Infants & Young Children

Vol. 22, No. 3, pp. 164176

c 2009 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Copyright 

Lets Be PALS
An Evidence-Based Approach to
Professional Development
Carl J. Dunst, PhD; Carol M. Trivette, PhD
An evidence-based approach to professional development is described on the basis of the findings
from a series of research syntheses and meta-analyses of adult learning methods and strategies.
The approach, called PALS (Participatory Adult Learning Strategy), places major emphasis on both
active learner involvement in all aspects of training opportunities and instructor/trainer-guided
learner experiences. The use of PALS practices has been found to be associated with improved
learner knowledge, use, and mastery of different types of intervention practices. Implications for
in-service training are described. Key words: adult learning, evidence-based, in-service training,
instructor-guided learning, participatory learning

O INTERVENTION PRACTICE, no matter what its evidence base, is likely

to be learned and adopted if the methods
and strategies used to teach or train students, practitioners, parents, or others are
not themselves effective. It is therefore useful to make a distinction between intervention practices informed by research (Dunst &
Trivette, 2009; Kazdin, 2008) and the methods used to teach or train others to use the
practices (Donovan, Bransford, & Pellegrino,
1999; Fixsen, Naoom, Blase, Friedman, &
Wallace, 2005). As Fixsen et al. (2005) noted,
it is important to be aware of the difference
between the intervention practices that are

Author Affiliations: Orelena Hawks Puckett

Institute, Asheville (Dr Dunst), and Orelena Hawks
Puckett Institute, Morganton (Dr Trivette), North
Carolina.
The research syntheses that are the basis of the adult
learning method described in this article were supported, in part, by a grant from the US Department
of Education, Office of Special Education Programs
(#H324K010005) and a subcontract from the Thomas
Jefferson Medical College, Tots N Tech Project, to the
Orelena Hawks Puckett Institute, funded by the US Department of Education, Office of Special Education Programs (#H327X070003).
Corresponding Author: Carl J. Dunst, PhD, Orelena
Hawks Puckett Institute, 8 Elk Mountain Rd, Asheville,
NC 28804 (cdunst@puckett.org).

164

used to affect behavior change and the training methods used to promote adoption and
use of the intervention practices.
This article includes a description of an
adult learning strategy called PALS (Participatory Adult Learning Strategy) informed
by findings from several recently completed
meta-analyses of adult learning methods
(Trivette, 2007; Trivette & Dunst, 2009a,
2009b; Trivette, Dunst, Hamby, & OHerin,
2009a, 2009b). The syntheses were completed, in part, to discern whether different
opinions about adult learning are supported
by research evidence and to identify the conditions under which adult learning methods
are optimally effective. Even a cursory review
of the adult learning literature finds varied
assertions about what are and what are not
the most important characteristics of adult
learning (eg, Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark,
2006; Merriam, 2001a).
The article includes 4 sections. The first section includes a brief overview of both adult
learning theory and the 4 adult learning methods that were the focus of analysis in our research syntheses. The second section includes
a summary of the major findings from one
of our meta-analyses of studies of adult learning (Trivette et al., 2009a, 2009b). The third
section includes a description of the key elements of PALS based on the results of all our

PALS
meta-analyses. The fourth section includes a
description of the implications of PALS for
professional development, with particular focus on in-service training opportunities.
ADULT LEARNING THEORY
Adult learning refers to a collection of
theories, methods, and approaches for describing the characteristics of and conditions under which the process of learning
is optimized (Merriam, 2001b; Trotter, 2006;
Yang, 2003). Knowles, Holton, and Swanson
(1998) used the term andragogy to describe
the assumptions and foundations of adult
learning: readiness-to-learn, self-directedness,
active learner participation, and solutioncontent. Knowles (1996) adult learning principles have been used widely to propose
teaching methods and strategies for instructors, teachers, trainers, and others to enhance
learner knowledge acquisition and use (eg,
Imel, 1998; Merriam, 2001a).

165

and facilitator guidance and feedback (Wales

& Stager, 1982). Just-in-time training includes
access to and provision of information, advice, guidance, and so forth in response to
learner requests that are intended to improve
learner performance (Brandenburg & Ellinger,
2003).
Research reviews on the effectiveness of
these different adult learning methods (eg,
Felix, 1989; Showers, Joyce, & Bennett, 1987;
Stephenson, 2003), as well as research reviews of adult learning approaches in general
(eg, Bishop, 1996; Brookfield, 2006; Merriam,
2001a; Smith & DeFrates-Densch, 2008), can
be found scattered throughout the literature.
Most of these reviews have analyzed adult
learning methods at a macrolevel and have
not focused on the features of the methods
and strategies that affect learning. Available research reviews are informative but have not
identified the specific characteristics of adult
learning methods and strategies that best explain what matters most in terms of explaining learner outcomes.

Adult learning methods

The 4 adult learning methods that have
been the focus of our meta-analyses are accelerated learning (Meier, 2000), coaching
(Hargreaves & Dawe, 1990), guided design
(Hancock, Coscarelli, & White, 1983), and
just-in-time training (Beckett, 2000). Each of
the methods, to varying degrees, includes elements that Knowles et al. (1998) and others
(eg, Trotter, 2006) consider the essential features of adult learning. Accelerated learning
includes methods for creating a relaxed emotional state, an orchestrated and multisensory
learning experience, and active learner participation in the learning process (Russell &
Morrow, 1999). Coaching is a . . . method of
transferring skills and expertise from more experienced and knowledgeable practitioners
. . . to less experienced ones (Hargreaves &
Dawe, 1990, p. 230). Guided design is characterized by a decision-making and problemsolving process that includes procedures for
using real-world problems for mastering learning content in the context of group learning

META-ANALYSIS OF ADULT LEARNING

METHODS
Trivette et al. (2009a, 2009b) recently
completed a meta-analysis and research
synthesis of studies of accelerated learning, coaching, guided design, and justin-time training that focused on those
practices that make adult learning effective. (The complete report can be obtained free of charge at www.wbpress.com,
www.practicalevaluation.org or http://tnt.
asu.edu) The meta-analysis is part of a series
of research syntheses on adult learning focusing on the characteristics of the practices that
are associated with learner outcomes (Trivette, 2007; Trivette & Dunst, 2009a, 2009b).
The conduct of the syntheses was guided by
a characteristics-consequences framework
that focuses on unpacking, disentangling,
and identifying the practice characteristics
that are most strongly associated with study
outcomes (Dunst & Trivette, 2009).

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INFANTS & YOUNG CHILDREN/JULYSEPTEMBER 2009

Method
Four searches were conducted, one for
each adult learning method, using the search
procedures described by Lucas and Cutspec (2007). ERIC (Educational Resources
Information Center), Psychological Abstracts
(PsycINFO), Academic Search Elite, Business Source Elite, WorldCAT, Social Sciences
Citation Index, InfoTRAC Expanded Academic ASAP, MEDLINE, OCLC PapersFirst,
and Dissertation Abstracts were searched to
identify studies. These were supplemented
by searches of Ingenta, Google Scholar,
ABI/INFORM Global, the Cochrane databases,
and an EndNote library maintained by the
Puckett Institute. We also conducted manual
searches of seminal papers and all retrieved articles, chapters, books, and journals devoted
to the different adult learning methods. We
also conducted Social Sciences Citation Index
author searches of leaders in the development
of each of the adult learning methods.
Studies were included if (1) the participants
were adult learners (defined as posthigh
school age), (2) sufficient information was included to code the use of different adult learning method characteristics (see the following

text), (3) the adult learning methods were

compared with some control or contrasting
condition, and (4) either a randomized controlled trial or comparison group design was
used to evaluate the effectiveness of the adult
learning methods. Studies were excluded if
the participants were elementary or secondary school students, insufficient information was included about specific elements of
the adult learning procedures, and preexperimental or single-participant research designs
were used (see Trivette & Dunst, 2009b, for
a synthesis of an adult learning method that
includes single-participant design studies).
Findings reported in How People Learn:
Brain, Mind, Experience, and School
(Bransford et al., 2000; Donovan et al., 1999),
a research review on the science of learning,
were used to identify 6 adult learning method
characteristics and to code the studies in the
research synthesis using these characteristics to determine the extent to which the
presence of the characteristics was related to
variations in study outcomes. Table 1 shows
the characteristics that were the focus of
analysis. The 3 main features were planning,
application, and deep understanding. Each

Table 1. Characteristics of the adult learning methods that were the focus of analysis
Features/characteristics
Planning
Introduce
Illustrate
Application
Practice
Evaluate
Deep understanding
Reflection

Mastery

Definition
Engage the learner in a preview of the material, knowledge, or
practice that is the focus of instruction or training
Demonstrate or illustrate the use or applicability of the material,
knowledge, or practice for the learner
Engage the learner in the use of the material, knowledge, or practice
Engage the learner in a process of evaluating the consequence or
outcome of the application of the material, knowledge, or practice
Engage the learner in self-assessment of his or her acquisition of
knowledge and skills as a basis for identifying next steps in the
learning process
Engage the learner in a process of assessing his or her experience in
the context of some conceptual or practical model or framework
or some external set of standards or criteria

PALS
of the main features included 2 practice
characteristics. Planning included methods
and procedures for both: (1) introducing
new knowledge, material, or practices to
learners (eg, class/workshop presentations,
preclass assignments) and (2) illustrating and
demonstrating the use of the knowledge,
material, or practices (eg, demonstrations,
role-playing). Application included methods
and procedures for both: (1) learner applied
use of the knowledge, material, or practices
(eg, learner use of a practice, problem-solving
activities) and (2) learner evaluation of the
outcome or consequence of application (eg,
instructor/learner review, instructor feedback). Deep understanding included methods
and procedures for (1) engaging the learner in
reflection on his or her learning experience
(eg, performance improvement reviews,
group reflection) and (2) self-assessment of
the knowledge and mastery as a foundation
for identifying new learning opportunities
(eg, learner self-assessment, standards-based
assessment). The 6 characteristics are nearly
identical to those described by Graham
and Wedman (1989) as the key features of
effective adult learning practices.
Search results
Seventy-nine studies were located in 66 research reports for the meta-analysis. The studies used either randomized control designs
(n = 58) or nonequivalent comparison group
designs (n = 21). The studies included 3152
experimental group participants and 2988
control or comparison group participants.
The learners included classroom teachers, student teachers, undergraduate students, graduate students, medical personnel, counselors,
English as second language learners, and
business personnel (eg, sales and customer
service personnel). The settings in which the
adult learning methods were implemented
included college classrooms; elementary, junior, and high schools; special education classrooms; hospitals and private physician practices; and various business and work settings.
The learner outcomes in the studies included
teaching practices, foreign language learning,

167

nursing and medical practices, science and

engineering, mathematics and statistics, economics, and rare vocabulary.
Seventy-six studies included the introduction of some type of knowledge, material, or
practices, and 37 studies included the demonstration or illustration of some type of knowledge, material, or practices. Fifty-eight studies
included some type of learner application,
and 31 studies included some type of learner
evaluation of their use of the knowledge, material, or practices. Thirty-three studies included some type of learner reflection, and
29 studies included some type of learner selfassessment of mastery. One-third of the studies evaluated training provided between 1 and
10 hours, one-third of the studies evaluated
training between 11 and 40 hours, and onethird of the studies evaluated training of more
than 40 hours.
Method of analysis
Cohens d effect sizes for the mean difference in the posttest study outcomes
between the experimental groups and the
control or comparison groups were used for
assessing the effectiveness of the adult learning methods. The average Cohens d effect
size was computed for each of the 6 adult
learning method characteristics as well as
type of practice for each characteristic to ascertain which characteristics and practices
accounted for the largest between group differences. The average size of effects and their
95% confidence intervals (CIs) were used for
substantive interpretation. A CI not including
zero indicates that the average effect size is
significantly greater than zero at the .05 level
(Hedges, 1994).
SYNTHESIS FINDINGS
The average effect size (95% CI) for all studies and outcomes combined was 0.58 (95%
CI = 0.450.70), indicating that the adult
learning methods were associated with positive posttest outcome differences between
the experimental and control or comparison

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INFANTS & YOUNG CHILDREN/JULYSEPTEMBER 2009

Figure 1. Average effect size and 95% confidence intervals for the relationship between the 6 adult learning
method characteristics and the study outcomes.

groups. The average effect sizes and 95% CIs

for the individual adult learning methods were
0.86 (95% CI = 0.411.31) for just-in-time
training, 0.68 (95% CI = 0.470.90) for coaching, 0.67 (95% CI = 0.390.95) for guided design, and 0.35 (95% CI = 0.200.51) for accelerated learning.
Adult learning method characteristics
Figure 1 shows the average effect sizes
and 95% CIs for each of the 6 adult learning
method characteristics for all outcomes
measures combined. All of the characteristics
were associated with positive learner outcomes as evidenced by the average sizes of effects and the fact that none of the CIs included
zero. The pattern of results shows that the
more actively involved the learners were in
judging the consequences of their learning experiences (evaluate, reflection, and mastery),
the stronger the relationship between the
adult learning method characteristics and
the study outcomes. This finding highlights
the relative importance of active learner
participation in learning new knowledge or
practice and learner engagement in judging
his or her experience with new material.

In addition to the main results, there were

several other findings that helped elucidate
the conditions under which the adult learning
methods were most effective. Large doses of
learning opportunities distributed over time
increased the effectiveness of the adult learning methods (d = 0.70, 95% CI = 0.500.88).
Instructor- or trainer-guided learning opportunities positively affected learner outcomes
(d = 0.83, 95% CI = 0.521.14).
Adult learning method practices
Table 2 shows the results for the different
practices used for each of the adult learning
method practices. All of the practices, except
a combination of imagery and dramatic readings for introducing new information, were
significantly related to the study outcomes.
Introduction of the learning topic
Two methods proved to be the most effective in terms of introducing new knowledge,
material, or practices to the learners: (1) outof-class activities and self-instruction and (2)
warm-up exercises and preclass quizzes. Both
practices actively involved learners in some
type of exercise or task prior to instructor

PALS

169

Table 2. Effect sizes for the different adult learning method characteristics and practices
Number
Characteristics/practices
Introducing information
Preclass exercises
Out-of-class activities/self-instruction
Classroom/workshop lectures
Dramatic readings
Imagery
Dramatic readings/imagery
Illustrate/demonstrate
Learner input
Role-playing/simulation
Real-life example/real life + role-playing
Instructional video
Practicing
Real-life application + role-playing
Problem-solving tasks
Real-life application
Learning games/writing exercises
Role-playing (skits, plays)
Evaluation
Assess strengths/weaknesses
Review experience/make changes
Reflection
Performance improvement
Journaling/behavior suggestion
Group discussion about feedback
Mastery
Standards-based assessment
Self-assessment

Studies Effect sizes

Cohens d mean 95% Confidence

effect size
interval

9
12
26
18
7
4

9
20
108
40
18
11

1.02
0.76
0.68
0.35
0.34
0.15

0.631.41
0.441.09
0.470.89
0.130.57
0.080.59
0.330.62

6
20
6
5

6
64
10
49

0.89
0.87
0.67
0.33

0.281.51
0.581.17
0.271.07
0.090.59

5
16
17
9
11

20
29
83
11
35

1.10
0.67
0.58
0.55
0.41

0.481.72
0.390.95
0.350.81
0.110.99
0.210.62

14
19

48
35

0.96
0.60

0.671.26
0.360.83

9
8
16

34
17
29

1.07
0.75
0.67

0.691.45
0.491.00
0.390.95

13
16

44
29

0.76
0.67

0.421.10
0.390.95

presentation or explanation of the learning

topic as a means of introducing new information or practice. Classroom lectures were also
significantly related to the study outcomes but
not as strongly as active learner participation
in having them introduced to the learning
topic.
Illustrating the learning topic
Two methods for illustrating the use of new
knowledge, material, or practices were most
strongly related to the study outcomes: (1) instructor use of role-playing or simulations and
(2) incorporating learner input into demonstrating the applicability of the new knowledge, material, or practices. A combination
of real-life demonstrations and role-plays also

proved to be an effective strategy for illustrating the learning topic.

Practicing the use of the learning topic
A combination of real-life application and
role-plays proved to be the most effective
method for engaging learners in the use of
the newly learned knowledge, material, or
practice. Problem-solving tasks, real-life application, and some type of learning game or
writing exercises also proved to be highly
effective for engaging learners in application.
Evaluating the consequences
of application
The 2 methods for engaging learners in the
evaluation of the consequences of their use

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INFANTS & YOUNG CHILDREN/JULYSEPTEMBER 2009

of the new knowledge, material, or practices

proved equally effective: (1) assessing learner
strengths and weaknesses related to the application experience and (2) reviewing learner
solutions to problems or answers to quizzes
about their experiences.
Reflection on learner acquisition
Engaging the learner in a process of determining the next steps in learning targeted
knowledge or practice was most effective
(performance improvement). Engaging learners in journaling about their newly acquired
knowledge and skills and positive learner
feedback were also effective strategies for
learner reflection. Group reflection on instructor feedback or peer feedback was an effective method of reflection as well.
Learner assessment of mastery
Actively involving learners in some type of
self-assessment of their mastery of the learning topic and having learners use a set of a priori identified standards or external criteria for
assessing their learning were both strongly related to the study outcomes for assessing their
performance.

Combined influences of the adult

learning method characteristics
The extent to which the simultaneous presence or use of the different adult learning
method characteristics and practices was related to the study outcomes was determined
by summing the number of characteristics
used per study and relating variations in this
measure to learner outcomes. The presence
of a characteristic was limited to only those
practices that were associated with positive
learner consequences (see Trivette et al.,
2009a, 2009b). The average number of characteristics per study was 2.18 (SD = 1.63,
range = 05) with this metric.
Figure 2 shows the results for the relationship between the number of practice
characteristics and the learner outcomes.
The more adult learning method characteristics that were used, the larger the sizes of
effects between the practices and the study
outcomes. Studies in which none or only one
characteristic was used had little or no effect
on learner outcomes. Studies that included
2, 3, or 4 characteristics were associated
with an average effect size of about 0.75.
In those cases in which 5 adult learning

Figure 2. Average effect sizes and 95% confidence interval for the relationship between the number of
the different adult learning method characteristics included in a study and the learner outcomes.

PALS
method characteristics were used, the average effect size was about 1.25, indicating
that there were value-added benefits of adult
learning methods that included multiple
characteristics.
Discussion
The results briefly described here, and reported in detail in Trivette et al. (2009a,
2009b), showed that all 6 adult learning
method characteristics were associated with
more positive learner outcomes and that adult
learning methods that more actively involved
learners in using, processing, and evaluating
their mastery of newly acquired knowledge
and skills were most effective. In addition,
the more characteristics that were incorporated into training opportunities, the more the
adult learning methods had optimal positive
consequences. Results from our research synthesis extend findings by other investigators
by isolating what matters most in terms of
adult learning methods being effective and
the conditions under which the methods
are likely to have optimal positive learner
consequences.

171

PARTICIPATORY ADULT LEARNING

STRATEGY
PALS model
The findings from the meta-analysis of
adult learning studies by Trivette et al.
(2009a, 2009b), our other research syntheses
on adult learning (Trivette, 2007; Trivette &
Dunst, 2009a, 2009b), and experiences developing, implementing, and evaluating the
effectiveness of in-service training projects
(eg, Wilson & Raab, 1997) have resulted
in the development of a procedure we call
PALS. The PALS model is shown in Figure 3.
The 4-phase process includes instructor
or trainer introduction and illustration of
targeted knowledge or practice, trainee or
practitioner application of the knowledge or
practice and their evaluation of their experience, trainee or practitioner reflection on and
assessment of mastery of the knowledge or
practice to promote informed understanding,
and learner use of informed understanding
to decide next steps in the learning process
to further develop learner understanding,
use, and mastery. A key ingredient of PALS is

Figure 3. Major components of PALS (Participatory Adult Learning Strategy) for active learner involvement
in a learning opportunity.

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INFANTS & YOUNG CHILDREN/JULYSEPTEMBER 2009

Table 3. Trainer and trainee roles in the different phases of PALS

PALS phases

Trainer roles

Trainee roles

Introduction

Preview learning topic

Describe key elements
Provide examples
Include trainee input
Illustrate application
Demonstrate application

Complete pretraining preview

Preclass/workshop exercises
Provide input on the learning topic
In-class/workshop warm-up exercises

Application

Facilitate application
Observe trainee application
Provide in vivo feedback/
guidance
Facilitate learner assessment
of options

Provide examples of application

Trainee role-playing, games, etc
Implement/practice use of the
subject matter
Evaluate use of the knowledge
or practice

Informed understanding Establish learning standards

Engage learners in self-assessment
Provide guidance to learners
Provide behavioral suggestions

Standards-based evaluation
Conduct self-assessment
Trainer-guided learner reflection
Journaling
Group discussions of understanding

Repeat Learning
Process

Joint planning
Identify needed information/
experiences
Trainer/trainee mentoring

Joint planning
Trainer guidance
Trainer/trainee mentoring

active learner involvement in all phases of the

learning process that is explicitly intended to
have capacity-building consequences (Jarvis,
1995; Kolb, 1984).
PALS practices
Table 3 shows the instructor/trainer and
learner/trainee practices at each phase of
PALS that were identified from our research
syntheses of the characteristics of adult learning that contributed to optimal benefits. The
different practices, although listed separately
for trainers and trainees, are best thought of
as bidirectional where instructor and learner
interactions are the contexts for learning
and mastering new knowledge and skills
(Dickover, 2002; Galbraith, 1991; Garrison &
Archer, 2000).
The PALS framework includes the roles
both trainers and trainees play in the learning

process. Trainers elicit input from trainees before, during, and after training sessions and incorporate learner input into describing and illustrating the targeted knowledge or practice.
Trainers promote trainee use of the knowledge or practice and provide in vivo suggestions, feedback, guidance, etc. to elicit trainee
feedback and evaluation of their experiences.
Trainers engage trainees in a self-assessment
of their mastery with standards-based tools
(eg, performance checklists), a priori mastery
criteria, or other methods (eg, journaling),
and together with the trainees reflect on the
totality of the learners experiences. The outcome from performance assessment and reflection is the identification of the next steps
in the learning process. The learner process is
repeated in as many times and ways as possible to further develop learner knowledge and
skills.

PALS
Key PALS features
Three features of PALS stand out as different from other approaches to instruction and
training. The first has to do with the fact that
learners do not need to fully understand everything about a knowledge base or practice
to be able to use and evaluate the knowledge
or practice to develop a better understanding
of either (Kolb, 1984). PALS introduces information in an incremental fashion so that new
learning builds on or adds to existing knowledge and skills (Jarvis, 1995).
The second feature of PALS that makes the
learning process different in that as many
learning opportunities as possible are afforded to learners during any one learning session in which this happens repeatedly over
time. The multiple learning opportunities afforded within a session either or both build
on the same subject matter or illustrate how
one set of knowledge or practice is related to
another knowledge base or practice. The repeated learning opportunities afforded learners over time provide a foundation for continuous learning and deeper and more informed
understanding of the knowledge or practice
that is the focus of PALS.
The third feature of PALS that makes it different from other adult learning methods is
the role instructors and trainers play in facilitating learner involvement in the learning process. Instructors or trainers neither direct learning nor encourage only self-directed
or discovery learning but rather guide learning based on observations of learners experiences and evaluation of the use of the knowledge or practice and learner self-assessment
of understanding against some standards or a
priori established criteria. According to Bransford et al. (2000), for example,
A common misconception [of] constructionist
theories of knowing (that existing knowledge is
used to build new knowledge) is that teachers
should never tell [learners] anything directly, but,
instead, should always allow them to construct
knowledge for themselves. This perspective confuses a theory of pedagogy (teaching) with a theory
of knowing . . . . There are times when [instructor
guided learning] can work extremely well. (p. 11)

173

IMPLICATIONS FOR IN-SERVICE

TRAINING
PALS has evolved from more than
20 years of research and practice and,
more recently, from our meta-analyses of
different adult learning methods. Versions of
PALS have been used to teach practitioners
family systems intervention practices (Dunst,
Trivette, & Deal, 1988), capacity-building,
help-giving practices (Trivette & Dunst,
2007), preschool classroom practices (Wilson
& Raab, 1997), early childhood intervention
practices (Raab, Dunst, Wilson, & Parkey, in
press), and natural environment practices
(Dunst et al., 2001). The adult learning
method is now at a point where we know
both the characteristics of and conditions
under which PALS is likely to be most effective. As part of the use of PALS to promote
practitioner adoption and use of family
systems intervention practices, for example,
we found that the practices were still being
used more than 10 years after the training
was completed (Trivette & Dunst, 2000).
PALS can be easily used for planning, implementing, and evaluating in-service training (as well as other types of instruction) to
the extent that training is provided on multiple occasions and multiple learning opportunities are afforded within any one training
session. The PALS model (Fig 3) and associated practices (Table 3) can help facilitate
in-service training opportunities by ensuring
that all adult learning phases are covered and
practices informed by research are used to
provide or conduct training.
The version of PALS described in this
article is currently being used as part of
the Center for Early Literacy Learning
(www.earlyliteracylearning.org) and the
Center for Everyday Child Language Learning
(www.cecll.org) to promote practitioner
and parent adoption of evidence-based
child literacy, communication, and language
learning practices. In both applications, the
kinds of practices listed in Table 2 are used to
introduce the center models and associated
practices to learners, engage them in the

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INFANTS & YOUNG CHILDREN/JULYSEPTEMBER 2009

use and evaluation of the targeted practices,

have the learners assess their knowledge and
practice against performance standards, and
together with the trainers, plan next steps for
engaging in new learning opportunities to
further improve knowledge and practice.
CONCLUSION
The manner in which training opportunities should be afforded to students, practitioners, and other learners has been the focus of
theory and practice for hundreds of years (eg,
Hiemstra, 1995; Hudson, 1851). Professional
in-service training as currently practiced falls
along a continuum from 1-time didactic workshops to informal discovery or experiential

learning. Findings reported in this article

point to a middle ground where professional
development personnel structure learning opportunities for learners in which learners are
actively involved and take responsibility for
learning and mastering targeted knowledge
and practice. PALS was specifically developed
to include key elements of such an approach
to in-service training informed by research
evidence on different adult learning methods. The PALS model and associated practices
should therefore prove useful for in-service
training, as well as other types of instruction
in which the focus is on the use of evidencebased practices for promoting learner understanding and use of the targeted knowledge or
practice.

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