WORLD METEOROLOGICAL ORGANIZATION

GUIDELINES FOR THE

EDUCATION AND
TRAINING OF PERSONNEL
IN METEOROLOGY AND
OPERATIONAL HYDROLOGY
VOLUME I: METEOROLOGY

Editors: : I. F. Drãghici, G. V. Necco, R. W. Riddaway,

J. T. Snow, C. Billard, L. A. Ogallo

Prepared under the guidance of the

Executive Council Panel of Experts on
Education and Training
10.0 360
354(1990)
7.5 320

5.0 280

2.5 240

0.0 200

-2.5 160

-5.0 120

-7.5 80

-10.0 40
160 120 80 40 0

FOURTH EDITION

WMO-No. 258
Secretariat of the World Meteorological Organization
Geneva – Switzerland
WORLD METEOROLOGICAL ORGANIZATION

GUIDELINES FOR THE

EDUCATION AND
TRAINING OF PERSONNEL
IN METEOROLOGY AND
OPERATIONAL HYDROLOGY
VOLUME I: METEOROLOGY

Editors: : I. F. Drãghici, G. V. Necco, R. W. Riddaway,

J. T. Snow, C. Billard, L. A. Ogallo

Prepared under the guidance of the

Executive Council Panel of Experts on
Education and Training

FOURTH EDITION

WMO-No. 258
Secretariat of the World Meteorological Organization
Geneva – Switzerland
2001
© 2001, World Meteorological Organization
ISBN 92-63--14258-0

NOTE
The designations employed and the presentation of material in this publication do not imply
the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Secretariat of the World
Meteorological Organization concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or
area, or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

FOREWORD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii

PREFACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi

PART A GUIDANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv

CHAPTER 1 WMO CLASSIFICATION OF PERSONNEL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1 Background information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Need for change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Basic assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Subsequent consultations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Classification of personnel in meteorology and hydrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Purposes of the new classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Categories of personnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Career progression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Relation to the previous classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3 Meteorological personnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Initial qualification of Meteorologists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Initial qualification of Meteorological Technicians . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Career levels for Meteorologists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Career levels for Meteorological Technicians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Collective abilities and transferable skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

CHAPTER 2 THE DOMAIN OF METEOROLOGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

2.1 Atmospheric sciences – breadth and depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Mathematics, physics and chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Basic meteorological disciplines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Earth System Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2 Meteorological profession – competency requirements . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Training for job-competency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Weather and climate – observing, monitoring and forecasting . . . 13
Meteorological applications and public services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Meteorology-support branches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.3 Academic specialities and job-specializations – the gap . . . . . . . . . . . 21

CHAPTER 3 BASIC INSTRUCTION PACKAGE FOR METEOROLOGISTS (BIP-M) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

3.1 Requisite topics in mathematics and physical sciences . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Mathematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Complementary requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.2 Compulsory topics in atmospheric sciences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Physical meteorology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Dynamic meteorology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Synoptic meteorology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Climatology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.3 Elective fields of specialisation in meteorology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Aeronautical meteorology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Agricultural meteorology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Atmospheric chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Climate monitoring and prediction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

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GUIDELINES FOR THE EDUCATION AND TRAINING OF PERSONNEL IN METEOROLOGY AND OPERATIONAL HYDROLOGY

Mesoscale meteorology and weather forecasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

Radar meteorology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Satellite meteorology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Tropical weather and climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Urban meteorology and air pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.4 Other fields of specialization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Biometeorology and human health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Boundary layer meteorology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Clouds and precipitation; weather modification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Economic meteorology; marketing and management . . . . . . . . . . 28
General hydrology and hydrometeorology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
General oceanography and marine meteorology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Middle-upper atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Numerical methods for mathematical modelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.5 Beyond the BIP-M . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Annex: Syllabus example for dynamic meteorology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

CHAPTER 4 BASIC INSTRUCTION PACKAGE FOR METEOROLOGICAL TECHNICIANS (BIP-MT) 33

4.1 Requisite topics in basic sciences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Mathematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Communication skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
4.2 Compulsory topics in general meteorology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Introductory physical and dynamical meteorology . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Elements of synoptic meteorology and climatology . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Meteorological instruments and methods of observation . . . . . . . 34
4.3 Elective options in operational meteorology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Synoptic observations and measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Other specialised observations and measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Remote sounding of the atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Aeronautical meteorology for technicians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.4 Beyond the BIP-MT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Annex: Syllabus example for aeronautical meteorology - technician level . . 36

CHAPTER 5 CONTINUING EDUCATION AND TRAINING (CET) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Factors affecting NMSs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
The learning organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Strategic approach to training and development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
5.2 Basic concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Continuing Education and Training (CET) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Training and development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
5.3 Getting the most from CET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Importance of CET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Making a success of CET activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
5.4 CET Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
General issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Delivery of CET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
5.5 Some trends in CET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Training plans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Shorter courses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Vocational qualification and accreditation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Recruitment and induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Training the instructor and supervisor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
5.6 Final remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

iv
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

PART B EXAMPLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

CHAPTER 6 EXAMPLES OF BASIC INSTRUCTION PACKAGES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

6.1 Example of a complete BIP-M programme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Attributes of Bachelor's degree programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Preparation for selected careers in atmospheric science . . . . . . . . . 55
6.2 Example of a condensed BIP-M programme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Examinations scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Core courses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
6.3 Example of a complete BIP-MT programme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Aims and organisation of the programme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Description of courses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Training periods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Personal project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
6.4 Example of a condensed BIP-MT programme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Meteorology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Instruments and methods of observation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Coding of surface observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

CHAPTER 7 EXAMPLES OF ACTUAL JOB-COMPETENCY REQUIREMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

7.1 Weather analysis and forecasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Producing a generic forecast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Producing forecasts for the user . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Providing any specialist or support work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Managing the working environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
7.2 Climate monitoring and prediction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Climate monitoring and prediction services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Climate in the area of responsibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Relationship between large-scale climate and climate in the area
of responsibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Prediction of climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Methods used in climate monitoring and prediction . . . . . . . . . . 74
Verification of forecast (prediction) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Data used in climate monitoring and prediction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Climate monitoring operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Climate prediction operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Provision and explanation of climate information . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
7.3 Observations and measurements; instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Branch management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Network management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Observing standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Systems engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Provisioning and stores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Project management and planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Measurement standards; instrument calibration; quality assurance 79
Field installation and maintenance engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
7.4 Information technology and data processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Information systems operating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Database administration and programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Networking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
International meteorological telecommunication . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Operating/application systems design and maintenance . . . . . . . . 82
Software engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
7.5 Agrometeorology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Developing weather forecasts for agriculture; products for
the customer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

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GUIDELINES FOR THE EDUCATION AND TRAINING OF PERSONNEL IN METEOROLOGY AND OPERATIONAL HYDROLOGY

Developing an agrometeorological advisory service . . . . . . . . . . . 85

Computer-based information system for operational application . 87
7.6 Aeronautical meteorology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Major hazards to aviation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Forecasting skills for aviation icing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Forecasting skills for fog and low stratus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Tools for forecasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Product dissemination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Routine duties at a regional aeronautical meteorological office . . . 93
Knowledge and skills in weather watch and monitoring . . . . . . . . 94
Skills in communicating with central offices and neighbouring
stations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Deriving user-oriented forecast and warning products . . . . . . . . . 95
Oral briefings to pilots and dispatchers; liaison with ATS . . . . . . . 96
Ongoing user training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
7.7 Marine meteorology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Marine forecasts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Observing the characteristics of BLA and SLO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Regime descriptions of marine areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Investigation of the BLA-SLO system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Preparation of the products for the customer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Performing other duties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
7.8 Environmental meteorology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Understanding the role of the NMHSs in addressing environmental
issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Understanding environmental sciences and their applications . . . 100
Providing services; delivery of scientific advice and information . 101
Performing other related duties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
7.9 Satellite meteorology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Core competency requirements in satellite meteorology . . . . . . . . 104
Satellite Meteorology Branch (SMB) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

APPENDICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
APPENDIX 1 PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION OF WMO-NO. 258 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

APPENDIX 2 THE FORMER CLASSES OF METEOROLOGICAL PERSONNEL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

Class I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Class II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Class III . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Class IV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

APPENDIX 3 SURVEY ON THE REVISION OF WMO-NO. 258 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116

The WMO Survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Members’ opinions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116

APPENDIX 4 GLOSSARY OF TERMS AND ABBREVIATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHIC REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

vi
FOREWORD

Availability of adequately trained human resources in any institution is most

critical to its success; and education and training play a significant role in this
connection. This is a fundamental view adhered to by the World Meteorological
Organization (WMO). Indeed, one of the purposes of WMO, as stated in its
Convention, is to encourage training in meteorology and in related fields and to
assist in coordinating the international aspects of such training. Since its
inception in 1950, WMO has been contributing significantly to the promotion of
pertinent education and training activities.

The Education and Training Programme (ETRP) is one of WMO’s major scientific
and technical Programmes. Through this Programme, WMO activities have played
a vital role in the development and strengthening of the National Meteorological
and Hydrological Services (NMHSs), especially in the developing world. This has
been accomplished through the education and training of personnel of these
Services in relevant fields of meteorology, hydrology and other related areas; as
well as through the provision of appropriate training support. The promotion of
capacity building and human resources development have been key areas under
the ETRP. This has contributed to bridging the gap between the level of services
provided by NMHSs in the developed countries, on the one hand, and that
provided in developing countries and countries with economies in transition, on
the other hand.

Recent WMO activities in education and training include redefining its classifica-
tion of meteorological and hydrological personnel, strengthening the role of
WMO Regional Meteorological Training Centres, training of trainers, provision of
technical support, organization of training events, implementation of the fellow-
ship programme, and the preparation of training publications, such as this
publication entitled Guidelines for the Education and Training of Personnel in
Meteorology and Operational Hydrology.

These activities are undertaken to respond to trends, developments and evolving

needs brought about by changing socio-economic circumstances such as globaliza-
tion and rapid technological advances, including information and communications
technology. These also respond to the call for improved effectiveness and efficiency
in the management of NMHSs and the delivery of relevant services.

Even now at the beginning of the twenty-first century, formidable additional chal-
lenges and opportunities are already on the horizon. Meeting those new
challenges and availing of emerging opportunities will require better educated and
skilled meteorological and hydrological personnel. To meet this evident need,
considerable improvements in education and training methods, tools and atti-
tudes are necessary. This will entail:

• Enhancing career-long continuing education and training, to maintain and

enhance competency in a world of rapid scientific and technological
advancements, and complex socio-economic challenges;

• Expanding the use of distance teaching and learning technology and increas-
ing the opportunities for self-training, within the broader culture of lifelong
learning;

• Re-directing more and more the professional instruction from formal train-
ing attestations or certificates to proven job-competency.

vii
GUIDELINES FOR THE EDUCATION AND TRAINING OF PERSONNEL IN METEOROLOGY AND OPERATIONAL HYDROLOGY

It is in this general context that the former edition of this publication (WMO-No.
258), which contained the traditional WMO classification of meteorological and
hydrological personnel as well as the curricula for their education and training,
has been substantively revised. This present edition, the fourth, aims at providing
reference guidelines, which should be:

• Applicable in an international context, in particular in planning interna-

tional training events and in assessing candidates for those events, including
those funded under the WMO Programmes;

• Adaptable to a national context, in particular in National Meteorological and

Hydrological Services from developing countries.

Accordingly, this new edition of the Guidelines for the Education and Training of
Personnel in Meteorology and Operational Hydrology provides an international frame-
work for a common understanding of the basic qualifications required of
individuals performing identified operational and related functions. It should also
assist NMHSs in designing particular personnel categorization systems and train-
ing programmes applicable to their specific needs.

I wish to take this opportunity to convey the gratitude of the Organization to the
members of the Executive Council Panel of Experts on Education and Training,
and particularly to its Chairman Dr J.W. Zillman, for guiding the preparation of
this publication. I would also like to thank presidents of Technical Commissions,
who have offered their advice and proposed experts that have contributed samples
of job-competency requirements in individual National Meteorological Services.

The Secretariat was assisted in the preparation of these Guidelines by Mr C. Billard

(France), Prof. L.A. Ogallo (Kenya), Dr R.W. Riddaway (UK), and Prof. J.T. Snow
(USA), to whom I express my thanks. I am also grateful to Prof. R.P. Pearce (UK)
for reviewing an early version of the manuscript, and to Prof. Maria A.F. da Silva
Dias (Brazil) for reviewing the final manuscript.

I would also like to take this occasion to recall with gratitude the contribution of
the persons who have served in the EC Panel of Experts on Education and Training
since its establishment in 1965. They have been led by chairpersons who have
contributed much toward the progress we see presently. These include Prof. J. Van
Mieghem (Belgium) who served as the first chairman. He was succeeded in 1971
by Dr Alf Nyberg (Sweden) who served in that capacity until 1979 when Dr R.L.
Kintanar (Philippines) assumed the chairmanship. The high prestige accorded the
Panel is demonstrated by the fact that Dr Nyberg and Dr Kintanar each served
eight years as Presidents of WMO.

The successful work in education and training has been supported in a highly
satisfactory manner in the WMO Secretariat. The work carried out by the
Secretariat owes much to Dr H. Taba (Iran). He began and nurtured the initial
small unit established in 1964, which dealt with all training matters under the
supervision of the Secretary-General. This unit served as nucleus around which the
Secretariat’s efforts in all aspects of education and training were undertaken. There
followed a rapid expansion of training activities and training became part of a
reorganized Research, Education and Training Division. Subsequently, in 1976, it
became necessary to establish a separate Education and Training Department
within the WMO Secretariat. This is a matter of personal interest to me, having
had the honour of serving as its Director from 1978 to 1983, prior to assuming the
responsibilities of WMO Secretary-General.

Finally, the range of topics addressed in the “Guidelines” has profited much from
the experiences of our Member countries, particularly their NMHSs, which they

viii
FOREWORD

have generously shared. I wish to pay special tribute to the Permanent

Representatives of Members of WMO who have encouraged and contributed to
the preparation of this publication. I hope that this publication will be of partic-
ular assistance to them, as well as to the wider meteorological and hydrological
community.

(G.O.P. Obasi)
Secretary-General
World Meteorological Organization

ix
PREFACE

Although the establishment of standards and guidelines for the education and
training of scientific and technical staff to carry out the work of the National
Meteorological and Hydrological Services (NMHSs) of both developing and devel-
oped countries has always been one of the highest priorities of the World
Meteorological Organization (WMO), training is the only basic purpose of WMO
set down in its Convention which has never been assigned for implementation by
a special Technical Commission on which all WMO Members can be represented.

Accordingly, following a number of important preparatory initiatives through the

1950s and early 1960s, the then WMO Executive Committee (EC), in 1965, estab-
lished an EC Panel of Experts on Education and Training chaired by the
distinguished meteorological researcher and educator, Professor Jacques Van
Mieghen of Belgium to provide overall guidance and coordination of the educa-
tion and training activities of the Organization. In 1966, the EC requested the
Panel to ‘prepare a comprehensive guide containing syllabi for both basic and
specialized fields of meteorological training’. In 1969, the first edition of what has
now become widely known simply as WMO-No. 258 on Guidelines for the
Education and Training of Meteorological Personnel was published by WMO, setting
out a four-class (I-IV) system for the classification of meteorological personnel and
syllabi for their education and training. In his Preface to the first edition (repro-
duced as Appendix 1 to this publication), Professor Van Mieghen explained the
background to the development of the Guidelines and the philosophy that shaped
their preparation.

Over the years since 1969 and following amendment of the WMO Convention in
1975 to include responsibility for operational hydrology, two further editions of
WMO-No. 258 were issued, in 1977 and 1984, under the title Guidelines for the
Education and Training of Personnel in Meteorology and Operational Hydrology; and
through the generous contribution of many distinguished authors, the WMO has
sponsored the preparation of a series of vitally important training publications,
the so-called Blue Series, to assist the teaching staff of the WMO Regional
Meteorological Training Centres (RMTCs) and the training institutions of individual
National Meteorological Services (NMSs), as well as the broader academic meteor-
ological and hydrological communities; in the education and training of students
to the standards required for the effective discharge of their responsibilities in
support of the safety and efficiency of international shipping and aviation as well
as the full range of users of meteorological and hydrological services at the
national level. While respecting the prerogative of individual countries to set their
own detailed standards and syllabi, and therefore not carrying the same legal
status of a Guide, as defined by Resolution 18 of the Second World Meteorological
Congress, the WMO-No. 258 has, under the auspices of the now Executive
Council (EC) Panel, whose membership has included many distinguished experts
in meteorological and hydrological education and training, provided the univer-
sally recognized framework for training activities in line with Article 2 (f) of the
WMO Convention. It has, over several decades, played a profoundly important
role in shaping the education and training of the staff of the NMHSs of the vast
majority of the Member States and Territories of WMO.

Already by 1982, however, the EC had concluded that ‘in view of the various
changes and developments which have taken place during the last fifteen years,
there was now a need to review the definitions of the Class I, II, III and IV cate-
gorisation of meteorological personnel’. Extensive consultations were accordingly
initiated, both directly with Members through their Permanent Representatives

xi
GUIDELINES FOR THE EDUCATION AND TRAINING OF PERSONNEL IN METEOROLOGY AND OPERATIONAL HYDROLOGY

with WMO and indirectly through the Technical Commissions on desirable

amendments to the classification of meteorological personnel. But, since no clear
consensus emerged on an overall new approach, and with a majority of Members
inclined to maintain the four-class system for the time being, only minor amend-
ments were introduced to the class definitions (see Supplement No. 1 to the third
edition, February 1987) and a few additional topics were introduced into the mete-
orological telecommunications syllabus (Supplement No. 2, March 1987).

Proposals for more substantial revision of the classification of meteorological

personnel emerged again at the Eleventh World Meteorological Congress in 1991
and the Twelfth Congress in 1995. Subsequently a worldwide gathering of mete-
orological educators and trainers participating in the WMO/Météo France
Symposium on Curriculum Needs Beyond 2000 in Toulouse in 1995 recommended
a revision of the four-class system; a multidisciplinary approach to curriculum
with more flexibility and receptivity to change; and phasing of education and
training to sustain better career progression.

In response to these developments, the EC Panel of Experts on Education and

Training, at its sixteenth session in Nanjing in April 1996 reviewed the full range
of issues associated with the classification, education and training of meteoro-
logical and hydrological personnel in the light of the major changes taking place
in international meteorology and hydrology, and developed initial proposals for
the preparation of a new, fourth, edition of WMO-No. 258. The Panel recognized
that the impacts of economic globalization on the operation of NMHSs, coupled
with the greatly increased focus on natural disaster reduction, interdisciplinarity
in the study of climate and environmental issues, and especially on the overall
goals of sustainability, would require more broadly and expertly educated person-
nel with greater flexibility for development across the diverse areas of
responsibility of NMHSs in the early decades of the twenty-first century. It also
foresaw the need for more focused professional training of user-oriented NMHS
personnel working in the major areas of application of meteorological, hydrolog-
ical and related service provision. The Panel concluded that the classification
system and curricula of WMO-No. 258 was in need of major revision. It requested
the Education and Training Department of the WMO Secretariat to begin work on
options for a new classification system and new approaches to development of
education and training curricula.

Following extensive consultation with directors of RMTCs, directors, lecturers and

instructors from a number of recognized NMS training institutions and universi-
ties as well as with the members of the Panel, the Secretariat developed proposals
for a new classification system and curricula, which were canvassed with all
Members of WMO during 1997. The consolidated proposal developed by the
Secretariat on the basis of Members’ responses was reviewed, revised and endorsed
by the Panel at its seventeenth session in January 1998 and approved by the fiftieth
session of the EC in June 1998. The proposal involved transition to a simplified
two-tiered classification system common to both meteorology and operational
hydrology, separate self-contained volumes of WMO-No. 258 for Meteorology
(Volume I) and Hydrology (Volume II), and the establishment of Editorial Task
Forces (ETF) to prepare the detailed curricula and oversight the preparation of the
separate volumes.

At its eighteenth session in January 1999, the Panel reviewed the draft text of
Volume I (Meteorology) prepared by the ETF and proposed a number of revisions.
On the basis of further input from members of the Panel and in the light of views
expressed by a number of delegations during the Thirteenth World Meteorological
Congress in May 1999, a final draft text was submitted for review by an inde-
pendent expert in early 2000 and further revised following his reactions and
recommendations before being again considered by the Panel at its nineteenth
session in April 2000. The Panel agreed that, in view of the major changes

xii
 PREFACE

envisaged to the overall structure of meteorological education and training and

detailed curricula in line with the new classification system, it was important that
there be the opportunity for final review by Members and the full range of inter-
ested experts including the directors of all RMTCs. Given that the new
classification system approved by Thirteenth Congress came into effect on 1
January 2001, it was decided, therefore, to produce first a preliminary issue of the
fourth edition as a Departmental publication. Copies of this preliminary issue
were distributed (June-July 2000), to all potential readers, for information and
possible comments. The manuscript was again revised by the ETF, in the light of
comments and suggestions received by the Secretariat before 31 December 2000.

The main features of this fourth edition of WMO-No 258, which in principle
should meet the agreement of a large majority of WMO Members, is being issued
now as a formal WMO Programme Support publication, which may be summa-
rized as follows:

(a) It is written in terms of the new classification system, common to both meteor-
ology and hydrology, which recognizes just two categories of personnel – graduate
professionals and technicians – within each of which there are three career devel-
opment levels (entry level, mid level and senior level);

(b) The job-entry-level qualification of personnel assumes the successful completion

of a Basic Instruction Package (BIP) specifically designed for Meteorologists (BIP-M),
Hydrologists (BIP-H), for Meteorological Technicians (BIP-MT), and Hydrological
Technicians (BIP-HT);

(c) It will consist of two separate volumes: Volume I (Meteorology); and Volume II
(Hydrology). Volume I is the present volume and Volume II is currently under
preparation under the guidance of a separate ETF and with the involvement of
other hydrology-related organizations in addition to WMO.

This Volume I (Meteorology) consists of two Parts, Part A covering chapters 1 to 5

and Part B covering chapters 6 and 7; and four appendices. Chapter 1 describes the
origins and essential features of the new system for classification of meteorologi-
cal and hydrological personnel and elaborates on the new approach for
meteorological personnel. Chapter 2 introduces the basic disciplines involved in
meteorology, the main fields of specialization and the broader field of earth
system science; it also outlines the essential functions of an NMS and the main
competencies involved in its operation. Chapters 3 and 4 describe the Basic
Instruction Packages (BIP) for university-level graduate Meteorologists (BIP-M)
and for non-graduate Meteorological Technicians (BIP-MT) respectively. Chapter 5
presents the essential concepts and strategy for continuing education and training
in an NMS. Chapter 6 provides two samples of BIP-M and two samples of BIP-MT.
Chapter 7 provides, in turn, a set of examples of job-competency requirements of
each of the main branches of activities encountered in a typical NMS as a stimu-
lus and aid to managers, and gives instructions in defining and elaborating the
requirements for their own purposes. Appendix 1 reproduces the Preface to the
first edition of WMO-No. 258 while Appendix 2 describes the former Class I-IV
system for classification of meteorological personnel on the basis of extracts from
the third edition. Appendix 3 summarizes Members’ replies to the WMO
Questionnaire of 26 March 1997 on the revision of the classification and curric-
ula. Appendix 4 contains a short glossary of key education and training terms. It
is followed by a selected bibliography.

I wish to express the appreciation of the EC Panel to all those who have
contributed to the drafting of this volume; especially the six members of the
Editorial Task Force, Mr C. Billard (France), Dr I. Drãghici (WMO Secretariat), Dr
G.V. Necco (WMO Secretariat), Prof. L.A. Ogallo (Kenya), Dr R.W. Riddaway (UK)
and Prof. J.T. Snow (USA), for their sustained efforts in the actual writing and

xiii
GUIDELINES FOR THE EDUCATION AND TRAINING OF PERSONNEL IN METEOROLOGY AND OPERATIONAL HYDROLOGY

reviewing of the text. I also appreciate the valuable contribution of the two exter-
nal reviewers, Prof. R.P. Pearce (UK) and Prof. Maria A.F. da Silva Dias (Brazil).

I also wish to take the opportunity to place on record my appreciation to all those
present and past members of the Panel: Mr H. Abu-Taleb (Egypt), Mr J.P. Chalon
(France), Dr M. Diarra (Niger), Dr C. Garcia-Legaz (Spain), Mr F. Gnoumou (Niger),
Dr S. Khodkin (Russia), Mr A. Lagha (Algeria), Mr H. Pinheiro (Brazil), Prof. R.
Quintana-Gomez (Venezuela), Dr R. Riddaway (UK), Mr D. Rousseau (France),
Dr T. Spangler (US), Prof. Sun Zhaobo (China), and Prof. A. Van Der Beken
(Belgium) whose experience and insight into the many facets of meteorological
and hydrological education and training have enabled the WMO to address this
complex, but vitally important, task so constructively and productively over the
past six years.

(Dr J. W. Zillman)
Chairman of the Executive Council Panel
of Experts on Education and Training

xiv
PART A

GUIDANCE

WMO classification of personnel

The domain of meteorology

Basic Instruction Package for Meteorologists (BIP-M)

Basic Instruction Package for Meteorological

Technicians (BIP-MT)

Continuing education and training (CET)

The scope and pace of changes in education in the past decade were unprece-
dented and, this pattern will most likely continue in the coming years. Within the
global tendency toward an information society, the key word is ‘restructuring’,
which touches on every aspect of education, including curriculum development
and delivery, pedagogical methods, a lifelong learning culture, and Internet
networking, etc.

There are no reasons to consider that meteorological (and hydrological) education

and training escape these fundamental trends. On the contrary, as shown by the
Secretary-General of WMO in his message in celebration of the World
Meteorological Day 2000, the meteorological domain itself is rapidly changing
and advancing vigorously, both as a science and profession; see also Obasi (1999).

This climate of continuing change demanded a large measure of ‘focused flexibil-

ity’ in the design of the present Guidelines, and this will require ‘specific
adaptation’ by potential users who will gather that there are considerable changes
from previous editions, even the overall aim remains essentially the same:

(a) Assisting educators, particularly from developing countries, in designing

professional education and specialized training programmes in meteorology;

(b) Facilitating a common understanding and a degree of uniformity and stabil-

ity in an international context, whilst fostering innovation and adaptation
to national/local circumstances.

Part A provides recommendations for: personnel classification; main disciplines;

competency requirements; mandatory instruction; and continuing professional
development. It is assumed that educators and managers will adjust these human
resources development recommendations according to the evolving priorities of
their National Meteorological Service (NMS), as well as of other related organiza-
tions such as universities, research institutions, private companies, etc.

These Guidelines will be complemented by a WMO departmental publication

containing detailed syllabus examples for each discipline under BIP-M and BIP-MT.
A periodically updated version of this paper will be maintained on a specifically
dedicated Web page on the WMO’s Web site.
CHAPTER 1

WMO CLASSIFICATION OF PERSONNEL

Background information

Classification of personnel in meteorology and hydrology

Meteorological personnel

‘There is no doubt that meteorological personnel can be graded in a number of ways,

each with its own particular merit and convenience. It is equally certain, however, that
no one system will adequately define all types of personnel required. It is therefore
necessary to accept a compromise classification, all the while recognizing its deficiencies
and limitations. With this in mind, one can develop a system of classification which
can be usefully employed as a basis for establishing syllabi for the education and
training of meteorological personnel.’

(WMO-No. 258, first edition, page 11)

Following the presentation of the new WMO classification of personnel in

meteorology and operational hydrology, the second part of this chapter is
devoted to meteorological personnel – their initial qualification requirements
and subsequent career progression. Although the classification is focused on two
main categories of personnel, the user may adapt it to his specific circumstances,
for instance in line with national regulations for civil service classification.
GUIDELINES FOR THE EDUCATION AND TRAINING OF PERSONNEL IN METEOROLOGY AND OPERATIONAL HYDROLOGY

1.1 BACKGROUND This section describes the new classification system and explains why it has been
INFORMATION introduced.

Need for change It was considered necessary to revise the classification system and curricula used
in the publication because there have been:

(a) Important advances in meteorology, as an applied physical science, resulting from

improved understanding of the coupled atmosphere-ocean-land system,
improved prediction techniques and the ongoing revolution in Information and
Communication Technology (ICT);

(b) New economic, social and political patterns evolving in many parts of the world,
which, most probably, will not only give rise to new demands for meteorological
and hydrological services, but will also bring major changes in many facets of the
meteorological and hydrological professions;

(c) Significant changes in the philosophical and pedagogical approach to professional

instruction and specialization, particularly as a result of the increasing importance
attached to continuing education and training.

Basic assumptions A comprehensive questionnaire on the review and updating of the WMO classifi-
cation of personnel and curricula for training was distributed to all WMO Members
in 1997. The assessment of Members’ replies to this questionnaire (see Appendix 3)
and other related analyses led to the following consolidated conclusions:

(a) WMO-No. 258 should provide reference guidelines generally applicable in an

international context, and as far as possible, adaptable to a national context, in
particular, for use by training units from developing National Meteorological
Services (NMSs) or National Meteorological and Hydrological Services (NMHSs);

(b) The publication should aim for: a flexible classification system with two or three
main categories of personnel; and a framework curricula allowing individual
instructors to arrange specifically the syllabi according to the particular needs and
possibilities of their NMSs or NMHSs;

(c) Graduation from a full-fledged university-level meteorology programme, or an

equivalent qualification, should provide the basic criterion to differentiate graduate
Meteorologists (formerly Class I personnel) from Meteorological Technicians
(formerly Classes II, III and IV). Following the initial job-entry qualification,
career-long continuing education and training would be required for subsequent
professional development;

(d) Meteorologists and Meteorological Technicians should progress to higher grades

in line with nationally determined career stages, for instance, according to
national civil service career schemes. A meteorological technician could be
recategorized as meteorologist, after completing a university-level meteorology
programme or equivalent education;

(e) The new edition of WMO-No. 258 should have two separate volumes: Volume I:
Meteorology and Volume II: Hydrology. Volume I should address those topics that
are fundamental and relatively unchanging over time (which would constitute
the core curricula for the initial instruction of meteorological personnel); and
secondly, it would cover the main job-competency requirements, to provide the
relevant knowledge and skills required in specific operational areas.

Subsequent consultations A preliminary issue of the present volume was distributed for an early appraisal,
during June-July 2000, to all WMO Members, Regional Meteorological Training
Centres (RMTCs), members of the Executive Council Panel of Experts on
Education and Training, WMO Technical Commissions, various educational

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CHAPTER 1 — WMO CLASSIFICATION OF PERSONNEL P
T
institutions, specialized agencies, recognized professors, and specialists. The
E
replies received were carefully assessed, and every effort was made to accommo-
date their various suggestions in this new version. R

With respect to the new classification of personnel, most of the respondents 1

appreciated its flexibility; some Members and RMTCs expressed their readiness to
review their own classification of personnel, in order to be more in line with the
new WMO system.

With respect to the new curricula, while most respondents welcomed the overall
flexibility, there were few reservations about the level of detail and scope. It was
suggested that:

(a) There should be more detail in the various curricula, especially for the meteoro-
logical specializations;

(b) The basic science requirements, particularly those for mathematics and computer
science, should be strengthened;

(c) There is a danger that having curricula that are too flexible might encourage a
narrowing of the initial professional education of meteorologists.

To accommodate these concerns a detailed syllabus will be presented separately as a

departmental publication, which will be made available to all WMO Members. It is
assumed that interested trainers will extract and adjust from this publication those
syllabus topics that are most suitable for their own training objectives.

1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF This section describes the WMO classification scheme approved by the WMO
PERSONNEL IN Executive Council at its fiftieth session (Geneva, 1998), and endorsed by the
METEOROLOGY AND WMO Congress at its thirteenth session (Geneva, 1999). In contrast with the tradi-
HYDROLOGY tional WMO classification, this new scheme classifies personnel in meteorology
and operational hydrology according to a single overarching scheme.

Purposes of the new The purpose of the new WMO system for classification of personnel in meteor-
classification ology and operational hydrology is to:

(a) Provide an international framework for common understanding of the basic quali-
fications required of persons performing the meteorological and hydrological
functions prescribed in the WMO Convention;

(b) Facilitate the development of reference syllabi for the education and training of
personnel in meteorology and operational hydrology performing these functions;

(c) Assist the NMHSs of individual countries, particularly developing countries, in:

• Elaborating personnel classification systems suited to their particular needs;

• Developing training programmes applicable to their own classification struc-
tures and needs.

Categories of personnel Two broad categories of personnel are identified as graduate professionals and
technicians. For meteorological and hydrological personnel, these categories are
designated as follows:

(a) Meteorological personnel

• Meteorologist – a person who holds a university-level degree or equivalent;

has acquired an appropriate level of knowledge of mathematics, physics,
chemistry and computer science, and has completed the Basic Instruction
Package for Meteorologists (BIP-M);

3
GUIDELINES FOR THE EDUCATION AND TRAINING OF PERSONNEL IN METEOROLOGY AND OPERATIONAL HYDROLOGY

• Meteorological Technician – a person who has completed the Basic

Instruction Package for Meteorological Technicians (BIP-MT).

(b) Hydrological personnel

• Hydrologist – a person who holds a university-level degree or equivalent,

and has completed the Basic Instruction Package for Hydrologists (BIP-H);
• Hydrological Technician – a person who has completed the Basic
Instruction Package for Hydrological Technicians (BIP-HT).

Career progression Within both categories of personnel, depending on national circumstances, indi-
viduals will normally progress from positions of modest responsibility under close
supervision, to positions with more responsibility and less supervision. Some indi-
viduals will advance to higher positions, with responsibilities for supervision and
leadership. Any progression is based on increased experience, completion of
appropriate continuing education and training and demonstrated competency.

The designations job-entry-level, mid-level, and senior-level will be used to denote

three generic career progression levels within each main category of personnel.

Relation to the previous For general orientation purposes, a broad relationship between the previous
classification classification and the new categorization system would be as follows:

(a) Meteorological personnel

The new category of Meteorologist is equivalent to the former Class I. The new
Meteorological Technician sub-categories of senior-level, mid-level and job-entry-
level, are broadly equivalent to the former Classes II, III and IV, respectively.

(b) Hydrological personnel

The new category of Hydrologist is equivalent to the former category of professional
hydrologist. The new Hydrological Technician sub-categories of senior-level, mid-level
and job-entry-level, are broadly equivalent to the former categories of senior technician,
junior technician and hydrological observer, respectively.

It is not, however, envisaged that these qualitative associations should be used to

establish any formal equivalence between the former classes and the current cate-
gories of personnel.

1.3 METEOROLOGICAL This section briefly elaborates the main thrust of the new classification scheme for
PERSONNEL the case of meteorological personnel.

Initial qualification of The three qualification requirements for a Meteorologist can be met through
Meteorologists completion of one of the following two programmes (see also Figure 1.1):

(a) University-level degree in meteorology

An adequate prerequisite knowledge in mathematics, physics and chemistry, at
the level requisite for university admission into the corresponding faculties, is
required before starting the BIP-M.

Normally, the BIP-M programme would require four academic years, but the actual
period may vary between academic institutions. Typically, the first half of the
programme will be focused on fundamental science education, while the second
half will be dedicated essentially to the meteorological education, which may be
specialized along three major streams: Weather, Climate and Environment.

The main components of this complete BIP-M are:

(i) Requisite topics in mathematics and physical sciences: mathematics and

computational science, physics, and chemistry, at the level of ‘Major’ in

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CHAPTER 1 — WMO CLASSIFICATION OF PERSONNEL P
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physical science faculties. Required complementary topics: communication
E
and presentational techniques and international communication languages;
(ii) Compulsory topics in atmospheric sciences: physical meteorology, dynamic R
meteorology, synoptic meteorology (the main subject for the Weather
stream), climatology (the main subject for the Climate stream), and atmos- 1
pheric chemistry (the main subject for the Environment stream);
(iii) Elective fields of specialization in meteorology: aeronautical meteorology,
agricultural meteorology, atmospheric chemistry, climate monitoring and
prediction, mesoscale meteorology and weather forecasting, radar meteor-
ology, satellite meteorology, tropical weather and climate, urban
meteorology, and air pollution; additional fields are listed in section 3.4.

Besides the basic requirement to complete topics (i) and (ii), students wishing to
obtain an early specialization may also deepen one optional subject from among
items (iii). The final degree award may specify the acquired specialization.

Figure 1.1
Principal educational streams for METEOROLOGISTS
the initial qualification of
Meteorologists

Condensed BIP-M
Postgraduate diploma,
or master degree in meteorology

Complete BIP-M University-level (first) degree in

University-level degree selected scientific or technical
(usually four-year courses) domains, e.g. maths, physics,
in meteorology chemistry, engineering

Prerequisite knowledge in mathematics, physics and chemistry as required for

admission in physical sciences faculties

(b) Postgraduate diploma or master degree in meteorology

A university-level degree in selected scientific or technical domains such as math-
ematics, physics, chemistry, electronic or geo-sciences engineering is required
along with knowledge of mathematics, physics and chemistry at the level of the
complete BIP-M.

The instruction components of this condensed BIP-M programme are essentially

similar to those of the complete BIP-M, but the pace of their delivery may be
considerably faster, particularly when students already possess the required stan-
dard in mathematics, physics and chemistry. Normally, a condensed BIP-M would
require one or two academic years.

Initial qualification of WMO Members have used various education and training approaches to qualify
Meteorological Technicians their Meteorological Technicians: from formal education in a technical school or
college with specific training programmes in meteorology, to simple vocational
and/or on-the-job training in meteorological observations and measurements.

To become a Meteorological Technician it is necessary to complete the Basic

Instruction Package for Meteorological Technicians (BIP-MT). This requirement

5
GUIDELINES FOR THE EDUCATION AND TRAINING OF PERSONNEL IN METEOROLOGY AND OPERATIONAL HYDROLOGY

can be met through completion of one of the following two programmes (see also
Figure 1.2):

(a) Certificate or attestation of technical/vocational meteorological training

After completing education at the general, elementary or compulsory school,
there is a requirement for continuing education in a technical or vocational
school where the instruction programme includes at least one semester of train-
ing in meteorology. This instruction should be supplemented by an extensive
period of practice in making meteorological observations and measurements, and
in operating information and communication technology.

The main components of the complete BIP-MT programme are as follows:

(i) Requisite topics in basic sciences: mathematics, physics, and chemistry at the
level of secondary school education. Basic communication skills;
(ii) Compulsory topics in general meteorology: introductory physical and
dynamical meteorology, elements of synoptic meteorology and climatology,
meteorological instruments and methods of observation;
(iii) Elective topics in operational meteorology: synoptic observations and
measurements, other specialized observations and measurements, remote
sounding of the atmosphere, and aeronautical meteorology for technicians.

Figure 1.2
METEOROLOGICAL TECHNICIANS
Principal educational streams for
the initial qualification of
Meteorological Technicians

Condensed BIP-MT:
Certificate or diploma of
post-secondary school-level
meteorological training

Complete BIP-MT: Secondary school certificate

Certificate or attestation of from schools with scientific or
technical or vocational school-level technological orientation
meteorological training (or equivalent education)

Prerequisite knowledge in mathematics, physics and chemistry as required for

admission in technical or secondary schools

(b) Post-secondary school-level meteorological training certificate or diploma

In case there is pre-requisite knowledge in mathematics, physics, and chemistry at
the level of secondary school education (minimum 12 years of schooling), it is
sufficient to complete a condensed BIP-MT. The components of this programme
are essentially the same as for the complete BIP-MT, but the pace of their delivery
may be faster. Broadly, a condensed BIP-MT may take between a few months and
one year, depending on the desired qualification.

Career levels for Meteorologists Future meteorologists, upon completion of the BIP-M programme, enter the
professional world and, after an orientation period and on-the-job training, they
gradually assume operational duties in weather analysis and forecasting, climate
monitoring and prediction, or other relevant applications. Some meteorologists
will become involved in consulting, directing, decision-making and management;

6
 C
H
A
CHAPTER 1 — WMO CLASSIFICATION OF PERSONNEL P
T
others will undertake research and development or teaching activities, etc.
E
Generic responsibilities for the three career levels may be summarized as follows:
R
Entry-level Job-entry-level meteorologists mainly carry out routine duties, to be performed
under supervision and, most often, in collaboration with others. Individual 1
autonomy within an established menu of responsibilities is expected.

Mid-level Mid-level meteorologists carry out a broad range of activities to be performed in a

wide variety of contexts, some of which are complex and non-routine. Capacity
to apply knowledge and skills in an integrated way, and an ability in problem-
solving are required; important personal autonomy and responsibility, including
for the control or guidance of others, may also be expected. Directing and manag-
ing local operational services; devising creative and imaginative solutions for
technical and administrative problems.

Senior-level Senior-level meteorologists require competencies involving application of a signif-

icant range of fundamental principles and complex techniques across a wide and
often unpredictable variety of contexts. Capacity to profitably transfer knowledge
and skills in a new task and situation and substantial personal autonomy are
required. Often, significant responsibility for the work of others – analysis and
diagnosis, planning and execution, control and evaluation, training and retrain-
ing. Responsible for a service or branch; planning, coordinating, and managing
the respective unit, also in collaboration with immediate associates.

Career levels for Meteorological Meteorological Technicians duties include carrying out weather, climate and other
Technicians environmental observations; assisting weather forecasters in the preparation and
dissemination of analyses, forecasts, weather warnings, and related information,
products and services. NMSs typically employ many other types of technicians,
such as mechanical, electrical and electronic technicians to install and maintain
equipment such as ground receivers for aerological observations, automatic
weather stations, weather radar or telecommunication equipment. Generic
responsibilities for the three career levels may be summarized as follows:

Entry-level Job-entry-level technicians mainly carry out routine and predictable duties, to be
performed under supervision and, most often, in collaboration with others; they
generally do not make decisions in the course of their work. Usually they specialize
in a particular job (e.g. surface observations, upper-air soundings, radiation meas-
urements, operational data processing, etc.).

Mid-level Mid-level technicians, besides performing standard duties, may also be required to carry
out non-routine activities involving certain personal autonomy, in the context of
explicit requirements and criteria. Responsibility for the guidance of others may also be
assigned to some mid-level technicians. They generally work under the technical
supervision of senior Meteorological Technicians or Meteorologists.

Senior-level Senior-level technicians require competencies in a wide range of complex techni-

cal-level and even professional-level work activities, to be performed in a variety
of contexts and with a substantial degree of personal responsibility, including
responsibility for the work of other Meteorological Technicians. They should be
able to take technical decisions, and capable of solving all technical problems in
their own specialized range of activity.

Collective abilities and The initial qualification and subsequent professional development of Meteorologists are
transferable skills essentially different from those of Meteorological Technicians. The two curves under
Figure 1.3 show the likely career path for the two categories of personnel.

From the Chart it may be noted that just above the BIP-M level, the paths for the
mid/senior-level technician and for the entry/mid-level meteorologist show an
apparently similar level of knowledge and skill in meteorology. Indeed, in

7
GUIDELINES FOR THE EDUCATION AND TRAINING OF PERSONNEL IN METEOROLOGY AND OPERATIONAL HYDROLOGY

Figure 1.3

Meteorological knowledge and skills

Career progression of
Meteorologists and Meteorological M

Observe, monitor, understand and predict weather and climate

Technicians

METEOROLOGISTS

MT
Continuing education and training
(CET in meteorology)
BIP-M

METEOROLOGICAL
TECHNICIANS

BIP-MT
entry-level mid-level senior-level Career progression

practice, some mid/senior-level technicians may perform duties that are similar or
overlap with duties of entry/mid-level meteorologists. However, for technicians
the emphasis is on operational knowledge and practical skills, while for meteorol-
ogists the emphasis is on deeper knowledge and understanding.

The fact that the MT-path is ‘bounded’ relates mainly to limitations in the theo-
retical knowledge prescribed under the BIP-MT. However, Meteorological
Technicians may become meteorologists by undertaking further education and
training (i.e. by acquiring a university-level degree and the BIP-M standards). It is
expected that both categories would undertake continuing education and training
(including self-study), to update/upgrade their professional competency.

Most often, Meteorologists and Meteorological Technicians would act together as

a team within their NMSs, where they not only need to be competent in their
occupation, but they also need to be able to adapt to changing circumstances and
develop their careers. They also need the breadth and depth of relevant knowl-
edge, understanding and experience accompanied by an ability to be adaptable,
flexible and independent when working.

Clearly, having the appropriate basic knowledge and technical skills are at the
centre of being competent, but it is also necessary to be able to:

• Deal with physical constraints/hazards by following health and safety procedures;

• Communicate effectively and work effectively with others;
• Apply a problem-solving approach to non-routine tasks;
• Manage several tasks at any one time;
• Manage one’s own learning and performance;
• Acquire new skills, knowledge and understanding demanded by changes in
products, technology and working practices; and
• Understand how one’s job contributes to meeting national and international
commitments.

In this publication no attempt will be made to define these ‘collective abilities and
transferable skills’, as they will depend crucially upon the type and level of the job,
the specific requirements of the organization, and the extent to which individuals
are responsible for their own performance and development.

8
CHAPTER 2

THE DOMAIN OF METEOROLOGY

Atmospheric sciences – breadth and depth

Meteorological profession – competency requirements

Academic specialities and job-specializations – the gap

The first section of this chapter gives a brief overview of the main meteorological
disciplines, which are distinguished more to facilitate a structured approach to
curricula design rather than to differentiate the subject matter itself. The second
section describes the principal job-competency requirements in the main
branches of activity of a typical National Meteorological Service (NMS). The pres-
entation is meant to provide a first step in identifying the requirements in terms
of knowledge and skills. The interested reader (e.g. instructor) may wish to refine
the suggested job-competencies according to the more specific mission and func-
tions of his NMS. The last section briefly touches on the gap that exists between
the academic specialities and the fields of specialization required in meteorologi-
cal professions.

The next step will be made in Chapters 3 and 4, where the framework curricula of
the Basic Instruction Packages for Meteorologists and Meteorological Technicians
(BIP-M/MT) will be oriented, to the extent possible, according to the knowledge
and skills required for the job-entry level. Then, the examples from Chapter 7 will
highlight additional job-competency requirements enabling the actual practice of
individual jobs, at the current operations level.
GUIDELINES FOR THE EDUCATION AND TRAINING OF PERSONNEL IN METEOROLOGY AND OPERATIONAL HYDROLOGY

2.1 ATMOSPHERIC As a physical science, meteorology deals essentially with the physics, chemistry and
SCIENCES – dynamics of the atmosphere; it also deals with many direct effects of the atmosphere
BREADTH AND DEPTH upon the Earth’s surface, the oceans, and life in general. Its ultimate goals are the
best possible understanding and prediction of atmospheric phenomena, from local
to planetary scale, and from a few seconds, minutes and hours to several days, weeks
and seasons (even decades and centuries). For the purpose of these Guidelines, the
terms atmospheric sciences and meteorology have the same meaning.

Mathematics, physics and A thorough knowledge of mathematics, physics and chemistry is required to enable
chemistry students to understand the relationship between atmospheric phenomena and the
nature of matter as expressed in the basic physical principles. Accordingly, when
organising basic instruction programmes in meteorology, provisions should be made
for co-requisite/refresher courses in mathematical physics, with emphasis on basic
concepts and methods required in studies of fluid dynamics and thermodynamics.

As with mathematics, there may be a need for co-requisite/refresher courses in

physics and chemistry. There is, however, a significant distinction between the
study of atmospheric sciences and the common study of physics or chemistry,
where most often the focus is on individual processes in order to reveal the funda-
mental properties of the matter. In contrast, the study of atmospheric sciences
concerns a large and complex system, which allows effects and interactions that
may not be fully understood if considered separately from their environment. The
ultimate goal is to understand, not only qualitatively but also quantitatively, the
coherent functioning of the whole system. Consequently the co-requisite/refresher
courses in physics and chemistry should provide the underpinning knowledge
necessary for an understanding of atmospheric sciences.

Basic meteorological disciplines The basic meteorological disciplines – distinguished more in function of the state
of the science rather than of the subject matter itself – may be designed as follows:

• Physical meteorology, including atmospheric chemistry and air quality;

• Dynamic meteorology, including Numerical Weather Prediction (NWP);
• Synoptic meteorology, including mesoscale meteorology and forecasting;
• Climatology, including both the traditional statistical description and the
modern dynamical study and interpretation of the climate, as well as climate
prediction.

Physical meteorology Physical meteorology deals with the scientific explanation of the atmospheric
phenomena. A thorough knowledge and understanding of the basic physical prin-
ciples of thermodynamics and of the theory of electromagnetic radiation is
essential. This will provide the necessary background for the study of topics such
as: the physical structure and chemical composition of the atmosphere, solar and
terrestrial radiation, aerosol physics and chemistry, boundary-layer processes,
microphysics of clouds and precipitation, atmospheric electricity, physical
processes in small-scale dynamics (e.g. turbulence) and middle-upper atmosphere,
and the basics of remote sensing technology.

Dynamic meteorology Dynamic meteorology is concerned with the study of atmospheric motions as
solutions of the fundamental equations of hydrodynamics and thermodynamics
or other systems of equations appropriate to special situations, as in statistical
theory of turbulence. A solid background in higher mathematics and fluid
dynamics is required since this provides the scientific basis for the understanding
of the physical role of the atmospheric motions in determining the observed
weather and climate at all scales – planetary, synoptic, mesoscale and microscale.
Eventually, it is this understanding that enables the practical methodology for
modern weather forecasting and climate prediction by dynamic methods.

Synoptic meteorology Synoptic meteorology was traditionally, concerned with the study and analysis of
weather information taken concurrently to identify synoptic-scale weather

10
 CHAPTER 2 — THE DOMAIN OF METEOROLOGY

systems, diagnose their structure, and qualitatively anticipate their future evolu-
C
tion. Today’s synoptic meteorology deals with analysing and forecasting the
weather from the mesoscale to planetary scale (e.g. ‘weather regimes’); and its H
sophisticated technical basis includes operational databases, standardized sets of A
automatically plotted diagnostic meteorological maps and diagrams, NWP P
outputs, as well as other products and auxiliary material. The traditional interpre- T
tation of the synoptic situation was empowered by modern diagnostic tools (e.g. E
satellite and radar imagery) and new conceptual models (e.g. conveyor belt,
R
potential vorticity thinking or Q-vectors analysis). The sharp distinction, which
used to exist between synoptic forecasters and applied dynamic meteorologists,
has become rather diffuse. 2

With the ever-increasing application of objective methods, particularly the

continued development of remote sensing, sophisticated data assimilation tech-
niques, and operational application of ensemble forecasting, the human
forecasters’ contribution is no longer dominant. And yet, experienced forecasters
can still make some useful subjective interpretations to add value to the numeri-
cal objective products (e.g. utilize the ensemble forecasts’ quantification of
forecast uncertainty in conjunction with user-specific needs and constraints,
including his risk-taking limitations). Good presentation and communication
skills are required in the interaction with the users.

Climatology Climatology, according to the WMO International Meteorological Vocabulary

(WMO-No. 182) is the ‘study of the mean physical state of the atmosphere
together with its statistical variations in both space and time as reflected in the
weather behaviour over a period of many years’. Implicit in this definition is the
limitation of the concept of climate to the atmospheric setting, a fact that
genuinely reflects the emergence and historical development of climatology.
However, during the past few decades atmospheric scientists have realized that the
climate system must include not only the atmosphere, but also the relevant
portions of the broader geophysical system which increasingly influence the
atmosphere as the time period under consideration increases.

Today’s climatologists, while focusing on meteorological processes, increasingly

study the role of physical and chemical processes within the oceans and across the
multitude of land surface regimes. Integration of data and knowledge from mete-
orology, oceanography and hydrology becomes essential. The climate is viewed as
‘the long-term statistics that describe the coupled atmosphere-ocean-land weather
system, averaged over an appropriate time period’ (National Academy Press, 1998).

By dealing with the description of past, present and future state of the whole
climate system, modern climatology has got a wider scope. Furthermore, it
concerns not only the natural climate evolution, but also potential changes in the
global and regional climate induced by the aggregate of human activities that
change both the concentrations of greenhouse gases and aerosols in the atmos-
phere, and the pattern of vegetative land cover. The goal is to achieve the best
possible understanding of the dynamic, physical and chemical basis of climate
and climate evolution, in order to predict climate variability/change on seasonal
to decadal and longer time scales.

Earth System Science Many sub-disciplines or specialities concerned with particular subjects of study
and research, or specific applications co-exist and evolve within the above
conventional disciplines. At the same time, the boundaries between various disci-
plines and sub-disciplines are gradually becoming less distinct, and the ensemble
of atmospheric sciences is becoming less isolated from other geo-sciences (see also
Figure 2.1).

The trend is towards an ensemble Earth System Science (ESS), which involves
an integrated approach to the study of the Earth in order to explain Earth’s

11
GUIDELINES FOR THE EDUCATION AND TRAINING OF PERSONNEL IN METEOROLOGY AND OPERATIONAL HYDROLOGY

Figure 2.1
The main meteorological
disciplines in the context of Earth
System Science (ESS)
DYNAMIC SYNOPTIC
METEOROLOGY METEOROLOGY(**)

(*) Common fields of

specialization in meteorology are FIELDS OF
discussed under the next sections SPECIALIZATION(*)

3.3 and 3.4;

(**) Synoptic meteorology
would include mesoscale PHYSICAL TRADITIONAL
METEOROLOGY CLIMATOLOGY(***)
meteorology and
weather forecasting;
ATMOSPHERIC SCIENCES
(***) The broadening scope of
the climate science was
EARTH SYSTEM SCIENCE (ESS)
acknowledged in the preceding
Mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology
discussion on climatology.

dynamics, evolution and global change. In this approach, the Earth is regarded as
a unified system of interacting components, including:

• Geosphere – physical elements of the Earth’s surface, crust and interior; relevant
processes include continental drift, volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, soil processes
involving heat and water;
• Hydrosphere – water and ice on or near the surface of the Earth; also, water vapour in
clouds, ice caps and glaciers; and water in the oceans, rivers, lakes, and aquifers;
relevant processes include the flow of rivers, evaporation, rain, water pollution;
• Atmosphere – thin layer of gas or air that surrounds the Earth; relevant processes
include winds, weather, the exchange of gases with living organisms, air pollution;
• Biosphere – the wealth and diversity of living organisms on the Earth; relevant
processes include life and death, evolution and extinction, in particular, vegetation
evolution and its role in the hydrological cycle and in the atmospheric gas
composition.

ESS covers not only the natural processes with their complex three-phase nature, but
also the effects of human-induced changes on the global environment. The aim is to
obtain a scientific understanding of the entire earth system, how its component parts
and their interactions have evolved, how they function, and especially how they may
be expected to continue to evolve on all time scales. Noting the close connections
between the ESS scope and contemporary climate studies, educators are encouraged to
include in their BIP-M programmes introductory courses in ESS, which would enable
students to look at the climate system from an even larger perspective.

2.2 METEOROLOGICAL Increasingly, training is being defined in terms of the output of the training process
PROFESSION – (what the trainee can do) rather than the input (what the trainee is taught). This
COMPETENCY approach leads to the concept of competency: the ability to perform the activities within
REQUIREMENTS an occupational area to the levels of performance expected in employment. Then, the
outcome of the training process should be a person who has demonstrated the required
competencies versus certain performance standards.

Training for job-competency In principle, any job-performance standard should include information about:

• Duties to be performed (duty to be expressed in terms of specific tasks);

• Knowledge and understanding required; skills and experience requirements;
• Performance criteria for the successful completion of individual duties.

This section is focused on the duties to be performed under common meteorolog-

ical jobs; the aim is to identify key competencies from which to derive the

12
 CHAPTER 2 — THE DOMAIN OF METEOROLOGY

underlying background for the required professional knowledge and understand-

C
ing (to be described in Chapters 3 and 4). The skills and experience requirements,
as well as the performance criteria, need to be defined in a way that takes account H
of the national situation – both in terms of the weather-climate conditions and A
employment practices. Such aspects, being too specific, will not be considered in P
any detail. T
E
Generally, the mission of a typical NMS is to:
R
• Observe, monitor, and predict the weather and climate of its country;
• Provide meteorological and related services in support of national needs; 2
• Meet relevant international commitments under the WMO Convention.

(It should be noted that in several countries there is also a wide community
outside the NMS that contributes to the achievement of these goals).

The practical implementation of this mission requires a wide range of activities,

organized into a large number of jobs, which may be assembled into a smaller
number of technically specific units that may be characterized as branches of
activity. One simple model of these branches is shown in Figure 2.2.

Figure 2.2
Generic branches of activity in a Weather and Climate – observing, monitoring, and forecasting
typical NMS • Weather analysing and forecasting
• Climate monitoring and prediction
• Observations and measurements; instruments and remote sensing
Note: Given the diversity in the • Information and communication technology and data processing
mission and structure of NMSs
throughout the world, considerable
variation in the grouping of activities
and in the titles of various branches
is inevitable. The aim is to illustrate Applications and public services Meteorology-support branches
the broad range of competencies • Agriculture • Management and administration
required from the NMS’ personnel as • Aviation • Education and training
a whole. • Marine • Research and development
• Environment • Economic meteorology and
client relations

Among these generic branches there are important differences with respect to the
number of employed personnel and their job requirements. Underpinning these
branches are also certain cross-cutting activities such as Numerical Weather
Prediction (NWP) or radar- and satellite-sensing, not shown explicitly on this
Figure; most NMHS will utilize output from these activities, but they may not have
the technical/human resources to undertake them within their own Service.

Typical jobs and general competency requirements for the personnel employed in
various activity branches will be described in the following three sub-sections. The
presentation is not comprehensive, nor exclusive or prescriptive, in view of the
fact that competencies have to be defined in such a way as to meet local needs.
Thus, a large degree of flexibility is necessary when considering the competency
requirements given below.

Weather and climate – observing, The operational duties and competency requirements for personnel employed in
monitoring and forecasting the professional branches dealing with weather and climate would be, normally,
at the level of graduate Meteorologist and/or senior-level Meteorological
Technician. In the technological branches for observations and measurements,
instruments, information and communication technology and data processing,
the work is more and more automated, and traditional staffing is decreasing. Both

13
GUIDELINES FOR THE EDUCATION AND TRAINING OF PERSONNEL IN METEOROLOGY AND OPERATIONAL HYDROLOGY

Meteorologists and Meteorological Technicians should be familiar with basic obser-

vation methods and instruments and should be able to use computer text
processors and common software.

Weather analysing and The mission under this branch consists of constantly monitoring the weather over
forecasting the assigned geographical area; elaborating and distributing general and specific
weather forecasts, including weather warnings with particular emphasis on public
safety and welfare. Typical individual jobs include operational (dependent, field,
or main) weather forecaster; agricultural forecaster; aeronautical forecaster; marine
forecaster; airquality or environmental forecaster. Operational duties and compe-
tency requirements include:

• Atmospheric processes and phenomena. Know and understand the main atmospheric
processes and phenomena from a planetary to a local scale; know the region-
specific weather phenomena and understand the major mesoscale-local scale
particularities of the atmospheric dynamics over the assigned area;
• Analysing and monitoring the weather. Analyse and interpret synoptic charts,
diagrams and graphics; integrate all available data to produce a consolidated
diagnosis; perform real-time weather monitoring, especially utilising radar
surveillance and satellite imagery; constantly monitor the actual weather
evolution, particularly the severe weather aspects in the assigned area;
• Weather forecasting. Know and be able to apply weather forecasting principles,
methods and techniques; understand the operation of NWP models, and
their strength and weaknesses;
• Post-processing of NWP output. Perform selected post-processing of NWP
outputs and add value to model or guidance forecasts where appropriate;
identify processes that are significant on various scales and relevant for
specific application areas. Generate predicted fields and interpret those fields
in terms of the future state of appropriate weather elements; assess their rele-
vance and accuracy versus the actual evolution of the weather;
• User-specific forecasts. Elaborate and distribute regional/local, and user-specific
forecasts; verify the ongoing forecasts; identify errors and amend erroneous
forecasts as appropriate; issue warnings; provide reliable emergency services;
• Users’ needs. Understand users’ needs and risk-taking limitations; assist and
advise them in taking technical decisions which are dependent on weather.

While this list refers to a generic branch of weather analysis and forecasting, an example
of actual competency requirements in such branch is given in section 7.1.

Climate monitoring and The mission under this branch consists of documenting, monitoring and assess-
prediction ing the climate characteristics over the assigned geographical area (in a global/
regional context); preparing and distributing climate summaries and predictions,
usually for seasonal time-scales; elaborating and distributing climate warnings.
Typical individual jobs include operational climatologist; micro-climatologist;
agrometeorologist; environmental meteorologist. Operational duties and compe-
tency requirements include:

• Physical-dynamical principles. Understand the physical-dynamical principles

governing the functioning of the Earth’s climate system, from global to national
and local scales; know and be able to apply climate analysis and prognosis methods
and techniques;
• Region-specific weather phenomena and impacts. Know and understand region-
specific climate and weather phenomena and their detailed sub-regional
patterns; understand the normal impact of climate on various economic
sectors, particularly the vulnerability of human activities on climate-related
severe events;
• Monitoring climate data. Monitor climate data; utilize satellite imagery to identify
characteristic patterns in the atmospheric systems evolution; assemble climate
records and perform other routine operations;

14
 CHAPTER 2 — THE DOMAIN OF METEOROLOGY

• Processing climate data. Execute appropriate processing (statistical and dynamical) of

C
data to depict climate patterns and variability; interpret the climate data; assess the
evolution of the patterns, anomalies and trends, and interpret them in terms of H
the future state of relevant climate elements; prepare and distribute user-specific A
forecasts, including warnings of severe climate events; P
• General Circulation Models (GCM). Understand the operation of GCM; utilize, as T
available, current climate prediction products from large climate centres; E
• Climate change impact. Use long-term integration of climate models for a range of
R
emission scenarios, along with national climate records and regional adaptation
techniques, to prepare advisories on possible impact of climate change.
2
An example of actual competency requirements in the branch is given in section 7.2.

Observations and The mission under this branch consists of producing observational data on an
measurements; instruments operational basis for the purposes of weather and climate services; operating and
controlling the network; specifying and standardizing instruments and methods
of observation; calibrating, maintaining and repairing instruments. Typical
individual jobs include weather observer; radio-sounding technician; instruments
technologist; AWS (Automatic Weather Station) technician. Operational duties
and competency requirements include:

• Surface observations. Make surface observations: observe and record the

parameters that make up a weather message; encode the observations in the
standard format; transmit coded information;
• Upper-air soundings. Make upper-air sounding; perform radiation, and other
meteorological measurements; encode the observations in the standard
format; transmit coded information;
• Weather watch. Analyse observations in the local area and be in a position to
identify probable significant changes in weather at the station; know and
understand the region-specific weather phenomena; be aware of likely
weather sequences that are expected to affect the station;
• Weather alert. Understand a basic weather briefing or forecast so as to be able
to identify changes from the expected evolution at the station; alert the duty
forecaster and external users to observed changes in the weather within the
local area;
• Product distribution. Distribute data and information; disseminate messages to
users; issue routine and non-routine reports in accordance with normal
working practice; answer questions from users;
• Equipment maintenance. Carry out routine maintenance of observing/office
equipment; operate and maintain automated weather stations, as appropriate.

An example of actual competency requirements is given in section 7.3.

Information and The mission under this branch consists of assembling and processing of incoming
Communication Technology observational data; creating data sets for weather analysis and forecasting; archiv-
(ITC) and data processing ing specific data sets; delivering products to users; maintaining ICT. Typical
individual jobs include operational weather technician; meteorological data
manager; software development engineer. Operational duties and competency
requirements include:

• Hardware and software. Recognize basic hardware and software components;

understand basic operating systems, particularly transmission and comput-
ing systems;
• Data processing. Apply standard methods and techniques for processing,
quality control, and error analysis of the various input data sources, manual
and automatic surface and upper-air observations, radar and satellite data;
• Generation of meteorological data. Know the general operations used to gener-
ate fields of meteorological variables, possibly including assimilation of data
from various sensors and platforms;

15
GUIDELINES FOR THE EDUCATION AND TRAINING OF PERSONNEL IN METEOROLOGY AND OPERATIONAL HYDROLOGY

• Manipulation of meteorological data. Manipulate and process meteorological

data, including collecting, organising, managing and preserving information;
capability to operate message switching system;
• International telecommunication systems. Know the purpose of the interna-
tional meteorological telecommunication system, and the WMO regulations
in organising this system;
• Development of ICT systems. Assist in the development and/or upgrading of
information and communication technology systems.

An example of actual competency requirements is given in section 7.4.

Meteorological applications Generally, these branches foster meteorological studies and provide services aimed
and public services at increasing public safety and welfare and the productivity of the national
economy with respect to weather and climate factors. Normally, these branches
are not directly linked to the elaboration of operational weather forecasts or
climate predictions, but may utilize relevant forecasts and predictions, and adapt
them (add value) for very specific purposes. At the same time, a good part of the
activities usually referred to as Public Weather Services are undertaken under the
professional branches from the previous section; see also the Guide to Public
Weather Services (WMO-No. 834).

Some of the operational duties and competency requirements described below are at
Meteorologist level; others are at the level of Meteorological Technician.

Agricultural meteorology The mission under this branch consists of defining and applying the knowledge
of the interaction between meteorological, climatological and hydrological
factors, and biological systems to practical use in agriculture, including horticul-
ture, animal husbandry and forestry. Typical individual jobs include professional
agricultural meteorologist; agricultural meteorology technician; agricultural engineer.
Operational duties and competency requirements include:

• Agricultural and biological sciences. Know basic concepts in agricultural and

biological sciences; understand the adaptation of plants and animals to climate;
• Impact of weather and climatic factors. Understand the relation of crop growth and
development, and crop yields to the various climatic factors; understand the
impact of extreme weather and climate events on agriculture and forestry; know
the impact of weather and climatic conditions on insect pests and plant diseases;
• Observations and data processing. Carry out agricultural meteorology observa-
tions; perform routine data processing; determine net photosynthesis and
water use of crops; determine irrigation demands;
• Remote sensing and GIS. Use satellite multi-spectral based, and other remote
sensing products and Geographic Information System (GIS) tools to monitor
surface parameters and solar radiation;
• Crop models. Know the principles of dynamic simulation models, their appli-
cation and adaptation; calibrate and use crop-weather models and empirical
statistical models for phenology and yield forecasting;
• Agricultural advice and products. Prepare specific agricultural meteorology
outlooks; provide specialized agricultural meteorology products and tailored
services; assist the agricultural industry to produce commodities economi-
cally and to reduce risk; maintain close contact with end users with a view to
keeping them informed of services which meteorologists can provide;
• Strategic planning. Promote strategic applications to assist sustainable agricul-
tural planning; carry out assessments of agricultural-climatic resources on
various scales; identify strategies for adapting to (possible) climatic change.

An example of actual competency requirements is given in section 7.5.

Aeronautical meteorology The mission under this branch consists of the study, analysis and forecasting
of the influence of the atmosphere – particularly that of hazardous weather

16
 CHAPTER 2 — THE DOMAIN OF METEOROLOGY

phenomena – on the operation of aircraft. Effects considered include: low visibil-

C
ity and low cloud at aerodromes; wind shear; turbulence (including clear-air
turbulence); icing; thunderstorms; tropical cyclones; upper winds and tempera- H
tures; jet streams and tropopause, and volcanic ash. Typical individual jobs A
include aeronautical meteorologist; aeronautical meteorological technician. P
Operational duties and competency requirements include: T
E
• Weather phenomena. Understand the weather phenomena hazardous to aviation,
R
and their analysis and forecasting; understand which meteorological parameters
are crucial for the safety and regular operations of aviation user groups;
• Meteorological codes. Know all aeronautical meteorological codes, and all crite- 2
ria applied for warnings and change groups in TAF and TREND forecasts;
follow the standard regulations contained in WMO Technical Regulations;
know the ICAO (International Civil Aviation Organization) cost recovery
principles and guidance; cooperate operationally with Air Traffic Services
(ATS) units;
• International Organizations. Understand the functioning and use of products
from the World Area Forecast System (WAFS); understand the functioning of
International Airways Volcano Watch (IAVW) and the advisory service
provided by Volcanic Ash Advisory Centres (VAACs);
• Weather monitoring. Perform continuing monitoring of weather phenomena
relevant to aviation, and understand the evolution of the weather phenom-
ena observed at the aerodrome; carry out the required observations and
measurements;
• Weather forecasting. Know and apply standard methods, techniques, and
other numerical tools for forecasting low clouds, winds (including gusts), fog
and reduced visibility, thunderstorms, heavy precipitation, hail and tropical
cyclones; know and apply customary algorithms and methods of forecasting
icing, mountain waves and turbulence (including clear-air turbulence);
• Satellite and radar interpretation. Know how to interpret satellite and radar
imagery, including analysis of the evolution of convective systems, frontal
systems and tropical cyclones, location of fog/stratus, active cumulonimbus-
tops, gravity waves in cirrus cloud and jet streams; detection of icing
potential in layer cloud, volcanic ash and wind-shear;
• Local forecasters responsibilities. Perform competently the ‘local’ forecaster’s
responsibilities, including the issuance of aerodrome warnings, SIGMET and
AIRMET messages;
• Special air-reports. Be able to identify from special air-reports the relevant
weather phenomena; assess those reports and, if appropriate, issue the corre-
sponding SIGMET message.

Examples of actual competency requirements in the field of aeronautical meteor-

ology are given in section 7.6.

Marine meteorology The mission under this branch is to make available to marine users at sea or on
the coast the marine meteorological and related oceanographic information they
require, with the aim of maximizing the safety of marine operations and promot-
ing the efficiency and economy of marine activities. To contribute towards the
efficient exploration and optimize exploitation of coastal and marine resources
(living and non-living) and protection of the marine environment. Concerned
services may be specialized for the high seas, for the coastal and offshore areas and
for ports and harbours. Typical individual jobs include marine observers on board
ships, seafarers whilst at sea and in navigation schools, Port Meteorological
Officers (PMO), and meteorological personnel who are engaged in observational,
forecasting and climatological duties for marine purposes. Operational duties and
competency requirements include:

• Weather phenomena. Understand the weather phenomena hazardous to

marine operations; know the criteria for storm, and other warnings;

17
GUIDELINES FOR THE EDUCATION AND TRAINING OF PERSONNEL IN METEOROLOGY AND OPERATIONAL HYDROLOGY

• Observations. Carry out surface meteorological observations and measure-

ments; make upper-air measurements and sub-surface ocean measurements;
know the relevant meteorological and oceanographic codes (e.g. SYNOP,
SHIP, DRIBU, BATHY, TESAC); be aware of PMO activities, voluntary observing
ships and ships of opportunity;
• Remote sensing. Know how to interpret remote sensing data from satellites
and drifting and moored buoys; to derive characteristics of water masses, the
behaviour of waves and ocean currents, and the state of the weather;
• Marine climatology. Prepare marine climatology summaries; provide climatic
data required by the designers and operators of offshore exploration and
exploitation facilities;
• Forecasting. Know meteorological forecasting techniques based on empirical,
statistical, analogue and dynamical methods; know how and where to obtain
marine products and forecast which are available from regional numerical
models such as waves, sea-level topography, surface and sub-surface temper-
ature, thermocline; issue warnings of strong winds, rough seas, poor
visibility, heavy precipitation, ice accretion, storm surges, harbour tsunamis
and abnormal seiches;
• Provision of forecasting services and expert advice. Provide services for high seas
circumstances (e.g. search and rescue operations, weather routing, fishing
industry); provide services for coastal and offshore areas; provide services for
ports and harbours (e.g. cargo handling, industrial projects, commercial
activities, litigation and insurance, icebreaking, waterborne recreational
activities, operations to combat marine pollution). Be familiar with marine
pollution disperion models.

An example of actual competency requirements is given in section 7.7.

Environmental meteorology The mission under this branch consists of the utilization of meteorological (weather,
climate and air quality) information and related scientific findings, to environmental
concerns such as air or water pollution, climate change, ozone depletion, or harmful
solar radiation, in a manner intended to optimize the use of natural resources and
strengthen human health and security. Environmental meteorology is also concerned
with various processes in the atmosphere and the interrelation of the atmosphere with
the solid and liquid phases of the Earth, with natural ecosystems and outer space. Typical
individual jobs include environmental-, forensic-, urban- or bio-meteorologist.
Operational duties and competency requirements include:

• Weather and climate impacts. Understand the impact, range, and potential of
the weather and climate effects on life, society and environment in general;
understand the effects of land use and other anthropogenic influences on
weather and climate;
• Methods and techniques. Know and understand the principles, methods and
techniques used in atmospheric physics and chemistry and their use in air-
quality protection, urban design and construction; environmental problems
in large cities; comprehend the general principles, methods and techniques
used in other geo-sciences; have an inter-disciplinary approach to ‘assem-
bling of knowledge’;
• Satellite data. Use satellite-based data to monitor the effect and distribution of
flooding, fire location, smoke plumes, dust, ozone and volcanic ash clouds;
• Policy and planning advice. Assist in the development of policy planning and
decisions on environmental issues; provide expert advise in policy- and deci-
sion-making on various operational problems in which users/customers
attempt to optimally utilize (or limit) the influence of meteorological factors;
• Forensic meteorology. Provide meteorological information and advice for legal
cases (e.g. determining the sequence of weather- and climate-affected events
that is subject to litigation);
• Environmental policies. Be aware of the major environmental policies on scien-
tific, technical and economic development; and on public health and

18
 CHAPTER 2 — THE DOMAIN OF METEOROLOGY

tourism; facilitate application of integrated approaches to sustainable devel-

C
opment, management and rational use of environmental resources.
H
Job-competency requirements for environmental meteorologist are exemplified A
under section 7.8. P
T
Meteorology-support branches The personnel employed in the meteorology-support branches may not always be E
required to have a basic meteorological qualification (e.g. those working in
R
branches for management or client relations), or may be required to possess much
more than a basic meteorological qualification (e.g. those working in education or
research branches). However, certain general meteorology knowledge would still 2
be desirable even in the branches for management or client relations.

Management and The mission under this branch consists of supervizing, guiding and directing in
administration order to maximize the use of available human, technical and financial resources;
representing one’s NMS in national and international arenas. Typical individual
jobs include operational manager and network inspector. Operational duties and
competency requirements include:

• Principles of management. Know and understand the principles of management and

administration as applied to a scientific and technical institution (e.g. NMS);
• Managing performance. Know the organization of the operational activities to
be undertaken; set and prioritize objectives; monitor performance against
planned activities; anticipate problems and develop contingency plans; make
effective decisions, and consider alternative solutions;
• Management of resources. Manage human and financial resources effectively;
manage change proactively; manage time; enable staff to develop expertize,
plan careers and improve their performance continuously;
• Team working. Participate positively in team activities; develop collaborative
relationships with both internal and external customers; understand their needs;
• Leadership. Provide leadership; choose appropriate communication methods and
communicate effectively; be able to motivate others; show sensitivity to the needs
of others and obtain their commitment; respond positively to innovation;
• Weather and climate. Be aware of region-specific weather phenomena and
regional climatology.

The role of managers and administrators in planning and implementing continu-

ing professional development programmes for NMS staff is essential, see sections
5.1 and 5.5.

Education and training The mission under this branch consists of undertaking and facilitating training
and development of personnel, to perform current and future jobs; educating
users (general public included) in the use of meteorological products and services.
Typical individual jobs include meteorological trainer; instructor; scientist; profes-
sor. Operational duties and competency requirements include:

• Training requirements. Identify organizational training and development

requirements; identify learning requirements of individuals; plan and design
training strategies for NMS;
• Designing training. Design training and development programmes, as well as
teaching and learning materials;
• Delivering training. Manage the implementation of training and development
programmes; understand and use new pedagogical approaches to education
and training, including modern presentation tools; facilitate learning with
individuals and groups;
• Evaluating training. Review the progress and effectiveness of training; assess
achievement, including individual competency achievement;
• Meteorological knowledge. Know and understand the region-specific weather
phenomena; continuously improve knowledge of ESS.

19
GUIDELINES FOR THE EDUCATION AND TRAINING OF PERSONNEL IN METEOROLOGY AND OPERATIONAL HYDROLOGY

Note that Chapter 5 deal specifically with methods and strategies for continuing
education and training in NMS.

Research and development The mission under this branch consists of undertaking applied research and devel-
opment to ensure continuing enhancement of the future operations and services;
developing new ideas in meteorological science or technology. Typical individual
jobs include meteorological researcher; applied scientist; system development
meteorologist. Operational duties and competency requirements inlcude:

• Professional specialization. Understand his/her own speciality at the in-depth

level of a national expert or consultant; demonstrate skills in lifelong learn-
ing; application of scientific method; investigation; experimental inquiry;
invention; and information searching: identification; and selection;
• Computer knowledge. Know, understand and use a range of software packages, basic
skills in computer programming in different computer architectures;
• Application of research and development. Assimilate research results into the
operational environment; possibly develop new products, procedures and
techniques; also perform investigations into problems and applications relat-
ing to the atmosphere in the earth system context;
• Creativity and problem solving. Demonstrate critical and independent think-
ing; recognize and encourage creativity, innovative analysis and problem
solving in others; demonstrate a high degree of innovation in the analysis
of problems, and use science and technology intelligently to solve those
problems;
• Weather and climate. Know and understand weather and climate, from
locally-induced weather phenomena to global climate patterns;
• Education, training and teaching. Help, as appropriate in the implementation
of continuing education and training programmes.

Economic meteorology and The mission under this branch consists of planning, promoting and selling of
client relations meteorological data, information and other products; tailoring services to support
end-users’ current activities and strategic planning decisions. Typical individual
jobs include economic meteorologist; meteorological marketer; client services
officer. Operational duties and competency requirements include:

• Marketing. Know and understand the basics of marketing methods, techniques and
procedures; know a range of alternative promotional strategies; be familiar with
standard market research software packages and databases in current use;
• Economic benefits. Understand how the weather market system works; under-
stand the use of decision models; behavioural studies and the contingent
valuation technique to estimate economic benefits;
• Contractual regulations. Understand the contractual regulations and proce-
dures of NMSs; be aware of legal implications (for NMS) in case of failure to
follow the process;
• Innovation. Demonstrate entrepreneurial outlook and innovation in the
analysis of problems and use of techniques in solving them; apply marketing
principles and utilize appropriate instruments;
• Management of resources. Develop and manage projects and execute financial
and resource accounting;
• Communications skills. Demonstrate skills in personal relations, particularly in
communication and presentation; ability to handle complaints;
• Customer needs. Understand a range of customer needs and constraints so as
to relate and present their needs;
• Weather phenomena. Be aware of the general meteorology concepts and main
region-specific weather phenomena.

20
 CHAPTER 2 — THE DOMAIN OF METEOROLOGY

2.3 ACADEMIC In the context of scientific and technological advancements within and across
C
SPECIALITIES AND atmospheric sciences there is a multitude of fields of specialization, which may be
JOB-SPECIALIZATIONS – looked upon with a different focus; e.g. by putting more emphasis on the scien- H
THE GAP tific development or on the practical application aspects. A
P
Accordingly, a distinction may be made between the job-specialized personnel T
and the specialists – individuals, who, through study and experience, develop in-
E
depth knowledge or skills in a given speciality. A specialist not only knows and
R
understands a particular subject or a particular topic of a subject, but he also devel-
ops that subject or topic. This is not necessarily the case for the usual
job-specialization, where personnel are required essentially to appropriately apply 2
conventional knowledge from a given speciality. For example, a weather forecaster
does not need to know NWP parameterizations at the specialist level, but he must
know how to interpret and use moisture forecasts from operational models.

Furthermore, while some fields of specialization are ‘meteorological’ in their

essence (e.g. NWP, or cloud and precipitation), other specialities may ‘borrow’
knowledge from non-meteorological disciplines. For instance, the syllabus for
urban climatology may include not only meteorological subjects (e.g. atmospheric
chemistry or boundary layer), but also topics on urban design, transport, building
construction, architecture, etc.

The important issue is the gap that exists between academic specialities as
described in conventional textbooks, and the job-specializations as required in
meteorological practice. Accordingly, when designing job-specialized training, it is
necessary to assemble specific packages of relevant topics taken from more than
one conventional discipline. Then, the syllabi and the in-depth level of treatment
of the various topics would have to be determined by the local instructor accord-
ing to the job-competency requirements specifically targeted for his trainees.

Although no effective ‘external’ guidance can be provided on these specific

matters, the interested reader may utilize the above-described operational duties
and job-competencies as a background requirement when designing core curric-
ula for the underlying knowledge and skills expected of meteorological personnel
(see sections 3.3 and 3.4 of next chapter for further information).

21
CHAPTER 3

BASIC INSTRUCTION PACKAGE FOR METEOROLOGISTS (BIP-M)

Requisite topics in mathematics and physical sciences

Compulsory topics in atmospheric sciences

Elective fields of specialization in meteorology

Other fields of specialization

Beyond the BIP-M

Syllabus example for dynamic meteorology

This chapter describes the Basic Instruction Package for Meteorologists (BIP-M) in
terms of a framework curriculum – a listing of major topics which as an ensemble
provide the necessary foundation for entry into the profession, as well as the basis
for future professional development. It is emphasized that this listing of topics
(items (a), (b), (c), etc. under each discipline) is neither a ‘curriculum’ nor a listing
of ‘courses’. Rather, starting from the recommended BIP-M topics, a curriculum
proper should be developed locally by faculty members with expertize in relevant
disciplines, with due regard to the available resources and the interests of the
stakeholders, e.g. the NMS. The actual curriculum would specify the effective
subject matter to be taught for each core topic (a), (b), (c), etc., of the relevant
discipline.

As indicated in paragraph 1.1.3, detailed syllabus examples for each discipline are
provided in a companion departmental publication; one such detailed syllabus,
for the particular case of dynamic meteorology, is illustrated in the Annex to this
chapter.

The in-depth level of instruction and the breadth of coverage of the BIP-M topics
should be similar to that used in physical sciences, applied mathematics or engi-
neering faculties. Several topics require not only classroom instruction, but also
hands-on experience in dedicated laboratories and practical experience in the
field.
GUIDELINES FOR THE EDUCATION AND TRAINING OF PERSONNEL IN METEOROLOGY AND OPERATIONAL HYDROLOGY

3.1 REQUISITE TOPICS The first three sub-sections concern pre-/co-requisite basic science topics that are
IN MATHEMATICS essential for any in-depth study of meteorological subjects. The last sub-section concerns
AND PHYSICAL complementary topics in oral and written communication including possible use of a
SCIENCES foreign language; it is noted, however that these topics are usually included in the
general university requirements for completing a Bachelor’s Degree.

Mathematics (a) Linear algebra and vector calculus;

(b) Differential and integral calculus;
(c) Ordinary and partial differential equations;
(d) Probability theory and statistics;
(e) Information and communication technology;
(f) Numerical methods.

Physics (a) Fundamentals of mechanics;

(b) Basic thermodynamics;
(c) Wave theory;
(d) Fluid motion;
(e) Turbulence in fluids;
(f) Basics of electromagnetic radiation; electromagnetism.

Chemistry (a) Basic physical chemistry;

(b) Chemical thermodynamics;
(c) Aqueous solutions;
(d) Introductory photochemistry.

Complementary requirements (a) Communication and presentation techniques;

(b) International communication languages (e.g. WMO official languages).

3.2 COMPULSORY Completion of the physical meteorology and dynamic meteorology topics from this
TOPICS IN section is mandatory for any BIP-M programme, as these provide the meteorological
ATMOSPHERIC foundation knowledge and understanding required for more specific developments
SCIENCES under the three major degree-streams: Weather, Climate and Environment.

For the required topics in synoptic meteorology, climatology and in atmospheric

chemistry, certain flexibility may be considered, in function of the envisaged stream:

• Under the ‘Weather’ stream, more emphasis will be given to synoptic mete-
orology, particularly mesoscale weather forecasting and less emphasis on
climatology;
• Under the ‘Climate’ stream, more emphasis will be given to climatology,
particularly seasonal forecasting, and less emphasis on synoptic meteorology;
• Under the ‘Environment’ stream, more emphasis will be given to atmos-
pheric chemistry, boundary layer processes and soil-vegetation-atmosphere
interactions, and less emphasis on synoptic meteorology and climatology.

It is recalled that the requirements for physical and dynamic meteorology under
the ‘Environment’ stream remain essentially the same as for the ‘Weather’ and
‘Climate’ streams.

Physical meteorology (a) Radiation in the atmosphere;

(b) Atmospheric acoustics, optics and electricity;
(c) The global energy balance;
(d) Cloud and precipitation; water cycle;
(e) Atmospheric thermodynamics;
(f) Boundary layer and turbulence; micrometeorology;
(g) Satellite systems;
(h) Weather radar;
(i) Introduction to atmospheric chemistry; urban pollution;
(j) Laboratory work and practical exercises.

24
 CHAPTER 3 — BASIC INSTRUCTION PACKAGE FOR METEOROLOGISTS

Dynamic meteorology (a) Basic fluid dynamics;

(b) The hydrostatic and geostrophic approximation;
(c) The vorticity and the thermodynamic energy equations;
(d) Quasi-geostrophic motion;
(e) Atmospheric waves; baroclinic and barotropic instability;
(f) General circulation energetics;
(g) Stratospheric dynamics; physics and chemistry;
C
(h) Numerical weather prediction;
(i) Laboratory work and practical exercises. H
A
Synoptic meteorology (a) Overview of meteorological observations and measurements; P
(b) Relationships between wind, pressure, and temperature fields; T
(c) Mid-latitude synoptic systems;
E
(d) Cyclogenesis and frontogenesis;
R
(e) Tropical weather systems;
(f) Mesoscale atmospheric circulations;
(g) Near real time monitoring of weather, nowcasting; 3
(h) Weather forecasting;
(i) Laboratory work and practical exercises.

Climatology (a) Introduction to earth system science;

(b) Climatic data;
(c) Descriptive climatology; statistics and probability theory;
(d) Climate classification;
(e) The physics and chemistry of the climate system;
(f) Climate dynamics;
(g) Climate change;
(h) Climatology and seasons of the country;
(i) Laboratory work and practical exercises.

3.3 ELECTIVE FIELDS OF In principle, the items in the fields of specialization described in this section may
SPECIALIZATION IN be considered as going beyond the normal requirements for a complete BIP-M (i.e.
METEOROLOGY B.Sc. programme in meteorology). Some senior undergraduate students may wish,
however, to deepen their basic professional education by an early specialization,
which would more readily prepare them for specific jobs. Under a condensed BIP-M
(i.e. postgraduate Diploma or Master’s degree programme in meteorology), the
compulsory topics from the previous section would be covered in a much shorter
time period than in the case of the complete BIP-M. In turn, the thorough study
of a particular meteorological specialization is essential for students attending any
condensed BIP-M.

Thus, the depth and breadth in studying any field of specialization may be differ-
ent under the complete or the condensed BIP-M. In this sense, the presentations
from this section are neither prescriptive nor comprehensive and the educational
institutions have full freedom to adapt the suggested framework curricula to their
own expressed needs so that they can for instance, be consistent with the mission
and basic requirements of the supporting NMS, or according to specific job
requirements. Furthermore, relevant educational institutions are encouraged to
explore the actual world of work and to assess job prospects not only within NMS,
but also in relation with broader meteorological, hydrological, oceanographic and
many other environmental professions from the public and private sector.
Accordingly, these institutions should provide suitable opportunities for early
professional specialization in ‘hot’ subjects as required by the actual job market in
meteorology and related environmental domains.

It should be stressed that completing the basic science and meteorological disci-
plines’ topics mentioned in sections 3.1 and 3.2 constitute the essential
prerequisite requirements for any field of specialization from this (and next)
section.

25
GUIDELINES FOR THE EDUCATION AND TRAINING OF PERSONNEL IN METEOROLOGY AND OPERATIONAL HYDROLOGY

Aeronautical meteorology (a) Aircraft Icing;

(b) Turbulence;
(c) Other hazardous phenomena;
(d) Meteorological aspects of flight planning;
(e) Definitions;
(f) Procedures for meteorological services for international air navigation;
(g) Air traffic services;
(h) Aerodromes;
(i) Operation of aircraft;
(j) Aeronautical information services;
(k) Aeronautical telecommunications;
(l) WMO documentation;
(m) ICAO documentation.

Agricultural meteorology (a) Plant physiology;

(b) Bio-meteorological interrelationships;
(c) Surface energy balance;
(d) Water balance;
(e) Observations and measurements; data processing;
(f) Operational forecasts;
(g) Assistance for planning;
(h) Preventing the impact of adverse weather conditions.

Atmospheric chemistry (a) Evolution of the atmosphere; chemical composition and vertical structure;
(b) Attenuation of solar radiation by atmospheric gases and aerosols;
(c) Absorption and emission of long-wave terrestrial radiation;
(d) Chemicals in the troposphere;
(e) Atmospheric aerosols;
(f) Cloud and precipitation chemistry;
(g) Tropospheric chemical cycles;
(h) Stratospheric chemistry;
(i) Air quality and human health.

Climate monitoring and (a) The climate system;

prediction (b) Climate monitoring; networks; principles;
(c) General circulation of the atmosphere;
(d) Air-sea interaction; hydrological cycle and the impact of land characteristics;
(e) Sources of climate predictability;
(f) Statistical forecasting methods;
(g) Dynamical forecasting methods;
(h) Climate change and human affairs;
(i) Uncertainties of the current climate projections;
(j) Seasonal forecasting.

Mesoscale meteorology and (a) Overview of mesoscale and the role of forecaster;
weather forecasting (b) Mesoscale features of mid-latitude cyclones;
(c) ‘Non-convective’ mesoscale circulations and phenomena;
(d) Convective mesoscale circulations and phenomena;
(e) Cloud and precipitation in operational numerical models;
(f) Operational NWP suite;
(g) Weather monitoring; nowcasting;
(h) Forecasting specific weather phenomena; public weather services;
(i) Large-scale and medium range forecasts;
(j) Statement and verification of forecasts.

Radar meteorology (a) The principles of weather radar;

(b) Weather signals;
(c) Doppler spectra of weather signals;
(d) Weather signal processing;

26
 CHAPTER 3 — BASIC INSTRUCTION PACKAGE FOR METEOROLOGISTS

(e) Weather observation;

(f) Precipitation measurements;
(g) Observation of winds, storms and related phenomena;
(h) Observation of fair weather;
(i) Applications; examples of displays and products.

Satellite meteorology (a) Evolution of satellite meteorology;

C
(b) Nature of radiation;
(c) Absorption, emission, reflection and scattering; H
(d) Radiation budget; A
(e) The radiative transfer equation; P
(f) Surface temperature; T
(g) Detecting clouds;
E
(h) Techniques for determining atmospheric parameters;
R
(i) Techniques for determining atmospheric motions;
(j) Satellite orbits.
3
Tropical weather (a) Tropical weather overview;
and climate (b) Large-scale circulation;
(c) Synoptic-scale circulations;
(d) Monsoon meteorology;
(e) The ENSO;
(f) Convection and mesoscale convective systems;
(g) Tropical cyclones.

Urban meteorology and air (a) Overview of urban atmosphere;

pollution (b) Monitoring urban weather and climate;
(c) Thermal radiation;
(d) Atmospheric boundary layer; application of basic concepts;
(e) Buoyant plumes; dispersion of air pollutants;
(f) Application concepts in boundary layer meteorology;
(g) Urban pollution forecasts;
(h) Health effects of pollutants.

3.4 OTHER FIELDS OF In addition to the above-mentioned truly ‘meteorological’ fields of specialization there
SPECIALIZATION are other meteorology-related fields such as biometeorology, hydrometeorology, marine
meteorology, advanced remote sensing, as well as numerical methods for mathematical
modelling in atmospheric sciences or economic meteorology and management.
Framework curricula for these cross-disciplinary specializations, particularly for
postgraduate Meteorologists, will be briefly presented in this section.

Biometeorology and human (a) Human bio-meteorology scope;

health (b) Biophysical adaptation; the body-environment energy budget;
(c) Biophysical adaptation; clothing and housing;
(d) Epidemiology and environmental human physiology;
(e) Climatic comfort; windchill and heat discomfort;
(f) Monitoring bio-climatic resources.

Boundary layer meteorology (a) Physics of the boundary layer;

(b) Atmospheric turbulence;
(c) Parameterizations of the planetary boundary layer;
(d) Bulk transport of pollutants;
(e) Transport modelling by primitive equations models.

Clouds and precipitation; (a) Atmospheric aerosols;

weather modification (b) Formation of clouds;
(c) Precipitation process;
(d) Cumulonimbus convection;
(e) Hail suppression;

27
GUIDELINES FOR THE EDUCATION AND TRAINING OF PERSONNEL IN METEOROLOGY AND OPERATIONAL HYDROLOGY

(f) Fog-clearing; precipitation management;

(g) Technology of weather modification.

Economic meteorology; (a) Meteorological information; products and services;

marketing and (b) Users and beneficiaries of meteorological information;
management (c) Introductory econometric statistics;
(d) Verification of forecasts; conceptual framework;
(e) Verification methods;
(f) Estimation of economic benefits using decision models;
(g) Basis of standard cost-loss models; the economic value of forecasts;
(h) Extension of the standard cost-loss model; applications of decision models;
(i) Techniques for the estimation of economic benefits;
(j) Marketing meteorological products and services.

General hydrology and (a) Development of hydrology;

hydrometeorology (b) Precipitation;
(c) Evaporation and evapotranspiration;
(d) Ground water resources;
(e) Surface water resources;
(f) Water balance;
(g) The hydrological cycle; hydrometeorology.

General oceanography and (a) Physical oceanography overview;

marine meteorology (b) Introduction to ocean dynamics;
(c) Wind-driven currents; turbulence transfer; thermohaline circulation;
(d) Surface waves; oscillations of air-sea interface;
(e) Tides;
(f) The heat budget of the ocean;
(g) Air-sea interaction;
(h) Measurement platforms and instruments;
(i) Meteorological applications.

Middle-upper atmosphere (a) Upper atmosphere sub-regions;

(b) The Sun’s radiation in the upper atmosphere; space ‘weather’;
(c) Chemistry of the upper atmosphere; stratospheric ozone;
(d) Radiative transfer;
(e) Atmospheric tides; geomagnetic phenomena; the ionosphere;
(f) The dynamics of the stratosphere and mesosphere.

Numerical methods for (a) Basic finite-difference methods;

mathematical modelling (b) Systems of equations;
(c) Spectral and other methods;
(d) Semi-Lagrangian methods;
(e) Boundary conditions.

3.5 BEYOND THE Completion of the BIP-M is only the first step in the professional development of
BIP-M individuals pursuing a career in meteorology. Routine updates and refresher
training will subsequently be required in order to keep in touch with the
continual development of the atmospheric sciences and the rapid advances in
technology.

Career progression to mid- and senior-level positions requires demonstrated prac-

tical experience and additional specialized instruction that extends the scientific
knowledge and understanding provided by the BIP-M. Some senior-level posi-
tions, for example in research and development normally require formal
post-graduate study in meteorology or a related field. Other positions, especially
those in mid- and senior-level management, may require advanced degrees in
business, economics or marketing, complemented by a technical background in
meteorology.

28
CHAPTER 3 — BASIC INSTRUCTION PACKAGE FOR METEOROLOGISTS

However, in addition to formal and informal education, career progression

requires an individual to continually demonstrate increasing technical compe-
tency on the job, as well as show indications of leadership, willingness and ability
to acquire skills outside of meteorology, evidence of managerial skills, and the
desire to take on more responsibility.

C
H
A
P
T
E
R

29
GUIDELINES FOR THE EDUCATION AND TRAINING OF PERSONNEL IN METEOROLOGY AND OPERATIONAL HYDROLOGY

ANNEX

EXAMPLE OF A SYLLABUS FOR DYNAMIC METEOROLOGY

Basic fluid Scalar and vector fields; Gauss and Stokes theorems; kinematics of flow fields;
dynamics material derivative; Eulerian and Lagrangean rates of change; conservation of
mass, momentum and energy. Navier-Stokes equations. Rotating frames of refer-
ence; equations of motion in coordinate form: spherical coordinates; preliminary
approximations to the equations in spherical coordinate form; Coriolis parameter;
tangent-plane geometry; f- and β-plane approximations.

The hydrostatic and Scale analysis for the mid-latitude large-scale weather systems. Rossby number;
geostrophic approximation hydrostatic and geostrophic balance; inertial flow; cyclostrophic flow; gradient
flow and the gradient-wind balance for a steady circular vortex. Vertical shear of the
geostrophic wind; thermal wind; pressure coordinates and geopotential height.

The vorticity and the Bjerknes’ circulation theorem; stream function and velocity potential; Helmholtz
thermodynamic energy theorem; trajectories and streamlines; natural coordinates. Vorticity and vorticity
equations equation; relation between absolute vorticity and relative vorticity; principal
mechanisms for vorticity generation and change. First law of thermodynamics,
meteorological formulation; diabatic forcing in the lower and middle atmosphere;
adiabatic motion: potential temperature conservation.

Quasi-geostrophic motion Boussinesq approximation; Brunt-Väisäla (buoyancy) frequency; Taylor-Proudman

theorem; quasi-geostrophic approximation. Geopotential tendency equation.
Omega equation; vertical motion; cancellation between the forcing terms; alter-
native interpretation; Q-vectors diagnosis of vertical motion. Conservation of
quasi-geostrophic potential vorticity for frictionless and adiabatic flow. General
potential vorticity equation of Ertel-Rossby; anomalies of potential vorticity in the
cyclogenesis process; role of diabatic heating as a source/sink of potential vortic-
ity; non-linear interactions; initial value approach, invertibility principle; use of
the gradient-wind equation as balance condition to find the wind and mass field
from the potential vorticity distribution.

Atmospheric waves; baroclinic Quasi-linear behaviour of atmospheric motions; small perturbation theory; classi-
and barotropic instability cal wave equation; dispersion relations; phase and group velocity. Simple wave
types: acoustic and sound waves; shallow water gravity waves; internal gravity
(buoyancy) waves; inertial gravity waves, inertial oscillations. Barotropic (Rossby)
waves; westward propagation; beta effect; strong dispersion. Baroclinic instability;
Eady and Charney models; stabilizing influence of the beta effect on the long
waves and of the static stability on short waves. Barotropic instability; Rayleigh-
Kuo criterion for a basic zonal current with horizontal meridional shear; stable
and unstable distribution of the absolute vorticity field.

General circulation energetics Kinetic, potential and internal energy; relationship between potential and inter-
nal energy in quasi-static flow; available potential energy; conservation theorems.
Energy equations for an atmosphere confined to a zonal channel on an f-plane,
with rigid lateral walls. Conversion of available potential energy to kinetic energy;
generation of available potential energy. Treatment of the available potential
energy and kinetic energy in their zonal and eddy forms, and their interaction.
Momentum budget; dynamics of zonally symmetric circulations. Selective role of
various scales of atmospheric motions; the generation, conversion and transfer of
energy as a function of wave number. Introduction to weather and climate
predictability; non-linearity, complexity, chaos, and strange attractors.

Stratospheric dynamics; Dynamic interactions between the stratosphere and troposphere, ultra-long quasi-
physics and chemistry stationary planetary scale waves; vertically propagating planetary waves.

30
 CHAPTER 3 — BASIC INSTRUCTION PACKAGE FOR METEOROLOGISTS

Energetics of the lower stratosphere; sudden stratospheric warming; waves in the

equatorial stratosphere; Kelvin waves and mixed Rossby-gravity waves; quasi-bien-
nial oscillation; ozone layer; stratospheric heat balance. Transport of chemicals;
Brewer-Dobson troposphere-stratosphere circulation (equator-poles), and the
solstitial stratosphere-mesosphere circulation (summer-winter poles). Antarctic
‘polar stratospheric clouds’; photolysis of man-made chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
from ultra-violet radiation; blend of chemical, dynamic and transport processes
C
leading to the stratospheric ozone hole(s).
H
Numerical Weather Prediction Finite differences and truncation errors, accuracy, consistency, stability, conver- A
(NWP) gence, time and space differencing. Numerical solution of Laplace, Poisson and P
Helmholtz equations by iterative methods; relaxation techniques. Introduction to T
spectral methods, spherical harmonics, transform method, semi-Lagnaugian
E
approach. Primitive equation models: model variables; inclusion of moisture and
R
radiation effects; boundary and initial conditions. Objective analysis and data
assimilation; optimum interpolation method, variational methods; dynamic
initialization, non-linear normal mode initialization; 4-D data assimilation. 3
Current operational models: global, regional, and local models; model equations;
coordinate systems and numerical formulation; parameterization of physical
processes. Ensemble forecasts; unpredictable internal variations. Application of
model products to the prediction of routine parameters and specific events; short-
comings and sources of error in the models; role of the human forecaster.

Suggestions for laboratory Physical demonstration of dynamical concepts: Bernoulli’s theorem, vorticity,
work and practical exercises Reynolds, Rossby, Richardson and Burger numbers. Waves and turbulence.
Density currents, convective thermals and plumes, cellular convection in a stable
layer of fluid, spin-up of a rotating fluid, baroclinic waves in a heated rotating
annulus, surface gravity waves and barotropic Rossby waves. Information and
communication technology and data processing systems; computer architecture,
visualization, and networking; programming techniques and languages.
Numerical methods, round-off errors, finite difference formulas, trapezoidal rule
for integration, tridiagonal linear systems; 1-D diffusion and 1-D advection equa-
tion. Quasi-geostrophic potential vorticity conservation, quasi-geostrophic omega
equation, Q-vectors approach to vertical motion field, baroclinic instability and
Eady model. Numerical solution of the barotropic vorticity equation. Eulerian,
Lagrangean and spectral methods, vector and parallel processing; application in
data assimilation, NWP; and other computer simulations.

31
CHAPTER 4

BASIC INSTRUCTION PACKAGE FOR METEOROLOGICAL

TECHNICIANS (BIP-MT)

Requisite topics in basic sciences

Compulsory topics in general meteorology

Elective options in operational meteorology

Beyond the BIP-MT

Syllabus example for aeronautical meteorology – technician

level

Meteorological Technicians may perform a wide variety of tasks, these include

making and transmitting of weather and climate observations and measurements;
performing routine maintenance of observing equipment; assisting a Meteorologist
in preparing analyses and forecasts; responding to routine queries for information
from customers, etc. Usually, NMSs also use ‘technologists’ to install, maintain and
upgrade sophisticated observing systems as well as information and communica-
tion technology equipment; however, their initial qualifications would be different
from that of a Meteorological Technician.

This chapter describes the Basic Instruction Package for Meteorological

Technicians (BIP-MT). It lists the core topics (items (a), (b), (c), ….. under each
discipline) required to acquire the knowledge and skills necessary for the job at an
entry-level. Detailed syllabus examples for the core topics under each discipline
are presented in a departmental publication accompanying this volume. An
example of a detailed syllabus on aeronautical meteorology is reiterated in an
Annex to this chapter.

The level of instruction and depth of coverage of the topics in the BIP-MT should
be equivalent to that used in post-secondary or technical schools preparing indi-
viduals for careers such as electronic, mechanical or chemistry technicians. Many
of the topics will require both classroom instruction and hands-on experience in
the laboratory and/or practical experience in the field.
GUIDELINES FOR THE EDUCATION AND TRAINING OF PERSONNEL IN METEOROLOGY AND OPERATIONAL HYDROLOGY

4.1 REQUISITE TOPICS An individual entering the BIP-MT programme should have completed general,
IN BASIC SCIENCES elementary or compulsory school, and should possess a background in mathematics and
physical sciences that includes elementary algebra, simple plane geometry and
trigonometry, as well as introductory physics and chemistry. If the acquired education
does not provide this background, the individual should undertake the necessary
preparatory work prior to the beginning of the BIP-MT programme.

This section outlines the requisite topics in mathematics, physical sciences and
computer operation that are necessary to develop the general knowledge base and
skills expected of any meteorological technician. Completion of those topics is
also essential in enabling the proper acquisition of the meteorological instruction
and on-the-job training envisaged under the BIP-MT proper.

Mathematics (a) Review of elementary algebra, geometry and trigonometry;

(b) Introductory differential and integral calculus;
(c) Elementary statistics;
(d) Introduction to information technology.

Physics (a) Basic mechanics;

(b) Nature of fluids; heat;
(c) Acoustics and optics;
(d) Electricity and magnetism.

Chemistry (a) Basic chemical concepts;

(b) Elements of bio- and geo-chemistry.

Communication skills (a) Expression and communication skills: Course work and practical activities to
develop oral and written presentation and communication skills.

4.2 COMPULSORY The topics described under this section provide an overview of meteorology as a whole,
TOPICS IN GENERAL together with an introduction to basic observation and measurement methods and
METEOROLOGY instruments. These topics, mandatory for any BIP-MT programme, are aimed to enable
trainees for satisfactory performance at the job-entry level.

Introductory physical and (a) The Sun, Earth and electromagnetic radiation;
dynamical (b) Introductory atmospheric thermodynamics;
meteorology (c) Atmospheric moisture; condensation process;
(d) Atmospheric motion; geostrophic flow;
(e) Elements of atmospheric optics and electricity.

Elements of synoptic (a) Observing the Earth’s atmosphere and oceans;

meteorology and (b) Information technology; operational data processing;
climatology (c) Air-masses; cyclones and anticyclones;
(d) Introduction to synoptic analysis method;
(e) General climatology; routine applications;
(f) Climatological measurements;
(g) Organization of meteorology.

Meteorological instruments and (a) Overview of meteorological observation and instrumentation;

methods of observation (b) Making an observation;
(c) Quality control, coding, and transmission of observations;
(d) Operating, and maintaining instruments;
(e) Automatic observing stations.

4.3 ELECTIVE OPTIONS The options listed below concern foundation knowledge for the job-entry-level
IN OPERATIONAL specialization. Each trainee will elect one option, which then becomes mandatory for
METEOROLOGY that trainee. It is understood that the class lectures will be accompanied/followed by
extensive laboratory/field practice supervized by instructors with expertize in relevant
disciplines and with due regard to the trainee’s future job requirements.

34
 CHAPTER 4 — BASIC INSTRUCTION PACKAGE FOR METEOROLOGICAL TECHNICIANS

Synoptic observations and (a) Surface temperature; pressure; humidity; wind;

measurements (b) Precipitation; evaporation; visibility; clouds; fog;
(c) Sunshine and radiation;
(d) Hydro-, litho-, photo-, electro-meteors; past and present weather;
(e) Upper-air observations.

Other specialized observations (a) Marine observations and measurements;

and measurements (b) Agrometeorological and biological observations;
(c) Atmospheric chemistry measurements.

Remote sounding of the (a) Meteorological satellites;

atmosphere (b) Weather radar;
(c) Lidar and sodar;
C
(d) Ozone spectrophotometer;
(e) Special soundings; meteorological rockets. H
A
Aeronautical meteorology (a) Observing techniques; P
for technicians (b) Hazardous phenomena; T
(c) Meteorological aspects of flight planning; E
(d) Reporting, coding and dissemination of weather information;
R
(e) Definitions;
(f) Procedures for meteorological services for international aviation;
(g) Air traffic services; 4
(h) Operation of aircraft;
(i) Aeronautical telecommunications;
(j) WMO documents;
(k) ICAO documents.

4.4 BEYOND THE The BIP-MT provides the foundation necessary for entry into a technical career in
BIP-MT meteorology. Individuals pursuing this career development will require periodic updates
and refresher training and/or additional specialized formal instruction that builds on
and extends the knowledge and understanding provided under the BIP-MT. This
instruction could also concern complementary topics addressing general cultural
knowledge, oral and written communication and presentation skills, including possibly
communication by one of the commonly used international languages.

It is also envisaged that formal instruction for mid- and/or senior-level technicians
may include topics from the fields of specialization already described in Chapter
3 for the BIP-M, but adapted to the technician-level knowledge and to the practi-
cal needs of employers (e.g. the NMSs). For instance, many subjects from the
BIP-M syllabus in agricultural meteorology, biometeorology, marine meteorology,
economic meteorology, urban meteorology and air pollution, weather modifica-
tion, etc. may easily be adapted for technician-level training. Naturally, the
treatment of those subjects will be focused mainly on the application rather than
on theoretical aspects.

Finally, in addition to formal and informal instruction, career progression for

senior level technicians requires the individual to demonstrate increasing technical
competency on the job, and a desire to take on more responsibility (e.g. for the
design, implementation or supervision of networks, observing systems and stan-
dards, and other relevant activities).

35
 ANNEX

SYLLABUS EXAMPLE FOR AERONAUTICAL METEOROLOGY –

TECHNICIAN LEVEL

(Based on an extract from WMO-No. 258, third edition, as revised by N. Gordon,

President of the WMO Commission for Aeronautical Meteorology and T. Fox, Chief of
Aeronautical Meteorology at ICAO)

Observations for aeronautical purposes are characteristically different from those

for synoptic purposes. Synoptic observations are intended to be representative of
the weather over a large area and are made at routine times separated by intervals
of several hours. Meteorological observations for aeronautical purposes are made
to satisfy the aeronautical operational requirements and are intended to be repre-
sentative of the weather at an aerodrome or of particular meteorological
parameters at limited areas on or near the runways. On a routine basis they are
made more frequently than synoptic observations as well as being made on a non-
routine basis to cover significant changes in the weather and to satisfy the
requirements of pilots and air traffic services.

The syllabus below will supplement the Basic Instruction Package for
Meteorological Technicians (BIP-MT) provided under sections 4.1 and 4.2 of
Chapter 4. The first four items refer to meteorological knowledge; the next five
items to aviation knowledge, and the last two items to basic regulatory documents
and related publications by WMO and ICAO. Aeronautical meteorological techni-
cians need to have a sound knowledge of:

Observing techniques Surface wind direction and speed, including changes and variations. Visibility and
runway visual range, including spatial and temporal variations in RVR obser-
vations, by visual means or by use of automatic instruments such as the
transmissometer and forward-scatter meter. Cloud amount, height and type and
spatial and temporal variations; vertical visibility, observations using automatic
instruments such as a ceilometer. Pressure measurements for the purpose of deter-
mining QFE and QNH.

Hazardous phenomena Aircraft icing; elementary knowledge of icing types; formation, accretion rates and
association of icing with clouds, freezing precipitation, orographic and frontal
lifting. Turbulence: elementary knowledge of turbulence near the ground as
related to topography, air-mass stability, clouds, fronts and thunderstorms.
Elementary knowledge of high-level turbulence (CAT) and its association with jet
streams. Wind shear. Volcanic ash.

Meteorological aspects of Meteorological basis for pressure-pattern flying; meteorological requirements for
flight planning en-route winds and temperatures; weather and aerodrome forecasts. Interpretation
of area, route and terminal forecasts and preparation of material for briefing of
flight crews.

Reporting, coding and Complete knowledge of international meteorological codes related to obser-
dissemination of weather vations, such as METAR, SPECI, SYNOP, PILOT, and TEMP, and aeronautical
information forecasts, such as TAF and ROFOR. Knowledge of procedures for dissemination of
weather information at the aerodrome, including the special needs of ATC units.
Knowledge of the procedures for the preparation of the plain language forms of
meteorological messages.

Definitions Meteorological report, observation. Visibility, runway visual ranges. Altitude, elevation,
height, aerodrome elevation, flight-level, and transition level. Aerodrome meteorological

36
 CHAPTER 4 — BASIC INSTRUCTION PACKAGE FOR METEOROLOGICAL TECHNICIANS

minima, instrument runway, landing area. Landing forecast, aerodrome forecast,

forecast, GAMET area forecast, SIGMET and AIRMET (information), briefing, routine
and special air-report. Operator, operator’s local representative, pilot-in-command.

Procedures for meteorological Organization of the meteorological service and particularly the functions of the
services for international various types of meteorological offices. Aeronautical meteorological stations and
aviation their functions, local routine and special observations and reports, reports in
METAR and SPECI code forms. Meteorological watch. Observations required from
aircraft and the procedures related to the ground-to-ground dissemination of
these observations. Introduction to the responsibilities of ICAO and WMO in
aeronautical meteorology.

Air Traffic Services (ATS) Demands for meteorological services, including the types of meteorological infor-
C
mation required by the various air traffic services units and the updating of this
information by means of duplicate displays in ATS units or by prompt data trans- H
mission originated by the meteorological office or station. Familiarity with special A
requirements relating to Category II and III operations particularly in respect of P
runway visual range and cloud base information and any other specific local T
requirements by aeronautical users for meteorological information. E
R
Operation of aircraft Flight planning. Duties of flight operations officers when exercizing operational
control. Navigation and landing aids. Effects of air density, icing, turbulence,
wind, wind shear and volcanic ash on aircraft performance. Altimeter setting 4
procedures, standard atmosphere. Performance characteristics, including fuel
consumption of civil aviation aircraft; characteristics of propeller type, turbo-prop
and turbo-jet and, where applicable, supersonic aircraft. Effects of various weather
phenomena on aeronautical operations and on aerodrome ground services.

Aeronautical Elementary understanding of the general organization of aeronautical telecom-

telecommunications munications, a good working knowledge of the operation of the aeronautical fixed
service (particularly AFTN and ATN), and any special broadcasts and/or regional
telecommunications networks applicable to the region concerned, e.g. AMBEX
and ROBEX. Such knowledge should include: message headings, addressing of
messages, priorities of messages and any appropriate regional procedures.
Meteorological technicians should be acquainted with the ICAO abbreviations
used in messages on the Aeronautical Fixed Services (AFS). The more frequently
used abbreviations should be known by heart.

WMO documents Technical Regulations, (WMO-No. 49), Vol. II — Meteorological Service for
International Air Navigation. Manual on Codes (WMO-No. 306). Guide to
Meteorological Instruments and Methods of Observation (WMO-No. 8). Weather
Reporting (WMO-No. 9).

ICAO documents Annex 3 — Meteorological Service for International Air Navigation. Regional
Supplementary Procedures (Doc. 7030). Procedures for Air Navigation Services — ICAO
Abbreviations and Codes (PANS-ABC, Doc 8400). Location indicators (Doc. 7910).
Manual of Aeronautical Meteorological Practice (Doc. 8896). Manual of Runway Visual
Range Observing and Reporting Practices (Doc 9328). Manual on Coordination between
Air Traffic Services, Aeronautical Information Service (AIS) and Aeronautical
Meteorological Services (Doc 9377) and Relevant Air Navigation Plans (ANPs and
FASID;)

Note: Some civil aviation administrations in specific circumstances authorize ATS

personnel to make meteorological observations at an aerodrome. As indicated in
ICAO Annex 1— Personnel Licensing, the training syllabi of the relevant ATS
personnel concerned should be supplemented by relevant parts of the
Aeronautical meteorological technician syllabus given under items (a) to (d)
above.

37
CHAPTER 5

CONTINUING EDUCATION AND TRAINING (CET)

Introduction

Basic concepts

Getting the most from CET

CET methods

Some CET trends

Final remarks

To understand the importance of CET, it is first necessary to consider how and

why organizations change, and how this change can be managed. This leads to
the concept of the ‘learning organization’. Central to this concept is the empow-
erment of individuals and the need for them to seek learning opportunities. The
associated change in culture is only possible if there is full commitment to such
realignment throughout the organization.

It is increasingly likely that organizations will only be successful if they make full
use of the creativity and learning potential of the people within the organization.
To do this it is necessary to have a strategic approach to the identification of train-
ing and development needs. Also procedures and systems need to be in place to
ensure that the organization has a clear commitment to training and develop-
ment, makes appropriate training and development plans, takes action to
implement the plans and evaluates the effectiveness of the activities.

In this chapter, concepts such as training, development and continuing profes-

sional development will be used to illustrate ways in which people within an
organization, such as an NMS, can improve their performance and develop their
careers. However, these concepts should be considered in the context of lifelong
learning – the process by which individuals continue to participate in formal and
informal learning activities throughout their working life.
GUIDELINES FOR THE EDUCATION AND TRAINING OF PERSONNEL IN METEOROLOGY AND OPERATIONAL HYDROLOGY

5.1 INTRODUCTION Change is a natural process for all organizations. Indeed, without change it is
unlikely that an organization could continue to be successful.

Factors affecting NMSs The changes affecting NMSs fall into three broad categories:

• Change associated with the evolution of technology which allows ‘old

things’ to be done better (i.e. more efficiently and effectively) and ‘new
things’ which can now be done but which were previously impractical;
• Change arising from improvements in our understanding of physical
processes in the earth system, which underpins the development of new
products and services;
• Change associated with the political, economic and legal environment in
which NMSs operate.

The following are some specific examples of factors influencing the way NMSs
operate:

• Increased use of technology to provide both ground-based and space-based

observations; these observations are growing in quality and quantity;
• Improved understanding of the processes taking place in the atmosphere and
oceans and a greater ability to use numerical models to forecast the weather
out to about ten days and simulate the atmosphere-ocean climate system;
• Improved use of workstations to display and manipulate meteorological
information;
• Increased application of new data, new models, new research and new fore-
casting techniques to provide meteorological services that are of benefit to
the user;
• Increased pressure for commercialization and/or cost recovery by many
governments;
• Growth of the provision of meteorological services by the private sector;
• Increased participation of regional services within a country (at state or
province level, for example) in the observation network and in providing
meteorological services to end-users; and
• Increased interdisciplinary cooperation amongst the Earth’s sciences.

It should be noted that in the last few decades there has been an increase in the
rate with which NMSs have needed to change as a result of rapid developments in
information technology and telecommunications and globalization.

As change is natural and inevitable both for organizations and individuals, it is

desirable that it should be planned and guided rather than simply be a response
to a crisis. This requires a culture of learning and development within the organi-
zation. The result is a flexible and responsive workforce that can respond
positively to change and also actively contribute to creating the change.

The learning organization There are strategic benefits in an organization being able to manage change so that
it is always in harmony with changing technology and the environment in which
it is operating. The need for an organization to change in this way has led to the
concept of a ‘learning organization’. Some of the features of a learning organiza-
tion are as follows:

• Individuals seek learning opportunities;

• Training is learner-centred;
• Empowerment of individuals is the norm;
• Teamwork is fostered;
• Bureaucratic rules are eliminated;
• Feedback on performance is provided;
• Mistakes are tolerated in the interests of learning.

40
 CHAPTER 5 — CONTINUING EDUCATION AND TRAINING

To become a learning organization often requires a complete change in culture.

Indeed the whole structure and operation of the organization may need to be
realigned. It needs to be recognized, however, that this cannot be done success-
fully without full commitment to the process throughout the organization.

There are many factors that need to be examined if an organization wants to

move towards becoming a learning organization. These deal with issues such as
strategy and vision; executive and managerial practice; job structure; and
information flow. With regard to training and development the following
questions could be asked:

• Is the organization proactive in identifying future skill requirements and

providing education and training to meet these requirements?
• Does the organization encourage planned professional development activities?
• Is the identification of training and professional development needs inte-
grated into the organization’s appraisal process?

There seems little doubt in these changing and uncertain times, NMSs could
benefit from answering ‘yes’ to these questions and moving towards becoming a C
learning organization.
H
Strategic approach to training In 1993 the Royal Society of Arts in the UK produced a report called ‘Tomorrow’s A
and development Company’. In this report it was noted that: P
T
• The centre of gravity in business success is already shifting from the exploita- E
tion of a company’s physical assets to the realization of the creativity and R
learning potential of all the people with whom it has contact;
• Education and training are being seen less as an issue of cost, and more as a
5
precondition for competitive success.

Further, it was noted that companies need to strive to develop and use the full
potential of their employees by:

• Anticipating and responding to change in employment patterns and the

expectations of individuals;
• Supporting and motivating individuals in developing their capabilities;
• Adapting its organizational structure to enable people’s contribution to be
used effectively.

If this analysis is correct, it is essential that a strategic approach be taken to the

planning of CET. This is just as much applicable to an NMS as to a commercial
company.

Good practice in the continuing education and training of employees could be

achieved if the NMS:

• Has a clear commitment to the career development of its employees;

• Plans for employee development;
• Takes action to develop employees;
• Evaluates the development activities.

Table 5.1 gives an indication of how an organization can demonstrate that it is following
good practice for the continuing education and training of its employees.

These considerations indicate that CET must be placed within an organizational

context. However, for long-term success, there should be a partnership that fully
takes into account the aims and aspirations of the individual, as well as the
requirements of the organization. Continuing education and training for an indi-
vidual requires direction, support and recognition from within the organization.

41
GUIDELINES FOR THE EDUCATION AND TRAINING OF PERSONNEL IN METEOROLOGY AND OPERATIONAL HYDROLOGY

Principle Indicator

Commitment
There is a commitment from the top to develop all employees • The organization has considered what employees at all levels
to achieve organizational objectives. will contribute to the success of the organization; and
• Has communicated this effectively to them.

Planning • A written plan identifies resources that will be used to

Needs and plans for the training and development of all meet training and development needs;
employees are regularly reviewed. • Objectives are set for training and development actions at
the organizational, individual and team level;

Action • All new employees are introduced effectively to the organi-

Action is taken to develop and train individuals on recruitment zation and all employees new to a job are given the
and throughout their employment. training and development they need to do the job;
• All employees are encouraged to meet their job-related
training and development needs;
Evaluation
Investment in training and development is evaluated to assess • Top management understands the broad costs of developing
achievement and improve future effectiveness. and training employees;
• Action takes place to implement improvements to training
and development identified as a result of evaluation.

Table 5.1 — Indicators of whether an organization is following good practice for CET

5.2 BASIC CONCEPTS In order to describe the role of CET it is important that the meaning of terms such
as education, formal and non-formal education, training or competency is
understood.

Continuing Education and The following definitions might prove useful, though they are not unique.
Training (CET)

Education The learning process in which the transfer of knowledge and the development of critical
thinking are the principal aims. Increasingly the educational process is focusing on the
process by which the learner comes to know, understand and be able to apply the
accumulated knowledge and understanding in a particular field of study.

Part of this learning is acquired in a non-structured and chaotic way, and depends
upon the socio-cultural environment in which people live. This is sometimes
referred to as ‘informal education’. For children much of it takes place within the
family environment, but there are also many outside influences. Informal educa-
tion is a continuing process though it has the greatest influence on behaviour
during childhood. It is independent of the work or profession of an individual.

The education that forms part of a planned and systematic process can be divided
into ‘formal education’ and ‘non-formal education’.

Formal education Education provided in a regular and highly structured system (e.g. in schools and
academic institutions).

Non-formal education Education provided after an individual has left formal education and/or assumed
adult responsibilities. Continuing education consists mainly of non-formal
education, although sometimes formal education can play a role.

Continuing education Learning provided after an individual has left formal education and has entered
employment and/or assumed adult responsibilities in which the transfer of
knowledge is the principal aim.

42
 CHAPTER 5 — CONTINUING EDUCATION AND TRAINING

Continuing education can be provided in a wide variety of ways (e.g. short

courses, seminars, workshops, conferences) and is normally aimed at the specific
needs of the individual and/or the organization in which that person works.
Having defined various aspects of education, it is appropriate to define training.

Training A planned process of directed learning focused on achieving specific performance

objectives associated with a job. Training can modify knowledge, skills and atti-
tude. Training is often concentrated on imparting skills and technical abilities (i.e.
the ability to carry out a stated task in a specified way). Knowledge beyond the
essentials required to carry out the task are often of secondary considerations.

In reality it is often difficult to clearly differentiate between continuing education

and training, so it is appropriate to consider them as two complementary aspects
of the way in which improved performance in the workplace can be achieved
through appropriate learning. Consequently the combination of the two will be
referred to as CET.

CET is usually aimed at helping an individual acquire all the competency required
in a particular job, or providing the individual with the competency needed to C
take on new responsibilities or to progress in his/her career.
H
Competency The ability to perform the activities within an occupational area to the levels of A
performance expected in employment. P
T
Training and development The concept of ‘development’ is now becoming more widely used. It encompasses E
CET, but also includes the concept of individuals reaching their full potential. R

Development The process which encourages or stimulates the growth and potential of an indi-
5
vidual. This includes both professional development (changing knowledge and
skills) and personal development (changing attitudes and traits). The characteris-
tics of training and development are given in Table 5.2.

For a healthy and vibrant organization it is important that the role of training and
development are recognized. Without the development of people an organization
will not make most effective use of its most important component – the people
that work in that organization.

Continuing Professional Development (CPD) is the process by which individuals

develop their skills throughout their working lives.

Training Development

Imparts specific knowledge, skills and ideas in order to enable an Encourages or stimulates the growth and potential of an
individual to perform better. individual.

One-off event or series of events with a specified end-point. A continuous process with no fixed end-point.

Done mainly off-the-job (e.g. in a controlled learning environ- Achieved mostly on-the-job (e.g. through experience, coaching
ment at a specific time, place). and practice).

Controlled and managed by the instructor. Controlled and managed by the individual.

Usually linked to specific organization rather than individual Specific to the individual and his/her needs and abilities.
needs.

Often a group event. Often a ‘solo’ event.

Table 5.2 —The characteristics of training and development

43
GUIDELINES FOR THE EDUCATION AND TRAINING OF PERSONNEL IN METEOROLOGY AND OPERATIONAL HYDROLOGY

Continuing Professional The planned acquisition of knowledge, experience and skills, and the develop-
Development (CPD) ment of personal qualities necessary for the execution of professional duties
throughout the working life.

An important component of CPD is often the careful planned movement of

people from position to position within the organization to develop different
types of knowledge, understanding and skills through hands-on experiences. This
process can be institutionalized in organizations by developing appropriate
personnel policies.

Clearly CPD and CET are closely linked and there may be little value in trying to
differentiate between them. There are two aspects to CPD which are of benefit to
the individual and the organization:

• Individuals acquire up-to-date skills and knowledge that are of value in their
existing job;
• Individuals acquire transferable skills that are of value for career development
and mobility.

Lifelong learning is an extension of the concept of CPD.

Lifelong learning The process by which individuals continue to participate in formal and informal
learning activities throughout their working life. An essential aspect of lifelong
learning is that it recognizes the need for personal development as well as work-
focused professional development. The overall aim is that each individual should
strive towards meeting their full potential in both their personal and professional
lives.

5.3 GETTING THE CET is of importance to both organizations and the individuals within that
MOST FROM CET organization.

Importance of CET For an organization it may be worth investing in CET in order to:

• Fill a gap in basic skills when adequately skilled staff are not available;
• Lead to an improvement in efficiency/effectiveness;
• Allow new working practices or new technology to be introduced;
• Change the culture of the organization;
• Provide a mechanism for regularly updating staff skills;
• Induction of new employees into methods of work and organizational
culture;
• Improve staff morale and job satisfaction;
• Allow staff to appreciate how their work fits into the broader business
activities of the organization.

However, the organization needs to manage CET activities by ensuring that:

• CET activities fully take into account the training needs and business objec-
tives of the organization; and
• The cost of CET is assessed, though it should be recognized that CET leads to
benefits that are very difficult to express in financial terms (e.g. increased
motivation).

For an individual, CET is important as it may:

• Bridge the gap between formal education and the acquisition of the compe-
tencies required in employment;
• Improve the level of competency; develop interpersonal and managerial
skills;
• Allow greater contribution to the business;

44
 CHAPTER 5 — CONTINUING EDUCATION AND TRAINING

• Increase earnings;
• Lead to self-improvement;
• Provide a new challenge and better job satisfaction;
• Broaden expertize beyond the existing job, allow a move into a different area
of work, and improve employment prospects; and
• Provide professional accreditation.

Figure 5.1 illustrates the impact of CET on an individual’s knowledge and skills.
Without CET the knowledge and skills required to perform effectively in employ-
ment will decline and performance will suffer.

In general, CET leads to increased motivation of individuals. This can be of benefit

to the organization either in terms of a direct increase in efficiency/effectiveness
or raised morale, which can have indirect financial benefits to the organization.
However, it is essential that the organization makes use of the increased skills
acquired through CET activities. If this does not happen, frustration and low
morale may result.

Making a success of CET The success of CET activities depends upon: C

activities
H
• An individual’s capacity for learning;
• The motivation of the individual which may depend upon personal commit- A
ment, incentives or external pressure; P
• Choice of CET activities and supporting techniques; T
• Support for CET activities within the organization; E
• Clearly identifying the needs of the individual and the organization. R

This indicates once again that CET activities should be considered within an orga-
5
nizational context.

There are a number of questions that should be asked by an individual under

consideration for development through CET:

• Where have I been?

• Where am I now?
• Where do I want to be?
• Why do I want to go there?
• How shall I get there?
• What support do I require?
• How shall I know when I arrive?

The answers to these questions should determine how and when the CET activi-
ties are implemented.

Increase with help of CET

Knowledge and skills

Lifelong learning
through CET

Decline without CET

Figure 5.1
Impact of lifelong learning
through CET on knowledge and
skills required during employment Pre-employment Post-employment Time

45
GUIDELINES FOR THE EDUCATION AND TRAINING OF PERSONNEL IN METEOROLOGY AND OPERATIONAL HYDROLOGY

5.4 CET METHODS For CET to be most effective it is important that the method of delivery is appro-
priate for:

• The learning preferences of the individual;

• The learning objectives of the programme.

Satisfaction of these requirements should ensure that the learning objectives are
achieved and the individual remains highly motivated.

General issues There are four background factors that need to be considered when agreeing a CET
programme for an individual, these are:

• Location; it may be that the most appropriate CET activity is not available
locally. This means that sometimes cost becomes a decisive factor in deciding
how the CET should take place;
• Monitoring; a decision needs to be taken about the level of monitoring
required by an individual as he/she is involved in CET activities. A decision
will depend upon the kind of CET activity and the personal qualities and
experience of the individual;
• Educational technology; for some CET activities a high level of educational
technology is required. Therefore the availability of expensive resources and
the level of expertize of the individual must be taken into account;
• Accreditation; some CET activities can lead to a formal accreditation or profes-
sional qualification. This may be very desirable, but considerable additional
costs may be incurred. Therefore a decision needs to be made about whether
the additional benefits that come from accreditation (which are usually diffi-
cult to quantify), can justify the additional cost.

Delivery of CET There is a wide range of methods that can be used to deliver continuing educa-
tion and training. The methods available include the following (in alphabetical
order):

• Coaching; the coach gives a pre-brief and post-brief associated with on-the-job
activities;
• Conference/seminar; attendance at a conference, seminar or workshop to
benefit from the knowledge of others;
• Computer-aided learning; interactive use of learning material available on a
computer;
• Courses; training for a group led by a instructor;
• Guided reading; a guided programme of reading for an individual;
• Observation; observing a colleague carry out a particular task;
• Secondment/temporary placement; planned move to a job on a temporary basis;
• Self-study material; structured training provided from books or manuals;
• Simulation; an individual works through a hypothetical situation associated
with his work; and
• Video-based learning; training provided by the use of videos.

The choice of method will depend upon:

• The desired outcome of the training;

• Strengths and weaknesses of the method;
• Availability of training resources;
• Preferred learning style of the individual; and
• Time available to complete the training.

Table 5.3 gives and indication of whether the methods of training are effective in
changing attitude, knowledge or skill, and whether the training is delivered on-
the-job or off-the-job; certainly, there are advantages and disadvantages associated
with each method of delivering CET. These are outlined in Table 5.4.

46
 CHAPTER 5 — CONTINUING EDUCATION AND TRAINING

Method Attitude Knowledge Skill Delivery

Coaching Yes Yes Yes On-the-job

Conference/seminar No Yes No Off-the-job
Computer-aided learning No Yes No Off-the-job
Courses Yes Yes Yes Off-the-job
Guided reading Yes Yes No Off-the-job
Observation No Yes Yes On-the-job
Secondment Yes Yes Yes On-the-job
Self-study material No Yes No Off-the-job
Simulation Yes No Yes Off-the-job
Video-based learning No Yes No Off-the-job

Table 5.3 — Impact of various CET methods on attitude, knowledge and skills, and the way they are usually delivered

5.5 SOME TRENDS IN Any CET programme developed within a NMS should take account of:
CET
• The needs and culture of the organization;
• The gap between the competencies of individuals and those they require in C
the future; H
• The availability and appropriateness of the various methods of delivering A
CET. P
T
Consequently, it is not possible to define what a CET programme should be for all NMSs.
It is possible, however, to identify some trends in the development of those programmes. E
R
Training plans Increasingly CET programmes are being based upon an analysis of the training 5
needs of the organization. Though this can be a difficult task to carry out, it has the
benefit of ensuring that the CET programme has a firm foundation and is linked to
the strategic aims of the NMS. The outcome of the analysis and the identification
of appropriate CET activities are often contained in a Training Plan. For example,
the Training Plan might indicate that the strategic aims of the NMS are to:

• Increase the ability of forecasters to act as meteorological consultants;

• Increase knowledge of mesoscale systems;
• Ensure that effective use is made of new satellite and radar systems;
• Make greater use of the Internet to deliver forecasting services; and
• Improve the accuracy of forecasting of severe weather.

The Training Plan would also define the strategy to be followed and specific
actions associated with the implementation of the strategy. In addition there
would usually be an assessment of the resources required. For example, the strategy
may be to provide all forecasters with training about the new satellite and radar
systems within the next two years. The associated action may be to develop
computer-aided learning that will be used at the forecast offices. Alternatively the
decision could be to have forecasters attend a short course on this subject either
delivered centrally or at the forecast office.

Shorter courses In the past there has been a tendency to have long foundation courses in the
expectation that this training will prepare employees for a wide range of posts
within the NMS and that the knowledge and skills acquired will not be outdated
quickly. Nowadays, however, the demands placed upon NMSs and the develop-
ment of the science of meteorology are changing rapidly. Also the high costs of
the foundation training are being scrutinized as financial pressures come to bear
on the NMSs. One response to these pressures is to:

• Limit the foundation training to the acquisition of the competencies

required for a particular job both now and in the near future;

47
GUIDELINES FOR THE EDUCATION AND TRAINING OF PERSONNEL IN METEOROLOGY AND OPERATIONAL HYDROLOGY

Method Characteristics

Coaching • Good way to practice new skills on the job;

• Success depends upon the effectiveness of briefing and de-briefing sessions before and
after a task execution;
• The support of the coach is required;
• The individual must be prepared to discuss openly areas in which performance is not
adequate;

Conference/seminar • Of most value in complementing other CET activities;

• Participants tend to be passive;
• Can be stimulating and enriching experience;

Computer-aided learning • May contain both instructional and illustrative information;

• Learning can be done in the individual’s own time and at his own pace;
• Computers and software may be expensive;
• Needs to be supported by other activities to develop skills in using the concepts learned;
• Content may not reflect the organization’s structure and needs;

Courses • Useful when several people have the same training need;
• Needs to take account of the time pressure and work commitments of all learners;
• Needs to be scheduled in advance;
• Will remove the individual from the workplace;

Guided reading • Good for acquiring new knowledge;

• Needs to be supported by other activities to develop skills in using the concepts learned;
• Essentially a ‘solo’ activity so may not appeal to people who prefer to interact with others
and learn in groups;

Observation • Good way to study the practical work-based applications of theoretical concepts;
• Useful when an individual wants to see how a new concept is put into practice before
applying it in his/her own work;
• Rapport between the individual and ‘shadow’ is essential;
• The shadow must not feel threatened;

Secondment/ • Can provide a good broadening experience;

temporary placement • Objectives must be clearly defined;
• Effective induction is necessary;

Self-study material • Useful for acquiring knowledge;

• To be effective the material needs to be well structured and take account of how people
learn;
• Support in using the material is often required;

Simulation • Good way to give exposure to real work-based practices and problems;
• Can be used for testing without the risks of real-life application of learning;
• complex simulations take a long time to set up and run;
• Require support from at least one other person;

Video-based learning • Can be a quick way to learn;

• Can be used by an individual or with a group;
• Videos can be expensive and of variable quality.

Table 5.4 — Characteristics of various methods for delivering CET

• Institute a programme of CET that will allow employees to update and

develop their competency when required. This programme usually consists
of a set of short courses aimed at specific areas of competency; for example,
interpretation of NWP products, use of satellite and radar imagery and provi-
sion of probability forecasts.

This approach to CET allows a very flexible response to the changing needs of the
NMSs and their employees. However, the process has to be effectively managed to

48
 CHAPTER 5 — CONTINUING EDUCATION AND TRAINING

ensure that all the staff that need to update their skills and knowledge participate in
appropriate CET activities. Also it is necessary to be proactive in identifying newly
emerging areas of activity so that timely CET programmes can be put in place.

Vocational qualification and In recent years there has been a tendency to develop vocational qualifications
accreditation which are accredited by an awarding body. Vocational qualifications are based on
a clear definition of the competencies required in a particular area of employment
– the occupational standard. Consequently the qualification is directly relevant to
both the employer and employee. In the meteorological sector some vocational
qualifications are being set up for observers and forecasters to meet a particular
national need.

To obtain a vocational qualification, an individual usually has to demonstrate that

he/she has acquired all competencies defined in the occupational standard.
Ideally, the way in which these competencies are acquired should be considered
as irrelevant – it does not matter if they result from courses, guided reading, coach-
ing, etc. There are two main advantages of having a vocational qualification:

• For foundation training, the qualification sets a recognized standard that can C
be used by a variety of educational or training institutions;
H
• The occupational standard provides a framework for CET activities; for
example, a short course could be offered that is aimed at maintaining or A
enhancing a particular set of competencies that form part of the occupa- P
tional standard. T
E
As well as vocational qualifications being developed, there is increasing interest in R
the setting up of accreditation schemes by professional bodies. In the meteoro-
logical sector, the professional body is usually a National Meteorological Society
5
or a Professional Board at the National level, though in some cases it is the
National Meteorological Service that takes on this role. The accreditation scheme
defines the standard, both in terms of professional abilities and personal qualities
that need to be satisfied. For some of these schemes there is a requirement to
demonstrate a commitment to professional development by being actively
involved in CET activities. This means that CET is a basic requirement rather than
being something which is optional.

Recruitment and induction A key aspect of having a well-motivated and competent workforce is to recruit the
right people. As well as considering attainment, intelligence and aptitude, it is
necessary to assess personality and motivation. National Meteorological Services
need employees who are willing and able to acquire new skills in order to develop
their career or adapt to changing requirements.

Consider the requirements of forecasters. At one time the main role of forecasters
was to use their meteorological knowledge to forecast the weather. However,
increasingly NWP models are producing the forecasts. This means that the fore-
caster’s role is changing, there is now much more emphasis on presenting the
information in the way required by the user of the services or acting as a meteor-
ological consultant. Consequently it is becoming increasingly important to recruit
forecasters that have:

• A good level of inter-personal and communication skills;

• The capability to work as a member of a team; and
• The ability to respond positively to change.

If forecasting recruits have these characteristics, it should be possible to have an

effective CET programme for forecasters.

It should also be noted that proper induction is vital in developing the correct
approach to professional development from the start of an individual’s career with

49
GUIDELINES FOR THE EDUCATION AND TRAINING OF PERSONNEL IN METEOROLOGY AND OPERATIONAL HYDROLOGY

the NMS. The induction should highlight the rights and responsibilities associated
with professional development and give a clear indication of how to access the
available opportunities for CET.

Training the instructor and In order for CET programmes to be as effective as possible, it is important that
supervisor people involved in the delivery of the programme are properly trained. For
example, instructors require knowledge on:

• The subjects being covered by the CET activity;

• A systematic approach to training – identify training needs, plan training,
design and deliver training, and evaluate training; and
• The way adults learn and are motivated.

There was a tendency for the training of instructors to concentrate on the first of
these, but it is now recognized that the other two areas of knowledge are vital. This
has influenced the way instructors are trained.

It is not just the professional instructor that requires appropriate skills.

Increasingly the supervisor is playing a key role in guiding and supporting CET
activities. Therefore, supervisors need to have appropriate training. Without this
there is the danger that the benefits of CET will not have a significant impact on
performance.

5.6 FINAL REMARKS CET should be viewed within the context of how and why an organization
changes. Also for continuing education and training to be of real value to the
individual and organization there needs to be:

• Commitment from throughout the organization for the training and devel-
opment of individuals;
• A clear understanding of the purpose and needs of the organization and the
role of the individual in that organization;
• Effective planning of training and development so that the needs of the indi-
vidual and the organization are both taken into account;
• Information about how training and development activities can be accessed;
• Action taken to implement an individual’s training plan;
• A clear understanding of what an individual expects to gain from a training
and development activity; and
• Evaluation of the effectiveness of a training and development activity.

These may be difficult to achieve but moving towards these goals should provide
benefits to both the individual and the organization.

50
PART B

EXAMPLES

Examples of Basic Instruction Packages

Examples of actual job-competency requirements

The spirit of ‘focused flexibility’ and ‘specific adaptation’ followed under Part A is
somehow reversed under the present Part B, where real-life examples are ‘specifi-
cally focused’, but these may still be ‘flexibly adapted’ to local priorities.

The four examples from Chapter 6 illustrate Basic Instruction Packages (BIP) for
qualifying job-entry-level Meteorologists and Meteorological Technicians. Heads
of relevant educational institutions, teachers and instructors may inspire them-
selves from these examples when designing and implementing their own
educational programmes for the initial formation of meteorological personnel.

The nine examples from Chapter 7 highlight the job-competency requirements at

the current operational level in some NMSs. It is recalled that defining the job
competencies is only the first step in identifying the requirements in terms of
knowledge and skills. Once these requirements are known, appropriate
programmes and curricula for specialized training beyond the BIP-M and BIP-MT
standards can be designed. It is expected that the resulting training activities,
while being focused on the actual needs of the NMS, would also take into account
the possible limitations in financial and human resources, as well as the availabil-
ity of training opportunities and facilities.
CHAPTER 6

EXAMPLES OF BASIC INSTRUCTION PACKAGES

Examples of:

A Complete BIP-M Programme:

Bachelor’s Degree in Atmospheric Sciences

A Condensed BIP-M Programme:

Postgraduate Diploma in Meteorology

A Complete BIP-MT Programme:

Higher Meteorological Technician Diploma

A Condensed BIP-MT Programme:

Meteorological Observer Certificate

The BIP-M and BIP-MT descriptions in Chapters 3 and 4 only present a framework
curricula for the initial qualification of meteorological personnel, the actual BIP
examples from this chapter could facilitate a more complete picture of the effec-
tive organization of relevant teaching programmes.

The first example describes the minimum curricular composition and career
options for a four-year degree programme in atmospheric sciences. The second
example describes a 12-month postgraduate diploma course in meteorology for
graduate students with a degree in selected domains (e.g. mathematics, physics or
chemistry). The third example illustrates a complete two-year course for qualify-
ing higher Meteorological Technicians, and the fourth example describes a
five-month programme for qualifying junior Meteorological Technicians (e.g.
weather observers).

These examples may inspire instructors and managers to develop their own
programmes for basic education in meteorology; they may also be helpful to
prospective students who are exploring educational alternatives in atmospheric
sciences. Depending on the actual circumstances, particularly on the prerequisite
basic knowledge of the trainees, the length of such programmes may be slightly
different from the above-indicated duration. For instance, a condensed BIP-M
programme may take up to two academic years, in the case of a Master degree,
while a complete BIP-MT programme might be implemented in one academic
year, in the case of trainees with good background in mathematics and physics.
GUIDELINES FOR THE EDUCATION AND TRAINING OF PERSONNEL IN METEOROLOGY AND OPERATIONAL HYDROLOGY

6.1 EXAMPLE OF A COMPLETE BIP-M PROGRAMME

Adapted by J. T. Snow from Bachelor’s Degree in Atmospheric Science;
Policy Statement by the American Meteorological Society (AMS), 1999; USA.

Introduction This statement describes the minimum curricular composition, faculty size and
facility availability recommended by the American Meteorological Society for an
undergraduate degree programme in atmospheric science. For the purposes of this
statement, the terms ‘atmospheric science’ and ‘meteorology’ are taken to be equiv-
alent. It is based on the American model wherein the initial education and training
of individuals aspiring to be professional meteorologists is accomplished in a univer-
sity setting, usually over a period of four years (eight 15-week semesters). Graduates
of such programmes who enter government service normally complete additional
specialized training in a federal training centre and serve a lengthy internship.
Graduates, who obtain employment in the private sector or the media, receive typi-
cally no additional training at initial job-entry. Finally, many graduates pursue a
Master’s degree (typically requiring two years of additional study in a speciality area
and completion of a research thesis) before seeking initial employment; others
return to university later in their careers to obtain a Master’s degree to enhance their
career progression. Accordingly, the programme described in the AMS statement is
structured to prepare students for entry onto these various career paths.

The primary purpose of this statement is to provide advice to university faculty

and administrators who are seeking to establish and maintain undergraduate
programmes in atmospheric science. It also provides information that may be
helpful to prospective students who are exploring educational alternatives in
atmospheric science.

A contemporary academic programme in atmospheric science must provide

students with a fundamental background in basic atmospheric science and related
sciences and mathematics. It must also provide flexibility and breadth so those
students can prepare to pursue a variety of professional career paths.

The programme attributes listed in the next section below are those common to
any career in atmospheric science. Additional coursework may be helpful for
gaining entry to some specific career paths; suggestions are given in the last
section for a few selected careers.

While many similarities exist, the curricular programme described for Bachelor’s
debree differs somewhat from that required for employment as a meteorologist by
the federal government. Although federal requirements provide excellent guide-
lines for preparation for a career in operational weather forecasting, university
academic requirements are designed to support a spectrum of career options.

Attributes of Bachelor’s degree The objectives of a Bachelor’s degree programme in atmospheric science should
programmes include one or more of the following:

• In-depth study of meteorology to serve as the culmination to a science or

liberal arts education;
• Preparation for graduate education;
• Preparation for professional employment in meteorology or a closely related
field.

Course offerings A curriculum leading to a Bachelor of Science degree (or a Bachelor of Arts
degree) in atmospheric science should contain:

(i) At least 24 semester hours of credit in atmospheric science that includes:

• Twelve semester hours of lecture and laboratory courses, with calculus as a
prerequisite or co-requisite, in atmospheric thermodynamics and dynamic,

54
 CHAPTER 6 — EXAMPLES OF BASIC INSTRUCTION PACKAGES

synoptic, and mesoscale meteorology that provide a broad treatment of

atmospheric processes at all scales;
• Three semester hours of atmospheric physics with emphasis on cloud/precip-
itation physics and solar and terrestrial radiation;
• Three semester hours of atmospheric measurements, instrumentation, or
remote sensing, including both lecture and laboratory components, and
• Three total semester hours in one or more of the following: a course in some
aspect of applied meteorology such as air pollution meteorology, aviation
meteorology, agricultural meteorology, hydrology or hydrometeorology,
weather forecasting techniques, or applied climatology; an internship
focused on a career in atmospheric science or a closely related field; an under-
graduate research project.
• An additional three semesters hours in atmospheric science electives.
(ii) Mathematics, including calculus and ordinary differential equations, in courses
designed for majors in either mathematics, physical science or engineering;
(iii) A one-year sequence in physics lecture and laboratory courses, with calculus as a
prerequisite or co-requisite;
(iv) A course in chemistry appropriate for physical science majors;
(v) A course in computer science appropriate for physical science majors;
(vi) A course in statistics appropriate for physical science majors;
(vii) A course in technical, scientific or professional writing;
(viii) A course with a primary focus of developing students’ oral communications skills.

Course requirements should include components that utilize modern departmen- C

tal and/or institutional computer facilities. H
A
As in any science curriculum, students should have the opportunity and be
encouraged to supplement minimum requirements with additional course work
P
in the major and supporting areas. This supplemental course work may include T
courses designed to broaden the student’s perspective on the earth, and the envi- E
ronmental sciences (e.g., hydrology, oceanography and solid earth sciences) and R
science administration and policy making, as well as additional courses in the
basic sciences, mathematics and engineering. Also, students should be strongly 6
urged to give considerable attention to additional course work or other activities
designed to develop effective communications skills, both written and oral.

Faculty There should be a minimum of three full-time regular faculty with sufficiently broad
expertize to address the subject areas identified in item (i) above. The faculty role
should extend beyond teaching and research to include counselling and mentoring
of students with diverse educational and cultural backgrounds.

Facilities There should be coherent space for the atmospheric science programme and its
students. Contained within this space should be facilities where real-time and
archived meteorological data can be accessed through computer-based data
acquisition and display systems, and indoor and outdoor facilities suitable for
teaching modern atmospheric observation and measurement techniques.

To support the courses in (i)–(viii) above, the atmospheric science programme

should provide students modern computer facilities with applications software
suitable for the diagnosis of dynamical and physical processes in the atmosphere.
Alternatively, students should have ready access to institutional facilities that
provide these capabilities.

Student recruitment and Institutions should provide academic programmes with resources and the flexibil-
retention ity necessary to recruit and retain students with diverse educational and cultural
backgrounds.

Preparation for selected careers This section provides advice about additional courses that could be useful for
in atmospheric science those students who wish to pursue a specific career path in atmospheric science.

55
GUIDELINES FOR THE EDUCATION AND TRAINING OF PERSONNEL IN METEOROLOGY AND OPERATIONAL HYDROLOGY

The careers listed are judged to provide particularly good opportunities at the
entry-level at present, however, they cover only a small fraction of the professional
employment opportunities in meteorology. Since this statement is concerned with
the Bachelor’s degree and students already have many course requirements, only
a few additional courses are listed per career. It is not intended to be an exhaustive
list of all courses that could be useful for a particular career.

Students should keep in mind that many of the suggested courses may have
prerequisites which are not listed here and which may vary from institution to
institution.

As a general rule, performing an internship in the area of interest and/or comple-

tion of an undergraduate research project on a topic in the area are excellent
complements to the additional courses listed here.

Weather forecasting careers Students intending to enter this career field should seriously consider including
the following coursework or types of experiences in their programme of study:

(i) Three courses in synoptic and mesoscale meteorology, to include an intro-

duction to NWP (these courses would include any taken as part of the courses
recommended in basic requirements under item (i) of sub-section on Course
offerings);
(ii) A course in operational weather analysis and forecasting techniques which
includes a laboratory component;
(iii) A remote sensing course, which includes a laboratory component (such a
course would also meet the basic requirements under item (i) of sub-section
on Course offerings).

Air pollution careers Students intending to enter this career field should seriously consider including
the following coursework or types of experiences in their programme of study:

(i) An additional chemistry course (in most schools this course would be a
continuation of the course used to meet the requirement for a chemistry
course, item (iv) of sub-section on Course offerings);
(ii) A course in atmospheric or environmental chemistry;
(iii) A course in atmospheric turbulence, micrometeorology, or boundary layer
meteorology;
(iv) An air pollution meteorology course with courses such as (ii) and (iii) above
as prerequisites;
(v) A course involving dispersion analysis and the use of air quality models.

Business-related careers Students intending to pursue a career in private sector or commercial meteorology
may wish to gain some knowledge of the business world. The following courses
may be helpful:

(i) A course in marketing;

(ii) A course in management principles;
(iii) A course in management information systems; and
(iv) Either a course in organizational behaviour or one in entrepreneurship or
small business management.

6.2 EXAMPLE OF A CONDENSED BIP-M PROGRAMME

Adapted by L. A. Ogallo from the curriculum for Postgraduate Diploma in
Meteorology, University of Nairobi, 1999; Kenya

Introduction The department offers the course Postgraduate Diploma in Meteorology, which
caters for those students who have a university degree in areas other than

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 CHAPTER 6 — EXAMPLES OF BASIC INSTRUCTION PACKAGES

meteorology but wish to take up the subject of meteorology as a profession.

Students admitted to this programme should have a B.Sc. degree in any of the
following combinations:

• Mathematics and physics;

• Mathematics with physics taken in first year;
• Mathematics and chemistry with physics taken in the first year; and
• Physics with chemistry.

The courses offered in this programme are the same as those covered in the B.Sc.
undergraduate degree programme in meteorology. In many cases, postgraduate
students may share the same classes with the undergraduate students in the second,
third and fourth year. The total number of units for this course is 15, split into equal
parts for each of the two university semesters. The duration of the course is one
calendar year (12 months). The last three months are devoted to project work.

Examinations scheme (a) For all the courses other than the project work, the continuous assessment
marks will constitute 30 per cent of the total marks while the written exam-
inations will take the remaining 70 per cent. Students will undertake research
projects in specific fields of meteorology or meteorological applications
under the supervision of an academic member(s) of staff. The project work is
presented orally before a panel of examiners including an external examiner.
Final oral presentations constitute 50 per cent of the total marks. Students
should submit typewritten project reports duly signed by their respective
supervisor(s). These reports shall be examined by at least two internal exam-
C
iners from which the student will get the remaining 50 per cent; H
(b) Pass mark for each unit course is 50 per cent; A
(c) To be eligible for the award of the Postgraduate Diploma in Meteorology, the P
candidate must pass in at least 13 of the 15 units with an average grade T
greater or equal to 50 per cent;
E
(d) A candidate who fails between 7 – 12 units with an average of 50 per cent will
be allowed to sit supplementary examinations in the failed units;
R
(e) A candidate who fails to meet the above requirements may be allowed to 6
repeat the year provided he has passed in at least 6 units;
(f) The Diploma will be classified based on the average of all the 15 units as
follows:
• 50 – 59 per cent – pass;
• 60 – 69 per cent – pass with credit;
• >=70 per cent – pass with distinction.

Core courses To obtain a Postgraduate Diploma in Meteorology the core courses offered are as
follows:
SMR 201: Meteorological instruments and methods of observation
SMR 202: Atmospheric radiation and optics
SMR 301: Dynamic meteorology I
SMR 302: Tropical meteorology I
SMR 303: General circulation and climatology
SMR 304: Synoptic meteorology and weather analysis
SMR 305: Applications of statistical methods in meteorology I
SMR 307: Thermodynamics and cloud physics
SMR 308: Hydrometeorology I
SMR 309: Agrometeorology I
SMR 401: Dynamic meteorology II
SMR 402: Tropical meteorology II
SMR 403: Project work
SMR 405: Applications of statistical methods in meteorology II
SMR 407: Micrometeorology and atmospheric pollution

Note: Each course amounts to 1 unit credit.

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GUIDELINES FOR THE EDUCATION AND TRAINING OF PERSONNEL IN METEOROLOGY AND OPERATIONAL HYDROLOGY

Meteorological instruments The need for the surveillance of the atmosphere. The standard meteorological
and methods of observations instruments; their uses, accuracy and sources of errors in meteorological observa-
tions. Characteristics and uses of special observational platforms: satellite,
constant level balloons, automatic buoys and rockets. Synoptic weather obser-
vations taken from surface and space platforms. Uses of satellite imagery.
Meteorological codes. In situ and optimal interpolation techniques in data process-
ing, especially with SST. Implementation of World Weather Watch (WWW).
Optimum and minimum network designs for meteorological observations.

Atmospheric radiation and Features of the Sun and Sun-Earth system, motion and duration of the Sun, sunspot
optics activity, Earth-Moon system, eclipse, tides etc. Solar radiation measurement techniques;
absorption, emission and scattering of radiation. Depletion of solar radiation
(direct/diffused) under cloudless and cloudy conditions, mean depletion, reflection at
the Earth’s surface and oceans. Heat balance of the earth-atmosphere system and the
role of carbon dioxide, water vapour and ozone on radiation quality and quantity;
radiation charts. Introduction to atmospheric optics with application to rainbow, halo
and other phenomena; transparency of the atmosphere and visual range.

Dynamic meteorology I Real and apparent forces affecting atmospheric motions. Equation of motion in
inertial and rotating coordinate systems. Relative equation of motion and its
components in different coordinate systems (cartesian, pressure, natural and
spherical coordinates). Scale analysis of the relative equation of motion.
Geostrophic and hydrostatic approximations. Horizontal frictionless flow of
balanced motions: geostrophic flow, inertial flow, cyclostrophic flow and gradient
flow. Thermal wind, barotropic and baroclinic atmosphere. Divergence and vor-
ticity theorems, their scale analyses.

Tropical meteorology I Differences between the tropics and extra-tropics. Tropical general circulation:
observed mean fields; temperature, zonal wind, mean meridianal motions,
humidity, sea-level pressure. Angular momentum balance and maintenance of
temperature field; water balance in the atmosphere. ITCZ, vertical and seasonal
characteristics. Weather in the neighbourhood of the ITCZ, double equatorial
trough. Monsoons and associated weather with particular reference to Africa and
South-East Asia. Tropical jet streams and their relationship to thermal wind:
subtropical, tropical easterly, West African and East African low-level jets, easterly
waves, major African anti-cyclones, tropical cyclones, West African squall lines.
Seasonal location, intensity and structure of the systems that control weather
over Africa with reference to eastern Africa.

General circulation and Main features of the atmospheric general circulation: Jet streams, global circu-
climatology lation cells, dynamics of the monsoon circulation and fluctuations of the general
circulation systems. Angular momentum: meridional and vertical transports of
angular momentum, heat and water vapour. Maintenance of mean circulation,
zonal wind and temperature. Introduction to atmospheric energetics: kinetic
energy, potential energy, total potential energy and available potential energy.
Climate classification: use of vegetation, water budget, energy balance, Budyko as
radiation index of dryness; satellite data and other methods. Limitations of instru-
mental observation in meteorology. Estimation of missing data: grid point and
areal records. Climate change, potential impacts and adaptation strategies.
General climatology of Africa; regional climatology of eastern Africa. Climate
processes; factors controlling the global climate system. Global climate processes:
past, present and future climate fluctuations of the global and regional climate.
Climatological statistics; use of paleo-climatological and instrumental records.
Causes of climatic variability and change: Natural and anthropogenic causes,
random variations. Land-sea-ocean interactions and the global climate. History
and applications of the climate models. Microclimates. Climate change: soils,
vegetation, animals, agriculture, hydrology, man, building, economy, transport
industry, communication, etc. Spatial and temporal distributions of the major
climatic parameters: radiation, temperature, pressure, wind, hydrometeors,

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 CHAPTER 6 — EXAMPLES OF BASIC INSTRUCTION PACKAGES

precipitation, cloudiness, snow, evaporation, humidity, fog and thunderstorms.

Climate change: climate, drought and desertification. Factors controlling climate,
past, present and future climatic fluctuations.

Synoptic meteorology and Different types of charts used in a forecasting office. Different scales of motion
weather analysis identifiable in the daily synoptic charts. Analysis and identification of the middle
and high latitude disturbances: waves in the westerlies, zonal index, long (Rossby)
and short waves, pressure-wind relationship, quasi-geostrophy, streamline-isotach
analysis, air-masses and fronts. Airmass transformations. Frontal slope, weather
associated with airmasses, extratropical cyclones and anticyclones, blocking
systems, structure of jetstreams. Analysis and identification of the space-time
characteristics of tropical synoptic weather systems in Africa and East Africa.
Vertical tilt of the synoptic scale systems. Forecasting for aviators: take-off, climb
cruise, descent and landing phases. METAR and TAF codes, visibility, aircraft icing,
clear air turbulence, meteorological factors in supersonic flights. Forecasting for
mariners, agriculturalists, hydrologists and other users. Satellite application in
synoptic meteorology. Synoptic meteorology as applied to modern forecasting
techniques: development, interpretation of numerical forecasts and computer
simulations. Three-dimensional analysis of atmospheric systems, cross-sections
and time-sections of upper-air charts. Contour and streamline analysis: pattern
continuity. Confluence and diffluence: computation of vorticity and divergence.
Analysis, identification and forecasting of synoptic and mesoscale systems: ITCZ
and ITD, Monsoons, jet streams, anticyclones, easterly/westerly waves,
Geostrophic wind, Gradient wind, thunderstorms, maximum wind gusts, marine C
systems, like state of the sea, ocean waves, swells, cyclones and other H
synoptic/meso/microscale systems. Use of climatology in forecasting. Daily,
A
monthly and seasonal dominant synoptic and regional systems.
P
Applications of statistical Methods of presentation and analysis of meteorological data. Frequency analysis, T
methods in meteorology I probability density and cumulative functions. Probability distributions and para- E
meters as descriptors of the characteristics of the distributions. Application of R
probability density functions in meteorology. Normal, Lognormal, Chi-square,
Students’ t-Test, Fisher and Gamma distributions. Parameter estimation methods. 6
The central limit theorem. Normality, goodness of fit tests, hypothesis testing and
confidence intervals. Correlation and regression analysis. Estimation of missing
meteorological records. Data quality control: homogeneity, area averages, Thiessen
polygons and isohyetal method. Deterministic and probabilistic characteristics of
natural phenomena. Joint, marginal and conditional probability. Binomial and
Poisson distributions. Univariate time series analysis, ARMA and ARIMA models.

Thermodynamics and cloud The equation of state for perfect gases and their mixtures applied to dry air and
physics water vapour. Different concepts for specification of water vapour content. Laws
of thermodynamics and irreversible processes, the concept of entropy. Change of
phase in thermodynamics: relationship of T, Te, e, etc., lifting condensation level
and saturation point. Thermodynamic diagrams and their uses. Hydrostatic equa-
tion and its importance in meteorology: geopotential, altimetry, hydrostatics of
special atmospheres, standard atmosphere. Dry and saturated adiabatic lapse rates,
static stability. Stability criteria for dry and moist air; parcel and slice methods ,
entrainment and buoyancy in cumulus clouds, top mixing. Diurnal variation of
stability. Radiative cooling, subsidence, formation of fog.

Hydrometeorology I The hydrological cycle, the history of hydrology, hydrological applications.

Concept of the water balance. Intensity depth-area duration analysis. Areal distri-
bution of precipitation, extreme rainfall analysis and estimation. The physical
process of evaporation, evaporation from free water surfaces, actual and potential
evapotranspiration, methods of estimating evapo-transpiration. Hydrometry and
hydrometeorological gauge network, hydrographs, hydrograph analysis, hydro-
graph synthesis; theory and applications of the unit hydrograph floods and low
flows. Flood related design: reservoir yield/capacity.

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GUIDELINES FOR THE EDUCATION AND TRAINING OF PERSONNEL IN METEOROLOGY AND OPERATIONAL HYDROLOGY

Agrometeorology I Scope of agrometeorology and agro-forestry. Agrometeorological measurements.

Phenological observations. Near-surface climate: temperature, wind, carbon
dioxide, radiation and humidity profiles within the fully adjusted layer of plant
communities. Light and radiation intercepts in sole crop, inter-crops and agro-
forestry systems in relation to yields. Modification of microclimate: wind breaks
and shelter belts, irrigation, tillage, mulching, agroforestry systems, etc. Soil
profile description, physical characteristics of soils, soil water and methods of
measurement, soil temperature and fertility. Determination of wilting fields capac-
ity and bulk density. Soil degradation; erosion, land-use, salinization, etc. Plant
growth and development; vegetation monitoring. Climate, weather and agricul-
tural production, irrigation requirements, diseases, pests, etc.

Dynamic meteorology II Kinematics: resolution of a linear horizontal wind field into translation, rotational,
divergence and deformation fields. Stream lines, trajectories and streaklines.
Helmholtz theorem for resolving horizontal wind field into rotational and irrota-
tional components, stream function and velocity-potential. Vorticity and divergence
equations in different coordinate systems. Continuity equation. Pressure tendency
equation. Barotropic and baroclinic fluids. Circulation theorems: illustrations of
thermally-driven circulations; land-sea breezes, mountain and valley winds,
monsoons, etc., direct and indirect circulations. Generalized wave theory, harmonic
motion and Fourier decomposition of periodic functions. Free, forced and damped
oscillatory motions; examples from atmospheric oscillations. Atmospheric waves
including Rossby waves, sound waves, gravity waves and Kelvin waves. Filtering
processes. Introduction to Numerical Weather Prediction (NWP): finite differencing,
initialization, Lateral boundary conditions, etc. Problems of NWP in the tropics.
Dynamic instability: baroclinic, barotropic and inertial instability.

Tropical meteorology II The tropical boundary layer processes. Tropical convection, CIFK, CISK and wave-
CISK. Tropical cyclones, their causes and observational aspects, numerical
modelling and prediction: survey of tropical wave disturbances, cloud clusters,
squall lines, scale interactions between tropical weather systems; forcing mecha-
nisms for tropical disturbances. Observed temporal variability in the tropics: the
diurnal cycle, annual and semi-annual cycles, inter-seasonal and Intra-seasonal
oscillations. The tropical stratosphere and mesosphere; Quasi-biennial oscillation,
quasi-stationary waves, zonal asymmetric features of the tropics; interactions
between land-atmosphere-ocean, East-West circulations; El-Niño-Southern
Oscillation (ENSO). Modelling and prediction of the tropical atmosphere, long-
term variations and tropical weather anomalies.

Project work Students will undertake research projects in specific fields of meteorology or
meteorological applications under supervision of an academic member(s) of staff.
Students are required to consult with the relevant supervisor(s) at least once every
two weeks for guidance. Students will be guided on how to prepare a project
proposal in their areas of choice. Project work is presented orally before a panel of
examiners including the External Examiner. Final Oral presentations constitute 50
per cent of the total marks. Students should submit typewritten project reports
dully signed by their respective supervisor(s). These reports shall be examined by
internal examiners, from which the student will get the remaining 50 per cent.
Before the student undertakes to carry out his/her designated research work,
he/she is required to write a project proposal, which is presented in a seminar form
to a panel of supervisors for evaluation.

Applications of statistical Sampling theory. Analysis of variance. Multivatiate correlation and regression
methods in meteorology II analysis. Design of experiments, Randomized design and randomized block design.
Analysis of covariance. Statistical and probability prediction in meteorology. Skill
tests: Evaluation of meteorological forecasts. Bivariate expectations. Introduction to
non-parametric statistics and extreme value analysis. Multivariate time-series
analysis, empirical orthogonal functions. Risk zoning. Discriminate analysis.
Smoothing and filtering in meteorology. ARIMA and transfer function models.

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 CHAPTER 6 — EXAMPLES OF BASIC INSTRUCTION PACKAGES

Micrometeorology and Laminar and turbulent flow, Reynolds number, shearing stress, molecular motion
atmospheric pollution in laminar sub-layer. Newtonian analysis of viscosity, mean free path, equation of
motion of viscous fluids, inertia and viscous effects, transition zone between
laminar and turbulent layers. Turbulent layer, friction, eddy stresses and momen-
tum fluxes, vertical structure of the wind in the surface layer. Mass, heat and
momentum transfer in the turbulent layer, exchange coefficient in the turbulent
layer, mixing length theory, smooth and rough surfaces, wind power law, loga-
rithmic wind profile. The relationship between turbulence and temperature
profiles. Richardson number, diabatic wind profiles. The energy balance of the
Earth’s surface, daily and annual temperature cycles. Transition zone between
turbulent and geostrophic layer. The vertical variation of wind in the spiral layer,
spiral winds, Ekman spiral. Nature and sources of air pollution. Partial differential
equations of turbulent diffusion for instantaneous point sources, continuous
point and line sources. Statistical theory of turbulent diffusion. Gaussian diffusion
formula, nature and sources of air pollution. Methods of estimation of air pollu-
tion concentration levels. Chemical and photochemical reaction of air pollutants.
Dry and wet deposition, acidification of rain, ozone layer, greenhouse effect.
Effects of air pollution, its control and management. Nuclear effects in the atmos-
phere. Air pollution and urban climate. Noise pollution.

6.3 EXAMPLE OF A COMPLETE BIP-MT PROGRAMME

Adapted by C. Billard from the curriculum for Higher Meteorological C
Technician Diploma, Météo-France, 1998, France H
A
Aims and organization of the This programme is aimed at training the students to enable them to perform
P
programme observation and meteorological measurements, meteorological information
processing activities, climatological studies and to assist in weather forecasting T
tasks. In addition, by the end of the programme, the students have to be able to E
adapt themselves as appropriate in their future activities as Meteorological R
Technicians.
6
Description of courses The programme duration is two academic years, and it includes:

• Theoretical and practical courses in turn, at the École Nationale de la

Météorologie in Toulouse;
• A short spell in a local operational meteorological unit;
• A personal project, aimed at assessing the ability of the student to apply
previously acquired knowledge and competencies.

Mathematics Twenty hours (over 10 weeks): Complementary notions so as to enable the

students to correctly benefit from meteorological lessons. Functions, limits and
derived functions; integral calculus; partial derivatives and differentials; vector
calculus; vector analysis and related operators (gradient, divergence, curl).

Physics Twenty hours (over 10 weeks): Complementary notions so as to enable the

students to correctly benefit from meteorological lessons. General thermodynam-
ics: first and second basic principles; Fundamentals of elementary mechanics,
statics and dynamics of a particle; deriving speeds and accelerations.

General meteorology One hundred hours (over 25 weeks): Key course in the meteorological technician
programme, determining the layout of the other courses; this includes two main
topics, namely atmospheric thermodynamics and dynamics. Overview to the
atmosphere and the terrestrial system: description of the atmospheric environ-
ment; recalling basics about electromagnetic radiation; solar and terrestrial
radiation. Thermodynamics of the ‘dry’ and ‘wet’ atmosphere. Depiction of the
vertical structure of the atmosphere on dedicated documents (tephigram); vertical
equilibrium and hydrostatic approximation; equation of the horizontal motion

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GUIDELINES FOR THE EDUCATION AND TRAINING OF PERSONNEL IN METEOROLOGY AND OPERATIONAL HYDROLOGY

(wind); general circulation (surface and altitude); air masses and frontal boundaries;
formation and developments of disturbances; local phenomena (föhn effect).

Dynamic meteorology Fifteen hours (over 5 weeks): Complementary course in General Meteorology, as
well as a brief introduction to numerical weather prediction. Introduction to
dynamic meteorology – basic equations describing atmospheric evolution in time;
numerical modelling tools; overview and interest.

Oceanography Twenty hours (over 7 weeks): General course with the specific objective of giving
a description of atmosphere-ocean coupling. The oceanic environment; currents
in the sea and oceanic motions; air-sea interactions; marine waves and swells.

Meteorological observation One hundred hours (over 25 weeks): Qualitative approach, measuring and coding
meteorological parameters, upper atmosphere observations, automated methods.
General organization of the atmospheric monitoring activities (ad hoc networks,
WMO scheme); description of clouds and meteors; coding of meteorological data
collected for transmission; main processes of building for precipitation and
various meteors; general survey of the sky and current local weather.

Measurements and One hundred hours (over 35 weeks): This course deals with the physical principles
meteorological sensors underlying the measurement of different parameters in meteorology, both at the surface
and at upper levels: radiation, pressure, temperature, humidity, wind, precipitation.
Operational running of the equipment and its maintenance; automatic stations or
systems; monitoring the quality of the measurements; related developments.

Weather analysis and One hundred and twenty hours (over 40 weeks): Course including lessons and
forecasting practical activities aimed at delivering basic knowledge and skill to students about
weather analysis and forecasting. Basic principles of weather forecasting; impor-
tance of the analysis step; extrapolation, persistence and analogue schemes;
methods to be used for forecasts of different range; numerical model output and
forecast guidance to prepare forecasts. Global data processing scheme in meteor-
ology; adaptation of general forecasts to lower scale prediction; preparation of
bulletins and other forecast products; specialized forecasts for aviation, marine
activities, agriculture, air-quality; weathercasting; some features of the forecasting
activities in tropical regions.

Interpretation of satellite Fifteen hours (over 5 weeks): This course is orientated toward the efficient use of
imagery satellite imagery and other remote-sensing information in weather analysis and
prediction. Orbits; different kinds of satellites; characteristics of meteorological
satellites; interpretation of satellite images and data.

Météotel and synergie stations Fifteen hours (over 4 weeks): Presenting dedicated operational stations and tech-
niques for professional forecasters and users. Presentation of these tools and trials
by the students.

Statistics Fifty-two hours (over 17 weeks): Course about a fundamental tool for meteorology
with some examples coming from this field of application; links with climatology.
Probability laws; basic assumptions for the statistical approach; sample studies;
case studies in meteorology.

Computer science Seventy hours (over 25 weeks): Computer tools are essential for processing the
huge amount of data collected in meteorology. Programming languages; algo-
rithms and methods used in computer sciences; software development.

Using PC and related software Twenty hours (over 10 weeks): Enabling students to use standard office software.

Meteorological Twelve hours (over 3 weeks): The global telecommunications system of WMO;
telecommunications national meteorological telecommunication networks; different techniques used
for telecommunications in meteorology.

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 CHAPTER 6 — EXAMPLES OF BASIC INSTRUCTION PACKAGES

Geography Eighteen hours (over 9 weeks): Map marking; climatology and geography of
climates: definition and classification; climatic areas; basics about numerical
geographical information systems.

Tropical meteorology Fourteen hours (over 4 weeks): Energy budget of the Earth; recalling salient facts about
general circulation; meteorological equator; tropical disturbances and hurricanes.

Meteorological services and Ninety-one hours (over 25 weeks): These topics are presented according to the
products needs of various kinds of users and different economics sectors concerned.

Administrative law Twenty hours (over 10 weeks): Origins of law; national and European political
institutions; administrative organization at central and territorial levels; specific
rules for finance management in a public body; human resources management
and regulations.

Foreign languages, especially One hundred hours (over 40 weeks): General and specific ‘meteorological’ foreign
English language; standard evaluation systems, e.g. TOEFL; presenting meteorological
bulletins in foreign language.

Sport Two hours per week (over 30 weeks).

Workshop sessions (Over 25 weeks): Two sessions in the second part of the programme in order to
practice and to be trained in near-real conditions (almost the same as in an
operational unit): C
H
• Eight weeks workshop covering: analysis (2 weeks); observation (2 weeks);
A
computer techniques (2 weeks); oral communication (1/2 week); commercial
methods (1/2 week);
P
• Nine weeks workshop covering: analysis/forecasting (3 weeks); observation/ T
local climatology (3 weeks); climatology/computer techniques (3 weeks). E
R
Training periods Two training periods are foreseen during the programme:
6
• A one-week coaching period at an early stage in a professional team, enabling
the trainee to discover the professional standards required within an NMS;
• A two-week coaching period at a later stage in a professional team very similar
to that which the trainee will finally join after the training programme; the
objectives of this stay are to enable the trainee to complete, in an operational
environment, his knowledge and skills in observation, weather analysis and
forecasting, climatology, environmental and applied meteorology, and all
other tasks to be performed by a Meteorological Technician.

Personal project This is the final activity in the programme in six weeks spent in an external team.
The student has to work with some autonomy and in an inventive spirit dealing
with a concrete and well-defined subject of interest in meteorology. This venture,
together with the results, are reported in a written document and presented by the
student before an examining board.

6.4 EXAMPLE OF A CONDENSED BIP-MT PROGRAMME

Adapted by G. V. Necco from the Argentinean Air Force Training Institute
Ezeiza; Training Course for Meteorological Observers; February 2001

Meteorology Total number of hours: 90

Objectives • To understand the fundamental concepts of meteorology.

• To understand the objectives of the duties entrusted to the surface observer.

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GUIDELINES FOR THE EDUCATION AND TRAINING OF PERSONNEL IN METEOROLOGY AND OPERATIONAL HYDROLOGY

Subjects, contents and hours Meteorology (Theory 2 hrs):

of theory and practice • Definition of meteorology.
• Relation of meteorology with different human activities.

The atmosphere (Theory 3 hrs):

• Composition of the atmosphere. Composition of the air. Constant and vari-
able components. Atmospheric ozone. Water vapour in the atmosphere.
• The layers of the atmosphere. Layers of the atmosphere. Importance of the
troposphere.
• Heat interchanges in the atmosphere. Solar radiation. Terrestrial radiation.
Other processes of heat interchange. Energy balance of the atmosphere.
Effect of the radiation in the surface of the globe. Temperature difference
between continents and seas.

Parameters of the atmosphere (Theory 20 hrs):

• Temperature of the air. Kelvin scale of temperature. Diurnal variation of the
surface air temperature. Variation of the temperature in altitude.
• Atmospheric pressure. Nature of the atmospheric pressure. Units of atmos-
pheric pressure. Variation of pressure with altitude. Semi-diurnal variation of
pressure. Gradient of pressure.
• Humid air. Humidity of the air. The three states of water. Vapour pressure. Process
of condensation. Adiabatic process. Isobaric process. Process of solidification (or
freezing). Latent heat. Indicators of the water vapour content in the air. Relative
humidity. Principles of the humid thermometer. Density of the humid air.
• Wind. Forces that act on the air in movement. Geostrophic wind. Gradient
wind. Law of Buys-Ballot. Wind in the boundary layer. Horizontal conver-
gence and divergence. Air advection.
• Local winds. Sea breeze. Land breeze. Mountain breeze (katabatic wind).
Valley breeze (anabatic wind). Foehn wind. Zonda wind.

Clouds (Theory 10 hrs):

• Formation and dissipation of clouds. Condensation, freezing and subli-
mation. General causes of cloud formation. Convection. Orographic ascents.
Clouds associated to frontal zones. Dissipation of clouds.
• Precipitation processes. Size of cloud drops. Growth of cloud drops.
Mechanism of coalescence. Ice crystal formation. Process of Bergeron.
Growth of ice crystals by collision. Different types of precipitation.

Vertical stability of the atmosphere (Theory 7 hrs):

• Adiabatic processes in the atmosphere. Vertical gradient of temperature.
Stability. Parcel method. Vertical motions of non-saturated air. Conditional
instability. Indices of instability. Atmospheric turbulence. Different types.
• Temperature inversions. Frontal inversions.

Visibility (Theory 2 hrs):

• Factors that influence visibility. Effect of precipitation.
• Fog and mist. Degree of importance for different activities.

Air masses and fronts (Theory 8 hrs):

• Meteorological importance of the scale. Definition of air masses. Classification
of local air masses. Symbols used. Evolution of the air masses.
• Definition of front. Phenomena associated to the different types of fronts. Cold
front model. Associated phenomena. Warm front models. Associated phenomena.
• Extratropical cyclones. Disturbances in the polar front. Occluded fronts.
Phenomena associated to occluded fronts.

Air masses and fronts. Severe phenomena (Theory 4 hrs):

• Storms. Formation and evolution of storm cells. Types of storms. Storm
detection. Tornadoes.

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 CHAPTER 6 — EXAMPLES OF BASIC INSTRUCTION PACKAGES

Synoptic analysis (Theory 10 hrs):

• Synoptic maps at sea level. Anticyclones and ridges. Depressions and troughs.
Other isobaric configurations. Frontal systems in the sea level map. Relations
between synoptic configurations and weather.

General circulation (Theory 3 hrs):

• The average circulation in the troposphere. Definition of jet stream.
Subtropical and polar jet stream. Models of general circulation.

Methodology to apply Exhibition, demonstration, dialogue and interrogation; oral and written
evaluation.

Bibliography for the professor Compendium of Lecture Notes for Training Class IV Meteorological Personnel; Volume
II Meteorology, WMO–No. 266.

Instruments and methods of Total number of hours for the module: 214 hours
observation
Objectives • To use the instruments and methods for observation of the different meteoro-
logical parameters.
• To understand the operation of a meteorological station and its functions.
• To participate with a positive outlook in the teamwork of station personnel.
• To carry out the primary maintenance of instruments.
• To prepare the documentation for recording and reporting the observations.
• To know new techniques for obtaining information by means of radar and C
meteorological satellites. H
• To value the necessity to provide only the information that corresponds to his role.
A
Subjects, contents and hours Operation and administration of a meteorological station (Theory 10 hrs):
P
of theory and practice • Principles of administrative operation of a meteorological station. Meteorology. Work T
plans. Tasks and functions. Planning and management of available means. E
• Attention to users. Documentation. Coordination with other dependencies R
of flight protection.
6
The meteorological observation (Theory 4 hrs, Practice 3 hrs):
• Scope of observations, Difference between measurement and estimation.
Classification of the meteorological stations.
• Elements that are measured and/or estimated. Hours of observation.
Observations of routine and aeronautical use. Time zones.
• Observation register. Recording observations.

Meteors (Theory 4 hrs, Practice 4 hrs)

• Hydrometeors, photometeors, lithometeors and electrometeors: definitions
and symbols. Relation between types of clouds and meteors.
• Information on present and past weather. Intensity of the phenomena.
Norms of annotation and information. Code tables. Definition of terms of
current use, referred to present (WW) and past weather (W1 W2).

Clouds (Theory 6 hrs, Practice 20 hrs)

• Clouds classification. Cloud genera, species and varieties. Annotation in the
meteorological notebook.
• Measurement of cloud height. Balloons for ceiling, nepho-altimeter. The
aeronautical ceilings and minima. Information in real time: FVR, IFR, VMC.
• Codification of clouds. The evolution of the cloudy states of the sky.
Priorities in coding clouds co-existing in a same layer.

Measurement of atmospheric pressure (Theory 4 hrs, Practice 12 hrs).

• Units of measurement of the atmospheric pressure. Conversion and passage
of units. Measurement instruments. Barometers of adjustable (Fortin) and fix
(Kew) cistern. The barographs. The vernier.

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GUIDELINES FOR THE EDUCATION AND TRAINING OF PERSONNEL IN METEOROLOGY AND OPERATIONAL HYDROLOGY

• Corrections to carry out to the barometric reading. Levels of comparison.

Tables of d2 and d4. The standard atmosphere. Calculation and codification
of QFE, QFF and QNH. Calculation and coding of appp.

Measurement of air temperature (Theory 3 hrs, Practice 10 hrs):

• Units of measurement of temperature. Passage of units. Thermometers.
Different types of thermometers. The meteorological shelter.
• Reading and recording temperature. Actual temperature. Daily maximum
and minimum temperature. Temperature of the soil. Geothermometer.
• Calibration of thermometers.
• Coding of the temperature in different messages. The thermograph. Reading
and recording.

Measurement of air humidity (Theory 3 hrs, Practice 12 hrs):

• Measurement of vapour pressure, relative humidity and dew point.
Definitions and units of measurement.
• The instruments of measurement of air humidity. The psychrometer and the
hygrograph. Different types.
• Reading and recording. Calculation of different parameters from humidity
measurement. The psychrometric tables.
• Coding and reporting dew point temperature.

Measurement of precipitation (Theory 2 hrs, Practice 6 hrs):

• Liquid and solid precipitation. Instruments for its measurement. Rain gauges.
Pluviographs. Snow gauges.
• Reading times. Recording in the pluviometric registry and the notebook of
observations. Coding of the information.

Wind measurement (Theory 3 hrs, Practice 12 hrs):

• Measurement of the direction. Vanes. Units of measurement of the wind
direction. The wind rose. Measurement of the wind speed. Units of measure-
ment of the speed. Equivalence. Passage of units.
• Reading, reporting and recording of the wind. Coding in the diverse
messages.
• Definition and registering of gust, its reporting.

Measurement of visibility (Theory 4 hrs, Practice 10 hrs):

• Definition of horizontal visibility. Factors affecting it. Reference charts.
Relation between the states of the sky, meteors and the visibility.
• Recording in the notebook. Reporting in real time. Diffusion to direct users.
The runway visual range. Definition of RVR. Reporting for aeronautical use.
• The transmissometer: VFR, IFR, VMC.

Integrated measurement of different parameters (Practice 56 hrs):

Climatic message (Practical 12 hrs):

• Statistical messages. Norms for preparation. Additional CLIMAT message.
Preparation of CLIMAT messages. Monthly record of extreme values.

Instruments maintenance (Practical 15 hrs):

• Primary maintenance of instruments.
• Electromechanical systems. Clockwork systems.
• Electronic systems.

Meteorological radars (Theory 6 hrs):

• Electromagnetic waves. Principles of radar operation. General concepts of the
measurements. Identification of hydrometeors.
• Applications of radar information in the short-term forecasting.

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 CHAPTER 6 — EXAMPLES OF BASIC INSTRUCTION PACKAGES

Satellite information (Theory 8 hrs):

• Brief history of the space era. Orbits of the satellites. Laws of Kepler. Sub-
satellite points and trajectories. Basic concepts for calculation of orbits.
• Visible and infrared sensors. General concepts on image interpretation.

Methodology to apply Exhibition, demonstration, dialogue, integration; oral and written evaluations.
Hand-on practice on the institute premises and in meteorological observing
stations.

Coding of surface observations Total number of hours of unit: 210 hrs

Objectives • To understand the operation of the different systems of meteorological infor-
mation employed in the services of flight protection.
• To codify and to decodify the different types of meteorological messages.
• To value the importance of a suitable coding for the transmission of meteoro-
logical information.

Subjects, contents and hours Meteorology and flight protection (Theory 10 hrs):
of theory and practice • The National Meteorological Service.
• The WMO’s Global Observation System. The Global Telecommunications
System. The Global Data Processing System. Coordination of ATS-MET.
• The meteorological statistics.

Meteorological messages (Theory 180 hrs, Practice 20 hrs):

• Messages SYNOP. Symbols and code tables. Coding and decoding. C
• Messages METAR and SPECI. Symbols and code tables. Coding and decoding. H
• Messages PILOT. Symbols and code tables. Coding and decoding.
A
• Messages RADOB. Symbols and code tables. Coding and decoding.
• Messages SATOB and SATEM.
P
T
Methodology to apply Practices of the different codes will be carried out on the premises of the institute. E
R

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CHAPTER 7

EXAMPLES OF ACTUAL JOB-COMPETENCY REQUIREMENTS

Weather analysis and forecasting

Climate monitoring and prediction

Observations and measurements; instruments

Information technology and data processing

Agrometeorology

Aeronautical meteorology

Marine meteorology

Environmental meteorology

Satellite meteorology

This chapter illustrates the job-competency and relevant knowledge and skills
required of meteorological personnel assigned to the branches of activity
identified in Chapter 2. Experts from individual NMS or other relevant
institutions, provided ‘real-life’ examples in response to specific requests from
WMO. Except for some general editing, the structure of the original inputs was
essentially maintained. Consequently, there are slight differences in the level of
detail and a degree of overlapping in the subject coverage of some examples.

The nine examples may inspire educators and managers to identify the
requirements of their NMS for specialized knowledge and skills, and then to
translate those requirements in terms of training outcomes. The user may have
to adapt those examples to his specific priorities. Accordingly, various topics may
receive more or less emphasis than suggested here. It could be that some
examples might not even apply to a given NMS (e.g. a landlocked country may
not be interested in marine meteorology).

Obviously, no one individual would be requested to possess all the competencies

illustrated throughout this chapter. However, it would be expected that managers
and instructors would make all efforts to ensure that the expertize needed in
their NMS is well covered by appropriately trained personnel as a whole.
GUIDELINES FOR THE EDUCATION AND TRAINING OF PERSONNEL IN METEOROLOGY AND OPERATIONAL HYDROLOGY

7.1 WEATHER ANALYSIS AND FORECASTING

by R. W. Riddaway, U.K. Met. Office

Producing a generic forecast To produce a generic forecast, the forecaster is required to:

Adopt an appropriate methodical approach at the start of the shift to assimilate quickly
all the relevant data. For this, the forecaster describes the following in the first 15 minutes
of arrival:
• The general situation;
• The main points in the guidance;
• What the weather is doing now;
• The key weather factors for the next 24 hours;
• Any forecast techniques that are relevant for today;

Interpret guidance correctly in terms of the local weather, and ensure that forecasts are
consistent with it, i.e.:
• Know when and where to obtain the latest guidance;
• Read the latest guidance;
• Identify which parts of the guidance relate to the local area;
• Use the guidance to describe the weather for any given place;
• Identify when the weather locally is different from that expected in the guidance;
• Justify the occasions when his own local forecast does not agree with the
guidance;

Interpret NWP forecast products correctly in terms of the local weather conditions inferred
for the area of responsibility, taking due note of relevant comments in guidance bulletins,
i.e.:
• Know when and where to obtain the latest NWP guidance;
• Keep up to date with the latest NWP guidance;
• Identify which parts of the guidance relate to the local area;
• Use NWP guidance to describe the weather for any given place;
• Identify when the weather locally is different from that expected in NWP
guidance;
• Be able to justify the occasions when own local forecast does not agree with
NWP guidance;
• Identify any comments on the NWP performance given in written or verbal
guidance especially when it affects the local forecast output.

Interpret standard model output correctly with an appreciation for their strengths and
weaknesses, i.e.:
• Show an awareness of which model run is currently valid;
• Describe weather in the model atmosphere by translating symbols and fields
on the model charts;
• Translate weather in the model to the real atmosphere taking account of
strengths and weaknesses;
• Describe the significance of any changes between each model run;

Identify, and pay particular attention to, those sources of data likely to provide an indi-
cation of any deviation from the expected weather conditions, i.e.:
• Know where to find the latest available satellite, radar and observational data;
• Select the appropriate data for each forecast for any weather situation;
• Interpret any data selected and compare with current guidance and forecast;
• React appropriately to the effects of the latest data on the current forecasts;

Apply correctly the appropriate local forecasting techniques for wind, temperature, visi-
bility, fog, cloud, precipitation, and aviation hazards i.e.:
• Use effectively the appropriate forecasting methods taken from the
Forecaster’s Reference Book;

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 CHAPTER 7 — EXAMPLES OF ACTUAL JOB-COMPETENCY REQUIREMENTS

• Use the tephigram to do the following:

- Forecast maximum temperature;
- Forecast cloud bases, cloud tops and cloud structure;
- Find the fog point;
- Deduce changes in stability.

Use the guidance, NWP and local forecasting techniques to develop a forecast which can
be adapted to fit local requirements, i.e.:
• Give a broad overview of weather expected in the local area for the next 36
hours within 15 minutes of coming on duty;
• State factors in the forecast that may be uncertain and point the way to
possible errors in the stated forecast;
• Express the level of confidence in the current forecast:
- Be aware of, and make appropriate use of, the main features available on
the workstation, i.e.;
- Use the workstation to determine the following:
- Normands point;
- Fog point;
- Maximum temperature using Model Output Statistics (MOS);
- Minimum temperature using MOS and McKenzie method;
- Likelihood of mountain waves using the Casswell method;
- Atmospheric refractivity;
- Cloud top temperatures from IR imagery;
- Use the workstation to find and apply the overlay facilities.

Producing forecasts for the user To produce forecasts for the user it is essential that the forecaster:

Can state typical criteria and appropriate wording for the issue of warnings, i.e.:
• State which warnings are issued at the forecast office either from memory or
by immediate access to the warnings’ book; C
• Identify any criteria for a given warning; H
• Produce warnings for issue that contain no ambiguities and are clear and easy A
to read.
P
Is familiar with laid down amendment criteria and procedures for the main forecast products, i.e.: T
• Identify any amendment criteria for any forecast when asked; E
• State the amendment procedure for any forecast; R
• Use the correct amendment procedure.
7
Can use PC software to prepare forecast products, i.e.:
• Call up any forecast available on the workstation;
• Use MS-Office software package in order to produce forecasts;
• Use any other PC system necessary to do the job.

Can make correct use of TAF and TREND codes when producing aerodrome forecasts, i.e.:
• Use all parts of TAF and TREND appropriately;
• Appreciate the differences in change criteria between the two codes;
• Appreciate the differences between military and civil codes;

Follows rules agreed with the customer for producing forecasts, i.e.:
• State or readily obtain the agreed rules for all forecasts;
• Produce forecasts that follow the agreed rules.

Writes scripted forecasts in a style appropriate to the customer, i.e.:

• Appreciate the various styles preferred by customers;
• Make correct use of tense and punctuation in sentences;
• Produce scripts which are free from spelling mistakes;
• Produce scripts which are easy to read at the first attempt;
• Produce scripts free from ambiguity.

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GUIDELINES FOR THE EDUCATION AND TRAINING OF PERSONNEL IN METEOROLOGY AND OPERATIONAL HYDROLOGY

Presents verbal forecasts to an acceptable standard, i.e.:

• Have a clear and confident vocal delivery;
• Sound natural while reading a script;
• Respond well to questions;
• Maintain good eye/camera contact when briefing/broadcasting;
• Keep to the subject;
• Avoid ambiguity.

Providing any specialist or To provide specialist or support work, the forecaster must be:
support work
Proficient in the use of office IT systems so as to be able to undertake routine user main-
tenance and trouble shooting of such systems, i.e.:
• Recover any IT systems to working order, as laid down in local staff
instructions;
• Understand and carry out any communications tasks, as laid down under
local staff instructions;
• Change paper and ribbons in printers and photocopiers and carry out any
other routine maintenance, as laid down in local staff instructions.

Able to make, code, and transmit accurate weather observations, i.e.:

• Accurately observe all parameters needed for input into SAMOS;
• Ensure timeliness of observation;
• Use SAMOS quickly and efficiently;
• Observations without error.

Able to operate any specialist equipment which the forecaster is required to use as part of
normal duties, i.e.:
• Use radio studio equipment;
• Use overhead projector or any other equipment required for the main
briefing;
• Use any answer phone equipment.

In possession of any other skills necessary, as defined locally, in order to be able to work
at that office without direct supervision, i.e.:
• Know any local pricing policy;
• Know where to find the local pricing policy;
• Seek, and take due note of, guidance from colleagues when appropriate;
• Seek guidance from colleagues to clarify anything they do not understand;
• Seek advice from colleagues on ways to improve forecasting techniques;
• Try out new methods and techniques suggested by colleagues;
• Keep to stories agreed locally with colleagues when producing forecasts;
• Seek to improve future forecasts by hindcasting and analysing forecasts
already issued.

Aware of, and make appropriate use of, all the relevant features available on the fore-
caster’s data display workstations, i.e.:
• Know where to find, switch on and log in to any forecaster workstation;
• Be able to personalize the system;
• Select and manage chart areas;
• Obtain print-outs of any data;
• Set up print schedules.

Familiar with, and appreciate the importance of, any forecast verification schemes in
operational use, i.e.:
• Be aware of any local verification schemes and their impact on future fore-
cast services, as well as the own and colleagues’ performance related pay;
• Fill in any details required by local verification schemes;
• Use verification schemes to determine any optimistic or pessimistic bias in
the own forecasts.

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 CHAPTER 7 — EXAMPLES OF ACTUAL JOB-COMPETENCY REQUIREMENTS

Managing the working To manage the working environment, the forecaster:

environment
Works through a duty schedule effectively, i.e.:
• Be aware of the schedule of the shift currently being worked;
• Plan to ensure that deadlines are met;
• Put public safety as the top priority;
• Be aware of the relative importance/sensitivity of one forecast in relation to
another forecast.

Ensures consistency with colleagues during forecasting duties, i.e.:

• Conduct regular and effective dialogue on the meteorological situation with
colleagues;
• Be able to agree a ‘story’ with colleagues.

Relates well with colleagues and works as a member of a team, i.e.:

• Work with colleagues in an open friendly manner;
• Pay due regard to equal opportunities;
• Show an awareness of colleagues who are experiencing difficulties and
respond appropriately;
• Share the workload at unusually busy times.

Deals with customers in an appropriate and professional way, i.e.:

• Answer the telephone in a clear and friendly manner;
• Deal with face-to-face enquiries in an open and friendly manner;
• Ask questions to clarify customer requirements;
• Do not show annoyance even if provoked and respond to criticism or
complaints in a constructive way;
• Know the complaints procedure and implement it if necessary.

C
7.2 CLIMATE MONITORING AND PREDICTION H
A
By Y. Kimura, Japan Meteorological Agency
P
Climate monitoring and The climatologist must: T
prediction services • Be aware of the impacts of climate (weather) fluctuations on society; E
• Understand the value of climate monitoring and prediction information; R
• Be aware of how climate monitoring and prediction information is used;
• Be aware of the needs of society for climate monitoring and prediction 7
services.

Climate in the area of The climatologist must:

responsibility • Have knowledge of the geography of the area of responsibility;
• Know the spatial representativeness of climatic data from each observing
station within the area of responsibility;
• Know the characteristics of climate in the area of responsibility:
- Normal and variability (standard deviation) of climatic elements;
- Seasonal changes and inter-annual changes of climatic elements;
- Seasonal changes of dominant weather patterns;
- Know the influence of urbanization on climate in the area of responsibility.

Relationship between large- The climatologist must:

scale climate and • Have knowledge of the normal conditions of large-scale climate:
climate in the area of - Surface pressure patterns and circulation patterns which appear
responsibility frequently;
- Balances between various physical parameters;
- Seasonal variations of the above two;
• Have knowledge of the relationship between large-scale climate and climate
in the area of responsibility:

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GUIDELINES FOR THE EDUCATION AND TRAINING OF PERSONNEL IN METEOROLOGY AND OPERATIONAL HYDROLOGY

- Normal state;
- Anomalous climate years in the past;
- Results of former studies on the relationship between large-scale climate
variations and climate variations in the area of responsibility;
- Results of former studies on the relationship between large-scale lower
boundary conditions of the atmosphere, such as sea-surface temperature
and snow-covered areas and climate in the area of responsibility.

Prediction of climate The climatologist must:

• Understand the predictability of climate and what can be predicted;
• Understand deterministic forecast and probabilistic forecast.

Methods used in climate The climatologist must:

monitoring and prediction • Have knowledge of methods used in climate analysis:
- Time-series analysis (running mean, spectral analysis, trend analysis, etc);
- Empirical Orthogonal Function (EOF) analysis;
- Correlation analysis, Canonical Correlation Analysis (CCA);
- Singular Value Decomposition (SVD) analysis, etc.;
• Have knowledge of methods used in climate prediction:
- Statistical-empirical methods: persistency, analogue method, analogue/
anti-analogue method, periodicity, multiple linear regression, CCA,
discriminant analysis, Optimal Climate Normal (OCN), etc.;
- Dynamical methods: atmospheric general circulation model, coupled
ocean-atmosphere general circulation model, hybrid model, ensemble
prediction;
- Objective forecasts: Model Output Statistics (MOS), Perfect Prognosis
Method (PPM), etc.

Verification of forecast The climatologist must:

(prediction) • Be aware of the purposes of forecast verification;
• Have knowledge of methods used in forecast verification:
- Deterministic categorical forecast: contingency table, bias, hit rate, Heidke
skill score, etc.;
- Probabilistic forecasts: reliability diagram, Ranked Probability (RP) score,
Brier score, Relative Operating Characteristic (ROC), etc.;
- Forecasts of continuous variables: bias, anomaly correlation, root-mean
squared error, etc.

Data used in climate The climatologist must:

monitoring and prediction • Be aware of the characteristics of data used:
- Surface meteorological observation data, aerological observation data;
- Oceanographic observation data;
- Satellite observation data;
- Objectively analysed data, re-analysis data, data from assimilation systems.

Climate monitoring operations The climatologist should:

• Become familiar with the working procedures for climate monitoring;
• Be aware of the ways of interpreting observed and analysed data correctly
with an understanding of the characteristics and space-time resolution of
these data and of the analysis methods used;
• Bear in mind the importance of monitoring not only climate in the area of
responsibility, but also large-scale climate and the whole climatic system;
• Bear in mind the importance of investigating the causes of anomalous
climate and accumulating the results for future reference.

Climate prediction operations The climatologist should:

• Become familiar with the working procedures for climate prediction;
• Be aware of the ways of interpreting forecast data correctly with an under-
standing of the strengths and weaknesses of these data, the skills (verification

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 CHAPTER 7 — EXAMPLES OF ACTUAL JOB-COMPETENCY REQUIREMENTS

results) of forecast methods used and space-time scales which the methods
represent;
• Bear in mind the importance of accumulating verification results of forecast
data and issued forecasts.

Provision and explanation of The climatologist must:

climate information • Make appropriate use of terms, such as climatic normal, unusual climate, etc.;
• In explaining the climate monitoring and prediction information to users, consider
the major impact which climate (weather) has or is expected to have on society;
• Explain the climate monitoring and prediction information to users plainly
and unambiguously;
• Apply appropriate knowledge of meteorology and climatology when explaining
the climate monitoring and prediction information to users.

7.3 OBSERVATIONS AND MEASUREMENTS; INSTRUMENTS

By R. A. Pannett, Meteorological Service of New Zealand Limited

Introduction Meteorological datasets may be employed in a variety of applications in weather

forecasting, climatology, meteorological research and many agricultural, industrial
and commercial applications. To secure the particular quality of data as cheaply as
possible for diverse applications places high demands on the design of modern data
acquisition systems and the data sampling regime.

Since data acquisition costs comprise a high proportion of the total budget of an NMS,
there is continuing pressure to ensure maximum effective utilization of resources; and to
seek ways of reducing costs while maintaining required performance.

As data acquisition processes become increasingly automated to improve data C

quality and reduce costs, there is a movement in the Observations and H
Measurements (O&M) Branch of the skill base necessary to operate and maintain A
the observing networks. The emphasis moves from the earlier concentration on
P
manual, visual methods and individual ‘mechanical’ instruments to automatic,
remote-sensing systems employing electronic components with microprocessor- T
and software-controlled data sampling and processing, and with delivery to the E
user over various kinds of telecommunications bearer. R

In the specialist staffing of the O&M Branch there is a tendency to reduce overall 7
staff numbers while ‘up-skilling’ existing staff to be competent in newer technolo-
gies. Staff may, as well, be ‘multi-skilled’ so that they are competent over a broader
range of tasks and may be more flexibly deployed to meet emerging needs. This
practice also leads to improved job satisfaction.

The list of competencies below is given in terms of functional responsibilities or

‘key result areas’. In some cases these will be the domains of one specialist, but
often competencies will be distributed through the branch and several individuals
or a functional team will offer complementary skills.

The following basic and advanced skills, and adequate attitudes and practices for
occupational safety and health, will be common to the O&M Branch:

Basic skills • Basic meteorology;

• Basic measurement science;
• Quality systems;
• Safety and hazard awareness; basic first aid practice;
• Use of personal computer software applications: word processing, spread-
sheets, engineering drawing, flowcharts, electronic mail and Internet use;
other productivity tools.

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GUIDELINES FOR THE EDUCATION AND TRAINING OF PERSONNEL IN METEOROLOGY AND OPERATIONAL HYDROLOGY

Advanced skills • Resource planning;

• Project management;
• Electronic design;
• System design;
• Software engineering;
• Communications engineering;
• Calibration engineering.

Occupational safety and health • Proper use of safety clothing and protective equipment;
• Poisonous gases and vapours (solvents, mercury);
• Corrosive chemicals (caustic chemicals);
• Electrical shock hazards;
• Falling weights;
• Occupational overuse syndrome;
• First aid training for injury (certified training).

Branch management • Establish and manage contracts for basic data, including: upper-air observatories;
Tasks voluntary observers; voluntary ships; climate data; METARs, and AMDAR;
• Establish service level agreements with other divisions of the NMS for supply
of quality data and maintenance services;
• Provide for new and enhanced data acquisition systems to meet cost-effec-
tively the ongoing needs of the NMS and its clients;
• Maintain optimum quality and reliability of meteorological data collection by an
effective programme of regular calibration and preventive maintenance;
• Arrange for operational fault monitoring and response and timely repair of
equipment;
• Arrange participation in international cooperative programmes, e.g. the drifting
buoy programme;
• Arrange for the provision of appropriate guidance material and training on
data collection procedures for staff and contractors and for monitoring of
adherence to procedures;
• Act as an expert spokesperson on overall data acquisition network matters;
• Provide for participation in the WMO Commission for Instruments and
Methods of Observation (CIMO);
• Implement quality systems conforming to ISO 9000 requirements;
• Provide financial and material resources (prepare and monitor budgets);
• Report on the quality and performance of the overall data acquisition system
as required;
• Maintain, upgrade and optimally manage assets;
• Recruit personnel with required skills;
• Provide for staff technical training;
• Conduct staff personal appraisals.

Competencies • Staff leadership and personnel management;

• Strong focus on meeting customer requirements;
• Excellent oral and written communication skills;
• Broad knowledge of all NMS processes depending on meteorological data;
• Setting budgets and controlling expenditure;
• Managing assets to maintain economic performance;
• Strategic planning;
• Negotiation skills;
• Familiarity with WMO programmes, particularly the WWW;
• Job scheduling to meet operational targets;
• Working under pressure to meet deadlines.

Network management • Manage the surface and upper-air observing programmes to provide
Tasks optimum, representative and cost-effective networks;
• Manage the marine observing programme (ships and drifting buoys) to
provide an optimum network;

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 CHAPTER 7 — EXAMPLES OF ACTUAL JOB-COMPETENCY REQUIREMENTS

• Contribute to network planning;

• Site inspections;
• Recruit and train contractors, voluntary observers and observing ships;
• Contract for buoy deployment and buoy data processing;
• Supply operating instructions and standard procedures to contractors and
observers;
• Ensure supply of station consumables;
• Manage delivery of data from observing stations to Head Office to required
quality including timeliness;
• Maintain station records;
• Negotiate with contractors operating observing programmes.

Competencies • Understanding of forecasting and climatological data requirements;

• Detailed practical knowledge and experience of all observing standards and
techniques;
• Problem solving ability;
• Diplomacy; good liaison ability with other agencies and members of the
public;
• Negotiation skills.

Observing standards • Ensure data quality (including timeliness and representativeness) complies
Tasks with forecaster and climatologist requirements, and WMO standards for
international exchange;
• Develop and maintain ISO 9000 quality procedures for data collection;
• Maintain a programme of inspections and quality audits for contractors and
stations;
• Coordinate the introduction of new data collection systems, techniques and
codes, and arrange appropriate training for contractors and observers;
• Survey and select observing sites;
• Monitor network and contractor performance; maintain and analyse C
statistics. H
A
Competencies • Understanding of forecasting and climatological data requirements;
P
• Detailed practical knowledge and experience of all observing standards and
techniques related to the field context; T
• Conversant with WMO Regulations, WMO code practices, and the recom- E
mendations of WMO-No. 8, Guide to Instruments and Methods of Observation; R
• A well-developed quality culture;
• Good analytical ability in statistical methods; capacity for problem solving. 7

Systems engineering • Advise on new technical opportunities in meteorological data acquisition

Tasks for new data sources, improved performance and reduced operating costs;
• Introduce new data acquisition systems into operational use, and enhance
existing systems;
• Manage system development projects;
• Develop in consultation with users, requirement briefs and system technical
specifications;
• Evaluate system options to meet user needs;
• Estimate costs for projects and manage project budget;
• Document projects with specifications, engineering drawings, tender and
contract documents;
• Arrange and manage technical procurement and liaison with suppliers;
• Upgrade/develop information technology hardware and software as required;
• Design for installation; arrange for sub-contractors to provide utilities;
• Provide for data communications from remote sites;
• Coordinate system communications, data formats and codes with NMS
Information Technology Division;
• Commission and test new systems to user specifications;
• Provide for adequate technical manuals for operation and maintenance;

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• Provide ‘technology transfer’ training for calibration, maintenance and

operation.

Competencies • Excellent understanding of users’ data needs;

• High level of technical knowledge on modern data acquisition systems;
• Thorough knowledge of measurement science and error analysis;
• Advanced skills in electronic design; software engineering and system integration;
• Excellent technical oral and written communications skills (including
engineering documentation);
• Able to synthesize appropriate solutions; excellent problem solving skills;
• Able to manage projects to tight time and cost targets.

Provisioning and stores • Ensure reliable, cost-effective supply of meteorological consumables to

Tasks contract and voluntary stations and ships;
• Maintain an efficient, secure, and safe store of consumable items and spare
parts for maintenance;
• Monitor consumption of stores and purchasing lead times, and maintain
inventories of stock-listed supplies, to facilitate the operation of an effective
and reliable ‘just-in-time’ purchasing policy;
• Maintain a database of preferred suppliers and purchase specifications;
• Negotiate with potential suppliers for the best possible terms on inventory
items;
• Produce monthly stock balances and six-monthly stock audits as required by
the Finance Division of the NMS.

Competencies • Familiarity with the role of equipment and consumables in meteorological

observing practices;
• Ability to establish and manage good systems for stock control, purchasing
and timely supply to users;
• Thorough knowledge of commercial practices for tendering and contracts for
supply of goods, terms of payment, international exchange rates, insurance,
freight, customs clearance, invoicing, valuation and depreciation, and audit;
• Negotiation skills to achieve supplies on favourable terms;
• Computing skills to operate and maintain databases for stock inventories,
order and payment status, and issue to users.

Project management and • Manage projects involving significant diverse resources for the establish-
planning ment of major NMS data acquisition facilities, e.g. upper-air, radar and
Tasks satellite receiving stations;
• Apply for resource and planning consents; building permits from local
authorities, and land leases;
• Establish contracts for the supply of utilities and other services;
• Liase with utility providers and works contractors;
• Liase and negotiate with land owners, other agencies and local authorities;
• Liase with lawyers and planning consultants.

Competencies • Excellent technical appreciation of NMS data acquisition operations;

• Well practiced in the use of appropriate computer-based project planning
and scheduling tools;
• Competent in writing specifications, producing engineering drawings and
project reports;
• Able to estimate financial and labour resources, and manage project budgets
and resources to meet defined goals;
• Practical knowledge of specification and safe installation of utilities: water
supply, drainage, gas, electric power, telecommunications (both line and
radio);
• Good familiarity with national resource management law, contract law, and
building and other government regulations;
• Good problem solving and negotiation skills.

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Measurement standards; • Manage and maintain NMS standards and their adherence to national and
instrument calibration; quality international standards, according to the ISO 9000 quality system;
assurance • Manage instrument calibrations to an agreed schedule to maintain quality
Tasks and meet operational demands;
• Document calibration procedures and maintain a calibration register;
• Provide specialist advice and evaluate meteorological sensors;
• Train technical staff in calibration procedures;
• Quality assurance;
- Maintain an ISO 9000 quality system model or similar;
- Maintain statistics and records of inspections and quality audits;
- Analyse and review quality performance.

Competencies • Intimate technical knowledge of the meteorological sensors, measurement

systems and standards employed in the NMS data acquisition programme
and the needs of data users;
• Conversant with WMO Technical Regulations (WMO-No. 49) and the Guide to
Instruments and Methods of Observation (WMO-No. 8);
• Sound knowledge of national and international standards of physical meas-
urement which are relevant to meteorology;
• Commitment to the selected quality system and competent in its application
to instrument calibration;
• Good practical understanding of measurement physics, the treatment of
errors and the derivation of appropriate statistics;
• Excellent manual skills in setting up and adjusting calibration equipment
(including those with computer control) and the sensors under calibration;
• Competent with computer database systems for maintaining calibration
records and able to maintain meticulous records of calibrations and instru-
ment histories.

Field installation and • Prepare site works (concrete plinths, mountings, cable trenches, equipment C
maintenance engineering shelters); liase with sub-contractors; H
Tasks • Do workshop fabrication and field installation of instruments and systems; A
• Carry out commissioning tests;
P
• Plan for routine maintenance;
• Act on fault call-outs within agreed response times and priorities; T
• Operate a help desk to respond effectively to fault reports and customer E
problems; R
• Perform workshop and field maintenance of electro-mechanical, electronic
and optical meteorological equipment, including corrosion prevention and 7
refurbishing;
• Prepare site plans and equipment drawings;
• Prepare operating and maintenance instructions, including amendments;
• Maintain records of equipment installations, modification, calibration and
repair;
• Maintain safe field and workshop practices.

Competencies • Good understanding of how meteorological data is applied in the processes

of the NMS;
• Sound technical knowledge of electronic and electro-mechanical meteoro-
logical instrumentation and systems;
• Familiarity with properties and processing of engineering materials: concrete,
timber, ferrous and non-ferrous metals and protective coatings;
• Demonstrated practical skills and expertize in electronic and/or electro-
mechanical maintenance in both the field and in the workshop;
• Good diagnostic and analytical skills, particularly when with limited
support;
• Able to work effectively either as a team member or leader with other tech-
nical specialists;
• Well organized with good planning skills and attention to details.

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7.4 INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY AND DATA PROCESSING

By H. J. Koppert, Deutscher Wetterdienst, Germany

The tasks performed in the Information Technology (IT) Department of NMSs

differs little today from those at any scientific research institution. Significant
differences can be found in the area of international telecommunication and in
software engineering, where the software that has to be implemented and main-
tained is very specific to meteorology.

The principal job-competencies in an IT Department require skills and knowledge

in certain areas (see the six sub-sections below). For all of those areas, a basic set
of IT skills is necessary, these include:
• Recognize basic hardware and software components;
• Understand basic operating system functions like files and directories, menus
and desktops, and networks;
• Experience with word processing/editing applications; and
• Use of e-mail and the Internet.

The detailed specifications of knowledge and experience in this paper reflects

today’s IT world (as of August 1999). The knowledge base described below may be
not at the command of a single person, but an appropriate subset must be avail-
able within the NMS team.

Information systems operating Typically NMSs rely on mainframe/server computers. NWP models are run on
vector or massively parallel supercomputers. Post-processing is done on powerful
servers. Some NMSs operate Limited Area Models (LAMs) on powerful work-
stations.

An information systems operator has to:

• Monitor the information technology system’s performance;
• Monitor the status of the jobs running on these systems;
• Use system management software to monitor all the servers and clients in
NMS information technology system;
• Investigate anything that seems unusual;
• Take appropriate action in case of failures;
• Start, restart or kill applications;
• Start-up and shut down the computers.

The operator does this with:

• Experience with the System Operator utilities;
• Knowledge of system maintenance tools;
• Proficiency in specific batch job scheduling systems (e.g. SMS from the
European Center of Medium Range Weather Forecasts);
• Proficiency in UNIX/Windows NT operating system;
• System commands, tools and applications;
• Shell programming (UNIX).

Database administration and NMSs have to store large amounts of observational, processed and gridded data.
programming These data are stored in commercial relational-databases.

An associate database administrator:

• Is responsible for the storage and retrieval of NMS data;
• Develops and implements user interfaces to the database;
• Manages database backup and recoveries;
• Is able to configure, install, tune, and run SQL-databases;
• Is able to develop and implement data models together with internal and
external users.

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The administrator does this with:

• Profound knowledge of all database administration issues in order to be able to:
– Establish mechanisms for backup and recovery using the database
suppliers tool-set;
– Tune, optimize for performance (especially for NWP data) and monitor
the database;
– Validate users;
– Implement table spaces and indices;
• Knowledge of meteorological data codes (WMO GRIB and BUFR codes, some-
times GTS-reports, if the original GTS-reports are stored);
• Experience with relational and/or object orientated OO data modelling of
station related, imagery, or numerical data using commercial tools like the
entity relationship modeller;
• Experience with programming user interfaces with SQL, PLSQL, JAVA (Web-
interfaces), embedded SQL, C, C++, and FORTRAN (interfacing with legacy code).

Networking NMS strongly depend on the flow of data and information in their network.
Today’s client-server architectures separate data from the client application.

A network specialist has to:

• Analyse the requirements of NMS network needs to make sure that it fulfils
the needs of timely and secure data transmission;
• Set up NMS Local Area Network (LAN) and Wide Area Network (WAN)
according to his or her assessment of NMS needs;
• Connect IT systems (e.g. supercomputers, workstation, X-terminals, PCs,
printers, etc.) using cables, fibre optics, routers, hubs and modems;
• Apply and assess the available technology like Fast and Gigabit Ethernet,
FDDI, HIPPI, ATM, DSL;
• Protect the network against unwanted access by installing firewalls and
proxies; C
• Monitor the performance of the network with the appropriate network H
management tools; A
• Troubleshoot network problems.
P
The network specialist has to have: T
• Profound knowledge of: E
– Line protocols like X.25, PPP, HDLC, Frame Relay and ATM; R
– The network protocol TCP/IP and of applications based on TCP/IP;
– Routing protocols like OSPF, BGP, RIP, EIGRP; 7
• The ability to configure and install hubs, switches and routers (configuration
is mostly centralized );
• Proficiency in configuring firewalls and in implementing NMS security
policy on firewalls;
• Knowledge of SNMP-based Network Management Systems;
• Experience with performing proactive performance analyses e.g. with Ramon
probes systems and network analysers;
• Experience with optimising LAN-performance by layer2/layer3 switching.

International meteorological Advanced NMSs operate as part of International Meteorological Telecommunications

telecommunication specially equipped information technology systems (clustered, hot standby or fault
tolerant). A message switching software is run on these systems.

Staff responsible for NMS international telecommunications or for Regional

Telecommunication Hub (RTH) should have:
• Comprehensive knowledge of the Message Switching System (MSS) applica-
tion software in use, especially:
– For installing and updating the MSS application software;
– To configure and give the parameters of the operated international
connections;

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– To configure the in-house connections from and to the computer centre;

– To install and to keep up to date the message distribution lists;
– To define the extent of logging and monitoring operations;
• Knowledge of the hardware configuration in use, including the operating
system (e.g. UNIX):
– Installation procedures;
– Monitoring the operation of components to eliminate faults;
– Checking that the state of the system is appropriate for the tasks it is to
perform;
– Back-up operations;
– Upgrades;
• Knowledge of:
– Network and communication protocols in use, e.g. X.25 and TCP/IP;
– Data exchange via the Internet;
– The parameters to be set for each of the connections in coordination
with the remote installation;
• Knowledge of:
– The codes used for meteorological information in messages;
– Common practices in operating the international data exchange;
– WMO regulations organizing the international meteorological message
exchange;
– The overall structure of the GTS.

Operating/application systems NMHSs have to implement and maintain a variety of information technology
design and maintenance hardware and software including supercomputers running the UNIX operating
system, high performance servers and meteorological workstations also running
UNIX and PCs running Windows system.

An analyst/operating systems programmer has to:

• Evaluate, implement and update the operating systems software and all the
related software, such as compilers and libraries;
• Integrate all the computer systems hardware, such as CPUs, graphics cards,
memory, disks and peripheral devices;
• Test and implement application software, such as editors, visualization pack-
ages, mathematical and physical libraries, image manipulation programmes,
word processors, spreadsheets;
• Distribute software throughout the NMS network;
• Provide customer and technical support;
• Run system management software.

The information systems operator must have:

• Profound knowledge of the UNIX and/or Windows NT operating system,
especially in the areas of:
– Setting up and configuring workstations and/or PCs in a networked envi-
ronment;
– User administration/user accounting;
– Management of file systems (e.g. create file systems, partition disks,
create and manage logical disk volumes, manage swap space, monitor file
system performance and usage);
• Experience in managing distributed computing environments together with
Network Specialists. He or she should be able to configure clients/servers for
NIS, DNS, NFS or DCE/DFS;
• Proficiency in utilizing the appropriate tools of software and hardware
vendors;
• Experience with setting up printers, terminals and other peripheral devices;
• Proficiency in shell (UNIX) and Pearl programming;
• Experience in installing and updating application software;
• Experience in tailoring and implementing system management software like
Tivoli, HP OpenView or CA Unicenter;

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• Experience in integrating NT and UNIX, e.g. by employing:

– Samba for file service;
– Terminal servers;
• Experience with system troubleshooting.

Software engineering Most meteorological application software is very specific. A software engineer
therefore the has to have some profound knowledge of meteorology and
meteorological codes.

A software engineer does the followings:

• Elaborates the software specification together with the users;
• Determines the computer platform, programming language, network
resources and all the necessary application programming interfaces to be used;
• Codes, compiles and tests the software;
• Codes/decodes meteorological datasets (GRIB, BUFR, GTS-reports);
• Maintains software at programme level.

The following IT-capabilities are indispensable:

• Knowledge of software life cycle development;
• Experience in structured and/or Object Oriented (OO) analysis and design
depending on strategy of the NMS;
• Proficiency in FORTRAN 90, C++ and JAVA programming for new software
projects;
• Knowledge of FORTRAN 77 and C for the maintenance of legacy code;
• Proficiency in graphics programming with X, OpenGL, Direct X and JAVA
foundation classes;
• Knowledge in building user interfaces with Motif, Tcl/TK, VISUAL C++ and
JAVA;
• Experience in middleware (Corba, DCOM) for complex multi-platform and
multi-programming languages projects; C
• Experience in HTML, CGI, JavaScript programming to create and maintain H
Web pages; A
• Proficiency in UNIX/Windows NT depending on the targeted platform;
P
• Knowledge (for certain applications) of:
- NWP data (structure of model grids and parameters); T
- GTS-reports like FM12, FM13, FM15, FM16, FM 18, FM 32, FM33, FM 35, E
FM36, FM41 and FM 42; R
• Knowledge of WMO BUFR and GRIB codes.
7

7.5 AGROMETEOROLOGY

By H. P. Das, India Meteorological Department

Developing weather • Developing suitable techniques for accurate predictions of weather elements,
forecasts for agriculture; which affect farm planning and operations;
products for the customer • Developing special agricultural weather forecasts to serve weather related
Competency requirements agricultural problems associated with the crop for specific locations;
• Interpreting actual and forecast data correctly and identifying the most rele-
vant data for any given situation;
• Creating products consistent with guidance and relevant data.

Skills and knowledge; tasks Know what guidance products are available and where to find them, i.e.:
• Obtain relevant agrometeorological data such as maximum and minimum
temperature, wind, humidity, soil temperature, soil moisture and any other
element, if required;
• Collect detailed information on types of crops, crop phenology, the date of
occurrences of the main crop development phases, cultivation practices, soil
types and other related information;

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GUIDELINES FOR THE EDUCATION AND TRAINING OF PERSONNEL IN METEOROLOGY AND OPERATIONAL HYDROLOGY

• Collect weather and climatological data to determine strategy, tactics and

logistics in programme to monitor and control plant diseases and noxious
insects;
• Obtain cardinal points (maximum and minimum limits) and optimum range
of relevant agrometeorological parameters for potential growth and develop-
ment of seasonal crops;
• Obtain normals of weather elements and data on probability of rainfall
including conditional probabilities;
• Collect biometeorological observations on the health and diseases of live-
stock.

Be aware of and make appropriate use of the available relevant information in prepara-
tion of user product. Know how to do the following:
• Develop techniques for predicting maximum and minimum temperatures, wind,
humidity, dew and sky cover including cloud and sunshine percentage;
• Calculate a suitable drought index to assess prolonged and abnormal soil
moisture deficiencies leading to delineation of potential disaster areas;
• Develop accurate methods for the prognosis of soil temperature and soil
moisture;
• Calculate Potential Evapotranspiration (PET) by modified Penman’s method;
• Calculate water requirements of crops from PET and crop coefficient values;
• Calculate a suitable crop moisture index to measure the status of dryness or
wetness effecting warm season crops;
• Determine the weather conditions favourable for crop curing;
• determine growing degree-days to find the linear relationship between plant
growth and temperature;
• Identify the weather factors responsible for the development of pests and
diseases of crops and animals.

Be proficient in preparing special agricultural weather/phenological forecasts; be able to:

• Predict sowing dates, plant development stages and crop yield;
• Prepare phenological forecasts of onset of flowering of fruit trees; dates of
ripening of fruit;
• Forecast soil temperature during the sowing period to avoid sowing or planting
under adverse soil conditions which would have otherwise hindered proper
seed germination/emergence;
• Predict conditions favourable for harvest operations of most crops and post-
harvest operations such as curing;
• Determine the minimum soil temperature at the depth of the tilling node
and critical temperature of plant freezing to predict crop freezing;
• Predict soil freezing and thawing dates;
• Forecast the most likely thermal conditions during the growing season of
heat-loving plants;
• Develop methods of forecasting over-wintering conditions and estimate the
extent of frost damage areas;
• Predict leaf wetness duration, as most plant diseases develop and spread in
conditions of wet vegetation;
• Assess the current locust situation, provide forecasts up to six weeks in
advance on their migration and breeding; issue warning on an ad hoc basis;
• Prepare forecast of maximum and minimum temperature for transport of
agricultural produce along the transport route;
• Assess summer and winter growing conditions for cattle;
• Evaluate suitability of weather conditions for grazing, shearing and repro-
duction of sheep;
• Forecast adverse weather conditions and hazards relative to grazing of live-
stock breeds;
• Forecast favourable weather conditions for poultry production;
• Assess how the health, development and quality of fish is affected by water
pollution;

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• Predict forest fire danger on the basis of moisture control of forest fuels,
particularly during logging operations;
• Determine low level wind drift and stability factors for agricultural aircraft
operation.

Be proficient in preparing weather bulletins for farmers, i.e.:

• Prepare crop-weather calendars comprising various weather warning require-
ments of the agriculturists and the life history and mean dates of important
epochs of crop growth;
• Collect district-wide forecasts of weather during the next 48 hours with any
special weather warnings along with the outlook for the subsequent two
days;
• Based on the above, prepare and issue a weather bulletin for farmers indicat-
ing the onset and cessation of rain, probable rainfall intensity and duration
and occurrence of adverse weather phenomena.

Determine priorities in situations when the distribution of special advisory information

is proposed, i.e.:
• Be able to determine priorities of output material;
• Be able to work under stress with minimum disruption to normal routine
work;
• Seek appropriate advice from colleagues with expertise in the specialized
field;
• Get feedback from the users on improvement of the bulletins.

Acquire necessary skills to work independently, i.e.:

• Seek and take guidance from colleagues when appropriate;
• Solicit advice from colleagues towards improving forecasting technique;
• Be willing to try out new techniques suggested by colleagues.
C
Be proficient in the use of IT and operate any other special device not required as a H
routine, i.e.: A
• Be able to set right minor faults in office IT system, as per local staff
P
instruction;
• Be aware of the correct procedure to report faults in IT equipment to T
superiors, and inform when such equipment should not be touched; E
• Be able to use IT equipment. R

Developing an • Developing operationally useful forecasts of meteorological parameters 7

Agrometeorological important for current farming operations;
Advisory Service (AAS) • Utilizing information on the state and stage of the crop and weather require-
Competency requirements ments for healthy growth;
• Giving objective interpretation of prevailing weather and its forecast in terms
of its effect on crop growth and agricultural operations;
• Arranging regular consultation between weather forecasters and agricultural
scientists;
• Applying a standard procedure for the evaluation of the effectiveness of the
advisories issued;
• Framing the AAS bulletins consistent with the guidance and relevant infor-
mation mentioned above.

Skills and knowledge; tasks Know what guidance materials are available and where to find them.
• Collect promptly relevant meteorological data such as maximum and
minimum temperatures, wind, humidity, average cloud cover and, if
required, other relevant elements;
• Collect from relevant authorities routine information on types of crops, their
strains and phytophases for the area under consideration;
• Collect detailed information on soil type, topography, climate, cultivation
practices, etc.;

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GUIDELINES FOR THE EDUCATION AND TRAINING OF PERSONNEL IN METEOROLOGY AND OPERATIONAL HYDROLOGY

• Collect latest information on agriculturally vulnerable areas such as flood

prone/drought prone areas;
• Determine the dates of occurrence of the main crop development phases,
each of which has different climatic requirements;
• Collect cardinal and optimum temperatures for the major phenological
phases of the crop;
• Identify the environmental parameters most likely to provide an early indi-
cation of any significant deviation related to the occurrence of pest and
diseases;
• Determine the agrometeorological conditions favourable for the develop-
ment of insects and parasites transmitting diseases to animals;
• Be able to get any further specific guidance material needed immediately but
not required as a routine.

Be proficient in developing/issuing the required forecast products for AAS bulletins; know
how to do the following:
• Be able to issue short-range weather forecast for rainfall, wind speed,
maximum and minimum temperature, humidity, cloud cover and dew;
• Be able to develop and issue medium range forecasts (3 to 10 days) of rainfall
that can be used in scheduling farm work;
• Be able to use the long-range weather forecast to advise potential users of the
tentative nature of the monthly and seasonal outlook;
• Develop suitable crop yield forecasting models for a specific crop and area;
• Be able to indicate by means of a probability analysis the percentage risk of
adverse weather;
• Be able to issue meteorological alerts about frost occurrence, conditions that
favour the danger of forest fires or any phenomenon that could affect the
agricultural activities of a region (e.g. strong wind, heavy rain, heat/cold
waves, etc.);
• Be able to develop appropriate models to forewarn the onset, spread and
severity of pests and diseases, which mostly depend on weather.

Be aware and make appropriate use of the available relevant information in preparing
advisory bulletins. Interpret the forecast product judiciously, i.e.:
• Incorporate inputs of short, medium and long-range weather forecasts in the
AAS bulletins;
• Demonstrate a capability to appreciate and apply forecasting models of agri-
cultural yield and production;
• Compute the aridity index to monitor drought conditions;
• Compute soil moisture balance to find water deficit and water surplus periods
during the growing period and plan for irrigation scheduling;
• Evaluate the optimal period for sowing which will have a decisive impact on
the quantity and quality of yield;
• Be aware of how sowing and tillage are greatly influenced by the ground as
well as soil moisture and soil temperature;
• Determine the optimum date for harvesting;
• Ensure that forecast products and agricultural information will be used
jointly by agricultural scientists and agrometeorologists to prepare explicit
interpretative guidance for users;
• Ensure that fertilisers and plant protection products (like pesticides and
insecticides) are not used during periods of rain, high wind and high temperature;
• Determine the threshold values of temperature, precipitation, and speed of
the wind for application of agricultural chemicals;
• Be aware of the effect of low temperature on the crop i.e. cold injury, hardi-
ness, frost damage and frost resistance;
• Be able to monitor the development of pests and diseases which is often
closely related to the beginning of certain phenological phases of plants;
• Be aware of the fact that animal pests are resilient to dessication, so temper-
ature variables are often more important than wetness variables;

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• Be aware that the key factors for the effective utilization of agrometeoro-
logical services are accessibility, presentation and relevance.

Analyse plotted charts with particular reference to presentation when used for briefing
and for end-users, i.e.:
• Be able to analyse in detail all plotted charts needed in framing AAS Bulletins;
• Be able to give convincing reasons for the analysed features;
• Maintain the continuity and standard of the charts analysed.

Ensure the timely dissemination of advisories to farmers, i.e.:

• Be able to disseminate advisories quickly and efficiently using techniques like
videotext, fax and teletext or by using conventional methods such as the
postal service, press, radio, telephone, etc.;
• Be able to develop mechanisms that permit training of end-users, identify
requirements of users and coordinate diffusion of information;
• Be able to evolve appropriate means to get feedback from proactive farmers,
extension workers and grass-root level agricultural administration.

Evaluate the socio-economic aspects of the advisory service, i.e.:

• Be able to prepare an economic evaluation of agrometeorological advice to
farmers for the country as a whole, including different agroeconomic and
agroclimatic zones;
• Be able to inform administrators about likely production/shortfalls and
advice on policy matters like import/export;
• Be able to critically assess the shortcomings and successes of the activity
carried out and identify areas where additional information is required.

Respond quickly while assimilating data and framing advisories, i.e.:

• Discusses with the group possible questions while formulating bulletins;
• Be able to identify inconsistencies/inaccuracies before dissemination; C
• Know where to get the latest data, if needed; H
• Be able to provide advisories at short notice. A
P
Computer-based information • Standardizing data collection and information delivery system for user
system for operational requirements by incorporating new technological innovations; T
application • Using the agrometeorological data base judiciously for advisories and other E
Competency requirements operational decisions. R

Skills and knowledge; tasks Be proficient in operational application of agrometeorological data, i.e.: 7
• Be able to provide documentation in a user-friendly format available in
microcomputer versions;
• Acquire the required expertize to sift through the data to formulate the best
management decision rather than settling for the average expectation;
• Be able to disseminate in good time the recommended decisions to farm
community centres using all available channels ranging from telephones to
personal computers through to an agricultural network;
• Introduce new electronic technology in the form of ‘bulletin boards’ which
offer a new means of transferring relevant data and information;
• Be able to present data clearly and simply so that the user can understand the
meaning of the information which should be relevant and appropriate to the
user’s particular requirements.

Acquire skill for quality control checks of meteorological, phenological and agricultural
data for operational purposes, i.e.:
• Evaluate the frequency of erroneous or missing data and correct these values
following standard guidelines;
• Determine the extreme value thresholds based on climatological expecta-
tions and critically check values falling outside the determined thresholds;
• Prepare the format of data for operational use;

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• Adopt an internationally recognized standard to establish a suitable code for

specific crop types in all countries, as the data types often vary from region
to region.

Incorporate remotely-sensed satellite data/imagery into an agrometeorological database

for operational use. For this, the agrometeorologist must:
• Be aware of the advantages and limitations of using satellite information and
imageries for operational purpose;
• Be able to make a fair estimation of rainfall, soil moisture, crop area, vegeta-
tion conditions, water supplies and desert locust migration, as well as land
use analysis from satellite and aerial data;
• Be able to compute Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) and
other related vegetation indices for assessing crop phenology over large areas;
• Be able to develop Geographic Information System (GIS) allowing graphic
product displays which are easy to interpret.

7.6 AERONAUTICAL METEOROLOGY

PART A: Principal job competencies required for the aeronautical

forecasting

By T. C. Spangler and D. Wesley, USA: Cooperative Programme for

Operational Meteorology, Education and Training (COMET)

The principal job competencies for aeronautical forecasters vary to some degree,
but generally require skills and knowledge in three primary categories. The fore-
caster must have a clear knowledge of the:
• Meteorological hazards;
• Tools used to develop forecasts of aviation hazards;
• Procedures and formats of forecast products.

The aeronautical forecaster is typically responsible for terminal and route forecasts
for various aircraft flights or missions. These include forecasts of both surface
conditions at terminals and conditions aloft between terminals. The forecasts
must include the potential occurrence of meteorological phenomena that are
aircraft hazards.

Major hazards to aviation The major hazards to aviation, both near the ground and aloft are:
• Low cloud ceilings;
• Restricted visibility (both horizontal and vertical);
• Turbulence;
• Icing;
• Thunderstorms;
• Strong winds;
• Wind shear (both horizontal and vertical);
• Volcanic ash; and
• Extreme temperatures (both cold and hot).

In order to maintain and improve aviation safety, the aeronautical forecaster is

responsible for forecasts of all of the hazards listed above, and in many cases for
the global airspace. Typical time periods covered by these forecasts range from one
hour to several days. For a particular hazard, competency requirements exist for
the climatology of the hazard at various horizontal scales (hemispheric, regional
and local) as well as the diagnosis and prognosis at the appropriate scale of the
forecast area.

Forecasting skills for the particular hazards of aircraft icing and fog are described
in the COMET/NWS Professional Development Series (PDS): Forecasting

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 CHAPTER 7 — EXAMPLES OF ACTUAL JOB-COMPETENCY REQUIREMENTS

Low-altitude Clouds and Fog for Aviation Operations; Forecasting Aviation Icing.
The next two sub-sections highlight those skills.

Forecasting skills for aviation Here is a list of procedures and skills required for forecasting aviation icing, as
icing defined in the PDS, in no particular order of importance:

Climatology • Recognize favoured geographical areas for occurrence of in-flight and

ground icing related to snowfall during specific weather regimes and/or
season of the year;
• Apply climatological data to the icing forecast process at all scales of motion
(i.e., synoptic/mesoscale/microscale ‘regimes’ associated with in-flight and
ground icing).

Large scale • Recognize the hemispheric wave patterns that favour widespread over-
running precipitation events;
• In order to assess the potential for an icing episode predict the response,
within the area of responsibility, created by geography and regional topogra-
phy, to hemispheric features;
• Identify the current and anticipate future hemispheric flow and moisture
patterns to assess areas of precipitation and cloud movement, development
and dissipation (trough/ridge locations, moisture patterns, jet stream loca-
tion, orientation, and strength);
• Assess hemispheric vertical and horizontal temperature patterns to deter-
mine where the temperature structure is conducive to icing (e.g., warm vs.
cold advection, subfreezing layers, etc.);
• Integrate remote sensing data, observational data, and numerical model
output to identify areas where juxtaposition of parameters favourable for
icing are occurring and are anticipated;
• Using knowledge of synoptic weather patterns related to icing, perform an
analysis of initial synoptic-scale data to evaluate the potential for icing in the C
area of responsibility; H
• Diagnose the current state of the atmosphere by analysing observational data A
in order to assess prominent features such as:
P
– Surface and upper-air observations (temperature and moisture profiles,
precipitation type, fronts, cloud height). Utilize vertical cross sections; T
– Pilot reports (PIREPs); E
– Radar mosaics (areas of precipitation); R
– Satellite data and derived products (basic weather patterns, cloud/snow
cover, ridge-trough axes, presence of super-cooled liquid water at the 7
cloud tops, frontal locations, temperature and moisture profiles, dry
slots, and wave clouds);
– profiler data for wind patterns and shear;
• Integrate these multiple data sets in order to superimpose/combine salient
features listed above;
• Using knowledge of icing patterns and known model biases perform an inte-
grated 4-D analysis of future synoptic parameters to evaluate the large-scale
threat of icing in the region in the next 3 hours;
– Use the knowledge of climatology to modify expectation of icing (e.g.
airmass type and icing);
– Assess the current trends in profiler, satellite, and radar data and apply these
trends to the anticipated icing region, both spatially and temporally;
– Evaluate changes in icing potential using numerical model data. Do this
by determining expected profiles of moisture and temperature at
appropriate locations based on modifying the current profiles using
gridded model data. These data may be automated using existing data
sources (e.g., received from GDPS centres via the GTS, or from the
Internet);
– Determine expected (or forecast) parameters for existing icing algorithms, such
as the stovepipe, in order to apply these algorithms on the synoptic scale;

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– Forecast general type of icing (rime, clear, mixed, ground, and mechani-
cally-induced icing) based on evaluation of expected patterns and
parameter values;
• Repeat the above steps for the large-scale threat of icing in the region in a
three- to twenty-four-hour time period, utilizing primarily gridded model
predictions and icing algorithms. (Note: the break-up of time periods at 3
hours was chosen arbitrarily and is intended to separate the nowcast and
forecast regimes).

Mesoscale • Diagnose the current mesoscale-state of atmosphere using integrated satellite

and Doppler radar data, surface and upper-air observations, profiler data and
PIREPs;
• Conduct an analysis of gridded mesoscale model data to determine presence
of physical mechanisms favourable for future icing;
• Anticipate how local geographic features impact the initiation and intensifi-
cation of icing;
• Forecast type of in-flight and/or ground icing based on expectations of the
mesoscale observations and model output;
• Determine from sounding data if conditions are favourable for icing to exist.
Examine moisture profile, height of the freezing level, magnitude of warm
layers aloft, and temperature structure above freezing level to assess if condi-
tions would be conducive to super-cooled water droplets or ice particle
formation;
• Use satellite data to evaluate changes in clouds (coverage, type, and
temperature);
• Use bright band observations from radar, winds aloft, etc., to determine
current height, extent, movement and slope of freezing/melting levels, multi-
ple layers and reflectivity associated with moisture content above the
freezing level, etc.;
• Utilize refined techniques for using radar observations to monitor changes in
the height of melting levels;
• Define techniques that can be used to adjust the spatial extent of existing
icing using PIREPs about icing, winds, and temperatures aloft. Look for areal
and temporal trends in multiple PIREPs;
• Use numerical model data to assess areas of icing potential and the move-
ment of those areas;
• Apply methods introduced in various research studies relating temporal and
spatial (vertical and horizontal) parameters to icing events;
• Apply climatological/regional historical studies relating geographic influence
possibly impacting or enhancing areal coverage or severity of icing events
(orographic influences, etc.);
• Demonstrate and utilize knowledge of the physical and theoretical concepts
and parameters related to icing type and severity (i.e. liquid water content
(LWC), cloud processes/type/extent, temperature, droplet size, and precipita-
tion) in the development of an icing forecast;
• Using observational tools (skew-T, PIREPs, satellite data and derived products)
evaluate parameters such as cloud cover and type, temperature, and location
of Super-cooled Liquid Water (SLW) for the purpose of locating possible icing
and determining icing severity;
• Using national mosaic, local radar data, satellite data and surface obser-
vations, evaluate parameters such as precipitation location, precipitation
type, and cloud cover for the purpose of locating areas of freezing precipita-
tion and likely areas of Super-cooled Large Droplets (SLDs) aloft;
• Using numerical model output determine the current and future state of
parameters such as SLW, precipitation, and location of subfreezing layers for
the purpose of estimating locations of icing and icing severity;
• Integrate the diagnostic icing algorithms into the forecasting process to
further evaluate the icing environment;

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 CHAPTER 7 — EXAMPLES OF ACTUAL JOB-COMPETENCY REQUIREMENTS

Operations • Evaluate how icing conditions or the forecasts of icing conditions affect the
day-to-day aviation operations within the global airspace. This includes
whom these conditions and forecasts affect and how they are affected;
• Readily communicate details of icing conditions or forecasts of those condi-
tions in a tailored form that can be easily interpreted by decision-makers;
• Determine the effects of over-forecasting the severity and/or coverage of
icing;
• Evaluate the impacts on airfield operations and aircraft at the airfield:
– Mission cancellation/delay;
– General flight delays;
– Aerodrome closure;
– Ground de-icing operations;
– Holding patterns;
– Air Traffic Control activities and dispatch;
– Flight planning;
– Fuelling.
• Evaluate the impact on in-flight operations:
– Refuelling;
– Training;
– Flight level and route assignments;
– Anti-icing technology;
– Phases of flight, including taxi, takeoff/climb out, en-route, emergency
descent, descent-transition to final approach, final approach-landing-
rollout and missed approach.
• Determine the impacts of under-forecasting or not forecasting icing;
• Evaluate the impact on these airfield operations and aircraft at the airfield:
– Ice accumulation on aircraft;
– Aircraft safety on takeoff and landing;
– Holding patterns;
– Runway conditions. C
• Evaluate the impact on these in-flight operations: H
– Communications and electronics; A
– Aerial collection systems;
P
– Flight level and route assignments.
• Ensure product consistency between icing forecasts and other aviation- T
related products (TAF, advisories, flight planning sessions, etc.); E
• Apply quality control procedures to ensure icing forecasts are logical and R
applicable;
• Understand pilot reports of icing and the appropriate terminology: trace, 7
moderate, severe, rime, clear, and mixed;
• Keep a record of icing events and the severity of their impacts on aircraft
operations.

Forecasting skills for Here is a list of procedures and skills required for forecasting fog and low stratus,
fog and low stratus as defined in the COMET/NWS Professional Development Series (PDS), in no
particular order of importance:

Climatology • Determine the frequency of fog and low cloud scenarios for your local area
(or area of interest), including the typical duration of these events and the
severity of their impacts on ceiling and visibility;
• Determine the soil moisture and temperature climatology for your local area
(or area of interest), and how it relates to the fog and low cloud climatology;
• Determine the water temperature (if applicable) climatology for your local
area (or area of interest), and how it relates to the fog and low cloud
climatology.

Diagnosis • Analyse atmospheric observational data, both synoptically and on the

mesoscale, and address how the different data types might interrelate to
create favourable or unfavourable conditions for fog or stratus; focus on:

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GUIDELINES FOR THE EDUCATION AND TRAINING OF PERSONNEL IN METEOROLOGY AND OPERATIONAL HYDROLOGY

– Existing cloud cover: current height, depth, and trend;

– Temperature and moisture profiles;
– Temperature and moisture sources and sinks;
– Inversion cap strength and height;
– Vertical motion;
– Radiation effects (cooling and heating);
– Wind effects (advection and mixing);
– Orographic effects.
• Analyse surface influences and their relationship to the low-level wind field,
and how these factors might interrelate to create favourable or unfavourable
conditions for fog or stratus; these surface influences include:
– Land/water distribution (rivers, lakes, ocean, etc.);
– Land use (dry land, irrigated farming, urban land);
– Topography;
– Vegetation and soil types and temperatures;
– Wet ground as a moisture source;
– Snow cover;
– Sea-surface temperatures.

Prognosis • Analyse the important radiative processes (including effects of deep and
shallow moisture) and how they might change during the forecast period;
• Consider advective processes (temperature and moisture) and their effects on
the vertical profiles;
• Assess rain- or snow-induced processes (soil moisture, convective outflows,
low-level moisture, and snow cover);
• Consider orographic effects on low-level wind fields, vertical motion and
potential gravity waves;
• Analyse the effect(s) of the synoptic-scale wind field evolution; estimate
anticipated low-level vertical motion, and consider the associated effects on
the boundary layer;
• Distinguish between factors that contribute to fog formation and factors that
contribute to elevated stratus or stratocumulus;
• Utilize numerical models and gridded forecasts for large scale, regional scale,
and mesoscale guidance for the fog and low clouds forecasts:
– Assess the accuracy of model initializations;
– Consider model biases and limitations;
– Apply local or mesoscale model(s), if applicable, including prognostic or
empirical algorithms;
– Translate the appropriate numerical forecasts into effects on the local fog
and stratus evolution.
• Anticipate atmospheric conditions important to ceiling and visibility fore-
casts by utilizing both observational data and the critical factors in the model
data assessed in the preceding instructions which read: ‘utilize numerical
models and gridded forecasts ...’:
– Vertical and horizontal distribution of temperature and moisture;
– Vertical atmospheric stability and motion;
– Evolution of cap strength and height;
– Radiation effects;
– Wind effects on temperature and moisture (advection, mixing) and radia-
tive situation;
– Frontal effects;
– Orographic effects;
– Depth of fog or cloud;
– Surface influences (including oceans/rivers/lakes, soil moisture and snow
cover).

Tools for forecasting The aeronautical forecaster must be proficient at utilizing a number of observa-
tional and numerical tools in preparing aviation forecasts. These generally
include:

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 CHAPTER 7 — EXAMPLES OF ACTUAL JOB-COMPETENCY REQUIREMENTS

• Global meteorological models;

• Regional models;
• Local (mesoscale) models;
• Surface observational data (including radar);
• Satellite observations;
• Upper-air observations (including PIREPs and wind profiler);
• Ship reports;
• Model-based aviation forecast algorithms (current examples include algo-
rithms for predicting turbulence, icing and wind shear).

Each of these tools has specific applications to forecasting aviation hazards and
these applications must be clearly understood by the forecaster. Such understand-
ing includes the advantages and limitations of each forecast tool. The tool
applications may occur at various horizontal scales (global, regional and local) –
according to the skills previously listed.

The tools listed above are embedded within the aviation icing and fog/low stratus
skills listed in the last two sections respectively. As an example, the last but one skill
under the heading Mesoscale in the icing section specifies the applications of
numerical data in assessing the current and future state of icing-relevant atmos-
pheric parameters. This skill involves applying the first three tools above
(meteorological models – global, regional, local) for these parameters. Another
example, for fog/low stratus, is the first skill under the heading Diagnosis (previous
section) utilizing observational data to assess cloud cover and the dynamic-thermo-
dynamic state of the atmosphere. The tools utilized for these skills relate to surface
observational data, satellite observations, upper-air measurements and ship reports.

Product dissemination In addition, the aeronautical forecaster must be proficient at issuing forecast
products to users (e.g. pilots, controllers, dispatchers, ATC and private forecasters)
in a clear, structured manner, so that the users can fully and safely utilize them. C
Typically, products are issued at predetermined time intervals and forecast amend- H
ments may be issued at any time. Communication between forecasters and users A
and forecast amendment procedures, are critical ongoing processes in the current
P
global aviation environment.
T
The structure and format of aviation forecasts vary widely across the various E
centres and agencies that produce them. Media utilized for the products and fore- R
cast tools include the web, local information technology networks, and national/
international networks. The aeronautical forecaster should have a working knowl- 7
edge of all of these product media, including the methods of obtaining data and
forecast products and procedures for issuing products and amendments.

PART B: Required competencies of an aviation forecaster at a regional office

By H. Pümpel, Austria: Civil Aviation Meteorological Service

Rapidly changing and evolving needs of the aeronautical community have led to a
reappraisal of the services required and of the means and forms of communicating
weather information (observations, forecasts, warnings) to clients. Automation of
many activities together with a massive increase in information available to mete-
orological personnel, be it in-situ or remotely-sensed measurements, high-resolution
model forecasts, statistical post-processing and IT techniques requires a new
approach to training and assigning of tasks to aeronautical forecasters.

Routine duties at a (a) Weather watch: continuing monitoring of weather phenomena relevant to
regional aeronautical aviation, including the continuing interpretation of observations and fore-
meteorological office cast products to form a 4-dimensional understanding of the development of
weather systems from the synoptic to the mesoscale;

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GUIDELINES FOR THE EDUCATION AND TRAINING OF PERSONNEL IN METEOROLOGY AND OPERATIONAL HYDROLOGY

(b) Effective communication with forecasters at the relevant meteorological watch

office and neighbouring regional offices, using synoptic guidance from —
and giving regional feedback to — those offices;
(c) Deriving user-oriented forecast and warning products at regular intervals and on
demand;
(d) Oral briefings to aeronautical users and liaison with ATC personnel. Specific brief-
ings for flights where ready-made products are not sufficient and close liaison
with Air Traffic Control personnel for an efficient use of terminal and aero-
drome capacity;
(e) Ongoing user training for pilots, dispatchers and airport personnel, to ensure
effective and clear communications.

These duties require the following basic qualifications and competencies:

Knowledge and skills in Ability to attribute weather phenomena relevant to aviation (as specified in WMO
weather watch and monitoring Technical Regulations (C.3.1) – Volume II – Meteorological Service for International
Air Navigation [WMO-No. 49]) observed at the aerodrome and farther afield to
weather systems currently affecting the area. This requires both an understanding
of dynamic meteorology including the dynamics of mesoscale processes from
synoptic-scale systems down to rain-bands and mesoscale convective systems; and
the ability to relate observed and/or reported phenomena to prior analyses of
synoptic weather charts from the surface to levels beyond the tropopause.

Technical skills in handling and interpreting data; processing systems linked to

both in situ and remote-sensing observing systems. It would include familiarity
with the interpretation of satellite imagery in all available spectral bands (IR, WV,
VIS), in particular the identification of cloud types using different images.

Handling skills in selecting the most appropriate image product for the problem at
hand (e.g., WV imagery to identify tropopause folds and jet stream location, VIS
imagery to locate KH-waves and gravity waves in cirrus cloud). Also, detection of
convective systems forming and decaying, locating active cumulonimbus-tops,
determination of icing potential in layer-cloud using cloud-top-temperature
inferred from PDUS-IR data.

Manipulating skills in using modern weather radar data both from radar
compounds and local, wind shear detecting Doppler radars. This includes the
ability to detect the potential for MCS formation, identify rotational components
suggesting tornado developments, hail potential using reflectivity and polari-
metric information, indications of storm splitting and daughter-cell generation,
squall line formation.

Correlative skills, including ability to incorporate surface observations into the

picture formed from all other sources. Identifying the weather phenomena rele-
vant to aviation in special pilot reports, classifying them and distributing this
information to other pilots, ATS and the meteorological watch office. Also, ability
in the interpretation of lightning detection displays and extrapolation of cell
movement and splitting from lightning-data for nowcasting purposes.

Skills in At the regional offices, aeronautical forecasters will need the ability to:
communicating with
central offices and Rapidly ingest guidance forecasts at the beginning of a shift where no hand-over is
neighbouring stations possible (stations not operating 24 hours), or to align local hand-over information
with centrally issued guidance products. This process involves a critical appraisal,
verifying that guidance products are still in line with the locally and regionally
observed weather development.

Fill in the regional detail in the overall picture, ensuring that important features are
fed back to central institutions (e.g., a PIREP of mod/sevicing when no SIGMET

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 CHAPTER 7 — EXAMPLES OF ACTUAL JOB-COMPETENCY REQUIREMENTS

has been issued needs to be brought to the immediate attention of the meteoro-
logical watch office).

Ensure correct interfacing to neighbouring regions, resolving any discrepancies –

e.g., in adjacent route or area forecasts by communicating to and resolving the
differences with the staff concerned.

Prepare a concise and comprehensive hand-over to subsequent shifts, remarking in

particular on any unusual or unforeseen developments.

. Deriving user-oriented Having gained a sufficiently detailed insight on the dynamic processes currently
forecast and affecting the area of responsibility, user-oriented products need to be issued both
warning products at regular intervals and on demand (situation dependent). The competencies
required for this work include:

Familiarity with all aeronautical meteorological codes as defined in the WMO Manual
on Codes (WMO-No. 306) and WMO Technical Regulations C.3.1/ICAO Annex III
(WMO-No. 49). Firm knowledge of all criteria applied to warnings and change
groups in forecasts (TAF, TREND; GAMET, etc).

Understanding of the weather phenomena hazardous to aviation, their diagnostics and

prediction. The forecaster needs to be intimately familiar with the analysis of
weather parameters constituting hazards to aviation. This includes understanding
of the capabilities and limitations of:

Algorithms and methods to derive icing potential from radiosonde ascents and model
output, as well as statistically derived icing potential. As these methods are based
on past observations and model runs, he/she should have the ability to monitor
current developments using real-time information from satellite imagery and
radar composites; at the same time he/she should also ensure that weather C
features conducive to icing are tracked correctly and their changes in intensity are H
well captured. Onset of precipitation, change of inversion heights and other A
factors affecting moisture supply or drop-size spectra (shallow convection) need to
P
be monitored.
T
Turbulence detection algorithms typically based on Richardson numbers or dissipa- E
tion of turbulent kinetic energy, both for rawinsonde data and model output; R

Algorithms and methods to detect gravity waves and their breaking potential, apply- 7
ing both algorithms and manual analysis methods, again based both on
rawinsonde data and model output;

Model-predicted convection and gust fronts, incorporating both output from high-
resolution models, kinematics extrapolation techniques and interpretation of
Doppler weather radar data.

Critical appraisal of model guidance used in preparing forecasts. This involves a fair
understanding of the model characteristics, both in terms of horizontal and verti-
cal structures and of the way in which sub-grid-scale processes are treated. In order
to interpret correctly forecasts of convection, it is necessary to know the treatment
of radiative processes (i.e., how often is the radiative flux recalculated based on
changing cloudiness etc.), the way soil properties and vegetation is incorporated,
and whether convection is explicitly treated or parameterized. For the prediction
of local wind systems, be it sea breezes or topographically induced features such
as valley winds, the exact knowledge of sea/land point distribution, grid point
elevation, etc., is needed.

Good understanding of statistically derived guidance. Statistical interpretation of

numerical model guidance is commonly used to predict surface winds, gustiness,

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GUIDELINES FOR THE EDUCATION AND TRAINING OF PERSONNEL IN METEOROLOGY AND OPERATIONAL HYDROLOGY

temperatures and cloudiness/rainfall characteristics for individual airports. In the

case of forecast offices producing TAFs for distant aerodromes, such enable the
incorporation of local climatology in the forecasts. An in-depth knowledge of the
governing equations and stratification of the data used in their development is a
prerequisite for the correct use of such methods.

Good appreciation of the needs and problems of aviation users. Aviation forecasters,
although quite specialized already, still face a variety of clients with widely
differing needs (for example, see the ICAO requirements for helicopter opera-
tions). Cloud bases or visibility restrictions in route forecasts for general aviation
or helicopter operations in a maritime or mountainous environment need to be
highly detailed to avoid endangering the safety of VFR flights. It is imperative
that an aviation forecaster understands which parameters are critical for the
safety and regularity of individual user groups in order to highlight essential
information.

Oral briefings to Provision of oral briefings, where the written documentation is not sufficient.
pilots and dispatchers; Although airline pilots nowadays rarely have the opportunity to attend face-to-
liaison with ATS face briefings, many situations still require competent personal briefings or
telephone contacts. As in the preparation of tailor-made forecasts, the ability to
‘speak the clients language’, i.e., to understand the specific problems of a particu-
lar operation, is vital. The forecaster needs to have excellent communications
skills in order to obtain all the necessary information about the planned flight or
operation. He/she needs to focus on the important questions leaving aside any
unnecessary information in order to avoid ‘information overkill’, risking the oblit-
eration of safety-relevant information with details of weather developments that
are irrelevant to the client.

Basic understanding of ATS procedures. The efficient use of airspace and terminal
aerodrome capacity requires excellent cooperation of meteorological and ATS
staff. ICAO regulations stipulate that warning and TREND criteria are to be fixed
in close collaboration with air traffic services units, to ensure that essential infor-
mation (e.g., change of runway direction, imminent thunderstorms, onset of
snow or freezing rain) is effectively communicated, and proper action is taken.
Feedback of information from ATC staff such as pilot reports, sudden speed
changes due to wind shear is invaluable for forecasters.

Ongoing user training As face-to-face briefings are becoming the exception rather than the rule in avia-
tion, the ability of users to clearly understand the contents of forecast products
and flight documentation is paramount to the safe operation of aircraft. As the
staff of meteorological offices at or near aerodromes have the advantage of being
near the users both physically and in terms of understanding their problems,
they should also play a vital role in user training. Refresher courses on changes
in meteorological codes and forecast products should be offered at regular inter-
vals to all aviation users, be it pilots, dispatchers, or planning staff. Airport
authorities in charge of activities such as snow clearing and passenger handling
also need to be regularly updated on the warnings and forecast products intended
for their use.

Meteorological staff therefore require basic training skills and the ability to present
short lectures in an understandable language and with decent graphical displays.
Such displays may have been produced centrally, but forecasters should have the
ability to add and modify training material for special purposes, e.g. local needs
and specialized user groups. User training should include the encouragement of
users to request special briefings in circumstances where standardized briefing and
documentation are considered insufficient (e.g., extreme or unusual weather situ-
ations, technical problems on the side of the operator such as, for instance, failure
of de-icing equipment).

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7.7 MARINE METEOROLOGY

By L. N. Karlin, Russian State Hydrometeorological University, Russian

Federation

Marine meteorology is a vast area of knowledge. From the customer’s point of

view, the main products of marine meteorologists refer to meteorological and
oceanographic services in support of human activities related to the use of marine
resources. These services include weather and sea forecasts with different ranges,
storm warnings for the various ocean areas and regime and analysis-type hydro-
meteorological descriptions of the state of the Boundary Layer of the Atmosphere
(BLA) and the Surface Layer of the Ocean (SLO). In providing these services,
marine meteorologists (graduate professionals and technical personnel) should:

(a) Fulfil the requirements of the relevant guides and manuals;

(b) Take into account the geographical peculiarities of their area of responsibility;
(c) Constantly improve their specialist knowledge and qualifications;
(d) Interact with colleagues and their immediate supervisor in a spirit of constructive
cooperation.

Marine Meteorologists in NMSs are usually involved in four different types of

activity: marine forecasts, observing the characteristics of the BLA and of the SLO;
regime descriptions of marine areas; and investigations of the BLA–SLO system. In
addition, marine meteorologists and technicians prepare specific products for
customers, and perform other duties, as appropriate in any given workplace.

Marine forecasts This section concerns duties such as: using modern methods for processing and
analysing hydrometeorological data, and calculating and forecasting characteris-
tics of the atmosphere and the surface layer of the ocean; and using data from
actual observations, including standard radar and satellite data, data from sound- C
ings and special data. H
A
The specialist must know:
P
• What reference documents are needed for his professional activity;
• How much of the information needed for preparing the product is at hand T
and where to find what is lacking; E
• Modern methods for forecasting the state of the atmosphere and SLO; R
• Regional peculiarities affecting the formation of BLA and SLO characteristics
in his area of responsibility. 7

The specialist must be able to:

• Make use of the relevant guides and manuals;
• Receive the necessary information on request by modern communication
methods;
• Use workstations quickly and efficiently to find the necessary information,
i.e. observational data, forecasts, models, such as regional descriptions;
• Decode satellite and radar information and interpret it correctly;
• Analyse synoptic and hydrometeorological charts;
• Prepare forecasts with various ranges of the state of the atmosphere and the
surface layer of the ocean, using modern methods, for his area of responsibility;
• Compile storm warnings concerning dangerous and natural hydrometeoro-
logical phenomena in his area of responsibility;
• Use the results of numerical forecasts to predict the hydrometeorological
situation in local conditions relating to his area of responsibility;
• Monitor changes in the state of weather and sea situations, and the charac-
teristics of BLA and SLO in his area of responsibility and respond to them in
real time, making the relevant corrections to the products.

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Observing the characteristics The specialist must know:

of BLA and SLO • The structure, composition and characteristics of the BLA–SLO system,
including the near-water atmospheric layer and the skin layer, and its funda-
mental characteristics;
• The main physical processes permitting the formation of the BLA–SLO
system, including the atmospheric layer near the water and the skin layer;
• The main methods for processing and analysing hydrometeorological
information;
• Methods and means for standard satellite and radar hydrometeorological
observations, including both marine and sounding methods.

The specialist must be able to:

• Plan, organize and conduct standard and extended observations of the char-
acteristics of the boundary layer of the atmosphere, the layer of atmosphere
near the water, the skin layer, and the upper mixed layer of the ocean;
• Process the observation data, perform an initial analysis and reject erroneous
measurements;
• Archive the observation sets obtained;
• Use methods for calculating and forecasting the state of the BLA, the near-
water atmospheric layer and the SLO, including the skin layer;
• Meet the requirements for products submitted by the main customers.

Regime descriptions The specialist must know:

of marine areas • The structure, composition and characteristics of the BLA–SLO system,
including the skin layer and its fundamental characteristics;
• The main physical processes permitting the formation of the BLA–SLO
system; including the atmospheric layer near the water and the skin layer;
• The main methods for processing and analysing hydrometeorological infor-
mation;
• The methods for compiling the regime descriptions;
• The main regime descriptions of BLA and SLO in his area of responsibility;
• Air-ocean interaction parameters in the region to aid any calculations.

The specialist must be able to:

• Calculate the fluxes of momentum, radiant energy, heat, moisture and salt
across the surface of the ocean–atmosphere interface using standard methods;
• Calculate the characteristics of the BLA and SLO using standard synoptic
information and data from satellite and radar observations;
• Calculate the characteristics of the layer of the atmosphere near the water
and the skin layer;
• Adjust data from land observations in order to extend them to the sea;
• Compile initial data and enter it on the computer for calculations using the
available programmes;
• Calculate the statistical values for hydrometeorological characteristics necessary
for regime descriptions;
• Compile a regime description.

Investigation of the The specialist must know:

BLA–SLO system • The structure, composition and characteristics of the BLA–SLO system;
• The main physical processes in the BLA–SLO system;
• The methods for modelling and measuring the BLA–SLO system.

The specialist must be able to:

• Formulate new and improve the existing models of BLA–SLO system;
• Conduct numerical and in-situ experiments on BLA–SLO system investigation;
• Develop recommendations for the optimal use of the products by customers.

Preparation of the products for The specialist must:

the customer • Interpret the observational and forecast data correctly;

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 CHAPTER 7 — EXAMPLES OF ACTUAL JOB-COMPETENCY REQUIREMENTS

• Submit the products in the formal, according to the specifications required

by the customer;
• Develop recommendations for the customer for the optimal use of the
products;
• Be helpful and polite to the customer, responding to criticism in a profes-
sional manner.

The specialist must be able to:

• Respond efficiently to the changing requirements of the customer and
quickly adapt to them;
• Send the relevant products to the customer efficiently, quickly contact the
customer and introduce any changes caused by unforeseen circumstances to
the delivered products;
• Ensure that all products reach the customer on time;
• Ensure regional Collaboration between scientists and stakeholders.

Performing other duties The specialist must fulfille specific assistance responsibilities, which are an essen-
tial part of marine meteorological work in the given office.

The specialist must know:

• The structure, hierarchy and financial policies of his institution;
• The internal regulations and security techniques in his institution and apply
them.

The specialist must be able to:

• Use the office’s information systems, keep them in working order and elimin-
ate any deficiencies at the user level;
• Use the organizational technology which is necessary for the work, keep it in
working order and eliminate any deficiencies at user level (projectors, photo-
copiers, etc.). C
H
A
7.8 ENVIRONMENTAL METEOROLOGY
P
By B. Angle, Canada, Atmospheric Environment Service T
E
The science of meteorology has broad applications beyond traditional weather R
forecasting. There is a growing demand for expert scientific advice and informa-
tion regarding the state of the atmosphere, atmospheric issues and their 7
interrelationships with human health and security, the economy and natural
ecosystems. Policy-makers, scientists, other orders of government, national and
international institutions and organizations, academia, industry representatives,
media, environmental non-government organizations, and citizens demand
scientifically accurate information and relevant warning services. The following
provides an introduction to required skills of an air quality meteorologist.

Understanding the role of This section concerns the role and relationship of NMS to other government
NMSs in addressing departments and other jurisdictions (e.g. multilateral, bilateral, national, provin-
environmental issues cial, municipal) in the development of policy, systematic observations and
services related to environmental issues so that environmental services are devel-
oped, implemented or enhanced.

The trainee has achieved this by demonstrating knowledge of:

• The mandate, mission, policy development requirements and priorities of
the NMS concerning atmospheric and related environmental issues, and
environmental prediction;
• The organization, responsibilities, programmes and working arrangements
with other departments, agencies, academia and the private sector relevant
to atmospheric issues, environmental services and applied research;

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GUIDELINES FOR THE EDUCATION AND TRAINING OF PERSONNEL IN METEOROLOGY AND OPERATIONAL HYDROLOGY

• The planning, development, organization and conduct of scientific

programmes for key atmospheric issues (air quality, climate variability and
change, smog, stratospheric ozone depletion, ultra-violet radiation, etc.);
• The relevant legislation, regulations, bilateral and international agreements
or protocols in order to understand the basis for work objectives and
constraints and to advise stakeholders and partners;
• The organization, responsibilities, programmes and working arrangements
concerning relevant science activities taking place in government and non-
governmental environmental organizations, especially in bordering states;
also the WMO and UN environmental programmes; to collaborate with all
these agencies on activities of mutual priority and interest and to keep
abreast of the latest scientific developments and programmes.

The skills and knowledge which relate to this section are:

• Explaining the role of government, national or international organizations
and institutions;
• Listing relevant legislation and regulations related to the issues;
• Explaining the mandate of the NMS and its relationship with other partners
or stakeholders;
• Locating sources of information on environmental issues and sciences (e.g.
journals, virtual libraries, and institutions);
• Describing the main issues, with emphasis on the current status, extent of the
problem, and policy related to:
– Acidic deposition;
– Stratospheric ozone layer depletion;
– Climate change impacts and adaptation strategies;
– Air quality (smog) and particulate matter;
– Mercury deposition.

Understanding environmental Required job-competency, knowledge and skills: fundamentals of environmental

sciences and their applications sciences are thoroughly examined; the sources of data, the science and its
applications are understood; and utilized in the preparation of environmental
services and products.

The trainee has achieved this by demonstrating a knowledge of the:

• Theories, principles, and applications of meteorology, climatology, physics,
mathematics, numerical modelling, chemistry and physical geography neces-
sary to carry out the atmospheric science programme;
• Major atmospheric issues (e.g. air quality, climate change and variability,
smog, stratospheric ozone depletion and acidifying emissions), including
their cause, characterization, interaction, and health, socio-economic and
natural environment effects;
• Statistical/mathematical theories and methods required to select appropriate
measurement and analytical techniques;
• Instrumentation, observing networks, data collection and data management
principles and practices used to develop environmental products and services;
• Contents of and access methods for national databases, such as the climate
archives or the air pollution surveillance databases, and other related data stores;
• International sources of data and information on environmental issues, their
retrieval, and limitations and intellectual property rights or copyright protec-
tion applied thereto;
• Operating and programming of computers, programming languages and
specific software used for statistical analysis, database management and the
visualization/presentation of data and information.

The skills and knowledge, which relate to this section, require the ability to:
• Describe the observational systems, measurement techniques, data availabil-
ity and measuring networks related to pollution monitoring, UV-B, ozone,
hydrometric or other networks;

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 CHAPTER 7 — EXAMPLES OF ACTUAL JOB-COMPETENCY REQUIREMENTS

• Explain the air pollution transportation cycle and meteorological conditions,

which control the dispersion of pollutants;
• Distinguish between local, regional and global scales of pollutant transport;
• Explain how the following atmospheric factors affect dispersion:
– Wind direction, speed, character;
– Atmospheric stability (mixing height, ventilation coefficient);
– Turbulence;
– Weather;
– Local effects (wake, terrain, sea-breeze, valley, urban, etc.);
• Explain the characterization of dispersion for neutrally buoyant gases, heavy
gases and particulate material;
• Assess and describe the atmospheric chemistry important to pollutant trans-
port and transformations through the atmosphere (e.g. molecular weights,
gas laws, concentration units and concept of residence time);
• Describe the effects of cloud and weather on chemical transformations in the
atmosphere;
• Describe the basic tropospheric chemical transformations and transportation
processes from source to removal:
– Natural versus anthropogenic sources;
– Acidic deposition;
– NOx/VOCs/Ozone;
– Greenhouse gases;
• Distinguish between the basic production process of low-level versus stratos-
pheric ozone including the role of CFC’s and other ozone depleting
substances;
• Describe the causes, distribution and concentration of ozone in the bound-
ary layer and stratosphere and its destruction or dispersion;
• Describe computer modelling of pollutant dispersion in long range, regional
and local scales and its limitations;
• Diagnose the meteorological situation on various scales to assess the disper- C
sion of air pollutants and thoroughly examine all sources of data including: H
– Analysing charts accurately and according to standard practices; A
– Assessing model output related to atmospheric dispersion and transport;
P
– Examining satellite imagery, radar imagery and spherics data with an
appreciation for the limitations of, and possible errors in, the data; T
– Using tephigrams and hodographs as a forecasting aid, making correct E
use of appropriate constructions (e.g. maximum temperature, cloud R
structure, stability indices etc.);
• Interpret actual and forecast data correctly and identify the most relevant 7
data for any given situation, i.e.
– Demonstrate an acceptable knowledge of the local geography, climatol-
ogy and weather characteristics; and
– Apply local forecasting techniques.

Providing services; delivery of Required job-competency: provide services, through the delivery of scientific advice
scientific advice and and information, to departmental managers, policy-makers, scientists, other
information orders of government, academia, environmental non-governmental organ-
izations, industry and the general public, on atmospheric issues pertinent to key
environmental problems.

The trainee has achieved this by demonstrating a knowledge of the:

• Design and anticipated development of environmental services and products;
• Methods, techniques and practices used to determine user requirements for
environmental services, products and customized investigations;
• Techniques, methods and practices for participating in interviews with radio,
television and newspaper reporters to present and defend atmospheric scientific
information, explain the scientific background behind atmospheric environment
issues and avoid making embarrassing statements;

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GUIDELINES FOR THE EDUCATION AND TRAINING OF PERSONNEL IN METEOROLOGY AND OPERATIONAL HYDROLOGY

• Techniques for effective delivery of key messages during media interviews to

present complex information in a meaningful form without making embar-
rassing or inconsistent statements;
• Techniques, methods and practices for scientific report writing in order to
present concise and clear information to a variety of stakeholders;
• Provision of expert scientific advice and information on atmospheric issues
to the media, general public and other lay audiences using the telephone,
written articles, oral presentations – all at appropriate comprehension levels –
in order to improve the public’s knowledge and awareness of atmospheric
environment issues such as climate variability and change, and smog;
• Considerations relevant to the policies, practices and viewpoints of various
media organizations, outlets and their environmental reporters.

The skills and knowledge that relate to this section involve the ability to:
• Utilize appropriate methods, techniques and practices to determine user
requirements for environmental services, products and customized investigations;
• Collate, interpret, synthesise and prepare published reports and make oral
presentations on the state of air issue knowledge and air issue impacts;
• Utilize analytical and problem solving skills to assess the request and develop
solutions independently or in collaboration with other scientific investigators;
• Demonstrate effective communications skills to convey complex scientific
information and advice in a manner which optimizes their understanding;
– Consider client needs and the sensitivities (policy, jurisdictions,
economic ramifications) of statements, warnings or scientific analyses on
these issues;
– Possess effective writing skills to produce reports, articles and papers in
environmental publications and peer reviewed journals;
– Possess effective public speaking and presentation skills to present scien-
tific information at workshops, conferences and scientific meetings;
– Possess the ability to summarize atmospheric issues in a coherent manner
relevant to questions and at the comprehension level of the audience;
– Employ active listening skills and interpret body language to understand
the audience’s interpretation and reaction to the information;
– Provide verbal consultations by phone or in person to clients or emer-
gency response teams;
– Write forecasts in a style appropriate to the audience;
– Hand-over to the next shift effectively, making due reference to all rele-
vant factors.
• Understand and employ appropriate procedures, i.e.:
– Produce and disseminate information consistent with the appropriate
standards and procedures;
– Describe the environmental emergency response procedure;
– Be proficient in the use of office IT systems to prepare and disseminate
information;
– Acquire necessary approvals from senior members of the team or
management;
– Prioritize duties appropriately, especially in emergency or rapidly chang-
ing situations to meet deadlines;
• Consider the customer’s personal capacity and knowledge when responding
to inquiries, i.e.:
– Be courteous and exercise tact and good judgement when dealing with
clients or the media or in consultations with other specialists;
– Be prepared to deal with complaints;
– Seek advice from more experienced colleagues; ensure that queries are
directed to a spokesperson if one has been identified.

Performing other related duties This section concerns duties such as participating in committees, working groups
and task forces; operating and providing first line maintenance on equipment;
and contributing to a positive work environment.

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CHAPTER 7 — EXAMPLES OF ACTUAL JOB-COMPETENCY REQUIREMENTS

The trainee has achieved this by demonstrating knowledge of the:

• Principles of operation, maintenance and care of personal computers, print-
ers, peripherals such as storage devices used by the incumbent and speciality
software for developing and maintaining atmospheric databases, analysing,
synthesizing and presenting data and related scientific information, commu-
nicating and receiving information;
• Maintenance and care of field equipment such as real-time ozone and partic-
ulate monitors and analysers, data loggers and ultraviolet meters;
• Procedures and maintenance (e.g. back-up procedures) of computerized data-
bases of observed atmospheric data and analysed data results;
• Roles, responsibilities and operations within the office to facilitate and expe-
dite the work programme and promote teamwork;
• Environmental Assessment and Review Process (EARP);
• Development of applied research proposals;
• Hazardous materials in the workplace, harassment, safety and health, and
other polices governing the work environment.

The skills and knowledge which relate to this section must provide the ability to:
• Participate in the planning, design, organization, coordination, implementa-
tion and evaluation of environmental services and products and their
development;
• Conduct applied research studies and investigations which could include
field measurement programmes:
- Applying theories and principles of project management;
- Demonstrating effective planning and organizational skills to design
applied research projects, ensure that activities occur as scheduled, and
to manage project resources;
- Consider resource constraints and their solution;
• Carry out analyses using mathematical/statistical and scientific techniques
and procedures, interpret results, prepare and publish articles, reports and C
refereed papers, make oral presentations at workshops and conferences on H
applied research findings for use by other scientists and for supporting the A
development or revision of government and organizational environmental
P
policy, planning and decision-making;
• Design and implement internet and intranet Web sites for delivering atmos- T
pheric environmental services, scientific information relating to the E
atmosphere to service staff, the scientific community, partner organizations R
and the general public;
• Demonstrate proficiency in the use of office IT systems so as to be able to 7
undertake routine user maintenance and trouble shooting of such systems:
– Understand and carry out communications tasks, as laid down under
office procedures;
– Conduct first-line maintenance (e.g. change paper and ribbons in print-
ers, photocopiers) and carry out any other routine maintenance as laid
down office procedures – report faults;
• Maintain positive interpersonal relationships:
– Demonstrate willingness to work as a team player, be courteous and
respectful to co-workers, superiors and clients and maintain currency on
environmental issues;
– Establish or maintain liaison with scientific staff of other federal, provin-
cial, university and international environmental organizations;
– Maintain personal appearance in keeping with office or client standards;
– Give due regard to policies on equal opportunity, harassment, occupa-
tional safety and health and other polices governing the work
environment;
– Accept constructive criticism;
– Participate fully in the analysis of workload or production processes to
improve efficiency;
– Participate in public outreach programmes such as tours, lectures to schools.

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GUIDELINES FOR THE EDUCATION AND TRAINING OF PERSONNEL IN METEOROLOGY AND OPERATIONAL HYDROLOGY

7.9 SATELLITE METEOROLOGY

By Jeff Wilson: Australia, Bureau of Meteorology; Anthony Mostek: USA,

National Weather Service; and Vilma Castro: RMTC, Costa Rica

Background The preliminary fourth edition of the publication WMO-No. 258 was reviewed as part
of the agenda of the third meeting of the CBS OPAG IOS Expert Team on Improving
Satellite Systems Utilization and Products held from 3 to 7 July 2000 in Lannion, France.
The review covered the change in educational philosophy of WMO-No. 258 and the
content as it related to the use of satellite derived data and products. In connection with
the competency requirements discussed under section 2.2 of the publication, the review
identified two main areas of satellite activities:

(a) Usage of satellite imagery and products by a range of staff in the professional
branches for weather analysis and forecasting and climate monitoring and predic-
tion, and in the various meteorological application and public service areas;
(b) Usage of satellite data and imagery by specialist staff working in satellite remote
sensing areas in either a specialist Satellite Meteorology Branch (SMB), or in areas
such as: research and development; information systems technology and data
processing; or observations and measurements.

As discussed in section 2.2 (Training for job-competency) there are certain skill areas that
cut across several operational branches of activity in any NMS. One such skill area is that
of Satellite Meteorology since satellite data and products are useful for a whole range of
meteorological applications – from very short range weather forecasting to climate
monitoring, from measuring sea-surface temperatures to depiction of upper-level winds,
etc. Satellite data comes in a variety of formats (APT, WEFAX, HRPT, SVISSR and in the
future LRIT and HRIT) and can be obtained directly from satellite, via the GTS, or via
other networks such as the Internet.

Staff in most branches depicted in Figure 2.2 is expected to have basic competency
in the routine interpretation and use of satellite imagery and products that are
used as part of their every day activities. Some of these competencies are explicitly
referred to in the abbreviated descriptions of each of the main branches in
Chapter 2 and reiterated as appropriate in the previous sections of this chapter. A
consolidated list of satellite meteorology competencies for staff working in areas
such as weather forecasting, aviation and marine application areas is included
here for completeness, (see the next sub-section below).

As the use of meteorological satellite data and products within a NMS becomes
more quantitative, i.e. utilized in NWP and analysis schemes and other applica-
tion areas rather than as imagery alone, a small number of staff start to specialize
in satellite meteorology. The last sub-section represents a first step in adding a SMB
to the listing of the main branches of activity at the NMS, to reflect the more
specialized use of satellite data and products. Existing satellite meteorology groups
in the USA are used as a basis for some of the activities presented below.

In some NMSs, the functions of a SMB may be spread across other branches, for
example:
• The reception of satellite data may be undertaken within the branch for
observations and measurements;
• Calibration and navigation use within NWP suites;
• Archiving of the data, within the branch for IT and data processing;
• Development of new techniques or implementing techniques from other
institutions within the branch for research and development, etc.

Core competency This paragraph outlines a suggested set of core competencies (basic skills) required
requirements in by personnel working in weather forecasting and application areas, in their
satellite meteorology pursuit of the effective use of satellite data and products as described below:

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 CHAPTER 7 — EXAMPLES OF ACTUAL JOB-COMPETENCY REQUIREMENTS

(a) Capable of identifying the characteristics and typical uses of the different chan-
nels, either separately or in combination, available from meteorological satellites
and the relevance to various meteorological application areas;
(b) Capable of identifying the types of products available from meteorological satel-
lites and their utilization in various meteorological application areas;
(c) Able to correctly use satellite products to identify special features in relevant areas:
• Fog, ice cloud, warm water cloud, supercooled water cloud, sea ice, flooding,
snow cover, etc;
• Dust, ash and other aerosols in the atmosphere;
• Volcanic eruptions;
• Fires;
• Synoptic phenomena such as cold fronts, jet streams, tropical storms, etc;
(d) Capable of explaining how the various channels and products can be used to
identify cloud types and amounts, cloud clusters and systems; and able to associ-
ate them with different scale phenomena and with the climatology of the region;
(e) Able to integrate satellite data with other meteorological data to produce a diag-
nosis and assess the prognosis of the NWP guidance for the various application
areas. Able to identify atmospheric processes that are relevant on various scales
and that are revealed in satellite imagery;
(f) Able to digitally manipulate satellite imagery and products to create new products
or change their format (projections, enhancements) to allow ease of use;
(g) Capable of using forecaster (or meteorological analysis) workstations to:
• Manipulate sequences of images (loops);
• Overlay meteorological observations and products;
• Identify geographical features in the imagery;
• Manipulate colour enhancements;
• Measure surface and cloud top temperatures;
• Estimate cloud top height;
• Calculate distances;
• Measure velocity of displacement of a feature; C
• Measure the latitude and longitude of a feature; H
• Measure the wind speed at different levels following cloud movement; A
• Display sounding information;
P
• Estimate rainfall intensity and extension;
(h) Able to describe the differences between Geostationary (GEO), Low Earth Orbiting (LEO) T
and other orbits and describe their relevance to the various application areas. E
R
A Meteorological Technician would be aware of the items (a), (b), (d) and (f), but
would not be required to be proficient in them. 7

Satellite Meteorology Branch The mission of the SMB is to assist the other branches in the NMS with all activi-
(SMB) ties associated with satellite observations and products. In addition, the SMB
interacts with the SMBs of other NMS, the RMTCs, and the Virtual Laboratory for
Satellite Meteorology training.

Mission and main The staff of the SMB will assist with development of and transfer of new satellite-
activities based products and techniques to the other branches of the NMS. These activities
can include some or all of the following:
• Operate equipment used for tracking/ingest/calibration/navigation/archiv-
ing of satellite data and products;
• Review new products from GEO and LEO satellites;
• Create satellite-derived products and displays useful for weather forecasting
(i.e. multispectral products such as fog/stratus, reflectivity, low-level mois-
ture, skin temperature, albedo, etc.);
• Create/implement algorithms to estimate atmospheric motions and their
heights by tracking cloud and water vapour displacements in sequences of
satellite images;
• Implement procedures to monitor and validate the calibration of measured
radiances;

105
GUIDELINES FOR THE EDUCATION AND TRAINING OF PERSONNEL IN METEOROLOGY AND OPERATIONAL HYDROLOGY

• Develop and maintain operational systems to ensure accurate navigation

(geolocation) of satellite data;
• Create/implement algorithms for inferring radiative and cloud properties
(amount, height, thermodynamic phase, particle size, optical depth and
emissivity);
• Create/implement algorithms for deriving temperature and moisture sound-
ings from satellite radiance measurements;
• Implement new algorithms operationally;
• Optimize the use of satellite-derived mass and motion information in data
assimilation and numerical weather prediction systems;
• Create satellite-derived fire, smoke, aerosols, dust, trace gases and other
products for real-time monitoring and climate change studies;
• Undertake satellite-based climatological studies to improve forecasts and
information to the public;
• Develop and implement systems for quality and performance monitoring of
satellite data and systems;
• Develop and maintain systems for archive, browse and metadata to ensure rapid
efficient access by users to satellite data and products especially for research;
• Train the NMS staff in new satellite capabilities; and
• Collaborate with the international user community to improve utilization of
satellite observations.

As well as being cognisant of the core competencies associated with satellite mete-
orology outlined above, staff in the various functional roles in a SMB would be
expected to possess additional advanced skills, which will be outlined in the next
sub-section.

Advanced competency The satellite meteorology functions will involve four basic groupings of personnel:
requirements • Management and planning of the overall programme;
• Engineering, covering the reception and transmission of the data;
• Information technology for processing the data and development and main-
tenance of the software systems;
• Satellite application scientists, covering the research and operational imple-
mentation requirements.

Indicative skills for each of these staff areas are outlined below. As already indi-
cated before, there are many crossover areas between these staff groups with the
actual responsibilities and tasks differing from NMS to NMS.

Management and planning • Be familiar with the capability of current and future generations of GEO and
LEO satellites and their potential application within the NMS and its wider
service community;
• Review and establish new procedures for the use of satellite products within
the branches of the NMS with the specific goal of providing improved serv-
ices;

Engineering • Interpret information about weather satellites and instruments, such as

radiation and spectral channels; characteristics of the data: resolution,
noise/signal ratio, etc.; orbital characteristics; and satellite perspective;
• Apply, where relevant, the above information to current tasks;
• Operate, as appropriate, equipment required for the tracking/ingest/calibra-
tion/navigation/archiving of satellite data and products.

Information technology • Explain the processes for generating, quality controlling derived products
from GEO and LEO satellites;
• Monitor and modify the process for displaying satellite data and products
both alone, and in combination with, other products (integrated displays);
• Assist with the integration and transfer of new satellite observations and
products to the other branches of activity;

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 CHAPTER 7 — EXAMPLES OF ACTUAL JOB-COMPETENCY REQUIREMENTS

• Where appropriate assist with the utilization of satellite observations and

products in data assimilation and NWP systems;
• Outline the theory of, and assist with, the implementation of satellite data
processing algorithms for deriving cloud properties, cloud winds, tempera-
ture and moisture soundings, land and ocean surface characteristics, etc.;
• Explain the processes for archiving and accessing the archive of quality
controlled satellite data and derived products from GEO and LEO satellites.

Satellite application scientists • Be current with, and be able to utilize products from both, GEO and LEO satellites;
• Apply physics of radiation to interpret products obtained from satellite data:
laws of Planck, Stephan-Boltzmann, Wien, Beer; radiative properties of earth
surfaces; radiative properties of the atmosphere;
• Interpret information about weather satellites and instruments, such as radi-
ation and spectral channels; characteristics of the data: resolution,
noise/signal ratio, etc.; orbital characteristics; and satellite perspective and
apply it to current tasks where relevant;
• Explain the processes for generating, quality controlling and improving
derived products from GEO and LEO satellites;
• Monitor and modify the process for displaying satellite data and products
both alone, and in combination with, other products (integrated displays);
• Explain the theory of, and assist with, the implementation of satellite data
processing algorithms for deriving cloud properties, cloud winds, tempera-
ture and moisture soundings, land and ocean surface characteristics, etc.;
• Where appropriate assist with the utilization of satellite observations and
products in data assimilation and NWP systems;
• Interpret satellite observations and products to assist with specialized appli-
cations such as fire weather, volcanoes, hazardous material dispersion, and
space weather;
• Assist satellite-based climatological studies by incorporating new and
archived observations and products; C
• Assist with the integration and transfer of new satellite observations and H
products to the other branches; A
• Help to prepare and assist with training of satellite-related materials;
P
• Interact through the RMTCs and Virtual Laboratory for Satellite Meteorology
with other groups and organizations associated with satellite meteorology. T
E
The prediction is that activities of the SMB will continue to expand as the access R
to satellite data from both GEO and LEO platforms increases across the globe. The
number of both platforms is also increasing, as well as the number and types of 7
instruments on these satellites. SMB staff will be vital to the increased and effec-
tive utilization of the satellite observations and products in NMSs’ operations.

107
APPENDICES

Preface to the first edition of WMO-No. 258

The former classes of meteorological personnel

Survey on the revision of WMO-No. 258

Glossary of terms and abbreviations

Selected bibliographic references

 APPENDIX 1

PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION OF WMO-NO. 258

Prof. J. Van Mieghem

Chairman of the Executive Committee Panel of Experts on Education and
Training (1965–1971)

Since its creation, WMO has concerned itself with the problems related to the
training of meteorological personnel of all grades. In so doing, it has fulfilled its
responsibilities as stated in Article 2 (f) of the WMO Convention. As many WMO
Members become independent, these problems assumed much greater impor-
tance. Consequently, in 1959, the Third Congress of WMO recommended that
more attention be paid to these problems than had been the case in the past. On
the initiative of the Secretary General of WMO, the Executive Committee, at its
thirteenth session (1961), entrusted a consultant with the task of preparing overall
plans for the Organization’s future activities in the field of education and training
of meteorological personnel. In January 1962, the Consultant presented the
following three reports:

• The problem of the professional training of meteorological personnel of all

grades in the Less Developed Countries (LDCs);
• Plan for the development of professional meteorological training in Africa;
• Establishment of a training section in the WMO Secretariat to be in charge of
problems arising out of the professional training of meteorological personnel
in LDCs.

The following year, the consultant prepared a second plan: ‘Plan for the develop-
ment of professional training of meteorological personnel in South America’.

On the express recommendation of the Fourth Congress of WMO (1963), a train-

ing section was subsequently created in 1964 within the Secretariat. One of the
first tasks of the head of the new section was to complete a survey on the training
of personnel of the National Meteorological Services in Central America and the
Caribbean. At its seventeenth session (1965), the Executive Committee created the
Panel of Experts on Meteorological Education and Training.

At its eighteenth session (1966), the Executive Committee requested the Panel to
‘prepare a comprehensive guide containing syllabi for both basic and specialized
fields of meteorological training’.

Two preliminary remarks should be made:

• Although the objectives of education and training are the same throughout
the world, it should be borne in mind that this publication has been prepared
in response to the explicit requests of National Meteorological Services of
developing countries. The latter will find in it the information that they seek.
Nevertheless, the need for highly qualified staff is just as great in developed
as in developing countries. For this reason, no effort should be spared in
maintaining the training of meteorological personnel at as high a standard as
possible in all regions of the world;
• In drawing up syllabi for the different grades of meteorological personnel, the
Organization’s purpose is to apprise the academic and educational commu-
nities of its Members of the level of general and specialized training that
should be attained by meteorologists of all grades to enable them to carry out
their respective tasks. It is therefore hoped that this volume will provide a
source of information for those who wish to make use of it.

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 APPENDIX 1 — PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION OF WMO-No. 258

Before dealing with the problems involved in the training of meteorological

personnel of all grades and the requisite basic education, it is essential to be quite
clear in one’s mind as to the purposes of a National Meteorological Service.

A National Meteorological Service is a scientific institution which discharges, at

national and international levels, all public service responsibilities related to mete-
orology, and carries out research within its sphere of scientific activity. It is
essential that the scientific staff of a National Meteorological Service engage in
research not only because it provides a beneficial and necessary source of compe-
tition amongst themselves, but also because it is the only effective way of keeping
abreast of scientific progress — otherwise, methods of work are apt to deteriorate
very rapidly, as also the quality of service to the community. In this connection,
it should be recalled that meteorology has evolved from a natural into a physical
science. Empiricism belongs to the past. Over the past twenty years, not only has
mathematics been increasingly applied to meteorology, but also the world of
instruments has been taken over by advanced electronics, and methods of obser-
vation and data processing invaded by automation. Routine manual operations
are gradually becoming obsolete, and men are progressively being replaced by
machines. Meteorological Services, today, are making use of all kinds of informa-
tion techniques (automatic data collection and processing): automatic plotting
and analysis of aerological soundings and synoptic charts are one example.
Finally, computers are being increasingly used by more and more meteorological
services, not only for research but also to carry out public service tasks seven days
a week.

When tackling the problems involved in the education and training of meteoro-
logical personnel, it is important to take the above facts into account. It follows
clearly that the scientific staff of a Meteorological Service should have specialized
University training in mathematics or physics (or better still in both subjects if
possible), before beginning their meteorological training. Every Meteorological
Service keen to maintain its scientific standing should be ready to put all neces-
sary facilities at the disposal of any of its scientific staff who wish to prepare a
thesis for a doctorate. It is impossible to carry out research, to accomplish scien-
tific work of value to the public or to implement certain essential parts of the
World Weather Watch (WWW), for instance the Global Atmospheric Research A
Programme (GARP) without highly qualified meteorological personnel. It goes P
without saying that the scientific personnel of every Meteorological Service
P
should be supported by assistants.
E
The purpose of the Guidelines is two-fold: N
1. To define the various Classes of meteorological personnel required for public D
service and scientific research; and I
2. To draw up detailed syllabi of the basic and professional knowledge required of X
meteorological personnel of all grades.

Many different systems are used throughout the world to define the various types 1
of meteorological personnel. It is not possible to draw-up a uniform system appli-
cable to all countries. The guidelines propose four Classes, with detailed courses
for each Class, ranging from university graduates called upon to discharge highly
scientific duties, down to staff to carry out humble but essential tasks, such as
observing the weather.

Meteorological personnel may be classified according to the basic education

required or the level of professional training to be attained. Both classifications are
equally logical and at first sight equally reasonable. In practice, however,, curric-
ula – whether at primary school, general or technical secondary school,
professional and high technical school, or university level – are so diverse every-
where that a classification according to basic education does not appear feasible.
On the other hand, because meteorology must be organized on an international

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GUIDELINES FOR THE EDUCATION AND TRAINING OF PERSONNEL IN METEOROLOGY AND OPERATIONAL HYDROLOGY

basis, it is essential to aim, so far as possible, at a standard level of professional

training for each Class: many of the tasks of NMS must be carried out in accor-
dance with regulations agreed upon by all WMO Members. The implementation
of the World Weather Watch will in fact require even greater uniformity of profes-
sional training at the various levels; and consequently, a classification of
meteorological personnel according to level of professional training would be
more appropriate.

To direct scientific operations, carry out certain essential scientific functions and
to carry through research to a successful conclusion, Class I personnel are essen-
tial. Routine professional tasks requiring some degree of initiative and a sense of
responsibility can be carried out by Class II personnel. To assist members of Class
I and II, personnel of Class III will be required, while personnel of Class IV will
perform the humbler everyday tasks.

It is clear, however, that there exists some correlation between the level of profes-
sional training and that of basic knowledge: when the former is high, the latter
must also rise in proportion. Thus, Class I meteorological personnel must be
University-trained; Class II should have completed one or two preliminary years
at University, or hold a diploma of a higher technical school; Class III should have
successfully completed their secondary education (general or technical), while
Class IV should have passed through primary school and the lower grades or tech-
nical secondary education (first three years in secondary school).

While practically all WMO Members are in agreement as to the definitions of Classes I,
III and IV, a substantial minority have formulated objections concerning Class II. It
should be recalled, in the first place, that Class II is not a temporary substitute for Class
I, and secondly, that Class II meteorological personnel do not operate solely in the
national Meteorological Services of the developing countries. Members of this Class are
also to be found in a growing number of developed countries.

National Meteorological Services throughout the world will require an ever-

increasing number of Class II personnel, in particular forecasters and
climatologists, and also specialists in telecommunications and information tech-
niques, and in programming and electronics. In addition, one inevitable
consequence of the World Weather Watch will be a substantial reduction in the
quantity of ‘pre-processed data’ circulating among meteorological telecommuni-
cation circuits, with a corresponding increase in ‘end products’. The
implementation of the World Weather Watch will thus result in an increase in
Class II personnel. While Class I personnel must be available in order to obtain
‘end products’, it will be sufficient to have Class II personnel, with assistance of
Class III, to utilize them.

In the syllabi, a very sharp distinction is made for each Class between the prior
knowledge required and meteorological training as such. Similarly, where the
latter is concerned, those elements of meteorology which all members of any one
Class must know are set out in the syllabi along with a description of the knowl-
edge necessary at the level of that Class in each field of specialization.

It should be noted that the syllabi provide only a qualitative indication of the
subjects taught. Their actual scope is more difficult to determine. This is a complex
task, and in practice can only be carried out by recommending textbooks or by
setting test-questions with detailed model answers. It is also possible to set out the
contents of a teaching-course by preparing lecture notes or problem workbooks
with keys to selected exercises.

The period required for teaching a subject depends as much on the teacher’s
ability as on the average level of intelligence of his students. Teaching weak and
brilliant pupils at the same class is particularly unrewarding. That is why syllabi

112
 APPENDIX 1 — PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION OF WMO-No. 258

do not specify the time needed for the various curricula.

A definition of ‘satisfactory knowledge’ of a subject is not given in the Guidelines

since this type of appreciation is subjective in the extreme. Satisfactory knowledge
can only be indicated by the candidates’ replies and the marks awarded – a highly
complex and invidious task. Finally, recent advances in meteorology have been so
swift and working methods have developed with such rapidity, that it is absolutely
essential to see it that the various parts of the Guidelines are continuously kept
up-to-date.

To conclude, I now enumerate the sources of information used in drawing-up the

syllabi:

1. The surveys carried out in the last ten years by the WMO Secretariat on all ques-
tions related to meteorological education and training in the National
Meteorological Services.

2. Report on meteorological training facilities by the WMO Secretariat published for

the first time in 1959 and since kept regularly up-to-date.

3. The problem of the professional training of meteorological personnel of all grades in the
Less Developed Countries; by J. Van Mieghem WMO Technical Note No. 50 (1963).

4. Plan for the development of professional meteorological training in Africa; by J. Van

Mieghem WMO Information Report (1963).

5. Plan for the development of professional meteorological training in South America; by J.

Van Mieghem WMO Information Report (1964).

6. Survey on the National Meteorological Services of Central America, the Caribbean coun-
tries and territories; by H. Taba WMO Information Report (1965).

7. Reports by Working Groups on Meteorological Education and Training of the

WMO Technical Commissions;
A
8. Documents prepared for the various WMO Conferences on Meteorological P
Education and Training;
P
9. Reports of the Leningrad Conference organized in July 1967 by the E
Hydrometeorological Service of USSR. N
D
10. Minutes of meetings of the Executive Committee Panel of Experts on I
Meteorological Education and Training; held from 1966 to 1969. X
Acknowledgement I have great pleasure in expressing my warmest thanks to all those who helped
me carry out the tasks entrusted to me, and especially to the Members and 1
Secretary of the Panel of Experts on Meteorological Education and Training.

July 1969

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 APPENDIX 2

THE FORMER CLASSES OF METEOROLOGICAL PERSONNEL

Extracts from publication WMO-No. 258 third edition, 1984

Class I University trained personnel with adequate education in mathematics and

physics, and who have successfully completed a course in meteorology to the
standard specified by the syllabi. The period of instruction includes at least 4 years
of university education (in prerequisite subjects and meteorology), supplemented
by at least six months of on-the-job training. Main duties: operational day-to-day
work, such as weather forecasting; consulting, directing and decision-making;
also, responsibility for research and development, management.

These personnel must have a thorough grounding in dynamic, synoptic and phys-
ical meteorology. They should also have a basic knowledge of climatology,
hydrology, oceanography and ocean-atmosphere interaction, meteorological
instruments and methods of observation, meteorological data processing, satellite
meteorology, and air pollution meteorology.

Class II Such personnel will have undergone a complete secondary or equivalent school
education and introductory training in mathematics and physics to the standard
specified by the syllabi, as well as successfully completing a meteorological course.
This training should be given at a university or other appropriate institution over
a period of two years, and a minimum of nine months on-the-job training is
required. Main duties, under guidance by Class I personnel, include: analysis of
synoptic charts, weather forecasting, study of data relating to physical meteor-
ology, observational instruments and methods, telecommunications, inspections
of networks.

These personnel must exercise skill and judgement in the interpretation of mete-
orological data. They must have a thorough understanding of the underlying
meteorological principles, particularly the weather analysis and forecasting prin-
ciples. Their education must be broadly based but, since their work is concerned
mainly with application of meteorological knowledge, the emphasis should be on
practice. The Class II syllabi, although just as extensive in many respects, will
consequently not contain the same amount of theory as that for Class I.

Class III These personnel will have received complete secondary or equivalent school
education (minimum 12 years) and adequate training in meteorology. The period
of the meteorological course should be of eight to ten months, supplemented by
adequate practical and on-the-job training. Main duties include: decoding and
checking of incoming messages; plotting of meteorological charts, aerological
diagrams and cross-sections; assisting personnel of higher Classes in the analysis
of observational data; supplying meteorological information (under supervision).
Other related duties: checking monthly weather summaries of the network
stations, and calculating statistical parameters on the basis of such summaries;
calibration of instruments used in the surface observation network, calibration of
radiosondes, operation of aerological and radiation stations.

In view of the wide spectrum of duties carried out by this Class, it is not easy to
draw up training syllabi, which will be suitable for all staff, irrespective of their
individual functions. However, syllabi given in general meteorology, surface and
upper-air observations and measurements and general climatology, were desig-
nated for all Class III personnel.

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 APPENDIX 2 — THE FORMER CLASSES OF METEOROLOGICAL PERSONNEL

Class IV These personnel should have a basic education equivalent to nine years primary
and secondary school or equivalent education, followed by appropriate training
in basic meteorology to enable them to observe meteorological phenomena accu-
rately and objectively and to understand the underlying significance of their
routine tasks. A period of minimum four months formal meteorological training
is required, and it should be followed by an extensive period of on-the-job train-
ing. Main duties include all routine surface observations; instruments
maintenance; office work such as the reduction of observation data, transmission
of synoptic messages, maintenance of the observation log and preparation of
monthly summaries. Related duties: processing of recording diagrams; calculation
of hourly totals, means and extreme values; plotting charts and diagrams.

Although the minimum pre-requisite is nine years primary and secondary school
education, it is assumed that the student will by then have reached a certain level
in mathematics, physics, chemistry and physical geography. Accordingly, if a
student is weak in some subjects, it is left to the instructor to decide whether he
requires supplementary training.

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 APPENDIX 3

SURVEY ON THE REVISION OF WMO-NO. 258

During 1997, following a request by the EC Panel of Experts on Education and

Training, the Secretariat prepared and distributed to all Members a comprehensive
questionnaire on the revision of the WMO classification and curricula. Replies to
this Survey were then interpreted as guiding constraints in the revision of the
publication WMO-No. 258.

The WMO survey In addition to specific questions relating to the use/non-use, content and design,
and potential improvement/restructuring of the current classification and
curricula, the above-mentioned questionnaire included draft proposals for two
possible schemes for the classification of meteorological and hydrological
personnel, namely:

(a) A two-tier scheme for (graduate) Professionals and Technicians; career development
stages were suggested for each of these main categories;
(b) A three-tier scheme for (graduate) Professionals, Technicians and Observers; this
scheme was essentially a version of proposal (a), but with two distinct categories
of Meteorological Technicians.

WMO Members were asked whether they prefer maintaining the traditional four-
tier classification, or if they favour one or the other of the schemes, (a) or (b).

Members’ opinions Over 80 Members responded to this Survey. The degree of convergence amongst
the respondents’ opinions was determined as follows:

(a) Strongly convergent opinions – shared by more than 90 per cent of respondents:
• The traditional WMO classification was used by many Members as a basic
reference and by several Members as an occasional reference; some Members
used it even as an official reference. Only a few Members did not use this clas-
sification at all; usually, they proffered their civil servants classification;
• In the future, there will still be the need for a WMO classification to be used
as a basic reference, particularly in an international context; the general
thrust of the traditional scheme could be maintained, but with a smaller
number of classes;
• In designing revised classes, due consideration should be given to formal
educational qualification; in particular, university graduation must be
considered as a basic criterion to differentiate Class I personnel from the
other personnel. However, for the non-graduate personnel, the class-distinc-
tion (if needed) should relate more to the demonstrated job-competency
rather than to the initial education qualification;
• For each major Class there should be a core curriculum of required knowledge.

(b) Moderately convergent opinions – shared by 66-90 per cent of respondents:

• The revised classification may reflect some generic career development stages
and some general job-competencies. Specific job-competencies, although
theoretically desirable, are practically impossible, given their dependence on
the local context;
• The current WMO curricula were used, particularly in developing countries,
most often as a basic reference and the structure of the curricula seemed
generally adequate for instructors from those countries. However, in several
other NMS, these curricula were used only occasionally;
• Many respondents stressed the need for a regular updating of the curricula
contents; several other respondents suggested that samples of a few actual
curricula could be presented in the new edition of WMO-No. 258;

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 APPENDIX 3 — SURVEY ON THE REVISION OF WMO–No. 258

• Full secondary school or equivalent education may be taken as a mandatory

pre-requisite for future Meteorological Technicians. Exceptions may be
acknowledged, provided a trainee’s knowledge in basic sciences is adequate;

(c) Weakly convergent opinions – shared by 50-66 per cent of respondents:

• A special Class of ‘Meteorological Technologist’ is not a priority for a fair
majority of NMS; this group’s emphasis was on defining a classification for
the meteorological personnel proper. Yet, a substantive minority requested
defining a Technologist Class, to accommodate personnel employed in
meteorological instruments, information technology – communications,
computing, etc;
• It will not be necessary to maintain the degree of detail of the traditional
curricula; several respondents stressed the lack of flexibility of its syllabi and
the need for a focus on learning outcomes and job-competencies;
• Meteorological specializations’ curricula should be revised on an ongoing
basis.

(d) Divergent opinions – shared by (much) less than 50 per cent of respondents:
• A few respondents did not agree in general with the above opinions, in
particular, with the overall thrust of the traditional classification and curric-
ula, which emphasises too much the role of the initial education and
training;
• Respondents from three (highly advanced) NMS preferred a concentration
on technical competencies rather than on individual classes; moreover, ‘clas-
sification would need to be based on job function not on education
qualification’;
• For other respondents, classification should not consider actual job-compe-
tencies, which are not only context-dependent but also rapidly changing in
time;
• A few respondents suggested that the classification should not reflect any
career progression, indicating that this is a matter best left over to individual
NMS.

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 APPENDIX 4

GLOSSARY OF TERMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

Basic Instruction Package (BIP) A framework education and training programme recommended by WMO for the
initial professional formation of meteorological personnel. Consistent with the
new WMO classification of personnel, there are two different BIPs – one qualify-
ing job-entry level meteorologists (BIP-M), and another qualifying job-entry-level
Meteorological Technicians (BIP-MT). It is mentioned that the word instruction,
utilized in the BIP-title is meant to address both education (particularly BIP-M)
and training (particularly BIP-MT).

The content and delivery of the BIP-components (e.g. requisite topics in basic
sciences, compulsory and elective topics in atmospheric sciences, etc.) can be organ-
ized with a variety of emphases and perspectives, in many different curricula. Those
who would have to design and implement actual curricula should specifically enable
the scope, sequence and coordination of concepts, processes and topics.

Branch of activity An ensemble of technically related jobs, forming a relatively independent operational
structure or unit of a NMS, and performing an aggregate of specialized activities and
services, in order to accomplish a significant part of the overall mission of the NMS. For
each branch identified in this publication, it is provided a list of generic competency
requirements (Chapter 2) together with an example of actual competencies (Chapter 7).

Guidelines Brief reference to the present volume of WMO-No. 258, which is a technical docu-
ment setting out recommendations for the categorization and initial instruction
of meteorological personnel; for the principal job-competency requirements in
various operational areas; and for the methods and strategies of continuing educa-
tion and training in meteorology. Whilst fostering innovation and adaptation to
local circumstances, these guidelines are aimed at facilitating common under-
standing and a degree of uniformity and stability in an international context.

Job-competency An ensemble of related knowledge, understanding and skills, as well as positive

work attitudes, required for the efficient execution of a given job. Competency
involves not only the ability to perform in a given context, but also the capacity
to transfer and use knowledge and skills in a new situation.

Learning outcomes Achievement of defined standards of knowledge and especially job-skills, follow-
ing completion of education/training modules whose objectives are specified
independently of mode, duration or location of learning; evidence would have to
be made available to demonstrate achievement of the learning objectives.

Lifelong learning Concept according to which learning is dynamic and continuous, encompassing
a flexible approach to learning procedures, credit structures, curriculum and peda-
gogic method; emphasising access and a symbiosis with the world of work; and
going throughout and possibly beyond the working life.

Meteorological personnel The group of NMS employees that possess formal meteorological qualification:
Meteorologists and Meteorological Technicians. It is noted that clerical, labourer,
or other auxiliary staff may not be included in this group.

Meteorological Technician A person who, following the completion of the secondary school, or equivalent
education, has also completed meteorological training consistent with the requirements
set forth in the ‘Basic Instruction Package for Meteorological Technicians (BIP-MT)’.
Duties include: carrying out weather, climate and other environmental observations and
measurements; assisting forecasters in the preparation and dissemination of analyses,
forecasts, weather warnings, and other related information, products and services.

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 APPENDIX 4 — GLOSSARY OF TERMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

Meteorologist A person with specialized education who uses scientific principles, concepts and
techniques to explain, understand, observe or forecast the Earth’s atmospheric
phenomena and/or how the atmosphere affects the Earth and life on the planet.
This specialized education would be a Bachelor’s or higher degree in meteorology
(or atmospheric sciences), consistent with the requirements set forth in the ‘Basic
Instruction Package for Meteorologists (BIP-M)’. Holders of a first degree in
physical sciences, mathematics, electronic or geo-sciences engineering, may also
qualify as meteorologists by completing a ‘condensed BIP-M’ programme, subject
to adequate pre-requisite knowledge in mathematics, physics and chemistry.

Meteorology Is the study of the atmosphere and its phenomena – especially the weather and climate
conditions – and the practical applications of this study. In addition to the physics,
chemistry and dynamics of the atmosphere, meteorology encompasses many of the
direct effects of the atmosphere upon the Earth’s surface, the oceans and life in general.

As a science, meteorology (the term ‘atmospheric sciences’ may be used with the
same meaning) belongs to the applied physical sciences and its main disciplines
are dynamic, physical, and synoptic meteorology, and climatology. As a profes-
sion, meteorology focuses mainly on weather analysis and forecasting and on
climate monitoring and prediction.

National Meteorological An organization established and operated primarily at public expense for the
Service (NMS) purpose of carrying out those meteorological and related functions, which
governments accept as a responsibility of the State in support of the safety, secu-
rity and general welfare of their citizens and in fulfilment of their international
obligations under the Convention of the WMO.

Semester-hour A measure of the time spent by the student in formal instruction (in USA). A
normal semester is 15 weeks in length. For traditional lecture classes, a class,
which meets one hour per week in lecture format, is ‘one semester-hour’; a class,
which meets three times per week, is ‘three semester-hours’. Laboratory sessions
are generally given less weight, so a three-hour laboratory session meeting once
per week is also ‘one semester-hour’.

Skill Practised mental or physical ability or dexterity, and/or natural facility in doing
something, without necessarily understanding all the processes by which this is
done. It is an aptitude developed by special training and experience; in the
absence of sustained practice, skills weaken in time and are eventually lost.
Acquiring job-skills in meteorology requires both basic professional instruction
and job-specific training, including on-the-job training.

Task The smallest element of work effort, identifiable in terms of output and quality,
that must be performed in order to accomplish some purpose/mission, at a
specific moment in time.

Trainee One who is receiving training and whose acquisitions are periodically evaluated
by means of objective measures involving pre-specified criteria.

Trainer/Instructor An instructional leader who plans and conducts a learning activity designed to
help participants acquire information, knowledge, skills, and adequate attitudes
in a particular job.

WMO classification of A systematic, generalized scheme of categorising meteorological personnel accord- A

meteorological personnel ing to their achievements in formal education; acquisitions in meteorological P
knowledge and understanding; and acquired job-competency in their career P
progression. The new WMO scheme defines two main categories of personnel and E
three career levels for each category.
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GUIDELINES FOR THE EDUCATION AND TRAINING OF PERSONNEL IN METEOROLOGY AND OPERATIONAL HYDROLOGY

ABBREVIATIONS

AAS Agrometeorology advisory service

AGCM Atmospheric general circulation model (WMO)
AIREP Aircraft weather report
AMDAR Aircraft meteorological data relay
APT automatic picture transmission (satellite; now LRPT)
ARFOR Area forecast for aviation
ASDAR Aircraft to satellite data acquisition and relay
ATC Air traffic control
ATS Air traffic services
AVHRR Advanced very high-resolution radiometer (satellites)
AWS Automatic weather station
BAPMoN Background air pollution monitoring network
BATHY Report of bathythermal observation (code form)
BIP Basic Instruction Package (WMO)
BIP-M Basic Instruction Package for Meteorologists
BIP-MT Basic Instruction Package for Meteorological Technicians
BIP-H Basic Instruction Package for Hydrologists
BIP-HT Basic Instruction Package for Hydrological Technicians
BLA Boundary Layer of the Atmosphere
CET Continuing Education and Training
CBS Commission for Basic Systems (WMO)
CFC Chloroflourocarbon
CLIMAT Report of monthly means and totals from a land station
COMET Co-operative Programme for Operational Met. Education and Training
CPD Continuing Professional Development
DRIBU Report of a drifting buoy observation (now DRIFTER)
EC Executive Council (WMO, previously Executive Committee)
ETF Editorial Task Force
ENSO El Niño/Southern Oscillation
ETR Education and Training (WMO Department)
ESS Earth Science System
GAW Global atmospheric watch (WMO)
GCM General Circulation Model (of the atmosphere)
GCOS Global Climate Observing System
GEO Geostationary orbiting
GIS Geographic Information Systems
GO3OS Global Ozone Observing System
GTS Global Telecommunication System
HRPT High resolution picture transmission (satellite)
IAVW International Airways Volcano Watch
ICAO International Civil Aviation Organization
ICT Information and Communication Technology
IPCC Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change
IT Information Technology (now ICT)
ITCZ Inter-tropical convergence zone
LEO Low Earth orbiting
LRIT Low rate information transmission (satellite, formerly WEFAX)
LRIT Low rate picture transmission (satellite, formerly APT)
MET Meteorology
METAR Aviation routine weather report
MOS Model output statistics
MSS Message switching system
NMHS National Meteorological and Hydrological Service
NMS National Meteorological Service
NWP Numerical weather prediction
O&M Observations and Measurements
PILOT Upper-wind report from a land station

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 APPENDIX 4 — GLOSSARY OF TERMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

PMO Port Meteorological Officer

PWS Public Weather Services
RMTC Regional Meteorological Training Centre
SATEM Report of satellite upper-air soundings of pressure, temperature and humidity
SATOB Report of satellite observations for wind, surface temperature, cloud, humidity
and radiation
SHIP Report of surface observation from a sea station
SIGWX Significant weather
SLD Super-cooled Large Droplets
SLO Surface layer of the ocean
SLW Super-cooled Liquid Water
SMB Satellite Meteorology Branch
SPECI Aviation selected special weather report
SST Sea surface temperature
SYNOP Report of surface observation from a land station
TAF Terminal aerodrome forecast; aerodrome forecast (code form)
TC Tropical cyclone
TCP/IP Transmission control protocol/internet protocol
TEMP Upper-level temperature, humidity and wind report from a land station
TEMP DROP TEMP message from a sonde released by carrier balloons or aircraft
TEMP SHIP TEMP message from a sea station
TESAC Temperature, salinity and current report from a sea station
TOEFL Test of English as a Foreign Language
TOMS Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer
UCAR University Co-operation for Atmospheric Research (USA)
UN United Nations (organization)
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
UV Ultraviolet
VAAC Volcanic Ash Advisory Centres
VISSR Visible and infrared spin scan radiometer (satellites)
VOC Volatile organic compound
VSAT Very small aperture terminal
WAFS World Area Forecast System (WMO/ICAO)
WEFAX Weather facsimile transmission (now LRIT)
WHYCOS World Hydrological Cycle Observing System
WMO World Meteorological Organization
WWW World Weather Watch

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