translation must be set up at university

level. Literary translation is a creative

profession that requires an academic level
of knowledge and critical thinking skills;

> a new degree programme in literary

> there must be more guidance, in-service

training and more opportunities for

ongoing development for both novice and
experienced translators, in the form of
workshops, mentorships and master
classes, to establish a system of lifelong
learning;
professional literary translators must be
strengthened;

> diversification of supply must be achieved

by giving literary funds more scope to
finance the translation of difficult books
and important works of non-fiction;

> the European Union should embrace

A pamphlet for preserving a flourishing translation culture

literary translation as a European discipline

par excellence, amongst other things, by
providing regular subsidies to European
translation centres.

*Great translation by the way

> the economic and cultural position of

*Great translation by the way

A pamphlet for preserving a flourishing translation culture

Translators are the shadow heroes of literature, the often forgotten

instruments that make it possible for different cultures to talk to one another,
who have enabled us to understand that we all, from every part of the world,
live in one world.1 Paul Auster

To be translated or not to be,

PEN/IRL report, 2007

List of abbreviations
CEATL Conseil Europen des Associations de Traducteurs Littraires (European Council
of Associations of Literary Translators)
ELV
Expertisecentrum Literair Vertalen (Expertise Centre for Literary Translation)
FvdL Fonds voor de Letteren (Dutch Foundation for Literature)
GAU
Groep Algemene Uitgevers (General Publishers Association)
KB
Koninklijke Bibliotheek Den Haag (National Library of the Netherlands)
NIAS Netherlands Institute for Advanced Study in the Humanities and Social Sciences
NLPVF Nederlands Literair Productie- en Vertalingenfonds (Foundation for the
Production and Translation of Dutch Literature)
NMa Nederlandse Mededingingsautoriteit (Netherlands Competition Authority)
RECIT Rseau europen des centres internationaux de traducteurs littraires
(European Network of International Centres for Literary Translation)
SSS Stichting Schrijvers School Samenleving (an association that organises readings
and lectures by writers and poets)
VAV
Vlaamse Auteursvereniging (Flemish Writers Association)
VFL
Vlaams Fonds voor de Letteren (Flemish Literature Fund)
VSNU Vereniging van Samenwerkende Nederlandse Universiteiten (Association of
Universities in the Netherlands)
VUV
Vlaamse Uitgevers Vereniging (Flemish Publishers Association)
VvL Vereniging van Letterkundigen (Association of Authors, Scenario Writers
and Translators)

Table of Contents

Great translation by the way 5

From language to language 7

Globalisation 7
Literature and world literature 8
Literary translation as cultural mediation 8

Translation culture in the Dutch language area 11

Flourishing translation culture 11
Dominance of English 12
A new but ageing profession 12
The financial and economic position of
the translator 13
Cultural entrepreneurship 14
Translation subsidies 15
The Netherlands and Flanders 16

Translating from Dutch 19

Growing export 19
The translators position 20
Subsidies 20
Translation centres and Europe 22

The educational situation 25

The importance of specialised training 25
The situation in the Netherlands 26
The situation in Flanders 27
The situation abroad 27
Expertise centre 28

Recommendations 32
A new degree programme for translators 32
Ongoing learning and professional development 34
Boosting the position of the translator 36
Promoting literary diversity 38
Intercultural dialogue 38

Appendices 41
Bibliography 54

Johann Wolfgang von Goethe,

author and translator
Nowadays, national literature
doesnt mean much: the age of
world literature is beginning, and
everybody should do his part to
hasten its arrival. (Conversation
with the poet Johann Peter
Eckermann, 31 January 1827)

Great translation by the way

Translators note: The Dutch

word fonds can be rendered
as either fund or foundation in English. As can be seen
from the list of abbreviations
above, some of these fondsen
call themselves funds, while
others opt for foundation.
The two words are used interchangeably here.

Boekenoverleg, De uitkijkpost
van de literatuur: een manifest
uit de wereld van boek en letteren, 2006. The Boekenoverleg
is a system of semi-annual
talks between representatives
of commercial and non-commercial organisations engaged
in literary activities in the
Netherlands.

Vlaams Boekenoverleg (the

Flemish counterpart of the
talks referred to in footnote 2),
Tien punten programma, 2007.

It is with off-hand comments like these that book

reviewers typically dismiss the work of a translator
assuming, that is, that they mention the translator
at all. Such cursory treatment makes painfully clear
where translators stand in the literary pecking order:
right at the bottom.
This document is a plea to set matters right
and to give a central place to literary translation as
a profession. This is a matter of some urgency, as the
quality of translations from and into Dutch is under
threat and a huge shortage of translators is looming.
More and more Dutch translations of foreign
works are sold in the Netherlands and Flanders,
while translations of Dutch works are increasingly
sold abroad. Literary translation appears to be
flourishing in both directions, partly thanks to
the grants awarded by the literary foundations.*
However, as the demand for translations grows, so
does the demand for good translators. And therein
lies the rub: new recruits are hard to find. Deterrents
are meagre pay, low professional status and a lack of
educational facilities.
This pamphlet, which was written at the
request of five partners in the book sector, is an
outgrowth of a proposal in the 2006 literary
manifesto De uitkijkpost van de literatuur (The
observatory of literature)2 and the 2007 Ten-Point
Programme.3 It contains five major
recommendations:
5

>

>

>

>

>

a new degree programme in literary translation

must be set up at university level. Literary
translation is a creative profession that
requires an academic level of knowledge and
critical thinking skills;

there must be more guidance, in-service

training and more opportunities for ongoing
development for both novice and experienced
translators, in the form of workshops,
mentorships and master classes, to establish a
system of lifelong learning;

Globalisation

the economic and cultural position of

professional literary translators must be
strengthened;
diversification of supply must be achieved by
giving literary funds more scope to finance the
translation of difficult books and important
works of non-fiction;
the European Union should embrace literary
translation as a European discipline par
excellence, amongst other things, by providing
regular subsidies to European translation
centres.

From language to
language

English as lingua franca

Abram de Swaan, Words of the

World, p. 144.

Since 1991, the percentage of

students reading languages
at Dutch universities has
declined by over half, from
9.3% to 4% of the total intake
(source: VSNU, see appendix
1). The business sector regards
declining foreign-language
skills as a serious problem.
In the recent report Trends
in Export 2006, over half the
polled exporters cited an
inability to speak foreign
languages as one of the biggest threats to Dutch export.
In fact, fluency in foreign
languages was seen as a leading precondition for export,
second only to product quality.

The world is changing at a rapid pace. The European

Union goes on expanding, and the volume of
international economic and cultural traffic increases
by the day. As globalisation inexorably marches on,
the question arises of how to preserve local and
national identities. To a large extent, the answer lies
in language, and thus in translation.
The more languages, the more English,
observed sociologist Abram de Swaan.4 It is a
neat summary of the situation in Europe and, by
extension, the world. As global interaction threatens
to become one huge Babel, we increasingly make use
of a single hypercentral language as De Swaan puts
it: English, the new universal lingua franca.
On the face of it, the advance of English
would seem to pose a serious threat to the very
cultural diversity that UNESCO adopted a Universal
Declaration to preserve in October 2005. The decline
in foreign language skills among the Dutch and
the Flemish may be regarded in the same light.5
However, De Swaan makes clear that the situation
is not quite as bleak as it might seem: wherever
English has established itself as the official language
of government or as the lingua franca in certain
professional fields, it functions as the second
language, alongside an indigenous language spoken
at home and in informal situations. The rise of English
can be characterised more accurately as the rise
of bilingualism; culture, which includes literature,
remains largely the domain of indigenous languages.
7

Literature and world literature

Intercultural exchange

mediation is an active process, transforming

what it transfers, creating something new,
reinventingliterature and keeping it alive.
Reciprocity also arises where national
literatures meet. A literary translation into Dutch
not only enriches Dutch literary heritage, it also
augments the authors literary capital, enlarging his
potential market as well as, indirectly, the market
for his language area. In the same way, a Dutch
writer whose works are translated gains both a
larger readership and greater status, depending on
the size and importance of the target language in
question. The rise of digitisation possibly the most
revolutionary development in literary media since
the invention of the printing press is helping to
multiply and accelerate these exchanges: literary
translation is the future.7

Living cultures store their capital in their written

traditions. Embedded as it is in language, literature
can reveal the uniqueness of a culture, not just
because literature is an observatory from which to
view the whole world (as posited in the manifesto
referred to above), but more importantly because
language and national culture are inextricably
intertwined.
This is not to say that national cultures are
closed, inward-looking systems. Far from it. Cultures
are never hermetically sealed off, and they are never
complete. They are open systems, fed by a wide
variety of often conflicting currents. The history of
European literature shows that the borders between
languages are largely porous : Dutch novelist Willem
Frederik Hermans owes a great debt to Kafka, who in
turn was heavily influenced by Flaubert, and so on.
Milan Kundera has even said that the true worth of a
novel (that quintessentially European art form) only
becomes apparent when the work is freed from its
national confines and placed in the larger context of
world literature.6 In coining the latter term Goethe
did not envisage a kind of Champions League of
Great Books, but rather a literature that is open to
exchanges between cultures.

Literary translation as cultural mediation

Mediation is a two-way
street

Milan Kundera, Le Rideau,

pp. 50-51.

For those exchanges to take place, translations

are needed. Translators are often represented as
ferrymen who pilot texts from one language to
another, but in the present context it would be more
appropriate to portray them as cultural mediators,
since they act as a conduit between two cultures.
That mediation is very much a two-way street:
not only do translators introduce their domestic
readership to a text from another language and
culture, they also endow that text with new life and
meaning by placing it in a different linguistic and
cultural setting, an act that simultaneously enriches
their own language and literary heritage. Cultural
8

See the seminal studies Translation and Globalisation and

Translation and Identity by
Michael Cronin. In a discussion paper for the Irish EU
Presidency entitled Bringing
Europe to Book? Literature and
the Promotion of Linguistic
and Cultural Diversity in the
European Union, the same
author stresses the economic
importance of the book sector
within the European cultural
industry: in 2000, the publication of books and academic
journals was worth 19 billion.

Mark Pieters, publisher

Its rather worrying that the
most competent translators
are ageing. Translation is an
extraordinarily demanding
profession, yet its neglected and
undervalued. Something really
needs to be done. Were also short
on highly-qualified editors in the
Netherlands. On the other hand,
when I see fresh, enthusiastic
talent every year in the master
class, I think perhaps things will
be all right after all and that
never fails to cheer me up.
(Boekblad, 6 December 2007)

Flourishing translation culture

Increasing number of
translations in overall
book production
8

Figures taken from Heilbron,

2008. See appendix 2. These
figures should, however, be
viewed with no small measure
of caution. In the Dutch language area alone, there is a considerable discrepancy between
figures (up to 1997) provided
by Stichting Speurwerk, an
organisation that carries out
surveys commissioned by the
book sector, and by the Dutch
National Library in The Hague.
As for foreign surveys, the
definitions used are frequently
unclear. A major study would
be needed to obtain a truly
accurate picture of the national
and international situation.

Source: CEATL. The figures

come from an ongoing study of
the position of literary trans
lation in Europe.

10 Heilbron, Responding to Globalisation. Heilbron goes so

far as to suggest that the same
rule applies at the level of
individual texts: the stronger
the international position of
the target language, the freer
translators tend to be with the
source text.
11 In that same period, the Dutch
population grew by 75%
(source: Statistics Netherlands).

10

Translation culture in
the Dutch language area

The Netherlands and Flanders have long had a

flourishing translation culture, which is rightly seen
as exemplary in Europe. Hundreds of people work
more or less full-time, translating works that account
for a huge share (around 30%) of overall Dutchlanguage book production. (For the fiction category,
this figure is a remarkable 70%.8) By comparison,
in the United Kingdom the corresponding share
is 3%, in Germany 7% and in France 14%.9 The
explanation is simple: the less punch a language
packs internationally, the more interest exists among
its speakers in events elsewhere, and the more
translations result. The same rule applies in reverse:
the higher the international status of a language, the
more interest it generates elsewhere, and the more
translations are made of its literature.10
The share of translations in overall Dutchlanguage book production is now greater than it
has ever been. In 1946 it was only 5%; it has since
increased dramatically. There are a number of
reasons for this: the mass availability of cheap
paperbacks, a rise in the standard of living, a bettereducated populace and, not least of all, the trend of
internationalisation, which has increased demand
for knowledge of other countries and cultures
(especially Britain and America, because of their
linguistic hegemony). Book production in general
expanded enormously in this same period. The
absolute number of translations a year has increased
over tenfold in the space of fifty years.11
11

Dominance of English

A vetting system for

translators

That same half century has seen a considerable

shift in the share claimed by the various source
languages. Most striking is the huge increase in
translations from English: from 2% of the market in
1946 (40% of all translations) to 26.7% in 2005 (75.5%
of all translations). The number of translations from
French (0.6% in 1946, 1.9% in 2005), German (1.4% and
3.5%, respectively) and other languages (1.2% and
3.2%, respectively) rose slightly in that same period,
but all other languages lost ground to English as its
global dominance grew.12
Leaving aside the dwindling share of nonEnglish works in translated literature, which is
of special concern in an EU context (apparently
we take little interest in the culture of our fellow
member states), the rise in demand for translation
presents a huge practical problem: how do you find
qualified English translators? The perceived ease
of translation is a major stumbling block in this
regard: it is a common misconception that literary
translation can be done by anyone with a dictionary
and a reasonable command of a foreign language. As
a result, poor-quality translations abound. It is not
for nothing that in a recent survey Dutch and Flemish
publishers expressed their interest in a vetting
system for translators.13

A new but ageing profession

12 Figures from Heilbron, 2008,

and the KBs A List. See appendix 2.
13 Survey by Francine Smink,
commissioned by the ELV,
in June 2007.
14 IJdens, et al., 1995, p. 10.

The huge increase in translations has of course

sparked an equally huge demand for translators. It
is hardly surprising that over half the translators
featuring in a Dutch study of 1995 had made their
debut between 1977 and 1985.14 There were scarcely
any professional literary translators before the 1970s
for the simple reason that it had not previously
been possible to make a living from this career. But
now, thirty years on, the question arises as to who
will succeed the first generation of professional
translators. User surveys carried out by the FvdL
in 1997 and 2007 showed that the group of Dutch
12

More and better

educational facilities
are needed

15 The recent Humbeeck report,

which defines literary trans
lator much more broadly (to
include translators of popular,
non-subsidised fiction genres)
backs up the figures: 60% in
the 40-60 bracket (average age:
48). In Flanders the average
age is lower (41), but almost
no Flemish literary translators
work full-time; the average
age throughout the Dutchlanguage region is 46.5.
16 In Flanders, the VAV (established in 2006) and Flemish
publishers drew up a standard
contract with a minimum rate.
17 From 3 guilder cents a word
in 1971 to 7.3 guilder cents in
1980. Since then, the rate has
increased more slowly, and has
now fallen behind collectivelynegotiated wages.
18 By way of illustration: in 1976
the FvdL received 185 applications for a supplementary fee;
in 1996 this figure was 320.

translators working in the subsidised sector has aged

markedly: the 50 and over group has risen from 45%
to 52.4%, the 41-50 group has dropped from 41% to
33.5%, while the 20-40 group has remained stable
at 14%.15
Young people continue to join the profession
(over a third of those who completed an ELV course
managed to obtain a grant between 2001 and
2007), but not in sufficient numbers to counteract
the ageing trend. In many respects the situation
resembles that of the Dutch education sector, where
the combination of low professional status, poor
pay and demographic ageing has caused a shortage
of teachers. To ensure that new translators join
and remain in the profession, extra measures are
needed: more and better educational facilities,
improved guidance for young translators, a system of
lifelong learning and professional development that
would also be open to established translators, more
opportunities for study/work abroad, a stronger
financial position and higher social status.

The financial and economic position of the

translator
The huge growth in the number of translations has
also affected the financial position of translators.
The 1970s, in particular, were a period of economic
progress for the profession: many translators
joined the Dutch professional association VvL; in
1977, after negotiations between publishers and
the VvL, a model contract for literary translations
was introduced (it has since been amended);16 the
official minimum rate per word doubled in less than
ten years,17 and a growing number of translators
obtained grants from the FvdL (set up in 1965).18 The
1980 protest action Give us this day..., in which a
busload of translators and translation students
descended on The Hague, brandishing a literal
black book of grievance to highlight their financial
plight, resulted in a much bigger grant budget.
Nowadays, with the help of the literary funds, literary
translators can at least earn enough to turn out
13

Income well below

average

good-quality work, but their wages are nevertheless

still far below the average.19 Collectively, the FvdL
and the VFL (set up in 1999), which has taken over
responsibility for literary subsidies from the Vlaamse
Gemeenschap (the Flemish regional authority),
disburse around 2 million in the form of project
grants and incentive subsidies for translators.
However, such funding can only be effective if the
supply and thus the quality of new translators is
maintained; without competent translators it is
pointless to try and correct the market with grants.

Floating rates harm

culture

Cultural entrepreneurship

19 On average, a subsidised
translator in the Netherlands
has a taxable annual income of
around 19,000 (source: FvdL;
no figures are available for
Flanders).

Corrective measures in the form of grants are

necessary because literary translators have a
particularly weak market position not just in
the case of a semi-peripheral language area like
the Low Countries (where print runs are fairly
small and translation costs therefore account for
a much higher proportion of the total publication
expenses), but also in that of larger languages. This
stems mainly from the invisibility which is almost
inherent to the act of translation. In a translated
work, the translators personal artistic contribution
is difficult to identify, and as long as the public
remains unaware of that contribution, he or she has
no symbolic capital with which to enter the market
as a cultural entrepreneur. Although under the
terms of the Copyright Act translators are considered
creators of original works of literature and, as such,
enjoy the same status as authors, in the everyday
practice of publishing, they are regarded as more or
less interchangeable. And in a purely economic sense
they are, given that the quality of a translation has
little impact on sales figures, except in the case of
works (almost exclusively in the public domain) of
which more than one translation exists. Translators
are important culture bearers, but the nature of their
work means that the market treats them as mere
drudges; they are the last item in the budget.
As a result, translators income in no way
reflects their level of education, their creative efforts
14

or the amount of time they invest in their work. The

problem recently became even more acute when the
NMa decided to abolish the agreed minimum rate.
A small storm of protest arose, which even elicited
questions in the House.20 But the discussion never
touched upon the main question at issue: does the
perceived economic advantage for the customer
outweigh the cultural harm caused by abandoning
the official rates?21 One may assume that those
rates and with them the quality of translation,
particularly in the unsubsidised sector will
decrease if the right to a fair share in the profits or
to collective price agreements is not laid down in the
Copyright Act.22

Translation subsidies

20 Parliamentary questions
(2060711590) by MP Mei Li Vos
(Labour) on 6 April 2007.
21 Interestingly, politicians did
ask this question with regard
to the fixed book price.
22 The provisional solution
adopted by the VvL and GAU
in consultation with the NMa
is to allow the market parties to set a reasonable and
prevalent rate each year on
the basis of historical data.
Most publishers in the literary
sector honour this gentlemens
agreement, though legally
speaking, the parties are free
to apply a different rate. The
literary foundations stipulate
this reasonable and prevalent
rate as a minimum condition
in grant applications.
23 See appendices 3 and 4.
24 CEATL survey.

Grants for translators, as issued by the FvdL and the

VFL, have helped to raise the level of translations. As
a result, quality is high in the subsidised sector in the
Netherlands and Flanders.23 For historical reasons,
however, that sector consists solely of literature in
the narrowest sense, the same category for which
the model contract and the GAU/VvL rate were
introduced. Outside the literary sector the situation
is much less satisfactory: rates are low (the market
rates in the Netherlands and Flanders are the lowest
of the richer European nations),24 and translation
contracts are not infrequently unfavourable. As a
result, professional translators tend to favour the
more lucrative literary sector.
Yet, particularly in an international and
European perspective, cultural-historical non-fiction
is just as worthy of translation as literary fiction. This
is borne out by the former genres growing popularity
(bucking the trend of the current bestseller culture,
with its almost exclusive focus on English-language
fiction) and its increasing prominence on the lists of
Dutch literary publishers.
The funds are interested in the possibility of
promoting the translation of quality non-fiction.
Where possible, the subsidy regulations are worded
in such a way as to include these texts, but the funds
15

Expanding the remit of

literary funds

are statutorily obliged to confine themselves to texts

of literary importance, and do not have the resources
to pursue an active non-fiction policy. Yet the
boundaries between literary and non-literary nonfiction are blurring, market pressure is increasing,
and demand is growing.
More financial resources would ensure
the continuity of a wide range of high-quality
translated literature (international classics, poetry,
cultural-historical works, biographies, works from
new language areas and literatures) that will do
precisely what translated literature should do: pique
curiosity and transfer knowledge.25 Translators play
an important role in this process, not just as the
creators of the text, but also as experts in another
culture; in short, as cultural mediators.

Bi-national system of
lifelong learning

The Netherlands and Flanders

25 A concrete plan in this context

is for the network of funds
to work together with their
foreign counterparts to draw
up a list of classic works of
literature that have not yet
been translated. The list will be
placed on a website together
with reviews and practical
information about publishers
and rights, with the assistance
of literary translators, who
can thus use their knowledge
of their literature to act as
ambassadors of their own
culture.
26 In terms of population, two
and a half times as big; in
terms of money spent on
books, over three times as big.
27 See the recent ELV questionnaire sent to Dutch and
Flemish publishers, in which
this is one of the main points.
28 Humbeeck, p. 87 et seq.

Separate attention should be given to the

relationship between Netherlands and Flanders in
the field of literary translation, because it is far from
equal. For historical reasons Flemish occupies a
peripheral place within the already semi-peripheral
position of Dutch among the global language system,
and this has far-reaching consequences for literary
translation. All the major literary publishers are
based in the Netherlands, and the Dutch market is
much bigger than the Flemish one.26 Both Dutch and
Flemish publishers accordingly prefer translators
from the Netherlands: though the richness of
Flemish is often appreciated in the case of original
work, translations are expected to be completely
free of southern Dutch linguistic influence.27 The
socioeconomic conditions for literary translators
in Flanders are also less favourable than for their
counterparts in the Netherlands. Consequently, far
fewer literary translators are active there, and most
only work part-time.28
Most Flemish translators realise that, to
succeed in their careers, they must try to balance
between standard Dutch and their own Belgian
variant. For this reason some specialise in genres
16

(poetry, classics) whose language is less rooted

in contemporary idiom.29 At an institutional level
too, promising attempts have been made (in the
form of proposals by the ELV, the Dutch Language
Union and the VFL) to strengthen the position of
Flemish translators: regular training courses for
Flemish translators in the Netherlands, subsidies for
Flemish and Dutch translators working in tandem
(mentor-student), etc. plans that could mostly be
implemented in the short term, but for which there
is no budget at present. Many problems could be
solved by introducing a bi-national system of lifelong
learning; an exchange programme of this kind
would represent a significant cultural and linguistic
enrichment for Dutch translators as well.
The Flemish Boekenoverleg (Book
Consultation), set up in the spring of 2008, is
dedicated to improving the socioeconomic position
of Flemish translators and authors. One of its
partners is the recently established and highly
active VAV, which is working on a number of
important matters: a model contract and a minimum
rate in consultation with Flemish publishers, the
introduction of a system of lending rights, a social
statute for writers and translators, etc.

29 Humbeeck, p. 94.

17

Ryszard Kapu
sci
nski, writer
Translators are the heroes of the
21st century [] By translating
texts from one language into
another we give others access to a
new world, and by explaining
those texts we bring that world
closer, we allow others to dwell in
it and share our personal
experience. Are we not indebted to
translators, who by their efforts
contribute greatly to expanding
our sphere of thought, deepening
our understanding, increasing our
knowledge and touching our
emotions?

Growing export

Translations from Dutch

have mushroomed

30 Johan Heilbron, 2007, p. 4.

31 By way of indication: the
NLPVFs database of trans
lations lists 1,430 titles
(including anthologies and
reprints) for the 1981-1990
period, 3,505 for the 1991-2000
period and 3,500 for the
2001-2007 period.

18

Translating from Dutch

It is of course impossible to lump together all

translations from Dutch, because the situation
differs per country and language area. Even within
Europe, countries have vastly different translation
traditions, depending on the position their language
occupies in the global language system. As a rule,
small language areas produce proportionately
more translations than large ones. In the case of
the language with the strongest position English
translations account for less than 5% of overall
book production, while for a less widely-spoken
language like Greek, that figure is 45%.30 The share
of source languages in total translation production
is governed by a similar rule of thumb: the stronger
the position of a source language, the more
translations will be made from it. But the recent
success of Dutch and Flemish literature, particularly
in countries like Germany and France, shows clearly
that other factors also play a role: literary fads,
subsidies for foreign publishers, good promotion
(such as the work done by the NLPVF and the VFL)
and of course purely content-related considerations
like themes and quality.
Translations from Dutch have indeed
mushroomed over the last decade.31 Publishers as
far away as China are buying Dutch and Flemish
books, despite the difficulty of finding translators.
At international book fairs like the Frankfurter
Buchmesse (which memorably spotlighted the
literature of the Low Countries in 1993) Dutch19

language literature has been very much in vogue for

years, and 2007 set a new record in the number of
titles sold. Foreign interest is expected to continue
rising.

The translators position

Fees the European

divide

The cultural, financial and contractual circum

stances in which all these books are translated
vary enormously from country to country. And
nowhere is the divide greater than in Europe,
where translators are kept busier than on any
other continent. A yawning gap exists between the
well-organised, reasonably well-paid Norwegian
translators, who are subsidised through lending
rights, and their extremely poorly-paid Italian
counterparts, who have scarcely any rights at
all. Roughly speaking, Europe can be divided
into two groups: countries where translators
can survive reasonably well on their work (the
Scandinavian countries, Germany, France, the UK,
the Netherlands/Flanders the latter heading
the subsidised sector, while coming last in the
unsubsidised sector), and countries where
conditions are so poor that there are almost
no professional literary translators, or where
translators are forced to produce such an incredible
volume of work that translations can hardly be said
to have any individual artistic value. In general,
it can be postulated that the vicious circle of
invisibility (low recognition> low pay> low quality>
low recognition) obtains everywhere, though the
degree of recognition, payment and quality varies
from country to country.

Subsidies

Active efforts and quality

incentives

The recent success of Dutch-language literature

abroad undoubtedly owes much to the active role
played by the NLPVF and the VFL, which propose
titles and issue subsidies on the condition that the
publishers pay translators the going rate. Account is
taken of distribution channels, promotional efforts,
20

32 Whereas the NLPVF received

only 39 applications in 1991,
by 1994 that number had risen
to 100, and in 2007 to 247. In
Flanders, 35 translations were
subsidised in 2000; by 2007 that
figure had almost doubled. See
appendices 3 and 6.

the publishers profile, the translation contract

and the proven quality of the proposed translator.
As with the number of translations in general,
the number of subsidised translations is growing
sharply.32 The German-language area remains
the largest customer, with over twice as many
applications as the French and English-language
areas combined. A notable trend of recent years is
increasing interest from Turkey, China and the new
EU member states, giving the relevant parties in the
Netherlands the opportunity to follow up on their
plans to focus on emerging countries and migrants
countries of origin. Finding qualified translators to
translate purchased works remains a considerable
problem; in the case of countries like China, special
training pathways have to be set up. Attempts are
being made through the ELV to devise a training
programme that will tie in with current market
demand, but these efforts are ad hoc rather than
systematic.
Apart from the Netherlands and Flanders,
few countries offer grants to working translators.
Only in Finland, Norway and Sweden is there an
established system of subsidies, derived from
public lending rights, that enables translators to
devote themselves full-time to high-quality literary
translation. The realisation that translators need
a healthy economic foundation so as to ensure a
flourishing, high-quality translation culture has
been slow in coming elsewhere on the continent;
many cultural policymakers are simply not aware
of the fundamental difference between translation
subsidies (given to publishers to influence supply)
and translators subsidies (given to translators to
improve the quality of translation). The Netherlands
and Flanders can convey to other member states the
huge boost that the FvdL and the VFL have given to
the quality of Dutch translation.

21

Translation centres and Europe

Regular European
support sought for
translation centres

33 It is interesting to note the

shift this concept has undergone in the language of policy
makers: whereas it initially
referred to the dialogue
between individual member
states, it is now (as in the Year
of Intercultural Dialogue) used
almost exclusively to refer to
the desired dialogue between
Europes indigenous and
ethnic-minority populations.

For translators, contact with the source language

and culture and with colleagues translating from
the same language is crucial. A relatively modest
but highly effective way of achieving this is the
translation centre system. Many European countries
now have one or two such centres, a number
of which are united in the RECIT network. The
translation centre of the Flemish regional authority,
which will be moving from Leuven to Antwerp in the
autumn of 2008, hosts fifteen translators a year. The
Amsterdam Translators House, funded by the NLPVF
and on a more ad hoc basis the EU, annually
provides accommodation to over forty translators
from more than twenty different countries. During
their stay, translators can work on their translations
(sometimes in consultation with their authors),
do research in libraries, exchange knowledge and
experience with colleagues from other countries,
and immerse themselves in the language and
culture from which they translate a model of
effectiveness in a sphere that is rightly designated
a pillar of European cultural policy: intercultural
dialogue.33
Between 2000 and 2006, the RECIT-affiliated
translation centres applied annually to the
European Commission for a one-year grant, which
they were almost always awarded. This was
possible because 9% of the total European culture
budget was earmarked for translating literature.
These funds were used to subsidise publishers,
international literary events and translation
centres, though, ironically, only after the NLPVF
and the Amsterdam Translators House, supported
by the Dutch Ministry of Education, Culture and
Science, had intervened in protest at the absence
of any reference to literature in the draft Culture
Programme. But in the new, non-sectoral Culture
Programme for 2007-2013 the situation has changed
completely; the Programme no longer provides for
a fixed literature budget, and all art forms have
to compete for European subsidies. This is a sad
22

illustration of Europes failure to comprehend its

own cultural identity: a Union in which translation
plays such a fundamental role, both culturally and
financially,34 should be more willing and betterplaced than any other institution to provide
ongoing support for literary translation, for instance
by maintaining a small-scale but highly effective
network of literary translation centres.35

34 According to Abram de Swaan,

in 1999 (i.e. before the latest
enlargement rounds) the EU
had an estimated translation
budget of between 700 million and 1.8 billion (Words of
the World, p. 172 and note61).
The Unions own estimate
was incidentally much
lower: 414million before
enlargement; 511 million
after (source: Special Report
No.9/2006 concerning translation expenditure incurred by
the Commission, the Parliament and the Council). The
discrepancy may be due to the
way in which the overhead is
included in the calculations.
35 Average budget per trans
lation centre per year: 250,000
(source: Amsterdam Trans
lators House).

23

August Willemsen, writer and

translator
Whereas the writers challenge
is the creation of a work of
literature, the translators
challenge lies in the fact that the
work has already been made.
This requires inventiveness,
craftsmanship, erudition,
scholarly knowledge, life
experience, but also self-denial
(which is not unlike acting talent),
and the patience to find the right
words in his own language.
From De taal als bril (Language as
spectacles), 1987

24

The educational
situation

The importance of specialised training

A translator needs
knowledge and skills

Like drama and classical music, literary translation

is a performing art that requires talent and vision,
skill and knowledge. Talent and vision, because
the relationship between the source text and the
translation is not mechanical, but subjective: like
musicians, translators ask themselves how to do
justice to an existing work of art while casting it
in a new form. The answer to this question will
vary from translator to translator, which is why,
under international copyright law, a translator is
considered to be the creator of a work of literature
and thus enjoys the same status as an author.
Yet realising this vision takes skill and above all,
knowledge. Just as conservatories exist for aspiring
musicians, appropriate training should be provided
for aspiring translators. Besides creativity and a
general flair for language, translators need a wide
range of intellectual tools: outstanding knowledge of
the source language and culture, an excellent active
command of the target language and culture, and
a strong appreciation for both the kinds of choices
they must constantly make and the tradition in
which they are working. All these instruments can
be acquired; indeed, the importance of knowledge
acquisition, both practical and theoretical, cannot
be overestimated. Furthermore, systematic study
of translation is crucial because research is the
lifeblood of education.

25

The situation in the Netherlands

A need for further study

36 Such programmes can be

found abroad, at Trinity College Dublin or the University of
Exeter, for example.

There is no separate track for literary translation

within the present Dutch education system. The only
tertiary-level translation programme of any kind,
offered by the School of Translation and Interpreting
at Hogeschool Zuyd (a college of higher professional
education in Maastricht) does not train literary
translators. To fill this gap a Vocational School of
Translation (Vertalersvakschool), where students
study part-time under experienced translators, was
recently opened in Amsterdam. However laudable,
this private initiative is no substitute for a fullfledged course of study at university level. Most of
the ageing core group of the current generation of
literary translators received their training at the
Institute of Translation (Instituut voor Vertaalkunde)
at the University of Amsterdam, redubbed the
Institute of Translation Studies (Instituut voor
Vertaalwetenschap) in 1980 and closed due to budget
cuts in 2000. Since then, there have been no other
translation programmes at university level, with the
possible exception of the MA programmes offered
by Utrecht University and Radboud University
Nijmegen in a limited number of foreign languages.
To be sure, translation in one form or another
is part of the curricula of nearly all universities,
and various translation classes have been set up
since the Dutch higher education system recently
adopted a Bachelors/Masters system. However, to
go by attainment targets, no single course of study
aspires to train students as literary translators. The
current MA programmes are only a year long, and
literary translation is just one aspect of the total
curriculum. For a cultural discipline requiring artistic
maturity and breadth of knowledge, one years
training is simply not enough. Two years would be
the minimum, but even then, there is a need for
further study, in the form of a system of lifelong
learning, which would also be open to established
translators.36 The Humbeeck report on the situation
of literary translators mentions the need for
ongoing, on-the-job training and the promotion of
26

expertise.37 The time needed to attain the necessary

level of expertise is considerable. This is borne out by
the experiences of the ELV, which has been offering
workshops, mentorships and master classes since
2001. Its input has boosted the number of novice
translators, as well as the quality of their work. The
ELV has concluded that it takes several years before
newly-qualified translators are fully competent to
work in their field.

The situation in Flanders

Full-fledged programme
of study for literary
translation

In Flanders, the responsibility for training translators

has traditionally fallen to the hogescholen, which
are institutes of higher professional education.
No Flemish university offers translation as a main
subject within the curriculum. Unfortunately, no
one thought to seize on the introduction of the
Bachelors/Masters system to give translation a place
in the new academic landscape. Training in literary
translation is limited to a brief, extracurricular
course at Leuven (taught by experienced translators)
and an occasional class on the subject at Antwerp.
Even those institutes that do offer translation
as a course of study do not have a full-fledged
programme of study for literary translation. Literary
translation receives no attention whatsoever in
Bachelors Programmes; in the case of Masters
Programmes the picture is mixed. Only the Lessius
Hogeschool (in Antwerp) places a clear emphasis on
literary translation: since 2007 it has offered a literary
translation workshop in English, French, German and
Spanish.

37 Humbeeck, p. 53.

The situation abroad

38 Some figures: in Germany

there are about 2,700 students
of Dutch; in France 2,200;
in Poland 500; in the Czech
Republic 270; in Hungary 300,
in Indonesia 250 at university
level and 2,500 in various nonacademic courses; in the UK
280, in Ireland 40 and in the US
610 (source: Dutch Language
Union).

There is considerable interest in the Dutch language

outside the Low Countries. Dutch is offered as a main
or subsidiary subject at over 200 foreign universities,
including colleges in Egypt and Morocco. Students
of Dutch in Germany actually far outnumber
students of German in the Netherlands.38 The Dutch
Language Union uses subsidies to encourage such
27

No single academic
programme is dedicated
to literary translation

programmes and provides centralised facilities for

the use of academic departments, lecturers and
students of Dutch. Literary translation plays only
a modest role abroad: indeed, no single academic
programme is dedicated solely to the discipline.
The rapidly growing demand for translators from
Dutch makes action necessary, especially in the
case of language areas that have no historical ties
to the Low Countries or the Dutch language and
where the number of cultural mediators is small
(Eastern Europe, Asia, the Arab world and the BRIC
countries [Brazil, Russia, India and China]). Until
recently the Language Union subsidised regular
literary translation modules at the universities of
Mnster, Paris, Berlin and London, but to respond
more flexibly to demand and better stimulate
potential talent, the Language Union, the ELV and
the NLPVF recently developed the project Translation
Workshops on Location, which will soon be launched
on a trial basis. A travelling group of instructors will
visit Dutch departments at foreign universities to
give literary translation workshops for advanced
students and graduates. Each series of workshops
will be devoted to the work of one author. If the
trial is successful the project will be deepened and
expanded. Students outside the Low Countries, too,
should benefit greatly from ongoing learning, in the
form of workshops, master classes and specialised
courses, all of which are already organised on a
regular basis by the Amsterdam Translators House,
the ELV and the VFL.

The ELV formula will have

to be further expanded

Expertise centre
In the mid-nineties, Dutch and Flemish higher
education institutions, the NLPVF, the Flemish
Ministry of Culture and the Dutch Language Union
worked together to provide further training and
professionalisation to translators from Dutch.
With the establishment of the ELV by the Language
Union in 2001 this policy was expanded to include
translations into Dutch, at the initiative of the
FvdL, the VFL and other parties. The ELV was also
28

39 Between 2001 and 2007 the ELV

organised 58 courses with 405
selected participants.

created to make better use of contacts with Dutch

departments at foreign universities to promote
the export of Dutch literature. The strength of this
formula lies in the unique collaboration between
the literary funds and colleges/universities across
the entire language area. It enables established,
respected translators to work as instructors and
mentors, and publishers and editors to give guest
lectures on the day-to-day workings of the publishing
world. In this way a network of expertise is built up,
which can be used by all parties. To meet its dual
goal (training new translators and enhancing the
quality of active translators), the ELV has various
tools at its disposal: intensive courses, workshops
on themes of interest to the working translator,
and individual mentorships (whereby a novice
translator working on an actual assignment receives
guidance from an experienced colleague). All this is
accomplished on the relatively modest budget of
200,000 a year. The ELV has been in operation for
over six years, and the formula is beginning to bear
fruit.39 The Centre was therefore recently expanded,
prompting a name change from Steunpunt (support
centre) to Expertisecentrum (expertise centre). But it
is not enough: many language combinations are not
covered, demand is greater than supply, and the lack
of a solid, uniform grounding in the discipline (in the
form of a degree programme in literary translation)
means that the abilities of incoming translators
differ, despite the strict selection process. In the light
of these pressures, the existing formula will have to
be further expanded in the future: more mentorships,
more courses, more language combinations. The ELV
could also play a greater role abroad, by working
with Dutch departments that cannot give full
attention to the subject of translation. All these
things will require more resources.
The first step has thus been taken, but the link
between higher education and real-life professional
demands is too tenuous. This is true whether Dutch
is the source or the target language: the ELV amasses
expertise, but its ad hoc, demand-driven working
methods prevent it from employing that expertise
29

systematically. Moreover, the progression from

journeyman to master often lacks continuity. This
should be remedied by instituting a continuous
system of ongoing learning, consisting of courses
at the highest level. World-class literature deserves
world-class translators.

30

Osip Mandelstam, poet and

translator
If not protected from himself, a
good translator wears out quickly.
Translation is, in the strictest sense
of the expression, an unhealthy
occupation. With the meagre
income that their work provides,
professional translators have to
churn out texts like blinis book
after book, year in year out. This
ceaseless activity makes them
prey to nervous exhaustion. They
are at higher risk of aphasia,
impairments of the speech centre,
the breakdown of communication
skills, and acute neurasthenia.
Work-related disabilities of
this kind must be studied and
prevented. (Letter to the Union of
Soviet Writers, 1929)

31

Recommendations

A new degree programme for translators

Literary translation
requires an academic
level of knowledge

As argued above, the demand for qualified trans

lators (from all languages, though especially English
and less widely-spoken tongues) is increasing all
the time, while the pool of translators is ageing and
substantial pressures exist on overall translation
quality. The demand for translators from Dutch
is also expected to grow, even while educational
opportunities are limited. The only way of ensuring
both a sufficient supply and quality is to establish
a new degree programme that will train translators
from and into Dutch.
In the Netherlands there are a number of good
reasons for embedding such a programme of study
in the existing academic curriculum. Knowledge of
both foreign languages and the theoretical aspects
of translation is concentrated at universities, so it
is there that specialised translation skills can be
cultivated most efficiently. Literary translation is
a creative activity that requires an academic level
of knowledge and critical thinking skills. Without
research, theoretical reflection and historical
knowledge, the education of a literary translator
is incomplete. A university-level translation course
will open new career opportunities for graduates
and potentially attract more students, thus
strengthening programmes in the smaller languages.
Another important argument in favour of such a
degree programme, given the present lowly status
of the profession, is the anticipated sociocultural
effect: elevating literary translation to the level of
32

40 The upward trend in the

number of new language and
culture students at Dutch
universities since the low point
of 2003 is a hopeful sign with
respect to the next generation
of translators. (see appendix 1)

a main subject at a university can raise the status

of the field as a whole, helping to break the vicious
circle of invisibility and neglect. This will in turn give
the profession greater recognition and attract more
students. Most importantly, though, integrating
this proposed programme of study into existing
structures is the best way of guaranteeing the
quality of the education provided and maintaining
a strong connection to the earlier stages of the
curriculum, which is devoted to acquiring the needed
language and translation skills in the students
respective languages.40 Flexible structuring will make
it possible to bring in specialists from outside the
academic community (experienced translators from
and into Dutch, literary critics, publishers, etc.). This
is crucial for the ultimate goal: imparting knowledge
and skills that will enable professional literary
translators to start working immediately after
completing their studies. To this end, we must work
to close the gap between the academic level attained
by graduates and the current range of mentorships,
workshops, etc. offered by the ELV.
The best way to integrate literary translation
as a specialisation within the regular curriculum
would be to introduce a one-year initial Masters
Programme in translation followed by another
one-year course, to be financed with additional
resources. This arrangement offers a number of
unique advantages: significant latitude in designing
the syllabus, admission requirements that can
be adapted to real-life professional demands, the
option of admitting lateral entry students, facilities
for welcoming talented foreign translators from
Dutch through a system of fellowships, and not
least of all, the opportunity for bi-national (DutchFlemish) or international collaboration in the form of
exchange programmes for students and instructors
alike, a form of educational cross-pollination that is
especially well-suited to the field of translation. If
a course of study like the one being proposed is set
up in the Netherlands, the institutions involved can
establish contact with Flemish institutions where
literary translation is already part of the curriculum.
33

For Flemish students, a bi-national degree pro

gramme is an excellent chance to spend time in the
Netherlands and familiarise themselves with the
idiom expected by the major Dutch publishing firms.
For Dutch students, a stay in Flanders can enrich
their personal linguistic storehouse and broaden
their cultural horizon. The translation expertise that
exists in the Netherlands and Flanders can thus be
made doubly fertile. It seems self-evident that the
course should be offered in those places that possess
the most expertise in literary translation.41

2.

Lifelong learning and professional development

3.
Lifelong learning

41 See appendix 7 for a blueprint for a Masters Degree in

Literary Translation.

A course of study devoted to literary translation

is only meaningful if it reflects the profession as
it is actually practised. Traditionally, translation
is an occupation with a high drop-out rate,
especially among beginners, who find it hard to
get assignments (publishers see inexperienced
translators as a risk), are not yet eligible for
subsidies and have no professional network to
consult about work-related questions and problems.
Publishers lack the resources necessary to support
neophytes and give translators little feedback on
their work. It is therefore up to the parties behind
this pamphlet to work closely with publishing
houses and the educational institutions that will
offer the degree programme to meet these various
needs by:
1.
Actively supporting novice translators during
the most difficult stage of their careers, by
providing mentorships, workshops, flexible
master classes, and practical information and
guidance a direct form of supervision that
will also benefit the quality of the translators
work. This whole process depends on the
coordination and organisation of the ELV,
which must be further strengthened if it is to
play this key role. With more resources the ELV
can better serve departments of Dutch abroad,
with which the Dutch Language Union has
close ties as a policymaking body.
34

4.

35

Devoting special attention to the position

of Flemish translators. With the help of
mentorships, classes, and subsidised partner
ships with Dutch translators, novice Flemish
translators can chip away at their double
handicap (unfamiliarity with the standard
language and the difficulty of getting work
from publishers in the Netherlands). The
network they will build up in the Netherlands,
of both colleagues and publishers, will be
invaluable, especially given that this system
of lifelong learning is structured around the
involvement of the publishing houses.
Supervising translators from Dutch, who, after
completing their degree in Dutch at a foreign
university and obtaining a postgraduate degree
(preferably in the Netherlands or Flanders),
will be able to take advantage of workshops,
courses, master classes and possibly mentor
ships early on in their careers.
Offering experienced translators the option
of refresher courses and on-the-job training.
As we have discussed, the profession
requires tremendous creative energy year
in, year out. Burnout is commonplace, and
it is therefore important that translators be
given opportunities for further professional
development, greater specialisation, research,
and the chance to utilise their skills in a
broader cultural context. The literary funds, the
Dutch Language Union and the ELV accordingly
want to set up workshops and courses for
this group. These educational opportunities
will serve a dual purpose. On the one hand,
translators will be given a chance to immerse
themselves in a certain aspect of the profession
or become acquainted with new developments
in the field, while on the other, the intensive
interaction with colleagues will motivate
translators and enhance the quality of their
work.

Regular contact with the cultures of both the source

and target language is crucial for all translators,
whatever their nationality or level of experience.
They should therefore be given more opportunities
to visit or even live in the homeland of their writers
and conduct research, build networks, work on
translations in short, to fulfil their role as cultural
mediators. But cultural mediation is a two-way
street, and literary translators can also function as
representatives of their own cultures abroad. In more
specific terms this could mean creating fellowships
at foreign universities and research institutions,
where translators could take an active involvement
in the educational programmes for the language
and discipline they have chosen as their careers. The
Flemish and Dutch government should make these
kinds of cross-border initiatives a top priority.

Increasing visibility

2.

Boosting the position of the translator

Maintaining
the minimum rate

42 Humbeeck, p. 36.

Although the overall situation of Dutch and Flemish

translators compares favourably to that of their
foreign colleagues, thanks to the subsidies provided
by the FvdL and the VFL, the Humbeeck report
reaffirms that literary translators are underpaid,
which leads them to take on too heavy a workload.42
This problem, which is practically inherent to the
professions lowly, undervalued status, directly
affects translation quality. It would be nave to
imagine that a solution is just round the corner. Yet
there are steps the government can take. These fall
into two broad categories:
1.
Protecting the economic position of literary
translators. Since a fixed minimum rate
is against the law in the Netherlands, on
account of European anti-cartel legislation,
translators no longer have a firm guarantee
that publishers will pay the going rate. The
quality of a translation has little effect on
sales figures, so publishers seek to keep fees
low, especially in the case of books that were
not bestsellers in their original language
and therefore tend to have small print runs.
36

37

Although the literary funds may ensure that

subsidised publishers pay translators at least
a minimum rate, the harm caused by floating
rates in the non-subsidised segment of the
market, and thus to the translation sector
as a whole, will be considerable. The obvious
solution, on which the VvL and the GAU have
already reached agreement, is to include a
provision in the Copyright Act that either
permits collective price agreements between
authors and publishers or stipulates a fair
profit-sharing arrangement for the creator (as
in the new German copyright act). In Flanders
this is not yet an issue; there, the VAV and the
VUV are drafting a model contract and setting a
minimum rate. Yet it cant hurt to be proactive.
Taking initiatives to increase the visibility
of the translators. One of the most obvious
is to enable them to make use of their
expertise in areas that go beyond translation
in the strictest sense. Translators can act as
ambassadors in the source-language country
(see above, under Ongoing learning and
professional development) and scouts and
mediators in their own countries (especially
for the smaller languages, where few literary
agents and scouts are active). They can give
lectures and take part in educational projects.
Organisations like the SSS and the Flemish
Reading Association, which have considerable
knowledge and experience in that area, can
lend their support to these activities. All
this will have the double benefit of not only
unlocking a major, hitherto untapped source
of cultural expertise, but also strengthening
the cultural and economic position of the
translator. This will require additional
resources.

Translation and
production subsidies for
difficult books

Promoting literary diversity

Literary diversity is under threat. The literary funds
face the important challenges of protecting and,
wherever possible, expanding this diversity: difficult
books or genres pose a direct risk for publishers and
demand a great deal of expertise and time on the
part of the translator. Fortunately, there are still
publishers out there who are willing to take that risk,
but the translators fee is often a major stumbling
block. Through a combination of translation and
production subsidies these difficult books, which
are often an established part of the literary canon,
can reach a new audience without placing an undue
burden on the translator. To accomplish this, the
funds request greater financial scope.
Translations of culturally significant works of
non-fiction play an essential part at the interface
of art and knowledge. Literary translators are
exceptionally well equipped to unlock these texts
for Dutch readers. Because much non-literary nonfiction (e.g. cultural-historical texts) falls outside the
mandate of the literary funds and is thus ineligible
for subsidies, professional translators generally
prefer to work on literary projects. Increasing scope
for funding translations of non-literary fiction would
greatly benefit the quality of such translations.

Separate status for

literature in the European
Culture Programme

translation of literature, in the broadest sense of

the term, is the most privileged form of intercultural
dialogue, and as argued above, it is through their
written tradition that cultures preserve their capital.
For Europe, literary translation is not just
any art form, it is the art form that embodies and
facilitates European cultural unity. In deciding
whether to support it, e.g. through regular subsidies
for translators centres, the EU should not look at
sporadic partnerships between parties from several
member states, but rather at those qualities that
make this exchange into a true dialogue: the tangible
interaction of cultures, the sharing of ideas and
values, and the understanding that emerges from
this. If this multilingual continent truly wants to
take its cultural diversity seriously and promote
intercultural dialogue to enhance the cultural area
shared by Europeans, as claimed in the EUs own
policy documents,43 it will have to give the member
states written tradition a separate status in the next
Culture Programme (2014-2021). As Umberto Eco has
said, The language of Europe is translation.44

Intercultural dialogue
In the current, non-sectoral European Culture
Programme for 2007-2013, regular support is given
only to major cultural organisations that operate
in at least seven member states. The EU wants to
promote intercultural dialogue in the (correct) belief
that such a dialogue forms the core of European
citizenship. Yet the Union misunderstands its own
basic assumption: it is not the organised cacophony
of seven or more voices talking over one another
that gives Europe its polyphony, but the sum total
of all cross-cultural exchanges that have been taking
place across the old continent for centuries, despite
(and even because of) the language barriers. The
38

43 Decision No. 1855/2006/EC of

the European Parliament and
of the Council of 12 December
2006 establishing the Culture
Programme (2007-2013).
44 Umberto Eco, The Search for
the Perfect Language.

39

Rien Verhoef, translator

Translators are the caretakers
of our language.
(Utrecht Translation Days, 2007)

Appendices
Appendix 1
A. Students entering Dutch universities, 1991-2006 source: VSNU
50,000
45,000
40,000
35,000
30,000
25,000
20,000
15,000
10,000
5,000

1991

1992

1993 1994

1995

1996 1997

1998

1999

2000

2001 2002 2003

2004 2005

2006

Intake of language students

4346

3705

2727 2445

2251

2094 2021

2011

1956

1763

1893 1748 1609

1743 1788

1966

Total intake

46612 45225 42103 39385 34774 34010 34717 36571 37928 37918 40852 41499 42679 43559 43806 44315

Intake of language students

Total intake

B. Language students entering Dutch universities, 1991-2006 source: VSNU

10.0%
9.0%
8.0%
7.0%
6.0%
5.0%
4.0%
3.0%
2.0%
1.0%

0.0%

1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001

2002 2003 2004

2005 2006

Intake of language
students in % 9.3% 8.2% 6.5% 6.2% 6.5% 6.2% 5.8% 5.5% 5.2% 4.6% 4.6% 4.2% 3.8% 4.0% 4.1% 4.4%

40

41

Appendix 2

C. Share of source languages in total translation production, 1946-1997

figures: Stichting Speurwerk, source: Johan Heilbron

The figures on Dutch book production are derived from two sources:
Stichting Speurwerk (figures provided by Johan Heilbron, covering the
period up to 1997) and the National Library of the Netherlands list of
recognised publishers, the A list (general figures are available from
1975 and figures on specific genres from 1985). The figures provided by
the two sources do not correspond exactly for the overlapping period,
but they show similar trends.

80
70
60
50
40
30

A. Book production, 1900-1997 (total figures and reprints)

figures: Stichting Speurwerk, source: Johan Heilbron

20

20,000

10

18,000

16,000

14,000

1946

1950

English

1954

1958

1962

German

1966

1970

French

1974

1978

1982

1986

1990

1995

1986

1990

1995

Other

12,000
D. Share of translations in total book production, per language, 1946-1997
figures: Stichting Speurwerk, source: Johan Heilbron

10,000
8,000

25

6,000
4,000

20

2,000

1900

1915

Total

1925

1935

1945

1955

1965

1975

1985

15

1995

Reprints

10
B. Share of translations in total book production, 1946-1997
Stichting Speurwerk, source: Johan Heilbron
5
35%
30%
25%

20%

1946
English

1950

1954

German

15%
10%
5%

0%

1946

1950

1954

42

1958

1962

1966

1970

1974

1978

1982

1986

1990

1958

1995

43

1962

1966
French

1970

1974

1978

Other

1982

E.Book production (including reprints) and share of translations, 1975-2005

source: A List, National Library of the Netherlands

G.Share of source languages in total translation production, 1975-2005

source: A List, National Library of the Netherlands

18,000

80%

16,000

70%

14,000

60%

12,000

50%

10,000

40%

8,000

30%

6,000

20%

4,000

10%

2,000

0%

1975

1980

1985

1990

1995

2000

2005

English

56.98%

57.08%

57.74%

62.37%

72.25%

72.47%

75.51%

1975

1980

1985

1990

1995

2000

2005

German

17.22%

18.02%

16.37%

15.58%

10.25%

13.16%

9.98%

Written in Dutch

7975

12880

7900

8262

9383

9343

9441

French

16.56%

14.41%

15.61%

12.13%

8.05%

4.94%

5.46%

Translated works

2422

3679

3043

3851

4731

5038

5181

Other

9.25%

10.49%

10.29%

9.92%

9.45%

9.43%

9.05%

Written in Dutch Translated works

F.Share of translations in total book production, 1975-2005

source: A List, National Library of the Netherlands

English

German

French

Other

H.Share of source languages in total translation production, 2005

source: A List, National Library of the Netherlands

40%
35%

Swedish
2%

Russian
Norwegian 0%
Spanish 1%
Italian 1%
1%

Other
4%

30%
French
5%

25%
20%

German
10%

15%
10%
5%

0%

Translated
works

English
76%
1975

1980

1985

1990

1995

23.30%

22.22%

27.81%

31.79%

33.79%

44

2000
34.81%

2005
35.43%

45

Appendix 4

I.Share of translations in total book translation production per genre, 1985-2005

source: A List, National Library of the Netherlands

Number of grants awarded by the FvdL; project grants for translators, 2000-2007 Source: FvdL
80%
300
70%
250
60%
200
50%
150
40%
100
30%
50
20%
0

10%

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

118

149

167

205

190

228

224

246

Project
grants awarded

0%

1985

1990

1995

2000

2005

Prose (novels/novellas)

59.14%

65.71%

69.37%

69.46%

71.38%

Childrens books/comic books

42.83%

53.01%

53.83%

45.75%

40.82%

Plays

57.69%

60.00%

50.00%

23.53%

46.81%

Poetry

12.85%

9.56%

18.81%

23.01%

9.41%

Philosophy, psychology

48.28%

50.22%

46.79%

51.30%

45.34%

History, biography

12.24%

22.55%

21.26%

30.47%

31.51%

Sociology, statistics

14.16%

12.68%

11.34%

8.42%

12.54%

Prose

Poetry

Childrens books/comic books

Sociology, statistics

Philosophy, psychology

Appendix 5
The translations database predominantly lists works of literary fiction
(rather than a wider cross-section of genres), though it gives a good
indication of trends.

Plays
History, biography

Translations from Dutch, 1941-2000 Source: NLPVF translations database

4000

Appendix 3

3500
3000

Number of grants awarded by the VFL Source: VFL

60

2500

50

2000

40

1500

30

1000

20

500

10

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

Production subsidies
for foreign publishers

35

25

33

39

32

42

41

50

Grants for translators

in the Netherlands

35

35

26

30

25

28

16

23

1941-1950

1951-1960

1961-1970

1971-1980

1981-1990

French

84

59

112

83

192

440

German

104

210

219

129

429

1304

English

23

61

129

241

284

550

Other

74

100

243

393

586

1508

Total

285

430

703

846

1491

3802

French

Production subsidies for foreign publishers

46

1991-2000

German

Grants for translators in the Netherlands

47

English

Other

Total

Appendix 6

Appendix 7
Number of foreign grants awarded by the NLPVF Source: NLPVF

Blueprint for a Masters Programme in Literary Translation

250

Languages
Choice of four Western languages (German, English, French and Spanish) as source
languages, with Dutch as source and target language.

200
150
100

Intake
25 students a year (around five per language)

50
0

1991

awarded 33
Number

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

50

85

95

112

112

97

119

120

137

131

144

156

164

205

182

225

Entry requirements
Students will be selected on the basis of talent and proven ability to translate and
must have:
1. earned a Bachelors Degree in one of the target languages offered, including Dutch
as a foreign language, or achieved an equivalent level of linguistic competence in
one of the five languages, or
2. completed a Bachelors module in Translation and a Bachelors module in
Translation Studies, or
3. completed at least one year of a Masters Programme in Translation or an equivalent
(one-year) Mastersin the field of translation and translation studies.
Programme
The one-year Masters Programme in Translation offered by the University of Utrecht
has been used as a model for the type of entry qualifications that would be required.
The Utrecht programme comprises two translation studies courses (15 ECTS credits), two
specialised translation courses (15 ECTS credits) and a graduation track (30 ECTS credits)
consisting of a project, translation or Masters thesis (20 ECTS credits) and the option
of either a work experience placement or an in-depth course (10 ECTS credits). Students
who are subsequently admitted to the Masters Programme in Literary Translation will
follow a one-year course (60 ECTS credits) centring on Dutch, which is offered as a source
and target language. The programme will comprise the following components:
1. two top-level literary translation courses, offering a variety of genres and styles
(2 x 7.5 ECTS credits);
2. a translation workshop taught by a prominent literary translator (guest lecturer,
10 ECTS credits);
3. a Dutch writing course (style and composition, 10 ECTS credits);
4. six annual guest lectures, to be given by a translator, an expert in the field of
translation studies or a translator-in-residence (includes a writing assignment;
5 ECTS credits);
5. a graduation project in the form of a publishable literary translation, produced
under the supervision of a mentor, combined with a theoretical component relating
to translation studies (20 ECTS credits).

48

49

Exchanges and fellowships

Components 1, 4 and 5 will make use of exchange options between universities, institutes
of higher professional education and cultural institutions. A bi-national (Flemish-Dutch)
or international structure would increase these options. Five annual fellowships will be
awarded to talented trainee translators, mostly foreign students of Dutch.
Costs
Costs have been projected on the basis of costs currently incurred by Dutch universities
(which in 2008 charge a tuition fee of 1,565). Annual revenue would thus be 39,125
(25 x 1,565). Annual expenditure would be:
1. teaching staff (5 languages x 0.3 FTE + 0.3 FTE overhead = 1.8 FTE)
180,000
2. coordinator (0.3 FTE)
24,000
3. secretariat (0.36 FTE)
12,000
4. PR and run-up costs
15,000
5. external lecturers (master class, 6 lectures, travel and

accommodation)
42,000
6. 5 fellowships for foreign students (5 x 7,500)
37,500
7. minus tuition fee revenue
39,125

Total costs of the Masters Programme
271,375
Ultimately, part of the above costs will have to be defrayed by the institutions involved
in the programme. Both the costs of the external lecturers and fellowships (5 and 6) and
of preparation and development (2, 3 and 4) would have to be included in the budget and
guaranteed for a number of years.
We recommend that a team of experts be charged with devising and setting up this new
Masters Programme, which should be bi-national and of an inter-university nature.

50

Appendix 8
To the Committee of Ministers,
To the Ministers of Education and Culture of the Netherlands and Flanders,
Amsterdam/Brussels, May 2008

In 2006 the Dutch literary manifesto De uitkijkpost van

de literatuur (The observatory of literature) stressed
the importance of a flourishing culture of literary
translation. The 2007 Ten-Point Programme of the Flemish
Boekenoverleg called for a greater focus on the cultural
and socioeconomic aspects of literary translation. As
cultural ambassadors, literary translators are exceptionally
well qualified to make cultural traditions accessible. Both
the Netherlands and Flanders have a long established,
highly-developed translation culture, thanks in part to
the subsidies provided by our literary funds, which serve
as an example to other European countries. The number
of translations from and into Dutch continues to rise, but
the profession finds itself under increasing pressure, in
terms of both quality and quantity. Although the funds,
the Dutch Language Union and the Expertise Centre for
Literary Translation (ELV) have been working hard to
preserve the knowledge and experience that have been
amassed over the years, these efforts alone cannot ensure
that connections with other cultures and literatures will
be maintained. The pool of translators is ageing, and it is
therefore necessary to create a system of lifelong learning,
of which a degree programme in literary translation is a
crucial component. In the section on literature in its 2007
policy memorandum Innoveren, participeren! (Innovate,
participate!), the Dutch Council for Culture endorses the
importance of a translation programme at university level
and stresses the need for the support of the respective
ministries of education and culture in developing such a
programme. The Dutch Foundation for Literature (FvdL),
the Foundation for the Production and Translation of Dutch
Literature (NLPVF), the Flemish Literature Fund (VFL), the
Dutch Language Union and the ELV recommend that the
ministers:
51

Masters Programme in
Literary Translation

Scholarships for aspiring

translators from Dutch

Expand system of
mentorships
Intensify translation
workshops
Intensify travelling
programme

Extra support for Flemish

translators

Fellowships

52

Undertake, sometime in the near future, to establish

a flexible Masters Programme in Literary Translation
for translators from and into Dutch, preferably in
the framework of a bi-national or multinational
partnership. Start-up costs = 50,000.
Over the course of the next four years, enable the funds
and the ELV to further expand their system of lifelong
learning for translators working from and into Dutch, in
close collaboration with the new Masters Programme
and the literary publishers by:
1. instituting a system of scholarships for aspiring
literary translators from Dutch, especially those
from economically weaker countries, to optimise
their education and training inside and outside the
Dutch language area (five scholarships a year at
9,000 each, including enrolment costs and tuition)
= 45,000 a year;
2. enlarging the system of mentorships by doubling
the current funding = 20,000 a year;
3. intensifying the translation workshop programme,
especially for translators from Turkey, the Arab
world and the BRIC countries= 25,000 a year;
4. increasing funding for the travelling programme,
in which translation experts from the Netherlands
and Flanders visit the Dutch departments of foreign
colleges and universities = 25,000 a year;
5. providing additional educational opportunities for
Flemish translators (five special mentorships and
five dual translations) = 30,000 a year.

The amounts given above are calculated on the basis
of the current distribution formula 2/3 (Netherlands),
1/3 (Flanders).
Increase travel and research opportunities for
translators from and into Dutch. Translators fulfil an
important role as cultural mediators. Cultural mediation
is always a two-way street, and when abroad, literary
translators are excellently placed to act as ambassadors
of their own cultures. We propose to:
1. initiate a number of fellowships that will enable
professional literary translators to conduct
workshops at foreign universities and other
educational institutions (3 x10,000) = 30,000;

Travel grants for translation

centres
Increase the public visibility
of translators

Protect diversity

Translating culturally
significant non-fiction

Separate status for

literary translation in
the European Culture
Programme

Legal price agreements

53

2. institute a number of travel grants that will

enable translators into Dutch to stay at European
translation centres (25 x 250) = 6,250.
Increase the public visibility of literary translators,
which can also contribute significantly to the image of
the profession overall. To this end, financial scope will
have to be created for co-financing of projects through
the Schrijvers School Samenleving and the Flemish
Reading Association = 30,000 a year.
Enable the literary funds to protect and, wherever
possible, increase literary diversity: difficult books
or genres pose a direct risk for the publisher and
demand a great deal of expertise and time on the
part of the translator. Through a combination of
translation and production subsidies these difficult
books (often classics of world literature) can reach a
new audience without placing an undue burden on the
translator. 100,000 a year would enable about ten such
translations to be made.
Enable the funds to do more to provide scholarships for
the translation of culturally important works of nonfiction into Dutch. All over the world these translations
play an essential part at the interface of art and
knowledge. Because a great deal of non-literary nonfiction (e.g. cultural-historical texts) falls outside the
mandate of the literary funds and is thus ineligible for
subsidies, professional translators generally prefer to
work on literary projects. Increasing scope for funding
translations of non-literary fiction would greatly benefit
the quality of such translations.
Do more to highlight the importance of literary
translation in a European context and insist that the
written tradition and the European translation centres
be given a special status in the next European Culture
Programme for 2014-2021.
Amend the Copyright Act so as to permit or even require
price agreements between authors and publishers.
This is crucial if self-employed translators are to have a
viable future.
The amounts given above are calculated on the basis of
the current distribution formula 2/3
(Netherlands), 1/3 (Flanders).

Bibliography
Articles and books
Casanova, Pascale. La Rpublique mondiale des lettres. Paris: Le Seuil, 1999.
Cronin, Michael. Translation and Globalization. London: Routledge, 2003.
Cronin, Michael. Translation and Identity. London: Routledge, 2006.
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Eco, Umberto. The Search for the Perfect Language. Translated from the Italian by James
Fentress. Amsterdam: Agon, 1995.
Frequin, Michel. Auteursrechtgids voor de Nederlandse praktijk. The Hague: Sdu, 2005.
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Heilbron, Johan & Gisle Sapiro. Outline for a Sociology of Translation: Current Issues
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Allen, Esther (ed.). To be translated or not to be. PEN/IRL report on the international
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Cronin, Michael. Europa: Bringing Europe to Book? Literature and the promotion of
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Humbeeck, Kris. Informatie-uitwisseling in het literaire veld in Vlaanderen en Nederland.
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betekenis van het Fonds voor de Letteren in het algemeen en voor schrijvers en
vertalers in het bijzonder. Tilburg: IVA, 1988.
IJdens, T. et al. Auteurs en hun oudedagsvoorziening: rapport van een onderzoek op verzoek
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Rotterdam: Erasmus Centrum voor Kunst- en Cultuurwetenschappen, 1995.

54

55

Colophon
This pamphlet is a joint publication of the Dutch Language Union, the Expertise Centre for
Literary Translation, the Dutch Foundation for Literature, the Flemish Literature Fund and the
Foundation for the Production and Translation of Dutch Literature.
Research and text: Martin de Haan and Rokus Hofstede. Translation: Jane Hedley-Prle and
S.J. Leinbach. Design: Philip Stroomberg. Print: Mart.Spruijt bv. Amsterdam, Brussels. May 2008.