Daoyin: Chinese Healing Exercises

LIVIA KOHN
Daoyin, the traditional Chinese practice of guiding (dao ) the qi and stretching (yin )
the body is the forerunner of Qigong , the modern form of exercise that has swept
through China and, like Indian Yoga and Tibetal Magical Movements, is making increasing inroads into the West, both in spiritual and health contexts.1 Like other Asian body
practices, Daoyin focuses on the body as the main vehicle of attainment; sees health and
spiritual transformation as one continuum leading to perfection or self-realization, and
works intensely and consciously with the breath. In its traditional form, moreovermore
so than in its modern Qigong adaptationDaoyin uses physical stretches and movements
in all the different positions of the body, proposes systematic sequences of postures, and
gives them names that may be descriptive or after various animals.
Daoyin is also similar to other forms of body cultivation in that proposes basic
ethical rules and guidelines for daily living that serve to create an environment best suited
to personal transformation. Practitioners learn the exact way to execute postures and
movements, gain awareness and control of their respiration, and work to adjust the breath
in accordance with the body postures. Adepts further use the strengthening of the muscles, loosening of the joints, and awareness of internal energies to enter into states of absorption and deeper meditation, relating actively to spiritual powers and seeking higher
levels of self-realization.

Another form of Chinese exercise popular today is Taiji quan . It, too, inherited
a certain amount from Daoyin, but originated much later (in the 17th century) in a quasi-military
and self-defense environment and is essentially a martial art. While adopted into the health and
self-cultivation scene in the West and often conflated or merged with Qigong, in China today
Taiji quan playes a completely different role. Whereas Qigong is highly suspect and to a large
degree prohibited due to its connection with alleged cults, such as Falun gong , Taiji quan
is being built up into a formal sport, not unlike Japanese Judo, with set routines, degrees, and
stages, and may even become an Olympic discipline.

How, then, is Daoyin unique in relation to other Asian body cultivation systems?
Does it pursue the same goal, use the same methods, and reach similar stages, just formulated in a different language and terminology? What is the underlying philosophical and
cosmological foundation of the practice? How did it begin? What are some of its key historical developments and sociological settings? To begin, let us look at the philosophical
and cosmological underpinnings of the practice, the worldview of Chinese medicine and
Daoist cultivation.
DAO AND QI
The body in Daoyin forms an integral part of a body-mind-cosmos continuum that cannot
be separated and is seen as one. The underlying potency at the root of this continuum is
the Dao . Literally the way, the term indicates how things develop naturally, how
nature moves along in its regular patterns, and how living beings continuously grow and
decline. Dao is the one power underlying all. The fundamental ground of being, it makes
things what they are and causes the world to develop. Mysterious and ineffable, it cannot
be known but only intuited in tranquil introspection. As the Daode jing (Book of
the Dao and Its Virtue), the ancient classic that goes back to about 300 B.C.E., says:
Look at it and do not see it: we call it invisible.
Listen to it and do not hear it: we call it inaudible.
Touch it and do not feel it: we call it subtle. . . .
Infinite and boundless, it cannot be named; . . .
Vague and obscure,
Meet it, yet you cannot see its head,
Follow it, yet you cannot see its back. (ch. 14)

Although Dao is essentially beyond human perception and cognituion, it yet

manifests actively in the material, natural world and is clearly visible in rhythmic changes
and patterned processes. On this phenomenal level it is predictable in its developments
and can be characterized as the give and take of various pairs of complementary opposites, such as the natural ebb and flow of things as they rise and fall, come and go, grow
and decline, emerge and die (Kohn 2005, 10).

Within this dual-layered universe of the Dao, ineffable at the center and manifest
in natural rhythms at the periphery, the second most essential concept of Daoyin is qi .
Qi is the concrete aspect of the Dao, the material energy of the universe, the basic stuff of
nature. In ancient sources it is associated with mist, fog, and moving clouds, qi is contained in the foods we eat and the air we breathe. But more subtly it is also the life force
in the human body and as such forms the basis of all physical vitality.
There is only one qi, just as there is only one Dao. But it, too, appears on different
levels of subtlety and in different modes. At the center, there is primordial qi, prenatal qi,
or true, perfect qi; at the periphery, there is postnatal qi or earthly qilike the measurable
Dao, it is in constant motion and divided according to categories such as temperature,
density, speed of flow, and impact on human life.
Qi is the basic material of all that exists. It animates life and furnishes functional
power of events. Qi is the root of the human body; its quality and movement determine
human health. Qi can be discussed in terms of quantity, since having more means
stronger metabolic function. This, however, does not mean that health is a byproduct of
storing large quantities of qi. Rather, there is a normal or healthy amount of qi in every
person, and health manifests in its balance and harmony, its moderation and smoothness
of flow. This flow is envisioned in the texts as a complex system of waterways with the
Ocean of Qi in the abdomen; rivers of qi flowing through the upper torso, arms, and
legs; springs of qi reaching to the wrists and ankles; and wells of qi found in the fingers
and toes. Even a small spot in this complex system can thus influence the whole, so that
overall balance and smoothness are the general goal.
Human life is the accumulation of qi; death is its dispersal. After receiving a core
potential of primordial qi at birth, people throughout life need to sustain it. They do so by
drawing postnatal qi into the body from air and food, as well as from other people
through sexual, emotional, and social interaction. But they also lose qi through breathing
bad air, overburdening their bodies with food and drink, and getting involved in negative
emotions and excessive sexual or social interactions.
It is thus best to breathe deeply and to eat moderately in accordance with the seasons, to move smoothly, exercise without exertion, and match activities to the bodys
needs. This is how one keeps balance and creates health. Health, unlike in the modern

West, in this system is not just the absence of symptoms and ailments. It is the presence
of a strong vital energy and of a smooth, harmonious, and active flow of qi. This is
known as the state of zhengqi or proper qi, also translated as upright qi. The
ideal is to have qi flow freely, thereby creating harmony in the body and a balanced state
of being in the person. This personal health is further matched by health in nature, defined as regular weather patterns and the absence of disasters. It is also present as health
in society in the peaceful coexistence among families, clans, villages, and states. This
harmony on all levels, the cosmic presence of a steady and pleasant flow of qi, is what
the Chinese call the state of Great Peace, venerated by Confucians and Daoists alike.
The opposite of health is xieqi or wayward qi, also called deviant or
pathogenic qi. It is qi that has lost the harmonious pattern of flow and no longer supports the dynamic forces of change. Whereas zhengqi moves in a steady, harmonious
rhythm and effects daily renewal, helping health and long life, xieqi, disorderly and dysfunctional, creates change that violates the normal order. When it becomes dominant, the
qi-flow can turn upon itself and deplete the bodys resources. The person no longer operates as part of a universal system and is not in tune with the basic life force around him or
her. Xieqi appears when qi begins to move either too fast or too slow, is excessive or depleted, or creates rushes or obstructions. It disturbs the regular flow and causes ailments.
YIN-YANG AND THE FIVE PHASES
As everything else in the Chinese universe, qi therefore divides into the two categories
yin and yang , terms that originally described geographical features and were first
used to indicate the shady and sunny sides of a hill. From there they acquired a series of
associations: dark and bright, heavy and light, weak and strong, below and above, earth
and heaven, minister and ruler, female and male, and so on. In concrete application,
moreover, they came to indicate different kinds of action:
yang
yin

active
structive

birth
completion

impulse
response

move
rest

change
nurture

expand
contract

In addition, the ongoing flux and interchange of yin and yang was understood to occur in
a series of five phases, which were symbolized by five materials or concrete entities:
minor yang

major yang

yin-yang

minor yin major yin

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wood

fire

earth

metal

water

These five energetic phases and their material symbols were then associated with
a variety of entities in the concrete world, creating a complex system of correspondences.
They were linked with colors, directions, seasons, musical tones, and with various functions in the human body, such as energy-storing (yin) organs, digestive (yang) organs,
senses, emotions, and flavors. The basic chart at the root of Chinese and Daoist cosmology is as follows:
yin/yang
minor ya
major ya
yin-yang
minor yin
major yin

phase
wood
fire
earth
metal
water

direc
east
south
center
west
north

season
color
spring
green
summer red
yellow
fall
white
winter
black

organ1
liver
heart
spleen
lungs
kidneys

organ2
gall
sm.int.
stomach
lg. int.
bladder

sense
eyes
tongue
lips
nose
ears

emotion
anger
exc. joy
worry
sadness
fear

Daoyin practice accordingly aims to create perfect harmony among these various forces
and patterns, which guarantees health and long life. To do so, adepts use breath, awareness and movement to open the meridians, lines of qi-flow that criss-cross the entire
body, connecting the inner organs with the extremities. All the various body movements
in the practice, therefore, work with the organic patterns of qi in the body and serve to
open meridians and enhance the functioning of organs, leading to increased transformative activity in the yang-organs (organ2) and to a greater ability for the storage of qi in
the yin-organs (organ1).
As practitioners become adepts at this, their health improves, they recover youthful vitality, and they reach extended longevity. Going even beyond this already quite desireable state, adepts further practice intense meditative states in the hope to enter a
deeper awareness of and oneness with the Dao at the center of creation, finding perfection through resting in and flowing along with the root of all being.
EARLY PRACTICE
Daoyin arose as part of Han-dynasty medicine which encouraged people to relish the
world in all its aspects, to find greater health, and to enjoy their physical and social pleasures. As a result the earliest works on Daoyin are immensely practical in nature and can
be precisely dated. Found among manuscripts unearthed from southern China, they in-

clude the silk manuscript Daoyin tu (Exercise Chart) and the bamboo tablets of
the Yinshu (Stretch Book).
The Daoyin tu was found at
Mawangdui, in the tomb of the Marchioness of Dai, the wife of a local lord who died
in 168 B.C.E. The text consists of forty-four
color illustrations of human figures performing therapeutic exercises that are explained in brief captions. The figures are of
different sex and age, variously clothed or
bare-chested, and shown in different postures (mostly standing) from a variety of angles. In many cases, they have one arm reaching up while the other stretches down, one arm moving forward while the other extends
back, possibly indicating rhythmical movement.
There is some variety among them. Two figures are in a forward bend, one with
head lowered, the other with head raised. Another is bending slightly forward with a
rounded back and hands hanging down toward the knees. Yet another has one arm on the
ground and the other extended upward in a windmill-like pose (Harper 1998, 132). The
captions are often illegible, but among them are the well-known bear amble and bird
stretch, showing a figure walking in a stately fashion with arms swinging and one bending forward with hands on the floor and head raised, respectively.
The lack of written explanations is somewhat alleviated by the Yinshu, which
consists entirely of text.2 It was found in a manuscript at Zhangjiashan , also in
Hunan, in a tomb that was closed in 186 B.C.E. The text divides into three parts: a general introduction on seasonal health regimens; a series of about a hundred exercises, divided into three sections; and a conclusion on the etiology of disease and ways of prevention.

For a complete translation and study of this important document as well as of the accompanying Maishu, see Lo forthcoming. Partial translations can be found in Lo 2001. I am
grateful to Vivienne Lo for sharing her translation draft and helping with the stickier passages in
the text.

The first part on seasonal health regimens discusses hygiene, diet, sleep, and
movement as well as adequate times for sexual intercourse. It is ascribed to Pengzu ,
a famous immortal of antiquity, said to have lived over 800 years. It says, for instance:
Spring days. After rising in the morning, pass water, wash and rinse, clean and click the
teeth. Loosen the hair, stroll to the lower end of the hall to meet the purest of dew and receive the essence of Heaven, and drink one cup of water. These are the means to increase
accord. Enter the chamber [for sex] between evening until greater midnight [1 a.m.].
More would harm the qi. (Harper 1998, 110-11; Engelhardt 2001, 215)

This places the practice firmly in the home

of a wealthy aristocrat with leisure to pursue long
life and well-being and the inclination to perform
proper hygiene and develop bodily awareness. It
also assumes that the practitioner lives in society
and has a wife or concubine for bedroom activities.
Following a general outline of daily routines, the middle part of the Yinshu provides concrete practice instructions, describing and naming
specific moves. For example:
Bend and Gaze is: interlace the fingers at the back and bend forward, then turn the
head to look at your heels (#12).
Dragon Flourish is: step one leg forward with bent knee while stretching the other leg
back, then interlace the fingers, place them on the knee, and look up (#19).
Pointing Backward is: interlace the fingers, raise them overhead and bend back as far
as possible (#29).3

After presenting forty exercises of this type, the text focuses on the medical use of
the practices. It often repeats instructions outlined earlier and in some cases prescribes a
combination of them. For example, a variation of lunges such as Dragon Flourish is the
following, which can be described as a walking lunge:
To relieve tense muscles: Stand with legs hip-width apart and hold both thighs. Then
bend the left leg while stretching the right thigh back, reaching the knee to the floor.
Once done, [change legs and] bend the right leg while stretching the left leg back and
reaching that knee to the floor. Repeat three times (#46).

These translations are based on the original text. It is published with modern characters
and some punctuation in Wenwu 1990; Ikai 2004. For a study of the book, see

Another variant of the lunges is recommended to relieve qi-disruptions in the

muscles and intestines. Lunging with the left foot forward and the right leg back, one
goes into a twist by bending the right arm at the elbow and looking back over the left
shoulder. After three repetitions on both sides, one is to maintain the lunge position while
raising one arm at a time and then both arms up as far as one can (each three times),
bending the back and opening the torso (#68). The idea seems to be that by stretching
arms and legs one can open blockages in the extremities while the twisting of the abdominal area aids the intestines.
Exercises like these in the medical section of the text also include breathing techniques, notably exhalations with chui, xu, and hu to strengthen the body and to harmonize
qi-flow, as well as exercises in other than standing positions, such as seated, kneeling, or
lying down. For example, to alleviate lower back pain, one should lie on ones back and
rock the painful area back and forth 300 timesif possible with knees bent into the chest.
After this, one should lift the legs up straight to ninety degrees, point the toes, andwith
hands holding on to the matvigorously lift and lower the buttocks three times (#55). An
example of a kneeling practice is the following:
To relieve thigh pain. Kneel upright, stretch the left leg forward while rotating the right
shoulder down to bring them together with some vigor. Then stretch the right leg forward
while rotating the left shoulder down to bring them together. Repeat ten times. (#50)

Following this detailed outline of concrete exercises, the Yinshu concludes its
third part with a list of twenty-four brief mnemonic statements. After this, it places the
practice into a larger social and cultural context. It notes that the most important factors
in causing diseases are climatic excesses:
People get sick because of heat, dampness, wind, cold, rain, or dew as well as because of
[a dysfunction] in opening and closing the pores, a disharmony in eating and drinking,
and the inability to adapt their rising and resting to the changes in cold and heat. (Engelhardt 2001, 216)

This harks back to the seasonal regimen in the beginning of the text, restating the
importance of climatic and temporal awareness in the way one treats the body. The
proper way of treating the body, however, as the text points out next, is accessible mainly
to noble people of the upper classes, who fall ill because of uncontrolled emotions such

as anger and joy (which overload yin and yang qi). Base people, whose conditions tend
to be caused by excessive labor, hunger, and thirst, on the contrary, have no opportunity
to learn the necessary breathing exercises and therefore contract numerous diseases and
die early.
This, as much as the fact that the manuscripts were found in tombs of local rulers,
makes it clear that Daoyin practice in Han China was very much the domain of the aristocracy and upper classes and aimed predominantly at alleviating diseases and physical
discomforts, providing greater enjoyment of daily luxuries and faster recovery after raucous parties (Engelhardt 2000, 88; 2001, 217). Also, the very existence of the texts with
their detailed instructions shows that the practices were public knowledge and accessible
to anyone with enough interest and financial means to obtain them.
Historical records show that medical and philosophical materials were often collected by aristocrats. Some searched out already written works and had them transcribed;
others invited knowledgeable people to their estate and had them dictate their philosophical sayings and medical recipes to an experienced scribe (Harper 1998, 61). While
knowledge was transmitted orally in a three-year apprenticeship from father to son in
professional medical families or from master to disciple among itinerant practitioners and
within philosophical schools, the dominant tendency was to offer this knowledge to society at large, and there was little concern for the establishment of close-knit hierarchies or
esoteric lineages, which only became important in later religious developments.
DAOIST TRANSFORMATION
Over the next few centuries, Daoyin became part of the Daoist enterprise of attaining
immortality The transformation of Chinese healing exercises into an aspect of religious
culture had to do with the emergence of various organized Daoist groups that adopted
some self-cultivation methods practiced by Chinese hermits (see Kohn 2001). Most
prominent among them was the school of Highest Clarity (Shangqing ), which arose
in the 360s. Around this time two brothers of the aristocratic Xu family hired the medium
Yang Xi (330386) to establish contact with Xu Mis wife who had died in
362 to find out about her fate in the otherworld. She appeared to tell them about her status
and explained the overall organization of the heavens. She also introduced the medium to

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various other spirit figures who revealed methods of personal transformation, meditations, visualizations, and alchemical concoctions; gave thorough instructions on how to
transmit the texts and their methods; and provided prophecies about the golden age to
come (see Strickmann 1981).
The Xu brothers wrote down everything Yang Xi transmitted, however disparate
it may have seemed, and created a basic collection of sacred texts. They shared their new
revelations with their immediate neighbors and relatives, thus establishing the first generation of Highest Clarity followers (Robinet 1984, 1:108). They developed a spiritual
practice that also included a daily routine of stretches, breathing, and self-massages in
combination with the use of talismans and incantationsall to purify their bodies and to
enhance their vigor for the great endeavor of becoming immortal.
How Daoyin functioned in the daily practice of these would-be immortals is described in the Baoshen jing (Scripture on Treasuring the Spirit, DZ 1319; see
Robinet 1984, 2:359-62). The text says:
When you get up in the morning, always calm your breath and sit up straight, then interlace the fingers and massage the nape of your neck. Next, lift the face and look up, press
the hands against the neck while moving the head back. Do this three or four times, then
stop.4 This causes essence to be in harmony and the blood to flow well. It prevents wind
or wayward qi from entering the body. Over a long time it will keep you free from disease and death.
Next, bend and stretch; extend the hands to the four extremes [up, down, right, left]; bend
backward and stretch out the sides; and shake out the hundred joints. Do each of these
three times. (6a)
These and similar morning practices were further accompanied by incantations that implored the deities and perfected to support the practitioner and enhanced their visions of
divine ascension. An example is:
My spirit and material souls receiving purity. My five spirits [of the inner organs] are
restful and at peace. I return in a flying carriage to visit [the heaven of] Jade Clarity, Ascend to Great Nonbeing and journey with the sun. Becoming a perfected, I merge in
mystery with emperors and lords. (2b)

The same exercise is still part of the Daoyin repertoire today. It appears under the name
Immortal Imitating Tall Pine Standing Firmly in the Wind in Ni Hua-chings regimen (1989,
60). Here the posture proposed is to sit cross-legged.

11

The practice also involved the use of talismans, written in red ink on yellow paper in imitation of the sacred writings of the otherworld.
Adepts used them either by placing them on themselves or by burning them and drinking the ashes
(Baoshen jing 16b) (see Fig. 3).
The morning practices of Daoyin in Highest Clarity served several goals: dispersal of obstructive and demonic forces, self-purification in
the face of the divine, clarity of vision and keenness of hearing to open otherworldly perception,
extension of life expectancy to have more practice
time, and preparation for ascension through visualizations of gods and heavens (see Robinet 1993).

Variations of the practice include:

bends and stretches known from the medical manuscripts as well as

deep breathing to release stale qi and absorb new energy;

self-massages of the face, eyes, and ears;

saliva swallowings to harmonize qi in the body and calm the viscera;

visualizations of the inner organs with the body gods.

In this religious Daoist context, therefore, the practice of Daoyin was transformed
into an aspect of spiritual purification, including but not limited to the maintenance of
health and extension of life, ultimately leading to extensive explorations of the unseen
world and deep absorptive trance states. At the same time, however, Daoyin continued to
make inroads in the greater Chinese society, where it was coupled with various other
means of body cultivation.

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THE PRACTICE IN CONTEXT

A variety of texts from the fourth century document the use of Daoyin for health and longevity among Chinese noblemen. They all warn against excesses and provide remedies to
improve bodily functions through diet and herbal decoctions, supported by prescriptions
for proper sleep, hygiene, sexual activity, and exercise. Daoyin, from a branch of preventative medicine, thus becomes a key aspect of overall life regulation.
One key text of the period, the Yangsheng yaoji (Long Life Compendium) by the aristocrat and official Zhang Zhan recommends that practitioners
avoid specific combinations of food, such as anything hot and cold, sweet and raw, or
more specifically, wheat and oats, onions and honey, celery and pigs liver, dried ginger
and rabbit (Stein 1999, 200-04). They should use alcohol sparingly, boil water before
drinking, and take care not to get cold when sweaty. The text also has specific recipes for
beneficial food combinations, descriptions of the qualities and healing properties of herbs
and food stuffs, as well as a series of instructions for pregnancy (1999, 208-10). In many
cases, it provides specific remedies for certain conditions, notably stomach and digestive
problems, including cramps, flatulence, constipation, and diarrhea (1999, 226-28).
The overall goal of the presentation is to encourage people to live as healthily as
possible, working closely in harmony with nature and the four seasons. Citing the ancient
immortal Pengzu , the text says:
The method of nourishing longevity consists mainly in not doing harm to oneself. Keep
warm in winter and cool in summer, and never lose your harmony with the four seasonsthat is how you can align yourself with the body. Do not allow sensuous beauty,
provocative postures, easy leisure, and enticing entertainments to incite yearnings and desiresthat is how you come to pervade the spirit. (Ishinp 23.3a; Stein 1999, 169).

The most important advice is to remain moderate in everything, since any excess
will harm the lungs and kidneys: to eat and drink with control, to stay away from various
luxuries that lead to a weakness of qi, and to keep speech and laughter within limits
(Stein 1999, 179, 186). Citing Pengzu once more, the text points out that heavy clothing
and thick comforters, spicy foods and heavy meats, sexual attraction and beautiful
women, melodious voices and enticing sounds, wild hunting and exciting outings, as well
as all strife for success and ambition will inevitably lead to a weakening of the body and
thus a reduction in life expectancy (1999,178). In the same vein, various mental activities

13

will harm key psychological forces and thus bring about a diminishing of qi, which takes
one further away from the Dao and reduces life. The text formulates this in a set of
twelve things to do only in little increments. It says:
Those who wish to preserve harmony and complete their perfection should: think little,
reflect little, laugh little, speak little, enjoy little, anger little, delight little, mourn little,
like little, dislike little, engage little, deal little.
If you think much, the spirit will disperse.
If you reflect much, the heart will be labored.
If you laugh much, the organs and viscera will soar up.
If you speak much, the Ocean of Qi will be empty and vacant.
If you enjoy much, the gall bladder and bladder will take in outside wind.
If you get angry much, the fascia will push the blood around.
If you delight much, the spirit and heart will be deviant and unsettled.
If you mourn much, the hair and whiskers will dry and wither.
If you like much, the will and qi will be one-sided and overloaded.
If you dislike much, the essence and power will race off and soar away.
If you engage yourself much, the muscles and meridians will be tense and nervous.
If you deal much, wisdom and worry will all be confused.
All these attack peoples lives worse than axes and spears; they diminish peoples destiny
worse that wolves and wolverines. (Stein 1999, 170-71)

In other words, harmony with the Dao manifests itself in mental stability and
physical wellness, and any form of agitation or sickness indicates a decline in ones
alignment with the forces of nature. Thus going along with Heaven and Earth brings
good fortune; going against Heaven and Earth brings misfortune (Stein 1999, 182), the
text says, and notes: The Dao is qi. By preserving qi you can attain the Dao, and through
attaining the Dao you can live long. Spirit is essence. By preserving essence you can
reach spirit brightness, and once you have spirit brightness, you can live long (23.17ab;
Stein 1999, 172).
The major points on moderation made in the aristocratic Yangsheng yaoji during
the same period also appear in more religiously inspired texts that can be linked with a
more esoteric tradition of medieval China, that of hermits and alchemists. Most important
among them are two short synopses of the key alchemical treatise Baopuzi (Book
of the Master Who Embraces Simplicity; trl. Ware 1966), contained in the Daoist canon:

14

the Yangxing lun (On Nourishing Inner Nature, DZ 840) and the Yangsheng lun
(On Nourishing Life, DZ 842). Although in title and edition linked with the hermit tradition and probably compiled on the basis of eremitic documents (Schipper and
Verellen 2004, 362, 357), they closely match Zhang Zhans attitude and recommendations. Like the Yangsheng yaoji, they do not speak of mountain isolation, alchemy, or
specific recipes, but emphasize the need for moderation in daily life. Thus, the Pengzu
lun says:
The method of nourishing life involves not spitting far and not walking hastily. Let the
ears not listen to excess; let the eyes not look around extensively. Do not sit until tired; do
not sleep beyond your needs. Wait until it is cold before you put on more clothes; wait
until it is hot before you take them off. Do not get too hungry, because hunger harms the
qi, and when you eat beware of overindulging. Do not get too thirsty before you drink
and do not drink too deeply at a time. If you overeat, your bowels will be blocked and obstructed to the point of illness; if you drink too deeply, phlegm will accumulate into
lumps. (2a; also in Yangsheng lun 2a; Baopuzi 13; Ware 1966, 223)

The Yangsheng lun proposes similar guidelines, which it supplements with a set of six
exhortations to release mental strain and sensory involvement. It says:
1. Let go of fame and profit.

2. Limit sights and sounds.

3. Moderate material goods and wealth. 4. Lessen smells and tastes.

5. Eliminate lies and falsehood.

6. Avoid jealousy and envy. (1b)

It then repeats the set of twelve little activities (1b-2a) as found in the Yangsheng yaoji and moves on to echo Pengzus warning against wearing heavy clothes and
thick sleeves, eating meats, fatty foods, and sweets and getting intoxicated, and
against enjoying sexual infatuation, engagements with the opposite sex, and overindulgence in the bedroom, similarly found in the mainstream work.
The fact that general admonitions for moderationphysical, mental, and social
are equally found in a variety of texts of the period shows that they formed part of an
aristocratic culture of simplicity and self-control that favored working toward long life
and well-being, but did not necessarily involve seclusion, devotion, or alchemical experiments. Practitioners used Daoyin and conscious breathing as part of their overall
regimen of life enhancement, which also came to include moral guidelines and the recommendation of generally life-enhancing attitudes.

15

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