India on a mercantile speculation at

the close of the 15th century.
He embarked from
Cosir (Cairo)
on board a ship, the timbers of
which were sewn together with cords and the sails
di

'*

India in the Fifteenth Century (Hakluyt Society's

publication),

21, 27.
2

Ilfid., iv. 4, 8, 9.

199

ii.

lo,

INDIAN SHIPPING
made

While

of cotton."

sailing from

Sumatra

in a

ship to return to Cambay he was wrecked in a

storm off the Maldives, and was floating on a large
"
plank of wood when three ships which had parted
from our company and had been five miles in

advance of

us, learning

sent out their boats

our disaster, immediately

and I arrived in one of the

said ships at Cambay."

Of the 15th and the

earlier part of the

i6th

century there are other facts to show that much of

the Indian maritime activity was manifested on the

western coast.

Till the arrival of the

Portuguese

(a.d. 500- 508) the Ahmedabad sultans maintained

their position as lords of the sea.^
At this time
1

Java appears in the State list of foreign bandars

which paid tribute, the tribute being probably a cess
or ship-tax paid by the Gujarat traders with Java
in return for the protection of the royal navy.^
In
1429 the Gujarat king Ahmad Shah sent a fleet of

seventeen vessels to recover the Island of

Bombay

and Salsette seized by the Bahmani kingdom.

Between 1453- 1469 the Raja of Vishalgad, one of

up a great maritime
power, and with a fleet of 300 vessels began to
harass the commerce of the Musalmans till he was
the

coast

When in
Humayun said

fortresses,

a.d.

"
:

built

1535 he secured Bahadur's splendid jewelled

These are the equipments of the lord of the

Bayley's Gujarat, 386.

^

Bird's Gujarat, 131.

200

sea."

belt,

See

MAHOMEDAN PERIOD
subdued by treachery by the King of Gujarat.

Mahmud, probably

the

greatest of the

kings of
1459-1511), organized and maintained

Gujarat (a.d.
a large fleet to subdue the pirates that infested his
coasts.^
In East Africa in a.d. 1498 Vasco de

Gama

found sailors from

Cambay and

other parts
of India, who guided themselves by the help of the
stars in the north and south, and had nautical
instruments of their own (y.AS.B., vol. v., p. 784).

Again, in a.d. 15 10 Albuquerque found a strong

Hindu element in Java and Malacca, and Sumatra
ruled by a Hindu named Parameshwara. In a.d. 1508
the Gujarat fleet combined with the Egyptian to

destroy the Portuguese fleet off the harbour of Chaul.

In A.D. 1 52 1 the admiral of the King of Gujarat
defeated the Portuguese off Chaul and sank one of

In 1527 another Gujarat fleet was

sent to Chaul, but a great number of the ships were
In 1528 there was a decisive battle ofl"
destroyed.
their vessels.

Bandru, in which the Portuguese took 73 ships out

of the 80 which coipposed the Cambay fleet. ^ In
1546 there was another naval battle fought off Diu
between the Portuguese, who equipped a large fleet
consisting of over 90 sails, and Coje Zofar, a Turk,
who was one of the King of Cambay's captains.^

'
^

Elphinstone's History of India, Appendix on Gujarat.

Bombay

Gazetteer, vol.

Portuguese in India,

i.,

Part

ii.,

pp. 29-34, 46.

by Danvers, pp. 468-74.

201

INDIAN SHIPPING
In 1584 the Portuguese were defeated in a regular
expedition which they sent against the pirates of
Goa, then a nest of buccaneers who were organized
into a formidable force under the Samurai, practising
guerilla warfare and preying on all sea-borne traffic.^
During this period the great commercial marts
on the western coast were Chaul and Dabhol,

carrying on a large trade with Persia and the Red

Sea, by which route the whole of the Indian goods
designed for Europe then passed. The next important place

was Bassein,

situated in the great

Many ships used to

timber-producing district.
load there with timber and carry
the Turks used it for their fleet.

to Mecca,

it

where

Pyrard says that

all the timber
required at Goa for building houses
and ships came from Bassein.
Agashi is also

spoken of by Portuguese annalists as a large and

rich place with a trade in timber.
It had a large
dockyard

in

which ships were

built

As showing the equality on which these places stood with Portugal in

the art of shipbuilding, it must be mentioned that in 1540 an expedition
went from Bassein against Agashi with the sole object of getting possession
of a great ship which was just built there and was then ready for launching.
ship was taken, and afterwards made several voyages to Portugal.

The
One

of the Surat ships stopped

Red Sea

the

in 161 2

was 153

ft,

by

Sir

H. Middleton on

long, 42

beam

its

voyage to

31 deep, and said to be

of 1,500 tons burden.^

Whiteway's Hise of the Portuguese Power in India,

De

Coutto,

Gazetteer, vol.

i..

iv.

Part

99
ii.,

Orme's Fragtnents, 326

pp. 34-36.

202

p. 47.

quoted in Bombay

MAHOMEDAN PERIOD
One

of the Dabhol ships stopped at the same

time by Captain Saris in the Red Sea was "153 feet
from stem to stern, breadth 42, height 31, burden
1,200 tons;

mainmast 108

the

feet,

the mainyard

The English

ships of that age (161 1) were

^
300 or 350 tons at most."
Calicut also in the i6th century developed into
132.

The foreign traveller

shipping centre.
Varthema has left a very interesting record of
shipbuilding in Calicut, giving details about the
a

great

materials and parts of ships, their names, and the

time of navigation, from which we make the

following extract
make

such as are open, each of 300 or 400

do not put any oakum
between one plank and another in any way whatever, but they join the
planks so well that they keep out the water most excellently. And then
First they

butts.

And when

their vessels,

they build the said vessels they

they lay on pitch outside, and put in an immense quantity of iron nails.
Do not imagine, however, that they have not any oakum, for it comes
there in great abundance from other countries, but they are not accustomed
to use it for ships.
They also possess as good timbers as ourselves and
in greater quantity than with us.
The sails of these ships of theirs are
made of cotton, and at the foot of the said sails they carry another sail,
this when they are sailing in order to catch more wind ;
so that they carry two sails where we carry only one.
They also carry
anchors made of marble, i.e. a piece of marble eight palmi long and two
palmi every other way. The said marble has two large ropes attached

and they spread

to

it,

From

The time of their navigation is this

Cape of Comerin, eight days' voyage from Calicut
You can navigate through eight months in the year,

and these are the anchors.

Persia to the

towards the south.

September to April; from May to August the sea is very stormy.

to the names of their ships, some are called Sambuchi, and these are
flat-bottomed.
Some others, which are made like ours, that is in the

i.e.

As

Purchas,

i.

349-350

Dr. Vincent's Commerce of the Ancients vol.

,

203

ii.,

p. 38.

INDIAN SHIPPING
bottom, they call Capel. Some other quick ships are called Paroo^ and
they are boats of ten paces each, and are all of one piece, and go with
oars

made

of cane,

and the mast

also

is

made

of cane.

There

is

also

another kind of vessel which goes with a sail and oars. These are all
made of one piece, of the length of twelve or thirteen paces each. The

opening

is

so narrow that one

man cannot

sit

by the

side of the other,

They are sharp at both ends.

obliged to go before the other.
These ships are called Chaturi, and go either with a sail or oars more
swiftly than any gaWey, fusta, or brigantine.^
but one

is

Travels of Varthetna, edited by G.

pp. 152

flf.

204

P.

Badger (Hakluyt Society),

MAHOMEDAN PERIOD
CHAPTER
The Mogul Period

II.

The Reign of Akbar.

We now reach

the age of the Moguls, under whom

the political unity of India was nearly attained after
the lapse of centuries, and an imperial naval

establishment was founded and maintained, especially in Bengal, the home of Indian shipbuilding.

Previous to Akbar

we have hardly any

record

of Indian naval activity except perhaps the two

exploits of Babar, the one in a.d. 1528, when Babar
fought a naval battle on the Ganges near Kanauj,

which he seized about thirty or forty of the

enemy's boats, and the other achieved on the Gogra,
on which the army of Kharid collected 100-150
vessels and gave Babar battle.
The government of India under Akbar, however,
in

as might be naturally expected, gave a great impetus

to Indian shipping

and shipbuilding,

especially in

Bengal. The main' source of our information is of

course the Ayeen-i-Akbari, that well-known store-

house of accurate details regarding the

work of Akbar
there were

the Great.

According

to

life

and

Abul-Fazl,

framed elaborate regulations

for

the

organization of the Naval Department or Admiralty,

"
''
the
office of Meer Behry
as it was called. These
regulations will be found to be remarkably akin

205

to,

INDIAN SHIPPING
and

in

been

some

respects will be even thought to have

anticipated by, the regulations governing

Chandra Gupta's Admiralty about 1,900 years

earlier, which have been, as we have already seen,
preserved for us in that monumental Sanskrit work,
the Arthasdstra of Kautilya.
Akbar's Admiralty had, broadly speaking,/^;'
functions to perform.

and

The

first

was

to see to the

purpose of
Vessels
navigation, and supervise their building.
were built of various sizes and for various purposes.
supply of ships

boats

the

for

There were those built for the transportation of

elephants, and those of such construction as to be
employed in sieges, while others were meant for the
conveyance of merchandise. There were also ships
which

served

for

Emperor had

also

convenient

habitations.

The

pleasure-boats built with convenient apartments, and others on which there were

markets and flower-gardens. Every part

of Akbar's empire abounded in ships, but the chief
centres of shipbuilding were Bengal, Cashmeer,
floating

and Tata.

In Allahabad and

Lahore also were

constructed ships of a size suitable for sea voyages.

Along the coasts of the ocean in the west, east, and

south of India also, large ships were built which

were suitable for voyages.

The second duty of Akbar's

Admiralty was

regarding the supply of men, of efficient mariners

who knew the nature of tides, the depths of

206

MAHOMEDAN PERIOD
channels, the coasts to be avoided, and the character

Every ship required

prevailing winds.
officers and men of the following titles and descriptions
(i) The Nakhoda, or commander of the

of

the

who

vessel,

Maullim

directed the course of the ship (2) the

(the mate), who knew the soundings, the
;

and guided the ship safe to

the Tundeil, who was the chief

situation of the stars,

her destination

(3)

khelasses

of the

or

khesheb, whose duty

sailors
it

was

(4)

Nakhoda-

the

to provide fuel for the

people and assist in lading and unlading the ship

(5) the Sirheng, who had to superintend the docking
;

and launching of the ship (6) the Bhandaree, who

had charge of the ship's store (7) the Keranee, or
ship's clerk, who kept the accounts and also served
;

out water to the people

helmsman, of

whom

(8)

the Sukangeer, or

there were sometimes twenty in

a ship (9) the Pttnjeree, whose duty it was to look

out from the top of the mast and give notice when
;

he saw land or a ship, or discovered a storm rising,

or any other object worth observing
(10) the
;

Goomtee, or those particular khelasses who threw

the water out of the ship; (11) the gunners, who
differed

ship

in

(12)

number according to the size of the

the Kherwah, or common seamen, who

were employed

in setting

and furling the

sails

and

in stopping leaks, and in case of the anchor sticking

fast in the ground they had to go to the bottom of

the water to set

it free.

207

INDIAN SHIPPING
task of the Admiralty was " to watch
the rivers," for which an active, resolute man was

The third

appointed,

who

settled everything relative

to the

regulated the tonnage, and provided travellers

with boats on the shortest notice. Those who were
ferries,

not able to pay at the ferries passed over gratis, but

no one was permitted to swim across a river. It

was

also the duty of this officer to hinder boats

from travelling in the night except in cases of

Nor was he

necessity.

anywhere except

to allow

goods

to be landed

at the public wharfs. Altogether the

functions of this officer very nearly corresponded to

those of Chandra Gupta's ^n-^rur^ or Superintendent
of Ships.
T\vt fourth duty of the Admiralty was in regard
to the imposition, realization, and remission of
duties.

Akbar

is

said to have remitted duties equal

kingdom.
Nothing was
exacted upon exports and imports excepting a trifle
taken at the ports which never exceeded 2 J per cent.,
and was regarded by merchants as a perfect
to

the

revenues

of

remission.^

The Ayeen4-Akhari'^
regarding the river

also gives

tolls in

some

Akbar's time

details

For every boat was charged R. i per kos at the rate of i,ooo mans
provided the boat and the men belong to one and the same owner. But
if the boat belongs to another man and everything in the boat to the man

Ayeen-i-Akbari, Gladwin's translation, pp. 193

"^

Blochmann's translation.

208

ff.

MAHOMEDAN PERIOD
is R. i for every 2^ kos. At ferry places an elephant
it, the tax
has to pay \od. for crossing; a laden cart, d^d, ; ditto, empty, 2d.; a laden
camel, id. ; empty camels, horses, cattle with thin things, ^d. ; ditto, empty, \d.
Other beasts of burden pay ^d., which included the toll due by the driver.

who has hired

Twenty people pay

As

id. for crossing,

but they are often taken

gratis.^

regards details relating to the development

of shipping in Bengal, we have to refer to the

Toomar yumma ^ (original
abstract of Ausil
of

Bengal as settled in
Emperor Akbar, about the
year 1582, by Raja Todar Mall, in which we
find specific assignments for naval establishment.
Some perganas were definitely assigned for main-

established

revenue)
behalf of the Mogul

taining the Imperial

the head of Omleh

Nowwara (flotilla). Under

Nowwara we have mention

of a naval establishment consisting, at the time it

was established by Akbar, of 3,000 vessels or boats,

was afterwards reduced to 768 armed cruisers

and boats, besides the number of vessels required
but

it

to be furnished

by the zemindars

in return for the

lands they held as jaigeer. The whole expense

of manning the fleet, including the wages of
923 Fringuan or Portuguese sailors, was esti-

mated

at

structing

Rs.

new

29,282 monthly, which, with convessels

amounted annually
^

Blochmann's

and

repairing

to Rs. 8,43,452.

the

old,

fleet

was

The

translation.

See Grant's "Analysis of the Finances of Bengal," in the Fifth Report

of the Select Committee on the Affairs of the East India Company^ vol. i.,
pp. 245, 246, 270; and Taylor's Topography of Dacca, p. 194.

209

INDIAN SHIPPING
principally stationed at Dacca, as

from which was performed

its

its

headquarters,
functions for guard-

ing the coast of Bengal against the then veryfrequent incursions of the Maggs and other
foreign

or

pirates

invaders.

Under

the

royal
of
the
Nowwara
or
of
Dacca
jurisdiction
Admiralty
was placed the whole coast from Mundelgaut (near

Damodar and Rupnarayan)

the confluence of the

to the

Bundar of

Balesore, which

was

also liable to

the invasion of the Maggs.

In fact, the ordinary
established rental of the whole country was then

almost entirely absorbed in jaigeers and protecting

the sea-coasts from the ravages of the Maggs or
Arrakanese, aided by the Portuguese, who inhabited
the port of Chatgaon, and who, in the hope of
benefiting through their commerce, had also been

allowed

to

make a

settlement

at

Hugli.

The

jaigeers that were assigned to the Dacca district

for the support of these military establishments

of

the

were

country

nearly

one-third

jaigeer,

which was

the

district,

of

computed
extent.

its

the

included

to

comprise

The Nowwara

principal assignment in
the
best lands of the

Neabut, and was subdivided into numbers of small

Taluks, which were granted to the boatmen

and

artificers

of the

Topography and
Government, 1840).

fleet.^

Statistics

Besides the perganas

of Dacca, by Taylor (printed by order of

210

MAHOMEDAN PERIOD
assigned for the support of the Nowwara, a fruitful source of revenue for the
support of the
naval establishment was derived from the Mheer
Baree, which was a tax on the building of
boats varying from 8 as. to R. i 4 as., accordIt was levied
ing to the size of the vessels.

boats arriving at or leaving the naval

headquarters whose crews were not residents of

upon

all

the district.

boat proceeding to Moorshidabad was charged at the rate of 8

as,

per

oar; to Calcutta lo as. ; and to Benares R.i 8 as., while boats arriving
from these places were taxed at the rate of i, 2, and 4 rupees per boat.

The Mehal was

originally confined to the city, but it afterwards extended

to the country, where it was exacted by the zemindars and farmers from
It was considered useful in leading
every boat that passed their estates.

to the detection of dacoits, as a registry of the boats, manjees,

belonging to each district was kept by the zemindars.^

and boatmen

As

already pointed out, the naval establishment

at Dacca was necessitated by the depredations of the

Arrakan

pirates,

both

Feringi, who used

the water route and plunder

Magg and

come by
Bengal.
They carried off the Hindus and
threw them one above another under
Moslems,
the decks of their ships
and sold them to the
Dutch, English, and French merchants at the ports
of the Deccan.
Sometimes they brought the

constantly to
"

captives for sale at a high price to Tamluk and the

port of Balasore, which is a part of the imperial

Taylor's Jopography of Dacca, ^^. 198, 199.

211

P 2

INDIAN SHIPPING
dominions."
that

"

flotilla

With

regard to their power

said

it is

cannons are beyond numbering, their

exceeds the waves of the sea." ^ Their ships

their

were so strongly made of timber with a hard core that

"
cannons could not pierce them." ^ They were such
a terror to the Bengal navy that "whenever loo
warships of Bengal sighted four ships of the enemy,
if

the distance separating

crew showed fight by

The
Nowwara came from

them was great the Bengal

flight."^

the

building of the Royal

Sylhet, which was then of great

materials for

importance from its natural growth of ship-timbers,

which could be built into vessels of different sizes.^

The

shipyards from the Magg and Feringi fleets

were towards the south at Sandwipa, a part of the

The Venetian

kingdom of Arrakan.

traveller,

Cesare
Fedrici, writing about the year 1565,
states that 200 ships were laden yearly with salt,
di

and that such was the abundance of materials

for

shipbuilding in this part of the country that the

Sultan of Constantinople found it cheaper to have
his vessels built here than at Alexandria.^

There was quite a large variety of vessels

built

^
From the contemporary Persian account of Shihab-ud-din Talish in
MS. Bodleian 589, Sachau and Eth^s Catalogue, entry 240, translated by

Professor Jadunath Sarkar in Xh&J.A.S.B. for June, 1907.

2

Ibid.

Fifth Report of the Select Committee, vol.

Taylor's Topography of Dacca.

Ibid.

212

i.,

pp. 444-5.

Ibid.

MAHOMEDAN PERIOD
and stationed
boats

at

Besides the 768 war-

Dacca.

making up the Nowwara,

there were state-

barges for the Viceroys, and two vessels, magnificently fitted up, had annually to be dispatched to

Emperor at Agra, though afterwards, when the

Mogul Government declined in vigour, and the
Nawabs of Bengal became virtually independent,
the

these state-boats, though avowedly sent for the use

of his Majesty, never reached highej than Murshid-

The

state-barges were distinguished by

different names according to the figures on their

abad.

''

Mohrpunkee," from that of a peacock,

Muggurchera," of an alligator, etc. Boating was
then a general and favourite pastime with the rich
prows, as
"

as

it

was with the Nawabs.^

Besides Bengal, the province of Sindh was a

great centre of Indian shipping. Abul-Fazl informs

us that in the circar of Thatta alone there could be

found 40,000 vessels ready for hire.^ Lahori Bandar

days was an important seaport on the

Indus, and the following account of the harbour
regulations in force there given in the Tarikk-iTahiri is very interesting
those

in

Between the town of Thatta and Lahori Bandar is a distance of two

by land and by water ; beyond this it is another day's

days' journey, both

Taylor's Topography of Dacca, pp. 98, 268.

"

large

The means

and

of locomotion

small, to the

Ayeen-i-Akbari, vol.

ii.,

is

by boats, of which there are many kinds,

number of 40,000."

p.

338.

213

Jarret's translation

of the

INDIAN SHIPPING
march to the sea. There is a small channel (called nar in the language
of Thatta) communicating with the port which is unfordable. Between
the port and the ocean there is but one inhabited spot, called Suimiani.
to the Mir Bandar, or port master, with a loaded
is always stationed.
of
Whenever a ship enters the creek
ordnance,
piece
it intimates its approach by firing a gun, which is responded to by the

Here a guard belonging

guard-house, in order, by that signal, to inform the people at the port of

the arrival of a strange vessel.
These, again, instantly send word of its
arrival to the merchants of Thatta, and then, embarking on
Ere they reach it,
to the place where the guard is posted.
look-out have already inquired into the nature of the ship.
and trader must undergo this questioning. All concerned in

now go
belong

Bandar ;

boats, repair

those on the

Every vessel
the business

in their boats {ghrabs) to the mouth of the creek.

If the ship
to the port it is allowed to move up and anchor under Lahori
if it

belong to some other part it can go no farther

and forwarded to the city.^

its

cargo

is

transferred into boats

We

may now

refer to

some

of the naval engage-

ments of Akbar's reign. In 1580 Raja Todar Mall,

who had been directed to fit out i ,000 boats {kishti)
and ghrabs at Agra, was sent by the Emperor to
settle

the revenues of Gujarat.^

In

[590 Akbar

Khan-i-Khanan against Mirza Jani Beg of

Thatta, who pretended to independence, whereupon
the Mirza sent 120 armed ghrabs and 200 boats
In each of these ghrabs there were
against him.
carpenters for quickly repairing the damages that
Some of Jani Beg's
might be caused by guns.
ghrabs were manned by Feringhi soldiers. Jani Beg
was eventually defeated, fled, and was pursued till
sent

he offered terms, giving up to the imperial general

In 1574 Akbar
\km\.y ghrabs among other things.^
^

Elliot, vol.
^

i.,

p. 277.

Ibid., vol.

i.,

Ibid., vol.

pp. 247-52, Tarikh-i-Masumi.

iii.,

p.

370.

MAHOMEDAN PERIOD
opened his long-continued campaign against Behar
and Bengal, and sent the Khan Khanan Munim

Khan

with the imperial forces against Daud,

was putting up near Patna and Hajipur.

who
The

Emperor determined to personally direct the opera"

all
tions, and embarked with a huge fleet, carrying
his equipments and establishments, armour, drums,
treasure, carpets, kitchen utensils, stud, etc.
large boats were specially prepared for his

accommodation."

When

Two
own

he reached Patna by boat

he gave orders for the reduction of the fort of

"
Khan Alam was sent off with 3,000
Hajipur, and

men

with the materials required for a

After the fall of Hajipur, Daud fled in a

in boats

siege."

and Patna

hands of the Emperor,

who appointed Khan Khanan to the government of
Bengal, giving him all the boats which he had
brought down from Agra, with a large army. But
boat,

fell

into the

Bengal was not easily pacified. The Mogul jaigirdars in Bengal and Behar attempted to defy
The Afghans also availed
Akbar's authority.
themselves of this opportunity, took up arms, and
made themselves masters of Orissa and part of

Finding that the Afghan and Mogul

officers were
defiant, Akbar
appointed Hindu
governors of Bengal, of whom Todar Mall was the
Bengal.

The second was Raja Man Singh

first.

who

of Jaipur,

ruled Bengal from 1589 to 1604.

It

was during Man Singh's viceroyalty

215

that

we

INDIAN SHIPPING
a remarkable outburst of naval activity in
Eastern Bengal, and proofs of a naval organization
find

was being slowly and silently built up by the

efforts of some of the independent Hindu landlords
of Bengal, while the Mogul Government was busy
that

The chief
establishing the Nowwara at Dacca.
centres of this Hindu naval activity were Sripur,
Bakla or Chandradwipa,

in the south-east of the

modern district of Backergunj and Chandikan,

which is identified with the Saugor Island. The
Lord of Sripur was Kedar Roy, who was quite a

He
naval genius but hardly sufficiently known.
had many men-of-war kept always in readiness in
In 1602 he
shipyards and naval stations.
recovered the island of Sandwipa from the Moguls
his

government in the hands of the

Portuguese under Carvalius. This, however, roused
the jealousy and alarm of the King of Arrakan, who
forthwith dispatched 150 vessels of war, large and
Kedar Roy, equal to
small, to conquer Sandwipa.
the occasion, at once sent 100 vessels of war in aid
In the battle that was fought the
of his allies.
allies of Kedar Roy came off victorious, and they

and placed

its

The King of
captured 149 of the enemy's vessels.
Arrakan fared equally ill in his second attempt
against Kedar Roy's allies, although he dispatched
But
as many as 1,000 war-vessels against them.

Kedar Roy had

more powerful enemy in

about the same time. For Raja

to face a

another direction

216

MAHOMEDAN PERIOD
Man

Singh, the then Viceroy of Bengal, was convinced of the necessity of extinguishing the power

and independence of Kedar Roy, and sent Manda

Roy with loo war- vessels for the purpose. But in
the battle that was fought Manda Roy was slain.
This, however, only incited

Man Singh

to

make a

second and far stronger attempt to subdue Kedar

Roy in a.d. 1604. Kedar Roy, equipped with fully
took the offensive and besieged
the Mogul general Kilmak at Srinagara, but was
eventually himself taken prisoner after a furious
cannonade. He was brought before Man Singh,

500 men-of-war,

first

but soon died of his wounds.^

Bakla also was

another important centre of

naval strength in Bengal under the famous landHis escape with his life
lord Ramachandra Roy.

from the clutches of Protapaditya of Jessore, in a

boat furnished with guns and propelled by 64 oars-

men,

is

a well-known

Ramachandra
his son and
^

fact.^

The

reputation

as a hero

was

successor,

Kirtinarayana,

Takmilla-i-Akbarndma, in

Cf. the following

chronicle of the period
:

fully

Elliot, vol. vi., pp.

passage

from the

of

maintained by

i66

who was

flf.

Ghatakakdrika, the Sanskrit

For information regarding Bengali maritime activity of this period I am

indebted to Srijukta Nikhilnath Roy's useful work on Protapaditya in
BengaH.

217

INDIAN SHIPPING
equally skilful in naval warfare, and succeeded in
ousting the Feringhis from their settlements near
the

mouths

of

the

His

Meghna.

alliance

was

courted even by the Nawab of Dacca.

But by far the most important seat of

maritime power of the times in

Hindu
Bengal was that

Chandikan or Saugor Island by the

established at

constructive genius of Protapaditya, the redoubtable ruler of Jessore.

Numbers of men-of-war

ready for battle and

in a seaworthy condition at that naval station.

were always

to

be found

There were also three other places where Protap

these were
built his shipyards and dockyards
Dudhali, Jahaja-ghata, and ChakasrI, where his
ships were built, repaired, and kept.
But the maritime activity of Bengal in this
period found its scope not only in war, but also
in the gentler arts of peace.
Foreign writers and
:

who

i6th century
speak in high terms of the wealth flowing from her
brisk sea-borne trade and the greatness and magnitravellers

visited

some

ficence of

"

Bengal as

Bengal

of her ports.

in the

Purchas describes

plentiful in rice, wheat, sugar, ginger,

long-pepper, cotton, and

and enjoying also a

Varthema (1503- 1508) says

This country abounds more in grain,

very wholesome
"

silk,

air."

of Bengal
flesh of every kind, in great quantity of sugar, also
of ginger, and of great abundance of cotton, than
:

any country

in the world."

218

Ralph Fitch, probably

MAHOMEDAN PERIOD
English traveller to Bengal (1586), mentions
some of the ports and marts of Bengal. One of
the

first

was Tanda, where there was " great trade and

traffic of cotton and cotton cloth."
Another was
"
is very
Bacla, which
great and plentiful, and hath
store of rice, much cotton cloth, and cloth of silk."
The third was Sripur with its "great store of
these

Of

cotton cloth."
"

Here

says,

that

is

is in all

the fourth, viz. Sonargaon, he

best and finest cloth, made of cotton

India.

goeth from here, and

Great store of cotton cloth

much

wherewith they
serve all India, Ceylon, Pegu, Malacca, Sumatra,
and many other places."
Satgaon was another
thus

is

fair city for

of

of Bengal for foreign commerce,

described by Fitch " Satgaon is a

emporium

great

and

rice,

a city of the Moors and very plentiful

Here

Bengal they have every

day, in one place or other, a great market which
they call Chandeun,' and they have many great
boats which they call pencose,' wherewithal they go
from place to place and buy rice and many other
all

things.

in

things their boats have 24 or 26 oars to row them,

they be of great burthen. ..."
Bengal was also
noted for her salt trade, the centre of which was
;

Sandwipa, whence "300 ships are yearly laden

with

salt."

But perhaps the most important commercial

centre of Bengal in this period was the city of
Gaur, the history of which may be traced as far
219

INDIAN SHIPPING
back as the days of Pala and Sena kings. As
the place was surrounded on all sides by rivers it
naturally gave a great impetus to boat-building and
maritime activity, of which the first proofs we get
are in the time of the Pala kings. In the Kalimpur

copper-plate inscription of Dharmapaladeva there

^
is a reference to
bridges of boats built for the

transport of armies, and also to an officer called

Tarik, who was the general superintendent of

In

boats.

some of the copper-plate

inscriptions

of the Sena kings, also, there is mention of naval

force as an element of their military organization. ^

Under

the

Musulman kings

of Bengal,

Gaur con-

and importance. We
have already seen how in the 15th century ambassadors from China to Bengal and from Bengal to
China used to carry presents as tokens of mutual
friendship between the sovereigns of both the
In the i6th century, under the rule
countries.^
of the Hussain Shah dynasty, the city attained its
Hussain Shah (1498- 1520 a.d.)
greatest splendour.
tinued to

grow

fTf^fr ^wfir^^

in prosperity

^sf^

fr^^TTi;;,

victory, pitched at Pataliputra,

i.e.

"

Now

from

where the manifold

his

royal

on the path of the Bhagirathi make it

mountain-tops had been sunk to build another causeway."
vol. iv., 1896-97, p. 249.

ceeding

See

p.

camp

of

of boats proseem as if a series of

fleets

197 of this work.

220

Ep.

Ind.^

MAHOMEDAN PERIOD
himself maintained a powerful fleet, with which he
once invaded Assam. ^
In Hunter's Statistical

Account of BengaP there is a story related about

one Shaikh Bhik of Gaur, a cloth merchant, who
once " set

Russia with three ships laden

but two of his ships were wrecked

for

sail

with silk cloths,

somewhere in the neighbourhood of the Persian

Gulf."
Accounts of the magnificence of the city
by foreign travellers who visited Bengal
about this time. Varthema (1503- 1508) mentions
are given

how from

"

"

the city of Banghella

(Gaur) sail every
ships laden with cotton and silk stuffs."

"

year

fifty

De

Barros gives the following description of the

city, based on the accounts of Portuguese travellers

who

visited

in the reign of

it

"

1538 A.D.)
called Gaur.
:

in length
streets
traffic

past.

and

Mahmud

III.

(1532-

The

chief city of the kingdom is

It is said to be three of our leagues
contain 200,000 inhabitants. The

thronged with the concourse and

of people that they cannot force their way
great part of the houses of this city are
are

so

and well-Wrought buildings." Manuel de

Faria y Souza^ wrote: ''The principal city Gouro,
seated on the bank of the Ganges, three leagues
in length, containing one million and two hundred

stately

No.
*
3

Blochmann's " Koch Bihar and Assam,"

in

the/.A.S.B., 1872, Part

I.

Vol.

vii., p.

95.

Portugiuse Asia, Stevens, 1698, vol.

221

i.,

ch.

ix.,

pp. 415

fF.

i.,

INDIAN SHIPPING
thousand families, and well fortified
along the
streets, which are wide and straight, rows of trees
to shade the people, which sometimes in such
;

numbers

that

some

trod

are

to death."

Besides

these foreign notices of the prosperity of Gaur

have also some native accounts still extant.

we

We

have already made extracts from the account contained in Kavikankana Chandi of the adventures
of the merchant Dhanapati, who lived many years
in Gaur, and of his son S'rimanta, who sailed in

quest of his father to Sinhala in ships of lOO yards

length and 20 yards breadth, with prows shaped

Makara, or the head of an elephant or a lion.

In one of the old folk-songs of Gambhird^ belonging
to Malda district, there is an interesting reference
like

name
Gaur

another merchant of the

to

who

sailed

occupied so

from

much

Delhi
of

any room left

According to Malda

scarcely

to

the
for

river

of Dhanapati,
in ships that

that

there

was

bathing or taking water.^

local

tradition, preserved in

some old Bengali MSS., there were several Arab

merchants who settled in Gaur for purposes of

For an account of these songs, see Mr. Haridasa

of the Bahglya Sdhitya Parishat.

article in \}a& Journal

^tf^ ^t^f^

^c?

<tif^

222

^c^

II

Palit's

learned

MAHOMEDAN PERIOD
commerce.

One

of

the

MSS.

gives a glowing

mouth of Chamban Ali, a

merchant from Bagdad, of the port of Gaur as seen
description, through the

from the opposite side of the

innumerable ships and boats,
vastness

of

its

maritime

river,

and of the

testifying

trade.

Some

to
light

the
is

thrown on the growth of the shipbuilding industry

of Gaur by an old Bengali MS., a poem, called
Manasdmangald, by Jagajjibana. The merchant

Chand Saodagar summons to his presence the

master-craftsman named Kusai, and orders him to
build for him fourteen boats at once.
Forthwith
goes Kusai with his many apprentices to the forest,
where he fells all kinds of trees for materials to
build the various parts of the boats with.
There
were soon hewed out three or four lacs of planks
which were afterwards joined together by means

of iron nails.^

It

is

also a significant fact that

some very old masts of ships have been unearthed

in some of the villages in the neighbourhood of
Pandua through which the Mahananda once flowed.^

pm fV^
fpf?^ ^t%^

^f^ ^f?^ t^p^

^f%

'

fff^ l^fsr Ftf?

II

For some of the references given above I am indebted to the

courtesy of Mr. Haridasa Palit, who has devoted himself to the study of
the antiquities of Gaur.

223

INDIAN SHIPPING

CHAPTER
The Mogul Period

III.

{continued)

From the

Reign of Akbar to that of Aurangzeb.

We have now given an account of

the development
of Indian shipping and shipbuilding in the reign
of Akbar and of the contributions made to it not

only by his Government but also by private

efforts,

by independent Hindu and Mahomedan rulers.

Nor was this development checked after Akbar s
death, but continued through successive reigns.
After the death of Akbar in 1605, Islam Khan,
Governor of Bengal, transferred the seat of govern-

ment from Rajmahal to Dacca, and increased the

Nowwara, or fleet, and artillery, which had been
established in the time of Akbar in order to check
the renewed aggressions of the Afghans and
Maggs.

As

stated

in the

contemporary Persian
"

account of Shihab-ud-din Talish,

reign the

Magg

in

Jahangir's
to
come
to
Dacca for
used
pirates

plunder and abduction, and in fact considered the

Islam Khan
whole of Bengal as their jaigir."
shortly afterwards defeated the combined forces of
the Rajah of Arrakan and the Portuguese pirate
^

J.A.S.B.^

vol.

iii.,

N.S., pp. 424, 425.

224

MAHOMEDAN PERIOD
Sebastian Gonzales, then in possession of Sandwipa,
and commanding an army of i,ooo Portuguese,
2,000 sepoys, 200 cavalry, and 80 well-armed
vessels of different sizes,

who both made

a descent

upon the southern part of the province, laying waste

the country along the eastern bank of the Megna.
In the reign of Shah Jahan, in a.d. 1638, there
began a trouble from a new quarter. Even during
the closing years of Akbar's reign, the tribes on the
eastern frontier of Bengal, belonging to Kuch Behar

and Assam, began to cause trouble. In a.d. 1596

an expedition was sent against Lachmi Narayan, the
ruler of

Kuch Behar, who commanded a

large army
of
200,000
foot, 700 elephants,
4,000 horse,
consisting
and a fleet of 1,000 ships {Akbarndma). In 1600 an

consisting of 500 ships

encounter the fleet of Parichat, ruler of
imperial

fleet

was sent

to

Kuch Hajo,

Gujadhar river, who was defeated and taken

But Baldeo, brother of
prisoner {Padishandma).
Parichat, fled to Assam, and having collected an army
of Kochis and Assamese, attacked the imperial army,
as well as a fleet of nearly 500 ships, and defeated the
whole force. At last, in 1638, the Assamese themselves made a hostile descent on Bengal from their
boats, sailing down the river Brahmaputra, and had
almost reached Dacca when they were met by the
Governor of Bengal, Islam Khan Mushedy, with the
in the

J.A.S.B., 1872, Part

i.,

225

No.

i,

pp.

64

flF.

INDIAN SHIPPING
Nowwara. An engagement ensued in which 4,000 of
them were slain and fifteen of their boats fell into the
hands of the Mogul Government. The Maggs also
were continuing their depredations in the southern
parts of the district.
the country was at

'*

The

this

established

time

almost

rental of
entirely-

absorbed in jaigirs assigned to protect the coasts

from their ravages, and such was the reduced state
revenues that

of the

Fedai

Khan

obtained the

government on condition of paying ten

rupees a year;
the

same sum

imperial

viz., five

to

dues

lacs to the

Emperor and

Noor Jehan Begum

while,

on

the

of

lacs

in lieu of the

invasion

of

the

said that not a single rupee was

Matters instead of improving
remitted to Delhi."

Assamese,

it

is

became worse and worse owing to the continued

dilapidation of the Bengal fleet on the one hand
and the growing power of the Magg and Feringi
fleets on the other.
When, in a.d. 1639, Prince
"
Shuja was appointed viceroy, great confusion was
caused by his negligence, and the extortion and
violence of

the

clerks

(mutasaddis)

ruined

the

pargannahs assigned for maintaining the Nowwarrah (fleet). Many (naval) officers and workmen
holding jagir or stipend were overpowered by
poverty and starvation."
In the reign of Aurangzeb, when Mir Jumla
came to Bengal as viceroy in 1660, removing the
seat of

government again to Dacca, he began

226

*'

to

MAHOMEDAN PERIOD
of the expenditure and
which amounted to fourteen

make a new arrangement

tankhah of the

flotilla,

With a view

lacs of rupees."^

to

guarding against

an invasion from Arrakan, Mir Jumla

forts

about

of

confluence

the

built several

Luckia and

the

Issamutty, and constructed several good militaryroads and bridges in the vicinity of the town.^ In
1 66 1 Mir
Jumla marched against Kuch Behar, and
easily annexed the kingdom, when the Raja Bhim
following year (1662) he
embarked on his conquest of Assam with a large

Narain

In the

fled.

force consisting

Nowwara.
imperial

of infantry

About 800

fleet,

and

hostile ships attacked the

cannonade

the

and the

artillery

the whole

lasting

The Nawab sent Muhammad Munim Beg

night.
to assist the fleet.
This decided the fate of the
engagement, resulting

in the capture of

300 or 400

ships of the enemy with a gun on each.

Assamese burnt some 1,000 and odd ships,
of which were large

enough

to

accommodate

The

many

80, 70,

and 60 sailors, including 123 bachhari ships, like

which no other existed in the dockyard at Ghargaon.

The

imperial fleet used

sisted of 323 ships, viz.
Jalbahs

Ghrabs

the

engagement con-

......
......
......
:

Kosahs

in

MS. Bodleian

159
48
10

598, 'm/.A.S.B., June, 1907.

Taylor's Topography

and

Statistics

227

of Dacca,

p. 76.

Q 2

INDIAN SHIPPING
Parindahs

MAHOMEDAN PERIOD
means adopted by Shaista Khan to revive the
"As timber and shipwrights were
Nowwara.
required for repairing and fitting out the ships, to
every mauza of the province that had timber and
carpenters bailiffs were sent with warrants to take
them to Dacca." The principal centres of ship-

building at that time appear to have been Hugli,

Baleswar, Murang, Chilmari, Jessore and Karibari,

where " as many boats were ordered to be built and

At headquarters, too,
possible."
did not for a moment "forget to

Dacca as

sent to

Shaista

Khan

mature plans

assembling the crew, providing

their rations and needments, and collecting the
for

Hakim

materials for shipbuilding and shipwrights.

Mahammad

Hussain,

mansabdar,

an

old,

able,

learned, trustworthy, and virtuous servant of the

Nawab, was appointed head of the shipbuilding

department. ...

To

all

ports

of

this

department
Kishore Das, a

expert officers were appointed.

well-informed and experienced clerk,
to

was appointed

have charge of the pargannahs of the

Nowwara

and the stipend of the jaigirs assigned to the naval

As a result of this activity and
officers and men."
the ceaseless exertions of the

Nawab, we

find the

magnificent output of as many as 300 ships built in

a very short time and equipped with the necessary
materials.

To

secure bases for the

of Chatgaon, the

Nawab

war against the Feringis

posted an officer with 200

229

INDIAN SHIPPING
ships at Sangramgara, where the

Brahmaputra

unite,

and another

at

Ganges and the

Dhapa, with loo

when required. Then the

Sandwipa was conquered by defeating

ships, to help the former

of

island

Dilawwar, a runaway ship-captain of Jahangir's

At this time a section of the Feringis under
time.
their leader, Captain

The

side.

Hussain.

below

Moor, deserted

to the

Mogul

imperial fleet was placed under Ibn

It consisted of 288 ships, as described

Ghrabs

......

Salb

Kusa
Jalba

Bachhari

Parenda

Not

21

157
.

specified

Total

96

.2

......
.....
.

6
3

.288

Ibn Hussain advanced with the Nowwara by

the sea in co-operation with the army advancing by

Nawab

himself arranging to supply the

expeditionary force constantly with provisions. The
The
first naval battle was fought on a stormy sea.
land, the

put to flight and ten ghrabs

two fleets, with larger ships, again

Arrakanese were

The
captured.
faced each other,

and spent the night in distant

In the morning the imperial fleet
cannonade.
advanced towards the enemy, with sails in the first
line, then the gharabs, and last the jalbas and
kusas side by side. The Arrakanese retreated into
230

MAHOMEDAN PERIOD
the Carnafuli river.

The Moguls

closed

its

mouth

and then attacked and captured the Arrakanese

navy, consisting of 135 ships,
Khalu

viz.

INDIAN SHIPPING
"

Account

of

the

trade

of

Metchlepatam," by
He
dated
Christopher Hotton,
9th Jan. 1676-77.
says: "Arriving first in 1657, at which time I

found this place in a very flourishing condition,

20 sail of ships of burden belonging to the
native inhabitants

voyages
Malacca,

to
.

here constantly employed on

Arracan,
.

Moca,

Pegu,

Tanassery,

and

Persia,

the

Queda,
Maldive

Islands."

The King
marine.

He had

to Arrakan,

had a mercantile

of Golconda also

several ships ''that trade yearly

Tenassery, and

Ceylon

to

purchase

elephants for him and his nobility.

They bring
in some of his ships from fourteen to twenty-five of
these vast creatures.
They must of necessity be

of very considerable burthens and built exceeding

strong."
Bowrey also saw a ship belonging to the

King of Golconda, built for the trade to Mocha in

the Red Sea, "which could not be, in my judgment,
than 1,000 tons

less

Narsapore,

was
It

"

45

in

burden."^

miles

north of

Masulipatam,

one of the important shipping centres.

aboundeth well in timber and conveniences for
also

the building and repairing ships

"
(p. 99).

Morris,

"

Godavari District, says, the place was well

known more than two centuries ago for its docks
for the building and repair of large vessels."
In a
in his

Geographical Account of Countries round the Bay of Bengal, pp. 72

232

fF.

MAHOMEDAN PERIOD
"

"

from Balasor, dated i6 December, 1670,

the Factors at the Bay wrote to the Court {Factory
Generall

Records, Misc. no. 3) that they had ordered a ship

"
"
''
to be built at
Massapore in place of the Madras

Pinnace

"

"

We

should ourselves have

they added,
built another but that neither timber nor workmen
;

are so

good as at Massapore."
Madapollum was another shipping centre where
"many English merchants and others have their
Here is the best
ships and vessels yearly built.
and well-grown timber in sufficient plenty, the best
iron

upon the coast

any sort of iron-work is here

ingeniously performed by the natives, as spikes,
bolts, anchors, and the like.
Very expert masterbuilders there are
well,

seen

several

here

they build very

and launch with as much discretion as

any part of the world.

in

excellent

way

of

making shrouds,

rigging for ships."

Bowrey

have

They have an

stays, or

any other

refers to a sort of

"

"

ship-money imposed
by Nawab Shaista Khan of Bengal on the mercantile community to build up the naval defence or
power of the country. Thus, not satisfied that all,
both rich and poor, should bow to him, but wishing

upon the water should do the like, the

Nawab would every year send down to the mer-

the ships

Geographical Account of Countries round the Bay of Bengal, pp. 72

Ibid., pp.

100-5.

233

fF.

INDIAN SHIPPING
chants in Hugli, Jessore, Pipli, and Balasore for a
ship or two in each respective place of 400, 500, or

600

tons, to be very well built and fitted, even as if

they were to voyage to sea, as also 10, 20, or 30

galleys for to attend them, the Moor's governors

having strict orders to see them finished with all

speed, and gunned and well manned,

the Ganges as high as Dacca.^

Of

the

Nawab s

and sent up

mercantile marine

Bowrey says
of ships of considerable burden that annually trade to sea from
that

it

consists of about

"

20

sail

Dacca, Balasore, and Pipli, some to Ceylon, some to

These fetch elephants, and the rest,
Tenessarim.
yearly go to the Twelve Thousand Islands,
called the Maldives, to fetch cowries and cayre (coir),

6 or

7,

and most commonly do make profitable voyages." ^

Lastly, Bowrey gives an account of the various
kinds of ships and boats that were then built. The
Massoola boats, used in lading and unlading ships
"
are built very slight, having no timbers
or vessels,
in them save thafts to hold their sides together.
Their planks are very broad and thin, sewed
"
together with coir they are flat-bottomed and most
"
proper for the Coromandel coast for all along the
shore the sea runneth high and breaketh, to which
they do buckle and also to the ground where they
'

Geographical Account of Countries round the

pp. 179-80.
2

IHd,

Bay

of Bengal^

'^^mii^m^mmm^''

*:x^r>'^?^'^mi^m-^.-

A PATELLA.

AN OLOAKO.

i
A BUDGAROO.
[To face ^.

235.

MAHOMEDAN PERIOD
strike."

There

is

another kind of boat called the

catamaran, made of
buoyant timber

"

four, five, or six large pieces of

upon which they can lade three

or four tons of weight." In Bengal,

"great flat-bottomed vessels of

Bowrey noticed
an

exceeding

strength which are called Patellas and built very

strong. Each of them will bring down 4,000, 5,000,
or 6,000 Bengal maunds."
Bowrey also mentions
several sorts of boats that were in use on rivers.
The Oloako boats are rowed some with four, some
with six oars, and ply for a fare. A Budgaroo, a
A
pleasure boat, was used by the upper classes.
Bajra was a kind of large boat, fairly clean, the
The Purgoos
centre of which formed a little room.
which were seen for the most part between Hugh,
Piplo, and Balesore were used for lading and un"

lading ships.

They

will live a long time in the

being brought to anchor by the sterne, as their

usual way is."
Booras were " very floaty, light
These
boats, rowing with twenty or thirty oars.
sea,

pepper, and

goods from Hugli

downwards, and some trade to Dacca with salt

carry

salt,

other

they also serve for tow-boats for the ships bound up

"
or down the river."
menLastly, there were the

of-war prows

"

which were used

in

the

Malaya

Archipelago.^

'

Geographical Account of Countries round the

Ibid.

235

Bay of Bengal,

p. 43.

INDIAN SHIPPING
who

visited India about the year 1674,

some

interesting details about Indian

He describes the Mussoola as " a

Dr. Fryer,

has also

left

ships and boats.

boat wherein ten

whom

men

paddle, the two aftermost of

are the steersmen, using their paddles instead

of rudder

the boat

is

not strengthened with knee-

the bended planks are sewed

together with rope-yarn of the cocoe and caulked
with dammar (a sort of rosin taken out of the sea)
timber, as ours are

^
so artificially that it yields to every ambitious surf."
He describes catamarans as formed of *' logs lashed

to that advantage that they waft all their goods, only

having a sail in their midst, and paddles to guide

Dr. Fryer was landed at Masulipatam by

one of the country boats, which he describes as

them."

as large as one of our ware-barges and

being
almost of that mould, sailing with one sail like
them, but paddling with paddles instead of spreads,
''

and carry a great burden with

little

trouble

out-

living either ship or English skiff over the bar."

On the west coast also there were important
^
Early Records of British India, by J. T. Wheeler, p. 54. Major H.
Bevan in his Thirty Years in India (i 808-1 838), p. 14, vol. i., speaks of
"
the Masula boat as
admirably contrived to resist the impetus of the surf
in the roadstead of Madras.
It is built of planks of wood sewed together
with sun, a species of twine, and caulked with coarse grass, not a particle of
iron being used in the entire construction.
Both ends are sharp, narrow,
and tapering to a point so as easily to penetrate the surf." Bevan also

"The build of the boats all along the coast of India varies
according to the localities for which they are destined, and each is peculiarly
adapted to the nature of the coast on which it is used."

remarks,

236

.\\.'\:

9
A PURGOO.

A BOORA.

MAN-OF-WAR PROW
[

To face

p. 236.

MAHOMEDAN PERIOD
shipping centres in Aurangzeb

s time.

According
had
at
four
Surat
to Dr. Fryer (1672) Aurangzeb
great ships always in pay to carry pilgrims to Mecca
These vessels were "huge, unshapen
free of cost.
things."
ships or

He

also noticed at Surat

some Indian

merchantmen carrying thirty or forty pieces

"
three or four men-of-war as big as
of cannon, and
"
as also frigates fit to row or sail,
third-rate ships,
made with prows instead of beaks, more useful in
The captain
rivers and creeks than in the main."
of a ship was called Nacquedah (Pers. nakhuda,
Some of
ship-master) and the boatswain TindaL
the larger Indian ships at Surat, of which the
names are also known, fell a prey to the pirates that
infested the whole of the western coast, and became
a terrible scourge to the Indian trade in the time of
the Emperor Aurangzeb, just as their brethren on
the west coast, the

Magg and

Feringhi pirates, were

harrying deltaic Bengal. Thus in August, 1691,

a ship belonging to Abdul Guffoor, who was the
wealthiest and

most

influential

merchant

in Surat,

was captured by

pirates at the mouth of the Surat

river with nine lacs in hard cash on board.
Soon

afterwards another ship, named Futteh Mahmood,

with a valuable cargo, also belonging to Abdul
Guffoor, was similarly seized by an Englishman
called Every, who was the most notorious pirate of

few days after the capture of the

Futteh Mahmood, Every took off Sanjan, north of
the

time.

237

INDIAN SHIPPING
Bombay, a ship belonging to the Emperor Aurangzeb
the
himself, called
Gunj Suwaie (** exceeding
treasure"). According to Khafi Khan, the historian,
the Gunj Suwaie was the largest ship belonging to
the port of Surat.
She carried eight guns and
four hundred matchlocks, and was deemed so strong
that she disdained the help of a convoy.
She was
z'

annually sent to Mecca, carrying Indian goods to

Mocha and Jedda. She was returning to Surat

with the result of the season's trading, amounting

to fifty-two lacs of rupees in silver and gold, with

Ibrahim Khan as her captain, and when she had

come within eight or nine days from Surat she was
attacked and seized by the English pirate sailing in
'*

a ship of

much

smaller

and nothing a third or

Another capture of Every

size,

fourth of the armament."

was the Rampura, a Cambay ship with a cargo valued

Shivaji also, as we shall presently
intercept these Mogul ships plying

at Rs. 1,70,000.
see,

used to

between Surat and Mecca by means of the fleet

which he fitted out at his ports built on the coasts.^

During the same period a great impetus to

Indian shipping and maritime enterprise was given
by the great Mahratta

leader, S'ivaji,^

Early Records of British India^ by

Malabar^ by Colonel J. Biddulph.

J.

who

liberally

T. Wheeler; The Pirates of

"
DufFs History of the Mahrattas^ p. 85
Having seen the
a
fleet
used
derived
from
S'ivaji
advantage
great exertions to fit
out a marine.
He rebuilt or strengthened Kolaba, repaired Severndroog
"^

Cf.

....

238

MAHOMEDAN PERIOD
patronized the shipbuilding industry. The growth
of the Mahratta power was accompanied by the

formation of a formidable
built,

fleet.

Several docks were

such as those in the harbours of Vijayadoorga,

Kolaba,
the like,

Sindhuvarga, Ratnagiri, Anjanvela, and

where men-of-war were constructed.^ In

1698, Conajee Angria succeeded to the command of

the Mahratta navy with the title of Darya-Saranga.
The career of Angria was one long series of naval
exploits

and achievements rare

in

the annals

of

**

disIndian maritime activity, but unfortunately

missed in a few words by our Indian historians." ^

Under him

the Mahratta naval

power reached its

high-water mark. Bombay had to wage a long halfcentury of amateur warfare to subdue the Angrian
It would be tedious to relate all the details
power.
of their long-continued conflict, but we may mention
some of the more important events. In the name
of the Satara chief, Angria was master of the whole
and Viziadroog, and prepared vessels at all these places. His principal
depot was the harbour of Kolaba, twenty miles south of Bombay." Also,
"

"

History of the Konkan in the Bombay Gazetteer^ vol. i.. Part ii., pp. 68
"
Shivaji caused a survey to be made of the coast, and having fixed

foil.

on Malvan

as the best protection for his vessels

and the

likeUest place for

a stronghold, he built forts there, rebuilt and strengthened Suvarndurg,

Ratnagiri, Jaygad, Anjanabel, Vijiaydurg, and Kolaba, and prepared
vessels at all these places."
^
Cf. Duff's History of the Mahrattas, pp. 172: "The Mahrattas
continued in possession of most of their forts on the coast; they had
maritime depots at Sevemdroog and Viziadroog, but the principal

rendezvous of their
'

fleet

continued, as in the time of Shivaji, at Kolaba."

Col. Biddulph in The Pirates of Malabar.

INDIAN SHIPPING
coast from

Bombay

to Vingorla, and, with a fleet of

armed vessels carrying thirty and forty guns apiece,

he soon became a menace to the European trade
of the west coast.

Bombay

frigate,

engagement.

In

1707 his ship attacked the

which was blown up after a brief

In

17 10

he

seized

and

fortified

Kanhery, and his ships fought the Godolphin for

In 17 12 he captured the Governor of
two days.

Bombay's armed yacht, and fought two East Indiamen bound for Bombay. In 17 16 he made prize of
four private ships from Mahim, an East Indiaman
named Success, and a Bengal ship named Otter.

Then

followed, successively,

expeditions

against

Gheriah, Kanhery, and Colaba, which all proved

abortive and ineffectual against the power of the
In 1729 Conajee Angria died,
Angrian fleet.
and was succeeded at Severndoorg by Sambhuji
Angria, who carried on his predatory policy for

In 1730 the Angrian squadron

nearly thirty years.
of four grabs and fifteen gallivats destroyed the
galleys

Bombay and Bengal

off Colaba.

In 1732,

grabs and three gallivats attacked the East

In 1735 a valuable East
Indiaman Ockham.

five

Indiaman named the Derby, with a great cargo of

In 1738
naval stores, fell into Sambhuji 's hands.
a Dutch squadron of seven ships-of-war and seven
In 1740 some
sloops was repulsed from Gherriah.
Angria's fleet gave battle to four ships
The same year Sambhuji
returning from China.

fifteen sail of

240

MAHOMEDAN PERIOD
attacked Colaba with his

army and

forty Or fifty

was opposed by the English.

In 1743
Sambhuji died, leaving his predatory policy to be
His greatest
continued by his successor, Toolaji.

galHvats, but

was achieved in 1749, when Toolaji's fleet

of five grabs and a swarm of gallivats surrounded
and cannonaded the Restoration, the most efficient
ship of the Bombay Marine.
"Toolajee had now
become very powerful. From Cutch to Cochin his
vessels swept the coast in greater numbers than
The superior sailing
Conajee had ever shown.
powers of the Mahratta vessels enabled them to
success

keep out of range of the big guns, while they

snatched prizes within sight of the men-of-war."
In

1754

Toolaji's

the

Dutch

hands,

suffered

losing

vessel

severe

loss

at

with

loaded

ammunition, and two large ships. The next year

the English and Peshwa formed an alliance against
him, and jointly attacked Severndoorg, which was
reduced after forty-eight hours' fighting.
followed

Then

the

well-planned
expedition led by
Admiral Watson ^and Clive against Gherriah,
resulting in the burning of the Angrian fleet,
"
three three-masted ships carrying
consisting of

twenty guns each, nine two-masted carrying from

twelve to sixteen guns, thirteen gallivats carrying
from six to ten guns, thirty others unclassed, two

on the stocks, one of them pierced

The

following

is

for forty guns."

a very interesting description

241

INDIAN SHIPPING
by an eye-witness of Angria's fleet
consisted of grabs and gallivats.
have rarely more than two masts.
.

"His fleet
The grabs
.

They

are

On
very broad in proportion to their length.
the main deck under the forecastle are mounted
.

two pieces of cannon of nine or twelve pounders,

which point forwards through the portholes cut in
the bulkhead and fire over the prow
the cannon
;

from six to nine pounders.

The gallivats are large row-boats rarely exceeding
The gallivats are covered with a
seventy tons.

of the broadside

are

spar deck, made for lightness of split bamboos, and

these only carry pettera roes, which are fixed on
swivels in the gunnel of the vessel
but those of
the largest size have a fixed deck on which they
:

mount

six or eight pieces of cannon,

four pounders.

They have

from two

to

forty or fifty stout oars,

and may be rowed four miles an hour. Eight or

ten grabs and forty or fifty gallivats, crowded with
men, generally composed Angria's principal
destined

The

attack

to

ships

of

force

or

fleet,

burthen."^

meant the extinction of

Mahratta naval power, which had been the terror of
the coast for a whole half-century.
fall

of

Gherriah

Bombay

Gazetteer, vol.

242

i.,

Part

ii.,

p. 89.

o
W c
^ I

<;

o a
Q 5
<^

<
H
H

LATER TIMES

CHAPTER

IV.

Later Times.

With

the rise of the British power following upon

the decline of the Mogul Empire after Aurangzeb,

Indian shipping naturally received a great impetus

at the hands of Englishmen.
It appears to be
quite forgotten that for nearly two centuries and a
half British India maintained a navy of respectable

and of admirable efficiency. This navy has

behind it an interesting and inspiring record of
many brilliant achievements and much solid and
size

useful

work,

Colonel
said

"
:

of the

the

in
especially
Hon. Leicester

marine

surveying.

Stanhope,

in

1827,

Never was there an instance of any ship

Bombay Marine (as it was then named)

having lowered her flag to an enemy of equal

force."
The history began in 1613, when a
squadron was formed at Surat to afford protection
from the aggressions of the Portuguese and of the
The naval
pirates who infested the Indian seas.
establishment was
in 161 5,

and

the second

put

on a permanent

footing
attained respectable dimensions by
half of the 17th century.
In 1669
it

the Court of Directors appointed Mr.

W.

Pett as

Bombay, whither the establishment was previously removed.

It was then
their

shipbuilder

at

243

R 2

INDIAN SHIPPING
designated as the

Bombay

Marine.

yard was maintained at Surat

of the

work was

till

transferred to

1735,

building-

when most

Bombay, where the

establishment had

been greatly enlarged.

This
was the beginning of the association of the eminent
Parsi shipbuilders with the Indian and Imperial

Lowjee Nassaranjee, the foreman

of Surat shipyard, followed the establishment from

Navy

services,

Surat to Bombay.

The

history of this dockyard

is that of the rise of a talented Parsi family.
The
size of the yard was increased in 1757.
In 1771

Lowjee introduced into it his two grandsons,

Framjee Manseckjee and Jamsetjee Bomenjee. In
1774 Lowjee. died, succeeded by these two worthy
It
followers, who soon built two ships of 900 tons.
was under the supervision of these talented Parsi
shipbuilders that, in this yard, besides those for
the Bombay Marine, there were built in the latter
part of the i8th and earlier part of the 19th century
for the Royal Navy nine ships of the line, seven
Thus, "in 1802,
frigates, and six smaller vessels.

the Admiralty ordered men-of-war for the King's

Navy to be constructed at this spot. They intended
to

have sent out a European builder, but the merits

of Jumsetjee being

made known

to their lordships,

they ordered him to continue as master-builder."

The excellent construction of two frigates and a line-

fame of this worthy Parsi

The under-mentioned Parsis held

of-battle ship spread the

over England.

244

LATER TIMES
successively the appointment of head builders in
the Bombay Government Dockyard from 1736 up
to 1837

From 1736
1774
1793
1805
1811
1821

to

Lowjee
Manseckjee and Bomenjee
Framjee and Jamsetjee
Jamsetjee and Ruttonjee
Jamsetjee and Nowrojee
Nowrojee and Cursetjee

1774

1783
1805
1811
1821
1837

The degree

of efficiency which this dockyard

reached under these Parsi shipbuilders will be
also evident from the statement of a visitor, who,

describing

Bombay

in

1775,

said:

"Here

is

dockyard, large and well-contrived, with all kinds

of naval stores deposited in proper warehouses
It
boasts
and
forges for making anchors.
:

perhaps, not to be seen in

any part of Europe, either for size or convenient

such a dry dock as

is,

situation."^

Walker^ thus wrote in 181 1 of

Bombay docks and Bombay-built ships

Lieut.-Col. A.

the

"The docks

that have recently been constructed at

are capable of containing vessels of any

Bombay
force.

Bombay

is

our

grand

naval arsenal

in

^
TAe History of the Indian Navy, in two volumes, by Lieutenant
C. R. Low, LN.; Bombay Times, i8th May, 1839; Papers relating to
Shipbuilding in India, by John Phipps (1840), late of the Master Attendant
"
India and the Navy," in the London
Office ; Sir Cyprian Bridge on

Spectator of April 9th, 1910.

"^

Considerations on the Affairs of India, written

(445

vi., p.

316).

in

the

year

181 1

INDIAN SHIPPING
Bombay was

India."
facilities

possessed of great natural

"
situated
for the construction of ships, for,

between the forests of Malabar and Gujarat,

she receives supplies of timber with every wind that

as she

is

Besides, the teak-wood vessels of

blows."

were greatly superior

Lieut.-Col. A.

England.
"

to

Bombay

the oaken walls of

Walker

Old

wrote, in 1811

every ship in the Navy of

renewed every twelve years. It is

It is calculated that

Great Britain
well

known

is

that

teak-wood built ships

last

fifty

Many ships Bombay-built

years and upwards.^
after running fourteen or fifteen years have been
brought into the Navy and were considered as
The Sir Edward Hughes perstrong as ever.
formed, I believe, eight voyages as an Indiaman
No
before she was purchased for the Navy.
Europe-built Indiaman is capable of going more
than six voyages with safety." But Bombay-built
ships were superior to those built elsewhere not
only in point of durability but also in that of
"

cheapness.

The

Ships built at Bombay," observes

late Sister Nivedita related to

me

the interesting and significant

but hardly known fact that such of our old wooden ships as still survive
(for the seasoned wood of which our ships are built has a definite length of
coast trade of Northlife) have passed at second and third hand into the
western Europe, and are

to be

met with

in

Norway, Scotland, Holland,

And so the good old sail
shipping which steam shipping has weeded out from everywhere else in the
world, still lingers on in India, and to her is given the chance of reviving it
and giving it back to a world which cannot outgrow its need.

and other

little

still

countries on the seaboard.

246

LATER TIMES
same

"

by one-fourth
cheaper than in the docks of England, so that the
English-built ships requiring to be renewed every
the

writer,

also are executed

twelve years, the expense is quadruple."

The East India Company also helped to build

up the Bengal Marine, thus continuing, in a sense,

the work of the Mogul Emperor in connection with
But a very calamitous event led
the Nowwara.
them to revive shipbuilding in Bengal it was the
:

famine produced

the Carnatic by Hyder Ali's

invasion in 1780, which necessitated the transport
of grain from Bengal to the English settlements
on the Coromandel coast. The first efforts in shipin

building were made in districts like Sylhet, ChittaMr. Lindsay, Collector of Sylhet
gong, and Dacca.

had one ship

in 1780,

400 tons burden, and

which he sent to Madras

built of

also a fleet of twenty ships,

loaded with rice on the occasion of the famine.^

But Calcutta soon became the centre of regular

The earliest specimens of regular

shipbuilding.
Calcutta-built ships were produced in the year 1781.

From

78 1

to

i860

inclusive,

thirty-five

ships,

tonnage of 17,020, were built on the

Hugli, chiefly at Calcutta; in 1801, nineteen ships
were built, of 10,079 tons; in 1813, twenty-one
with a

total

Including the above, from 1801

both inclusive, there were built on the

ships, 10,376 tons.

to

82 1

Assam

District Gazetteer, vol.

247

ii.

(Sylhet), p. 155.

INDIAN SHIPPING
Hugli 237 ships, of 105,693 tons, which, reckoned
at an average cost of 200 rupees per ton, makes
the enormous
sum of two crores of rupees
and upwards a considerable part of which sum
;

was absorbed
artificers

and

in

the

payment of wages

to native

labourers, to the great benefit of the

country.^

The

dry dock constructed at Calcutta was a

small one at the Bankshall in 1790 for the Govern-

ment

first

subsequent to which several

large docks were constructed at Howrah and Sulkea
in 1803 the Kidderpore dock was founded by Mr.
pilot vessels

W.

Waddell, the Company's first master-builder,

who was succeeded by J. and R. Kyd, and who for
nearly thirty years built and repaired all the

Company's Bengal vessels and constructed a great

many fine ships, twenty-four in number, and vessels
for individuals.^

About the materials of which the Bengal ships

were constructed, Antony Lambert thus wrote in
1802
They consist of teak timber and planks,
saul and sisoo timber from
imported from Pegu
Behar, Oudh, and the inexhaustible forests that skirt
:

the hills which form the

northern boundaries of

The ribs, knees, and breastBengal and Behar.

"
the frame of the ship," are composed
hooks or
^

Papers Relating to Shipbuilding in India, by John Phipps, Introduction.

Ibid.

248

LATER TIMES
generally of sisoo timber, the beams and inside
planks of saul, and the bottoms, sides, decks, keels,
The excellence of teak for
sternposts, etc., of teak.

the purpose of shipbuilding and its durability are

too well known to require any description, although
Pegu teak is not reckoned equal to what grows

on the Malabar coast and near Surat.

saul timber, the former

is

Of sisoo and

admirably adapted to

shipbuilding from its size, form, and firm texture,

and as it produces crooked timbers and knees of
every shape and dimension for vessels of full forms
and of any magnitude, even for a ship-of-war of the

and that of the latter furnishes excellent

beams, knees, and inside planks.
Lord Wellesley, the Governor-General of India,
was able, in 1800, to thus testify to the growth and

first rate

possibilities of Calcutta as a shipping centre

The port of Calcutta contains about 10,000 tons of shipping, built in

From
India, of a description calculated for the conveyance of cargoes.
the quantity of private tonnage now at command in the port of Calcutta,
from the state of perfection which the art of shipbuilding has already
still more rapid progress and supported by
abundant and increasing supply of timbers), it is certain that this port will
always be able to furnish tonnage to whatever extent may be required for

attained in Bengal (promising a

conveying to the Port of London the trade of the private British merchants
of Bengal.

From
from

"

Register of Ships built on the Hugli

Howrah,
Sulkea, Cosipore, Tittaghar, Kidderpore, and Fort
Gloucester)," it appears that the total number of
The greatest building years
ships built was 376.
1

781-1839

(including

249

Calcutta,

INDIAN SHIPPING
were 1801, 18 13, and 1876, when 10,079, 10,376, and
8,198 tons respectively were put in.
The Indian Navy, which was thus created and

East India Company,

took an active part in the first and second Burmese
wars and the first China war. A great deal of its
built

up by the

service

efforts of the

was performed outside

in the Persian Gulf, in the

East Africa.

shores of

the

facilitated

Red

Indian waters,

Sea, and on the

protected and
of Indian
operations

It

trading

local

also

merchants with distant ports.

The decline of the Indian Marine began after
1840, no large ships having been built after that
date.

It

was

shortly after the

finally

abolished

assumption of the

in

April,

1863,

Government of

India by the Crown.

very interesting account, together with very

fine sketches of the typical Indian (Hindu) ships
that were in use in the earlier part of the 19th century,
is given by a Frenchman, F. Baltazar
Solvyns

Les Hindous^ (tome troisieme).

introduction to this work he remarks

(181
his

1)

in his

In

In ancient times the Indians excelled in the art of constructing vessels,

in this respect still offer models to Europe

and the present Hindus can

^
This rare work is to be found in the splendid library of Mr. Abanindranath Tagore, the renowned Bengali artist, to whom I also owe the
The French reprint was
reproductions from the Sculptures of Borobudur.

issued 1808-12

1804, but neither

there
is

is

an

complete.

earlier reprint

The

published by Orme, London,

1799 has 250

original folio edition of

coloured plates.

250

LATER TIMES
so much so that the English, attentive to everything which relates to
naval architecture, have borrowed from the Hindus many improvements
which they have adopted with success to their own shipping
The

....

Indian vessels unite elegance and

fine

utility,

and are models of patience and

workmanship.

He

has described some of the typical Indian

vessels.
Pinnace or Yacht was a strongly

masted ship, divided into two or three apartments,

one for company, another for the beds, and a third
as a cabinet, besides a place called varandah
forwards for the servants.
entrance

of

the

frequented by
larly

by large

Hugli,

Ballasor, the principal

is
described as being

and particuships from Bombay, Surat, and other

different sorts of vessels,

The vessels from the

parts of the western coast.
Ganges were called Schooners, which were very well
fitted

out and " able to

"

their pilots

make a voyage to Europe,"

very skilful." The Grab was

being
a ship with three masts, a pointed prow, and a
its
crew consisting of a Nicodar or
bowsprit
;

The
captain and a few clashies or Moorish sailors.
grabs were built at Bombay, their pointed prow
The Bangles were
signifying Hindu Construction.
the largest Indian boats, some of them carrying
four

thousand or

five

thousand maunds of

rice.

Brigs were ships that came from the coast of

Coromandel and Malabar, bringing to Calcutta the
produce

of

those

countries.

To

the

coast

of

Coromandel also belonged the Dony, with one mast,

resembling a sloop.

Its

deck consisted of a few

251

INDIAN SHIPPING
It was badly rigged.
planks fastened on each side.
Pattooas, lastly, were those ships that differed from

other vessels by their being clincher-built

boards are one upon the other, fastened by
;

"

the

little

The yard is
pieces of iron in the form of cramps.
always without sail, and the sails are hoisted and
lowered by blocks."

252

PINNACE.
[

To face p.

2^'2,

GRAB.
[Ta /ace p. 252.

PATTOOA.
[

To face

p. 252.

DONY.
[To /ace p.

252."

>
)

'c O

>

BRICK.
[

To face p.

252.

CONCLUSION.
Thus

has passed away one of the great national

industries of India after a long and brilliant history,
covering, as we have seen, a period of more than

twenty centuries. It was undoubtedly one of the

triumphs of Indian civilization, the chief means by

which that

civilization asserted itself

other alien civilizations.

India

now

and influenced
is

without this

most important organ of national life. There can

hardly be conceived a more serious obstacle in the
path of her industrial development than this almost
complete extinction of her shipping and shipbuilding.

And

which can

The

yet India certainly

is

one of the countries

spare a national, indigenous shipping.

sea-borne trade of India is continually expandill

our dependence on
foreign shipping, and for this we have, on a rough
estimate, to pay a price of about 25 crores of rupees
ing, with the result of increasing

year.

We

have

trade

relations

with

every

quarter of the globe,

not only with the Asiatic

mainland but also with Europe and Africa on one

side

and Australasia and America on the

253

other.

INDIAN SHIPPING
The

total

value of this trade

is

about 344 2 crores

of rupees, that of imports being 161*8 crores and

exports 182*3 crores, and the entire trade

lies at

mercy of foreign shippers, who are at

impose on us whatever freights they wish

liberty to

Even

for the use of their ships.

our coastal or

inter-portal

in

trade,

the

to charge

the matter of

which

is

also

expanding, aggregating in value about 46 37 crores

of rupees, a policy of free trade is pursued, throwing

open to the shipping of all the world, instead of

reserving it, as almost all other countries do, for the
it

national shipping,

so that about 85 per cent,

is

appropriated by foreign shipping, leaving only one-

seventh to the

native.

Similarly our entire pas-

senger traffic is in the hands of foreign shippers

our Mahomedan pilgrims to Mecca and other
:

our emigrants and immigrants, numbering

on an average more than 25,000 per year; our
places

passengers that voyage within Indian limits, numbering over 15 lacs every year and, lastly, the outgoing
;

and relieving British soldiers of the Indian Army,

numbering more than 25,000 every year, their
annually about 55J lacs of
rupees all these have to voyage in foreign ships,
while even in the matter of the conveyance of mails
transport

there

is

costing

no Indian steamship company that can

254

CONCLUSION
take up the

work and appropriate the yearly

now goes

subsidy of 7*8 lacs of rupees that

The

foreign company.

postal
to a

extent of our dependence

be evident from the fact that in the oceanic

will

trade, of

which the

total

tonnage

is

1 1

,800,000 tons,

our indigenous shipping represents only 95,000 tons,

or only about 8 per cent.
while of the aggregate

tonnage of 29*61 million tons in the inter-portal

trade, only 3*24 million tons is our own, and over

89 per

cent, foreign.

present day

Our

national shipping at the

means only 130

vessels of under 80 tons

and 7,280 in the

trade of the country of under 20 tons

each, used in the oceanic trade,

inter-portal

each,

making up

in all the insignificant

number of

7,410 vessels, large and small, for a country, or rather

a continent, whose seaboard extends over a length
Our shipbuilding now
of 4,000 miles and upwards.
is

so

contracted as to give employment to only

who build

only about 125 galbats a year

in shipyards, of which the number is now reduced
to only 48, while the aggregate capital yearly
14,321 men,

invested

in

shipbuilding

may

be

estimated

at

between 5 and 6 lacs of rupees.

It goes without saying that in the present state
of things it is idle to expect that Indian industry

and commerce can advance by leaps and bounds,

255

V^

INDIAN SHIPPING
handicapped as they are by the want of a fully
It therefore behoves
developed Indian shipping.

Government and

all

material progress of
the

importance

restoring

and

on modern

who
India

are
to

necessity
lines

interested

in

the

be fully alive to
of reviving
lost

industry

and
that

rendered such a brilliant service in the past, and

with which are so vitally bound up the prospects of

Indian economic advancement.

256

INDEX I SUBJECTS.

Activity, maritime, evidences of,

wherefrom to be derived, 6

foreign evidences
Indian evidences

real historical narrative of,

of, 6, 7
of, 6, 7

how

to be built up, 8

Adaptations from Tamil words, 89

Admiralty Board of Akbar, 205, 206, 208, 210
Chandra Gupta, 104-112, 206

Age, Golden, of maritime

Alexandrian fleet, 100

activity,

40

Anchors, marble, 203

Antonine period, 117

Applied chemistry, achievements

in,

in ancient India,

180

discoveries in, 180, 181

Arabians, monopoly of commerce by, 94, 95
Art of shipbuilding in India, treatise on, 19

Articles of merchandise

Roman

Aryans, migrations

stamped with royal stamp, 136

123-125

trade,

of, 1 1
'

Augustan period, 117

B
Bakla, centre of naval strength in Bengal, 216, 217
Banias of Western India trading on Persian coast, 87

Bengal,

home

of shipbuilding, 205

Bengal Marine, 247

Bengali

art,

influence

of,

on Nepalese

art,

157

157

artists,

characters on Japanese sculptures, 155, 156

literature, oldest record of maritime activity in, 159, 160

reformers, 155

257

INDEX

I.SUBJECTS

Bhikshuni Order, establishment of, in China, i66

Birds in vessels used to show which way the wind lay, 73
Board of Admiralty, 104
Boat-hire,

custom

Boats, registry

61

of,

211

of,

192, 193

trailer,

Bodyguard of Tamil

kings, 128

Bombay-built ships, cheapness

of,

246

durability of, 246

Bombay Marine, 244

Bottomry, custom of lending money on, 61
Broach, distributing centre of India, 131
Buddhism, extension of, 3
the

first

of the world-religions,

2,

Byzantine emperors, 127

C
Cabins of ships, 26
Calcutta-built ship,

first,

247

Calcutta, shipping centre in, 198

Cane used

for

masts and oars, 204

Canoe, 32
Centre of naval strength, Bakla, 216

shipbuilding in Aurangzeb's time, 229

Cities which flourished on Indian trade in Solomon's period, 94
Civilization, spread of, in Java, 49
Classes of wood, 20
Classification of ships, 21, 22

wood, 20

Coins, Andhra, 51

Kurumbar,

,,

Roman,

5r

119, 120, 127

Colonies, Indian, in Java, Sumatra,

of Romans in India, 129

etc., 4,

171, 163

Colonization of Ceylon, 42, 43, 70, 157

Colony, Bengali, in Cochin China, 157

Colours recommended for painting vessels, 25
Commerce, relation of, to shipping, 8

Commercial

activity of India, 22, 23

centre at Gaur, 221
Connection of India with foreign countries, 59
Cotton, in Japan, introduction of, through Indians, 174

258

INDEX

I. SUBJECTS

D
Damascus swords, i8i
Deal

in birds

between Babylon and Benares,

77

horses, 77
Decline of Occidental trade, 126
Decorations of ships, 25

Dependence on foreign shipping, 253

Depository of metallic wealth, India, 84
Devices of Indian sculpture to indicate water, 48
Docks in Calcutta, 248
of Mahrattas, 239

Dockyard

in

Agashi, 202

at

of

Bombay, 243
Kedar Roy, 216

of Protapaditya, 218

at Narsapore,

232
,

Drain of gold into India, 83, 84, 122

Dra vidian words in Hebrew text, 92
Duties payable by shipowners to the king, 61, 198, 200, 208, 233

E
Economic system of ancient India, 179
Edict, marine, of Asoka, 114
Egyptians with Arabians hold monopoly of commerce for 900 years, 95
to Persia, 40

Embassy from and

to China, 177, 195, 197

European

alliance

first

entered into, 138

influence on India, 3

Evidences of Indian maritime

and

foreign,

how

activity, literary

and monumental, Indian

arranged, 6

Expansion of India, 1 1

closing years

of,

39

F
Ferry

fees,

106

Fish, iron, 48

Fishing license, 106

Fleet of Ahmed Shah, 200

Alexander, 100-102

Angria, 239
the Cheras destroyed, 175

,,

259

s 2

INDEX

I. SUBJECTS

Fleet of the Cholas, 175

,,

Dhanapati, 158

Gujarat, 201

Imperial, organization of, 40

of Mahmud, 201

Portuguese, 201
Raja of "Vishalgad, 200

Shaista Khan, 228, 229

Sivaji, 238, 239

Flower-scents, artificial imitation
Foreign influence on India, 3

travellers, provision for, in

Fringuan or Portuguese

sailors,

181

of,

Maurya Empire,

209

G
Gaur, commercial centre

at,

219, 220

Gold-digging ants of Tibet, 96, 97

Golden Age of maritime activity, 40

Graeco-Roman

influence

on India, 3

Greater India, 43

H
Harbour regulations under the Mauryas, 106-111
Hebrew text, Dravidian words in, 92
Hellenic influence on India, 3
Hides, dressing

of,

191

trade in, 191

Hindu compass, 47
Hindu element in Java and Sumatra, 201
Hindu-Javanese ship, 45-48
Hindu settlement, 133
I

India, art of shipbuilding in, treatise on, 19

a single country, i
colonies of, in Madagascar,

commercial

connection

etc.,

activity of, 4, 5

of, with foreign countries, 59

metallic wealth, 83
of
depository
influence
on, 3
European
11
of,
expansion
,,
closing years of, 39

foreign influences on, 3

260

INDEX

I. SUBJECTS

India, geographical unity of, i

Graeco- Roman influence on, 3

heart of the Old World, 4

intercourse the

Iranian influence on, 3

mistress of the Eastern seas, 5
normal trade route from Persian Gulf to, 89

making

of, 2

region by itself, i

trading establishments of, 4

Indian civilization, transplantation
commerce with Arabia, 90

of,

Babylon, 74, 86-92

,.

Egypt, 91
contingent in Xerxes' army, 95

exports and imports, 82, 179

Marine, abolition

39

of,

250

decline of, 250

missionary activity in China, 166, 167

Ocean, navigation of, 131

precious stones highly valued in Mosaic period, 91

rice,

peacocks, sandal-wood, exported to Greece, 88

ships, description of, in the 15th century, 46

ships superior to the Portuguese, 202

teak in Ur, 85, 87

tribute to Darius paid in gold, 96

India's intercourse with foreign countries,

40

,,

monopoly of

supply of gold through commerce, 83

spices, 83

Indigotin, extraction of, 181

Insurance, marine, 61
Intercourse as much a potent factor in the making of India as isolation, 3, 4
Invasion, naval, of Puri, 40

Iron not to be used in the build of sea-going vessels, 2 1

Iron fish, 48 (note)
Islands, conquests of,

Jaigeer,

by the Panda vas, 57

Nowwara, 210

'

Java, Indian colony in, 163

Era, foundation of, 149
,,

K
Kalinga people, traces

of, in

Singapore,

261

1 49-1 51

INDEX

I. SUBJECTS

Lead coins of the Andhras, 51

Lighthouses for ships, 137

M
Machcha-yantra or fish-machine, 48 (note)
Madagascar, Indian colony in, 4

Madapollum, iron manufactory at, 233

Magnet, 48 (note)
Mahratta fleet, under Angria, 239
Malabar, Key of Hind, 188
Man-of-war built at Surat, 244
Manuscripts, Catalogue of Sanskrit, 19 (note)

Marble anchors, 203

Marine edict of Asoka, 114
Marine insurance, 61
Maritime activity, evidences

of, whence derived, 9-12

foreign evidences of, 6

Golden Age

of, 40
Indian evidences of, 6

in the

days of Nero and Augustine, 11 9-1 2 2

main evidences of, 11

oldest evidence in the Rig- Veda, 53

proofs of, 8
the real historical narrative

oldest record of, in Bengali literature,

of,

how

to

be

cities to pay special taxes, 106

trade alluded to in astronomical works, 62

in wool and animals, 60

Marts of Bengal, 116, 117

Maurya royal monopoly

Meer Baree, 211
Behry, functions

in shipbuilding,

of,

102

206-208

office of,

205
Metals for decorative purposes, 25
Monastic system in China, foundation

Monopoly,

India's, in spices,
in shipbuilding,

166

83

Maurya

discovery of regularity

Monsoon,
Mosaic period, 91
Mummies wrapped

of,

royal,

of,

102

by Hippalus, 123

in Indian muslin, 91
Municipal commission, rules framed by, for foreigners, 112
Mystical Buddhism in China, foundation of, 172

262

built up, 8

157-160

INDEX

I. SUBJECTS
N-

Names

of classes of Indian ships and boats

Agramandira, 26

Bachhari, 230
Bajra, 228, 235
Balam, 228, 231
Bangles, 251
Bhar, 228

Boora, 235

Budgaroo, 235
Capel, 204
Catamaran, 234
Chaturi, 204

Dirgha (Vishesa), 23

Dony, 251
244

Frigate,

Gallivats,

240

Ghrabs, 214, 227

Jalbahj 227, 230, 231
Jangi, 231

Khalu, 231

Kosah, 227, 230

Madhyamandira,
Mahalgiri, 228

26, 37, 42

Man-of-war prow, 235

Massoola, 234

Mohrpunkee, 213
Muggurchera, 213
Oloako, 235
Palwara, 228
Parinda, 228, 230

Paros, 204

228
Patila, 228
Patil,

Pattooas, 252

Pinnace, 251

Purgoo, 235
Rhatgiri, 228
Salb, 228, 230

Samanya, 22
Sambuchi, 203
Sarbamandira, 26

263

INDEX I. SUBJECTS
Names

of classes of Indian ships and boats {continued)

Schooner, 251

Unnata (Vishesa), 23
Vishesa, 22

Names

of Indian ships and boats

Chandrapana, 160
Chandapata, 160
Chotamukhi, 160
Derby, 240
Durgavara, 160
Futteh Mahmood, 237

Gangaprasad, 159
Godolphin, 240
Gooarakhi, 160
Gunj-Suwaie, 238
Hansarava, 159
Madhukara, 160

Nandi, 165
Ockham, 240
Otter, 240
Rajavallava, 159

Rampura, 238
Restoration, 241

Sagarafena, 159
Sankshachura, 160
Si6hamukhi, 160
Sir

Edward Hughes, 46

Success, 240

Names

of the officers of ships

Bhandaree, 207
Darya-Saranga, 239
Datra-rasmi-grahaka, 109

Goomtee, 207
Gunners, 207
Keranee, 207

Kherwah, 207
Maullim (the mate), 207
Meer Behry, 206

Nacquedhah

(shipmaster), 207, 237

Nakhoda-khesheb, 207
Niyamaka, 109
Punjeree, 207
Shasaka (captain of a ship), 109

264

INDEX
Names

I. SUBJECTS

of the officers of ships (continued)

Sirheng, 207

Sukangeer (helmsman), 207

(boatswain), 237
Tundeil (chief of sailors), 207
Utsechaka, 109
Names of Indian voyagers to China, 165-167
Narsapore, dockyard, etc., at, 232
Nautical instruments of the Hindus, 201
Naval activity of the Cholas, 175
in Eastern Bengal, 216-218

Tmdal

Hindu, imitated by English, 251

haXXXem Rig- Veda, Jidmdyana,zndi Raghuvansa, ^^-~6o
of Ahmed Shah of Gujarat, 200

architecture,

Balban, 190

Babar, 205
Firoz Shah Tuglak, 196
Shaista Khan, 228

Sultan

Timur, 196

Mahmud,

187

Department, organization of, 105

engagements in Akbar's reign, 214-219
estabhshment at Dacca, 210

expedition against

Assam, 226
headquarters at Dacca, 210
invasion of Puri, 40
power of the Angrias, 239

Kuch

Behar, 225

to

Navigation, art

Number

of, forming part of education of Kalinga princes, 144

Indian Ocean, proof of, 8
of passengers in old Indian ships, 28, 29, 42, 69, 70, 71

in

O
Ocean-going vessels, 23, 40,
Officers in ships, 207
Ordinary ships, 22
Outrigger ship, 48

73,

88

P
Palace of Chola king, 137

Nebuchadnezzar, 87
Parsis as master shipbuilders at Surat, 244

Peacocks exported by Hindu merchants to Baveru,

265

74,

93

INDEX

I. SUBJECTS

Pearl, artificial manufacture of, 68

fishery, 64, 68, 123, 190, 194

chief centres of, 68

Persian influence on India, 3

Piracy, 169, 185, 186, 187
action taken against, by Shaista

in Asoka's time,

Khan, 228

113

Porcelain, Indian, 197

Ports of Bengal, 218

old Indian, 131, 132, 134

South

Indian, 135, 136

Port-taxes, 106

Prehistoric trade relations of India,

85-95

Prows of vessels, 25
Puri, naval invasion of,

40

Q
Queen

of the Eastern seas, India, 81

Rajput

sailors,

R
194
Registry of boats, 211
Regulations, harbour, 106 in
Revival of Occidental trade, 127

Rising Sun, the

River-tolls,

Land

of the, 156

208

Rocking-seats as prevention against sea-sickness, 36

Roman
Roman
Rome,

coins, 119, 120, 127

soldiers as guards, 128
political connection with, 137
references to, in Sanskrit and Pali literature, 130
intercourse with, how explained, 139

Sanchi, earliest evidence in sculpture of shipbuilding

Sanskrit Manuscripts, Catalogue of, 19

origin of words in Malaya language, 146

Scents, flower, artificial imitation of, 181
Sea-gulls, 47

Sea-route between Indian and Persian coasts, 72

Sea-voyage, oldest representation

Selling of captured

men by

of, 36
Portuguese pirates, 211

266

in,'

32

INDEX I.SUBJECTS
Settlement, Hindu, 133
Shipbuilders, salaried servants of
Shipbuilding, capital invested
centres of, 206

in,

"

Maurya Government, 102

255

in Bengal,

materials for, at Bassein, 202

246

,,

Sylhet, 212

monopoly of, by the Maurya

treatise on the art of, 19

kings, 102

Ship-coins, description of, 49-51

Ship-commerce,
Ship-tax, 200

forming part of the education of Kalinga princes, 144

art of,

Ship-money imposed by Shaista Khan, 233

Shipping centre at Agashi, 202
at Bakla, 216, 217

Kashmir, and Tatta, 246

198
Masulipatam, 237
Narsapore, 232
Saugar Island, 218
Sindh, 213
Sripur, 216

,,

Mahratta, 239

in Bengal,
at Calicut,

Indian, proofs of, 8

in the Andhra-Kushan period, 132

,,

Maurya period, 100

construction
of, 192
Ships,

201

guidance

Indian, classification of, 21, 22

sailing as far as Zanguebar, 191

of,

used

names

in

203
ordinary, 23

protection

repair of, 193

size of, 192,

naval warfare, 26
i

of,

of,

198

193

in Pali works, 28
in Sanskrit works, 19, 20, 21

special, 23
varieties of, described

Ship-yards of Maggs, 211

by Bowrey, 231

from China, 56
weighed with gold, 83

Silk, supply of,

267

>

INDEX I. SUBJECTS
Streamers, use of, 48
Superintendent of ships under the Mauryas, 105-112

T
Tamil kings, bodyguards

of,

128

words, adaptations from, 89

Tantrism, Buddhistic, 173

Taxes, port, 106
for building of boats, 211

Teak

for shipbuilding, excellence of,

Indian, in Ur, 85, 87

Temple dedicated

to Augustus,

249

129

Tolls, 208

Tonnage of ancient Indian vessels, 103

Trade in jewels with West-Asiatic and European

Occidental, decline

of,

countries, 82

126

revival of, 127

route from Persian Gulf to India, 89

Trading centres of Bengal, 161, 218-222

Treatise on the art of shipbuilding in India, 19

Tribute to Darius, in gold, by India, 96

Tungkia (silver money), 194
Turkish vessels built at Sandwipa, 212

U
Ur, Indian teak in, 85, 87
Use of Gupta and White-Huna coins in Madagascar,

etc.,

V
Vessels built at Dacca, 212, 213
used in naval warfare, kind

of,

26

Voyage, trading, undertaken by Hindu merchants, 8

Voyages made by Indian merchants to Babylon, 88, 89

W
Woods,

classification of,

Woodwrights, village

of,

20
74

Y
Yavana colony, 128

original significance of, 121

soldiers as bodyguards to Tamil kings, 128

268

189

INDEX

II. PROPER

NAMES.

America, 83, 98
Amitodana, 165

Abanindranath Tagore, 250

Abd-er-Razzak, 13, 198

Abu Bakr, 195

Abul-Fazl, 14, 205, 213

Ammianus

Marcellinus, 139

Anahilavada Patau, 169

Andaman, 176
Andhra,

10, 50, 116, 119,

Abul-Feda, 189
Achaemenides, 3
Aden, 191

Andhrabhritya, 35, 38
Anga, 144

Adzeitta, 71

Anguttara Nikaya, 73
Anjanabel, 239
Antonio, 158

Afghanistan, 84
Africa, 4, 5, 89, 97, 133, 201

Agashi, 202

179

Angria, 239-242

Agastya, 68

Antony, Mark, 139

Anurddhva, 24

Agatharcides, 11, 131, 194

Arabia, 4, 68, 78, 82, 89, 90, 120,

Agni, 55
Agra, 213, 214

i33> 163, 191

Arachosia, 112

Agramandira, 26, 41
Ahmad Shah, 200
Ahmedabad, 200

Archipelago, 5
Aria, 112

Ajanna-Jataka, 78
Ajanta, 37, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43

Arjuna, 57
Aromata, 134

Aji Saka, 151

Arrakan, 150, 211, 224

Akbar, 14, 205, 208, 209, 214, 224

Akbar-nama, 225

Arrian, 100, loi, 102, t86

Alaric, 127

Al-Binini, 13, 56, 187

Aryappadai-Kadantha-Nedunj-Chilliyam, 128

Albuquerque, 201

Asia, 4,

Al-Biladuri, 13, 185

Asoka, 10, 113, 114, 116, 120, 161,

162, 178

Ariake, 134

Artha6astra, 10, 104, 206

5,

131, 151

Alexander, 3, 9, 82, 95,100, 153,186

Alexandria, 95, 120, 186, 212
Al-Idrisi, 13, 188

Assaconi, loi

Allahabad, 206

Asvins, 27, 54

Amaravati, 149

Athens, 88, 138

Assam, 221, 225, 227

69

INDEX

II. PROPER

NAMES

Aufrecht, Prof., 19

Bassein, 69, 132, 202

Augustus, 118, 119, 122, 126, 129,

Baudhayana, 59
Baveru, 74, 78, 90

137, 138

Aurangzeb,
Ausil

14, 15, 224, 226,

Toomar Jumma,

14,

231

209

Baveru-Jataka, 74, 87, 88

Bawarij, j:88
of Bengal, 15, 30, 71, 72, 142,

Bay

Australasia, 253
Australia, 5, 98

i43> i45> 146, 150, 176, 177, 231

Avanti, 137

Begini, 24

Awaji, 174

Behar, 175, 215

Benares, 77, 78, 211

Ayeen-i-Akbari, 14, 205, 208

Bengal, 11, 14, 65, 142, 143, 150,

155. 159. 175. 189, 195, 206,215

Baalbek, 94, 180

Berenica, 120, 134

Babar, 205
Babylon, 74, 77, 82, 85, 86, 87, 88,
89, 94

Bevan, Major H., 236

Bhagalpur, 30, 157
Bhandaree, 207
Bhandarkar, Dr., 117, 133, 150
Bhars, 228

Babylonia, 86, 87

Backergunj, 216
Bachhari, 230

Bharu, 75
Bharukachchha, 29,
89
Bhaya, 22

Bactria, 139

74, 75, 77, 88,

Bagdad, 186, 223

Bahmani, 200
Bahrein Gulf, 168
Baira, 188

Bhikshuni-Nidana, 165

Bajra, 228, 235

Bhima, 22

Bakare, 122, 124, 134

Bhim Narain, 227

Bakla, 216, 217

Bhoja, 19, 20, 21, 68

Balams, 228, 231

Bhojajanuya-Jataka, 78

Balasore, 210, 211, 233

Bhojapara, 171

Bhik, 221

Balban, 190

Bhubaneshwara, 37

Baldeo, 225

Bhujyu, 27, 54

Bali, 145, 171

Ball, Prof, v., 91, 97,

98

Bible, 9, 91, 92, 95, 119

Birs Nimrud, 87

Bamian, 153
Bandru, 201

Bitpal, 157

Banga, 144
Banghella, 221

Blochmann, 15, 221

Bodhidharma, 166, 173

Bangiya Sahitya Parishat, 222

Bodhisattva, 39, 78

Bangles, 251

Bodhisattvavadana

Bankshall, 248

113
Bodhisena, 173

Ba66i Dasa, 159

Barendra, 157
Barygaza, 132, 133, 134, 138

Black Sea, 120

Kalpalata,

Bodleian, 15

Bombay,
270

35, 200, 238, 245,

246

lo,

INDEX

II.PROPER

NAMES
218

Booras, 235

Chakafiri,

Borneo,

Chaldaea, 85
Chalukya, 147

4, 171

Borobudur,

12, 45, 49, 151,

157

Chamban

Bowrey, T., i^, 231

Brahmaputra, 225, 230
Brajakishora Ghosha, 145

Champa,

Bridge, Sir Cyprian, 245

Broach, 188
29, 33, 71, 72, 143

Buddhagat, 145
Budgaroo, 235
Biihler, Dr., 8, 53, 58, 74,

223

Chanakya, 105
Chandeun, 219
Chandi, 158
Chandikan, 216, 218
Chandradwipa, 216
Chandra Gupta, 104, 112, 114, 116,
152, 178, 182, 206
Chandrapana, 160

Brajendranath Seal, Dr., 181

Buddha,

Ali,

30, 76, 157

87

Burgess, 69

ChandrasvamI, 67

Bussora, 186

Chand Saodagara,
Chao Jukua, 170

Byzantium, 56

Chapa, 169

Burma,

11, 30, 76, 97, 137,

142

158, 159, 223

Chapala, 22

Chatgaon, 210, 230

Caesars, 117

Chaturi, 214

Cairo, 199

Chaul, 132, 201

Calcutta, 211, 247

Chavada, 169

Caldwell, Dr., 93, 98, 134

Chavakam, 143
Chembur, 132
Cheng-Ho, 197
Cheng- Kuan, 170

Calicut, 14, 195, 197, 198 2^-3

Cambaet, 191

Cambay, 191, 195, 200

Cambodia, 4, 39, 149, 169, 182

Chera, 135, 175

Cherala, 135

Canton, 166

Chersonese, 30, 168

Chia-Tau, 166

Capel, 204
Caracalla, 126, 127
Carnafuli, 231

Camatic, 247
Carvalius, 216

Chilappathikaram, 128, 136

Chilka Lake, 145

Chilmari, 229

Caspian Sea, 120

Cassius, 138
Catamaran, 235

China,

Cathay, 12, 163

Cesare di Fedrici, 212

Chittagong, 247

4, 12, 13, 39, 50, 56,

6^, 83,.
89, 140, 141, 155, 162, 170, 173,

177, 195

Chola, 13, 137, 143, 175, 177

Ceylon, 29, 30, 34, 42, 44, 67, 70,

io3> 113. ^33, 140, 142, 145. 162,

185, 195

Chach, 153
Chach-nama,

13,

14

Chotamukhi, 160
Christ, 144
Chu-fan-chih, 170
Chula Punna, 71
Chyrse Chersonesus, 78

271

INDEX

II. PROPER

NAMES

De

Claudius, 120

Coutto, 14
Dehli, 189, 190, 222, 226

Cochin, 241

Cochin China, 150, 157

Coilum, 191
Coimbatore, 119, 124, 125
Coje Zofar, 201

Deir-el-Bahari, 90

Delmar, 84

De

Souza, 221

Deval, 168, 185

Dhanavriddhi, 65

Colandiophonta, 133

Comorin, Cape, 203

Constantinople, 212

Dhanapati, 158, 159, 221

Constantine, 139

Dhar, 19

Conti, Nicolo, 46, 199

Dharini, 24

Corbulo, 139
Corea, 155

Dharmakrama, 166

Dhapa, 230

Dharmapaladeva, 220

Coromandel,

11,

50, 51,

13T,

133.

Cosir, 199

Cosmas, 12, 168

Cosmas

Dharur, 132

Dhlman, 157
Digha Nikaya,

142, 231

Indicopleustes, 140

Cossipore, 249

73,

88

Dilawwar, 230
Dineschander Sen, 156
Diodorus, 102

Dipavansa, 72
Dirgha, 22, 23

Crawford, 149
Ctesias, 9, 98, 99

Dirghika, 23
Diu, 169, 201

Ctesiphon, 94

Cunningham, 33

Cutch, 168, 169

Dony, 251
Dows, 133
Drakes, 40

Cyrene, 113

Dravidian, 60, 89, 92, 98

Cursetjee, 245
Curtius, 100, loi

DudhaU, 218

Duff, 239

Dabhol, 202

Dulva, 145

Dacca, 14, 209, 211, 213, 224, 225,

228

Durgavara, i6o
Dvaraka, 66
Dwarka, 169

Dakhan, 94
Damascus, 120, 181, 190
Damodar, 210

Dandi, 66

Edora, 94

Danuj Roy, 190

Egypt, 50. 78,183, 85, 90, 91,. 94,

95 "3> 134

Darius, 3, 84, 96, 97, 180

Dafiakumaracharita, 66

Ekdala, 196

Daud, 215

Elam, 137

Davids, Rhys, 78, 88, 89

De Barros,'i5, 221

Elliot, 13, 14, i5 5i

Deccan, 40,

70, 119, 211

Eloth, 92, 94

Elphinstone, 142, 148

272

146

INDEX IL PROPER NAMES

Emodus, loi

Gatvara, 23

England, 158
Epiphania, 94

Gautama, 60

Erukkaddur

Gaur, 219, 220, 222

Thayan

Kannanar

Akam, 135

Gedrosia, 89

Germanae, 138
Ghatakakarika, 15

Erythraean Sea, 11, 131, 179

Ethiopia, 141

Ghiyas-ud-din

Eudaimon, Arabia, 134

Azam

Shah, 197

Ghiyas-ud-din Balban, 189

Ghrab, 214, 227

Euphrates, 120, 168

Europe, 56, 82, 83, 95, 125, 202, 246

Eusebius Pampheli, 139

Gloucester, Fort, 249

Ezion-Geber, 92, 94

Gobi, 97
Godavari, 149, 232
Gogra, 189, 205
Gokarna, 64

Fadai Khan, 226

Fa-Hien,

Golconda, 232

11, 46, 48, 161, 165,

Fathiyyah-i-ibriyyah, 15,

172

228

Fergusson, 149

Gotamiputra, 35
Grabs, 251

Fitch, Ralph, 15, 218

Grant, 209

Florus, 138

Great Bear, 103

Greece, 50, 88

Foulkes, Rev. T,, 72, 94

Framjee, 245

Man seekjee,

Griffins,

244

99

Griffiths, 38,

Fringuan, 209

Gujadhar, 225

Fryer, Dr., 15, 236

Galbats, 255

Gujarat, 40, 45, 49, 134, 150, 169,

194, 201

Galivats, 240
Gambhira, 222
Gamini, 23
Gandhara, 117, 152
Gangaprasada, 159

161, 144, 134, 137, 205

Garbhara, 22

Gunabhadra, 166
Gunavarman, 165
Gupta, II, 39, 163
Gurjjaras, 152, 169

H
Hadrian, 117

Haimadesha, 68

Gangaikonda-chola, 175
2, 28, 65, 70, 75,

41

Guardafui, 134

Frobishers, 40

Ganges,

Gonzales, Sebastian, 225

Gooarakhi, 160

Goomtee, 207

Feringhi, 15, 211, 226

Firoz Shah Tughlak, 196

Framjee,

Goa, 202

133, 177,

Hajipur, 215
Hajjaj, 185

Garbhini, 24

Hakluyt, 199
Hamza, 168

Garuda Purana, 68

Hasarava, 159
273

INDEX

II. PROPER

Haridasa

Palit, 223
Harsha, 12, 65
Harshavardhana, 11, 40, 163, 170
Hastinapur, 66

NAMES

Ham,

175, 176

India,

i, 2, 3,

4, 5, 6, 7, 9,

10, 34,

39, 40, 55, 58, 68, 72, 82, 83, 85,

86, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 94, 95, 96,

Hatasu, 90

97, 99,

Havell, 45, 47, 157

128, 129, 130, 134, 137, 139, 141,

Heeren, 90, 97

144, 145, 155, 161, i68, 170, 173,

Heliopolis, 94

Herodotus,

di

113-119, 120,

178, 180, 205, 231

9, 95, 96, 97,

99

n, 36
Indian Archipelago 3, 182
Indian Ocean, 8, 53, 68, 133, 142,
India, South,

Hewitt, 85, 86

Hieronimo

102, 112,

Santo Stefano, 14, 199

Himalaya, 2
Hind, 188
Hindusthan, 190

143
Indies, 158

Indo-Aryans,

Hippalus, 123
Hira, 168

Indo-Chinese, 164

Hiram,

Indraprastha, 130

Indo-Scythians, 139

92, 93

Hitopade6a, 67

Hiuen Tsang,

Indus,
11, 12, 38, 162, 168,

169

Irak,

Hiwanti, 164

2, 3,

49, 86, 93, 97, 100, loi,

131, 134, 139, 153, 185, 196, 213

188

Horiuzi, 156

Irawaddy, 143
Islam Khan, 224, 225
Ispahan, 168

Hormuz,

Issamutty, 227

Holland, 246
120, 134, 150

Hoti, 164

Italy,

Hotton, Christopher, 232

Howrah, 248

I-Tsing, 12, 162, 170, 171

56

Huang-hua-hsi-ta-chi, 167

Hughes, Sir Edward, 246

Hugh, 210, 229, 248
Humboldt, 56
Hunas, 152, 168

Jagajjibana, 223

Hunter, 144, 145

Hussain Shah, 220

Jahangir, 224, 230

Hydaspes, 100, loi

Hyder Ali, 247
Hyrcanian, 139

Jagannath, 36
Jagnagar, 189
Jahaja-ghata, 218
Jaipur, 215

Jalbah, 227, 230, 231

Jambudvipa, 29
Jamsetjee, 244
Jamsetjee Bomanjee, 244
Janaka-Jataka, 29

laones, 121

Janghala, 24

Ibn Batuta, 194

Ibn Hussain, 230
Ibrahim Khan, 238

Jangi, 231

Japan,

174

274

3, 4, 39,

155, 156, 170, i73,

INDEX

II. PROPER

Kashmir, 67, 84

Jataka, 34, 69, 73, 74, 87

Java,

4,

56,

6,

12, 39, 41, 45, 46, 49,

148,

149,

150,

NAMES

152,

151,

189

Kathasarit Sagara, 67

Kathiawar, 152
Kau, 166

Jaygad, 132

Kausambi, 66

Jedda, 238

Kautilya, 10, 104

Jessore, 217, 218, 229

Kaveri, 129, 136, 144

Jhelum, 196
Jnanabhadra, 170

Kavikankana, 159, 222

Kaviripaddinam, 129, 135, 137, 143
Kedar Roy, 216, 217
Keith, Major J. B., 179
Kennedy, 86, 87, 88

Jogue, 138
Julian, 139

Jumna, 189

Keranee, 207
Ketakadasa, 159
Kewmo-lo, 167
Khaberis, 136
Khafi Khan, 238

Junks, 133

Junnar, 132
Justinian, 139

Jyo, 174

Khalu, 231

Khan Alam, 215

Khan-i-Khanan, 214

Kabul, 118

Kadaram, 176, 177

Kaddaram, 143

Kharid, 205

Kadphises, 118, 138

Kaivarta, 27, 57

Kakasu Okakura, 163

Kalakam, 137, 143
Kalidasa, 64, 65

Kalinga,

n,

71, 144, 145, 171, 177

Kalinga Huparani, 177

Kalingapatan, 144
Kalliena, 132
Kalyan, 132, 140, 147
Kamara, 135
Kanakasabhai, v., 177
Kanaraka, 36

Khegan, 138
Khegas, 138
Kherwah, 207
Khurasan, 188
Khusru II., King of Persia, 40
Kiao-tchoa, 164
Kidderpur, 248
Kii, 174

Kilmak, 217
Kirtinarayana, 217

Kishora Das, 229

Kishtiha-i-bandakshan, 196
Klings, 145, 146

Kolaba, 239
Koppenes, loi

Kanauj, 40, 205

Kandalur, 175
Kandarpaketu, 67

Kosala, 71

Kane, 134
Kanhery Caves,

Kosah, 227, 231

Kotumba, 134
Kounagara, 134

Kanishka, 117

Kankan, 169
Kansa, 37
Karibari, 229

35, 132

Krishna, 37, 66, 144, 149

Krishnaswami Aiyangar, 177

Kshatrapa, 164
275

INDEX

11. PROPER

Kshemananda, 159
Kshemendra, 10, 113, 114

NAMES

Luchmi Narayan, 225

Luckia, 227

Kshudra, 22

Kuch Behar, 221,

Kuch Hajo, 225

225, 227

Macedonia, 113
Machin, 188
Madagascar, 150, 189
Madapollum, 233
Madhukara, 160

Kudduvan, 135
Kuen-lum, 174
Kufa, 168
Kulotunga, 177

Kumedera, 173
Kundaka- Kucchi - Sindhava- Jataka,

Madhyama,

22

Madhyamandira,

42

26, 37,

Kurumbar, 51

Madras, 142, 149, 236, 247

Madura, 49, 119, 126, 127

Kusai, 223

Magadha,

Kushan, 3, 10, 116, 139, 140, 179

Kwai-Yuen, 12, 165
Kyd, J., 248
Kyd, R., 248
Kyushu, 174

Maggs, 210, 211, 212, 224, 226

Magha, 66

77

71, 137, 152

Mahabharata, 57, 58, 130

Mahajanaka-Jataka, 30, 75, 77
Mahalgiris, 228

Mahananda, 223
Mahapuri, 130
Maharastra, 39, 134

Laccadives, 176
Lacouperie,

Prof.,*

163

Ladakh, 97
Lahore, 206

Mahavairochanabhisambodhi Sutra,
173
Mahavallipore, 37

Lahori Bandar, 213

Lakhnauti, 189, 196
Lambert, Antony, 248

Mahawa6so,

Lang-ga, 164

Mahratta, 238, 239

Lanka, 130, 164

Lassen,

90,"'9i,

97

29, 69, 70, 71, 156

Mahi-sasaka-Vinaya, 165

Mahmud,

102, 153, 187, 201, 221

Mahuan,

13, 196
Maisley, General F.

C,

33

Latas, 152

Maisolia, 134

Lenormant, 90
Levant, 120

Malabar, 86, 93, 117, 123, 131, 133,

134, 188

Limurike, 133
Lindsay, Mr., 247
Lohita Sagara, 56

Malacca,

Lo-hu-na, 172

Malaya Archipelago,

11, 133, 134,

146

Malava, 152
Malaya, 149, 172

Lola, 23

56, 143,

171, 189, 235

London, 249
Low, Lieut., 245
Lowjee Nassaranjee, 244

Malayan Peninsular, 4
Maldah, 222

Lo-yang, 167

Manasa, 158

Maldives, 176, 200, 232

276

163,

INDEX

II. PROPER

NAMES

Mesopotamia, 94
Mexico, 158

Manasamangala, 159, 223

Mandagora, 132

Middleton, Sir H., 202

Manda, 147

Manda Roy,

Mikwa, 174

217

Mangarouth, 140
Mangulura, 124

Milinda Panha, 164

Manillas, 150

Ming, 197

Manipallavam, 143
Manjanik, 186

Ming-shih, 197

Minayef, 74

Mir Jumla, 226, 227, 228

Mirza Jani Beg, 214
Mlechchhas, 57, 128, 129
Moca, 232
Mocha, 232, 238

Manjistha, 181

Manju

Sri, 172,

173

Mannai, 177

Man

Singh, 215, 217

Mogallanna, 167
Moghul, 224, 225, 230
Mohr Punkee, 213

Mansura, 189
Manthara, 22, 24

Manu, 60, 61
Manuel de Faria y Souza, 221

Mokha, 134
Molesworth, 48
Mommsen, 124

Manusanhita, 57
Marcellinus,

Ammianus, 139

Marco Polo, 13, 133, 190

Markandeya Purana, 64

Mongols, 3
Monoglosson, 134
Moor, Capt., 230
Morapura, 70

Marsden, 146
Martaban, 146, 176
Maruvar-Pakkam, 136

Morris, 232

Massoola, 234

Mouza, 134

Master, Strenysham, 23

Muchiris, 11, 135

Matama, 176

Muggerchera, 213

Matsya, 34
MauUim, 207

Muhammad
Muhammad

Mauryas,
112

9,

10,

100,

102,

McCrindle, 9, 140
Mecca, 198, 202, 237
Mediterranean Sea, 95

Meds, 185

Meer Behry, 205

Meer Bundar, 214
Megasthenes, 92, 102, 104
Meghna, 218, 225
Meheran, 189
Melizeigara, 132

Mendang Kumulan,
Merivale, 126

151

105,

Hussain, Hakim, 229

ibn Kasim, 186

Muktipura, 67
Multan, 187, 196

Munawwar Khan, 228

Mundelgaut, 210

Munim Beg, 227

Munim Khan, 215
Murshidabad, 211, 213
Muscat, 195
Musulipatam, 150, 232
Muyirikolu, 123
Muziris, 122,

123,

124,

128,

132, 134

Myos Hormos, 120

Mysore, 175
277

129,

INDEX

N
Nabonidus, 87

II. PROPER

NAMES

Orissa, 36, 145, 175, 215

Ormuz, 195

Nacquedah, 237

Orosius, 138

Nagas, 34, 114

Nagapuram, 143

Ossis,

Nakhoda, 207
Nakhoda-khesheb, 207
Nakkavaram, 176

94

Ouang-h-wuentse, 153
Oudh, 145, 189
Oxus, 120

Nakkirar, 121

Nakula, 57

Paddinappalai, 136

Nalopatana, 140

Padishanama, 225

Nandi, 165
Nanking, 166

Padiyur, 124, 125

Nan-Maran, 121

Padma

Narayanadeva, 158
Narsapur, 232
Nearchus, 100

Paitamaha, 130

Padmapani, 35
Purana, 158

Paithan, 132
Pala, 220

Nebuchadnezzar, 87
Nelkynda, 124, 132

Pala Kings, 220

Nepal, 153, 157

Nero, 122 123, 126

Palekat, 30, 71

Nicobar, 172, 176

Nicolo Conti, 46, 133, 199
Nihon-ko-ki, 174
Nikhilnath Roy, 217

Pali, 9

Nileswar, 124

Paly an, 170

Nilgiri,

129

Nilkantha, 124
Nitifiataka, 67

Nivedita, 246

Nizarauddin Ahmed, 187

Norway, 246

Palar, 52

Palestine, 94

Pallava, 10, 51, 114

Palmyra, 120, 180

Palwarahs, 227
Panchasiddhantika, 130

Pandava, 27, 57, 59

Pandion, 138
Pandua, 223

Nowrojee, 245

Pandya, 70, 128, 137

Pandyan, 29, 70, 121
Pandyavataka, 68

Nowwara, 14, 209, 212, 227

Nur Jehan, 226

Pang-kola, 197
Panje-ab, loi

Pan-yu, 167
Paralaukika, 68

Oaranar-Puram, 135
Oderio, Friar, 194
Okelis, 134
Oloako, 235

Paramati, 167

Ophir, 92, 93
Orhet, 168

Parindah, 228
Paris, 82

Parameswara, 201
Parasava, 68
Parichat, 225

278

INDEX

II.PROPER

Paropanisadai, 112
Parti,

Prome, 146, 176

140

Protapaditya, 217

Patala, 22, 131

Ptolemy, 11, loi, 121,

139, 140, i6i

Pataliputra, 114

228

Patil,

Patila, 228,

134,

Ptolemy Philadelphus, 120

Pukar, II, 129, 135
Pun, 90

235

Patna, 66, 78, 215

Patraputa, 22

Pundra, 144
Punjab, 3, 84, 97, 140
Punjeree, 207
Punna, 30, 71

Pattooas, 252
Paulisa, 130

Pegu,

NAMES

4, 144, 146, 147,

176

Pencose, 219
Pennar, 52

Purchas, 218

Periplus, 11, 92, 116, 122, 129, 131,

Purgoos, 235

Punya-Upachaya, 170

139, 140

Puri, 36,

'

40

Pyard, 202

Periyar, 135
Persia, 4, 40, 65, 68, 120, 141, 163,

169, 202

Persian Gulf, 8, 68, 72, 74, 87, 89,

Peshwas, 15
Peshwar, 140

Raghu, 28, 64, 65

Raghunandana, 55
Raghuva6sa, 28, 64, 65

Petra, 95

Rajavallava, 159

94, 100, 131

Pett,

W., 243

Rajamandri, 147

Phayre, Sir A, P., 11, 145, 146

Raja-raja, 175

Philadelphia, 48

Rajavalliya, 28, 69

Phillips, G.,

163

Rajendra, 175

Phipps, John, 245

Rajendralal Mitra, Dr., 19

Phoenicia, 78, 95

Rajmahal, 224
Rajtarangini, 68

Pillay, 121, 128,

Pipli,

143

234

Rakshasis, 44
Fitch, 15, 218

Pitaka, 73

Ralph

Pithan, 132

Romaka, 130
Ramayana, 27, 55, 57, 145
Ramchandra Roy, 217

Pliny,

II,

84,

97,

103,

124, 131, 140

Poorna, 73
Portugal, 202

Poms, 138
Poudopatana, 140
Praams, 134
Prabhakaravardhana, 152

116,

122,

Raphael, 44

Rassam, 86, 87
Ratnagiri, 239
Ratnavali, 65, 72

Prambanan, 151

Ratnodbhava, 66
Ravana, 55
Rea, Alexander, 50

Prithvi Raj, 67

Red
279

Sanders, 71

135,

INDEX
Red

II. PROPER

Sea, 92, 94, 131, 134, 140, 202,

232
Reid, J., 47
Reinaiid, 56
Rhatgiris, 228

Sancharam, 39
Sandwipa, 216, 225
Saiighabhadra, 166
Sanghavarman, 166

Sangrama

Rhinocolura, 95
Rig- Veda,

91

10,

Sankshachura, 160
Sankha-Jataka, 30
Sa6yukta-agama, i66

130

Romaka-Jataka, 130

Rome,

10,

50,

Varman,

Saiigramgara, 230

01, 102

Robinson, Sir H., 96

Romaka,

Vijayottunga

176

9, 53, 85,

Robertson, Dr.,

NAMES

116,

82,

118,

127, 129, 137, 138, 139, 179

R. Shyama Sastri, 104

Rudradaman, 164
Ruijukokushi, 174
Rum, 188

126,

Sa yutta Nikaya, 73
Sanuki, 174
Saraju, 189
Sarbamandira, 26
Sardar-i-Sairal,

228

203
Sarmanes, 138
Saris, Capt.,

Rupnarayan, 210

Sassanians, 139, 152

Russia, 221

Satakarni, 35, 38

Ruttonjee, 245

Satgaon, 161, 219

Saurastra, 68

Sayce, Dr., 85, 86

Schiern, 96

Saddhammanagara, 146

Scotland, 246

Sagal, 70

Scythian, 49
Sebastian Gonzales, 225

Sagarafena, 159
Sagara Island, 216, 218
Sahadeva, 57

Sahara, 153
Saif-ud-din

Hamza

Shah, 197

Seleucia, 96

Semiramis, 102

SemuUa, 132
Sen Kings, 220

Saka, 139, 150, 152

Septuagint, 78

Sakuntala, 65

Serendip, 140, 187

Sakya, 165

Severndoorg, 240

Salabham, 69
Salbs, 228

Sewell, 50, 116

Shahabuddin, 196

Salem, 124

Shah Jehan, 225

Salopatana, 140

Shakespeare, 158

Samantapasadika, 166
Sambuchi, 203

Shaista

Samudda-Vanija-Jataka, 29, 74
Samudrasura, 67
Samurai, 202

Shiva, 124

Sanchi, 32, 33, 34, 35

Khan, 228, 229, 233

Shihab-ud-din Talish, 212, 224

Shuja, Prince, 226

Siam, 39, 150

Sicily,

280

56

INDEX

II.PROPER

NAMES

Silabhadra, 156
SMhavahu or SiiShaba, 69

Suleiman, 187

Sinae-Roman China, 140

Sindabad, 186

Sumatra,

Sindh,

Sulkea, 248

183

3, 13, 14, 78, 140, 152,

Sindhu, 168

171

Sunga, 165
Sungshih, 13, 177

Sindhuvarga, 239
Singapore, 146
Siiihala, 29, 31, 44, 72, 157,

4, 56, 143, 150,

Sumena, 194

Supara, 69, 88, 90, 132

Supparaka, 30, 71, 89

222

Supparaka-Bodhisat, 29

Sinhamukhi, 160

Supparaka- Jataka, 75

Siihapura, 69

Surat, 134, 140, 202, 237

Sirheng, 207

Suryya, 130
Sussondi- Jataka, 77
Sutta Pitaka, 73^, 88

Sister Nivedita,

246
Sifiupalavadha, 66
Sita, 55, 56
^ivaji, 15, 238
Smith, Vincent, 113, 125, 127, 129,

143

Suvama, 71
Suvarnabhumi, 30, 145, 161, 171
Suvarna Island, 56
Suvarndrug, 239

Sobira, 78

Suy, 167

Socotra, 133, 190

Suyshoo, 167
Suvarua Dvipa, 56
Sylhet, 212, 247
Syrastra, 134
Syria, 92, 113, 188

Solomon, 89, 91, 92, 93

Solvyns, F. Baltazar, 250
Somadeva, 67
Somnath, 153, 169, 187
Sonargaon, 16, 219
Sophir, 78
Soratha, 168
Sravasti, 71, 72, 73

Tabakat-i-Akbari, 187

Sri-Bhoja, 171

Tadmor, 94

Sri-Harsha, 152, 169

Taka-kusu, 12, 171

Takkolam, 176
Takmilla-i-Akbarnama, 15
Takola, 176

Sri-Vishaya, 176

Srimanta, 158, 222

Srinagara, 217

219
Raja Indra Chola, 177
Stanhope, 243
St. John, R. F. St. Andrew, 146
Sripur, 216,

Talaing, 144

Sri

Tamilakam, 118, 135

Strabo, 11, loi, 103, 104, 120, 131,

137

Strenysham Master, 231

Suhanu-Jataka, 77
Suimiani, 214
Sukangeer, 207

Tamolitta, i6i

Tamo, 167
Tamralipta, 31, 72, i6i, 162, 172
Tamraparni, 68

Tana, 191
Tanda, 219
Tandulanali-Jataka, 77
Tao-lin, 172

281

INDEX
Tapoosa, 30, 71
Taprobane, 103
Tarani, 23
Tari, 23
Tarik, 220

II. PROPER

NAMES

Tsi-chao, 197

Tughril Khan, 189

Tugra, 26, 54
Tundeil, 207
Tung-kia, 197

Tarikh-i-Firozshahi, 13, 196

Tumour,

Tarikh-i-Tahiri, 213

Tyndis, 124, 132

Tarnasari, 133

Tyre, 56, 92, 95

29, 70, 71

Tarshis, 93

Tata, 206

Ta-tcheng-teng, 172
Tatta, 102

Ujjaini, 167

Tavernier, 150, 180

Taxila, 10 1

Unnata, 23
Ur, 85, 87

Taylor, 87

Ur

Tcbaritrapoura, 161

Urdha, 24
Usnisa Vijaya Dharmi, 156

Tenjiku, 174

Uman, 188

Bagas, 85

Tennassaree, 232

Thana, 153, 191

Tharakhetra, 145, 176
Thatta, 196, 213

Vaital Deul, 37

Thebes, 90

Vajrabodhi, 172

Theophrastus, 92

Valahassa-Jataka, 29, 75

Tiberius, 118, 125

Tientes, 164

Varaha, 172
Varahamihira, 68, 130, 180, 181
Varaha Purana, 6^
Varthema, 14, 15, 133, 203, 218

Tigris, 153, 186

Vartrihari, 67

Timur, 196
Tinnevelly, 190

Varuna, 53, 54
Vasco de Gama, 201

Tiperrah, 190

Va6ishtha, 35, 54, 130

Tissara, i66

Vajralepa, 180
Veraval, 168

Tibet,

3, 97, 153
Tien-shon, 173

Tittagarh, 249

Todarmall, 209, 215

Tosa, 174

Vespasian, 127

Trajan, 138

Vihar, 39,

Trankee, 134

Vijaya, 28, 42, 44, 69, 70, 157

Trapagga, 134
Tripitaka, 165
Tripitak Acharyya, 166

Vijaya Durga, 239

Vikramavahu 65

Tripitak, Chinese, 12

Vincent, Dr., loi, 133

Tripoly, 158

Vincent Smith, 50, 95, 112, 138

Vindhya, 179

Tsang, 162

Vidura, 27, 59

Vinaya

282

71

(Pitalu),

73

INDEX

II, PROPER

NAMES

Vindusarovara, 37
92
Vishalgad, 200

Yajnavalkya Sanhita, 62

Vishnu, 34
Von Bohlen, 90

Yajna Sri, 50
Yamato, 173

Vrihat-Sanhita, 62, 130, 180

Yatratattva, 55

Vriksha-Ayurveda, 20

Yavana,

Virgil,

11, 66, 121, 128,

129

Yavana Dvipa, 56

Yeats, Dr.

J.,

56

Yemen, 90

Waddle, Mr. A., 248

Yudhisthira, 130

Walker, Lt.-Col. A,, 245

Yuktikalpataru, 19, 21, 24, 25, 35,

Wassaf, 13, 188, 195

Wellesley, Lord, 249

Yule, 12, 168, 1^4

Wheeler,

Yung-hsi, 172

J. T.,

236

Wilkinson, 91

37. 41, 42, 164

Yung-lo, 197

Wu, 167
Wun, 165

X
Xathroi, 102

Xerxes, 95

Zanguebar, 191

Zarman-Khegas, 138
Zend, 86

283

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