Chapter 12

Combustion
12.1 COMBUSTION EQUATIONS

Let us begin our review of this particular variety of chemical-reaction equations by considering the
combustion of propane in a pure oxygen environment. The chemical reaction is represented by
C,H,

+ 50,

3c0, + 4H,O

(12.1)

Note that the number of moles of the elements on the left-hand side may not equal the number of
moles on the right-hand side. However, the number of atoms of an element must remain the same
before, after, and during a chemical reaction; this demands that the mass of each element be
conserved during combustion.
In writing the equation we have demonstrated some knowledge of the products of the reaction.
Unless otherwise stated we will assume complete combustion: the products of the combustion of a
hydrocarbon fuel will be H,O and CO,. Incomplete combustion results in products that contain H,,
CO, C, and/or OH.
For a simple chemical reaction, such as (12.1), we can immediately write down a balanced
chemical equation. For more complex reactions the following systematic method proves useful:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Set the number of moles of fuel equal to 1.

Balance CO, with number of C from the fuel.
Balance H,O with H from the fuel.
Balance 0, from CO, and H,O.

For the combustion of propane we assumed that the process occurred in a pure oxygen
environment. Actually, such a combustion process would normally occur in air. For our purposes we
assume that air consists of 21% 0, and 79% N, by volume so that for each mole of 0, in a reaction
we will have
mol N,
-79_ - 3.76 (12.2)
21
mol0,
Thus, on the (simplistic) assumption that N, will not undergo any chemical reaction, (12.1) is replaced
by
(12.3)
C,H, + 5 ( 0 , + 3.76N2) 3c0, + 4H,O + 18.8N2
The minimum amount of air that supplies sufficient 0, for the complete combustion of the fuel is
called theoretical air or stoichiometric air. When complete combustion is achieved with theoretical air,
the products contain no O,, as in the reaction of (12.3). In practice, it is found that if complete
combustion is to occur, air must be supplied in an amount greater than theoretical air. This is due to
the chemical kinetics and molecular activity of the reactants and products. Thus we often speak in
terms of percent theoretical air or percent excess air, where
% theoretical air

100% + % excess air

(12.4)

Slightly insufficient air results in CO being formed; some hydrocarbons may result from larger
deficiencies.
The parameter that relates the amount of air used in a combustion process is the air-fuel ratio
( A F ) ,which is the ratio of the mass of air to the mass of fuel. The reciprocal is the fuel-air ratio (FA).
Thus

AF

mair
= rn fuel

FA

27 1

fuel

= -

m air

(12.5)

272

COMBUSTION

[CHAP. 12

Again, considering propane combustion with theoretical air as in (12.3), the air-fuel ratio is
(12.6)
where we have used the molecular weight of air as 29 kg/kmol and that of propane as 44 kg/kmol. If,
for the combustion of propane, AF > 15.69, a lean mixture occurs; if AF < 15.69, a rich mixture
results.
The combustion of hydrocarbon fuels involves H,O in the products of combustion. The calculation of the dew point of the products is often of interest; it is the saturation temperature at the partial
pressure of the water vapor. If the temperature drops below the dew point, the water vapor begins to
condense. The condensate usually contains corrosive elements, and thus it is often important to
ensure that the temperature of the products does not fall below the dew point.
EXAMPLE 12.1 Butane is burned with dry air at an air-fuel ratio of 20. Calculate ( a ) the percent excess air,
( b ) the volume percentage of CO, in the products, and ( c ) the dew-point temperature of the products.
The reaction equation for theoretical air is

C 4 H l o+ 6 . 5 ( 0 ,

+ 3.76N2)

-+

4c02+ 5H,O

+ 24.44N2

( a ) The air-fuel ratio for theoretical air is

m,i,
(6.5)(4.76)( 29)
AFth = - (1) (58)
m fuel

15.47

kg air
kg fuel

This represents 100% theoretical air. The actual air-fuel ratio is 20. The excess air is then

( b ) The reaction equation with 129.28% theoretical air is

C4H,, + (6.5)(1.2928)(0, + 3.76N2) + 4 c o 2

+ 5 H 2 0 + 1.9030, + 31.6N2

The volume percentage is obtained using the total moles in the products of combustion. For CO, we have
% CO,
(c)

(&)(loo%)

9.41%

To find the dew-point temperature of the products we need the partial pressure of the water vapor. It is
found using the mole fraction to be

P,.= yHzoPatm=

(A)(

100)

11.76 kPa

where we have assumed an atmospheric pressure of 100 kPa. Using Table C-2 we find the dew-point
temperature to be Td+,= 49C.
EXAMPLE 12.2 Butane is burned with 90% theoretical air. Calculate the volume percentage of C O in the
products and the air-fuel ratio. Assume no hydrocarbons in the products.
For incomplete combustion we add C O to the products of combustion. Using the reaction equation from
Example 12.1,

C,H,,,

+ (0.9)(6.5)(0, + 3.76N2)

-+

aCO,

+ 5 H 2 0 + 22N, + bCO

With atomic balances on the carbon and oxygen we find:

The volume percentage of C O is then

% CO

13
(%)(loo%)

4.19%

The air-fuel ratio is

AF

= mair -

m fuel

lbm air
(0.9)( 6.5)( 4.76)( 29)
= 13.92 (W8)
lbm fuel

CHAP. 121

273

COMBUSTION

EXAMPLE 12.3 Butane is burned with dry air, and volumetric analysis of the products on a dry basis (the water
vapor is not measured) gives 11.0% CO,, 1.0% CO, 3.5% O,, and 84.5% N,. Determine the percent theoretical
air.
The problem is solved assuming that there is 100 moles of dry products. The chemical equation is

aC,H,,

+ b ( 0 , + 3.76N2)

We perform the following balances:

CO,

C:

4a

11 + 1

H:

10a

2c

0:

2b

22

+ 1CO + 3.50, + 84.5N2 + cH,O

:.

:.

a =

c = 15

+ 1+7 +c

:. b

22.5

A balance on the nitrogen allows a check: 3.766 = 84.5, or b = 22.47. This is quite close, so the above values are

acceptable. Dividing through the chemical equation by the value of a so that we have 1 mol fuel,
C,H,,

+ 7.5(0, + 3.76N2)

-+

+ 0.33CO + 1.170, + 28.17N2 + 5H,O

3.67C0,

Comparing this with the combustion equation of Example 12.1 using theoretical air, we find
% theoretical air =

(E)(

100%)

107.7%

EXAMPLE 12.4 Volumetric analysis of the products of combustion of an unknown hydrocarbon, measured on a
dry basis, gives 10.4% CO,, 1.2% CO, 2.8% O,, and 85.6% N,. Determine the composition of the hydrocarbon
and the percent theoretical air.
The chemical equation for 100 mol dry products is

C,H,

+ 4 0 , + 3.76N2)

-+

10.4C0,

+ 1.2CO + 2.80, + 85.6N2 + dH,O

Balancing each element,

C:
N:

10.4 + 1.2

:.

3 . 7 6 ~= 85.6

0:

2c

20.8

H:

2d

:.

11.6

c = 22.8

+ 1.2 + 5.6 + d
:.

:. d

18.9

37.9

The chemical formula for the fuel is C11.6H37.9.This could represent a mixture of hydrocarbons, but it is not any
species listed in Appendix B, since the ratio of hydrogen atoms to carbon atoms is 3.27 = 13/4.
To find the percent theoretical air we must have the chemical equation using 100% theoretical air:
C11.6H37.9 + 21.08(0,

+ 3.76N2)

-+

l l . 6 C 0 2 + 18.95H20 + 79.26N2

Using the number of moles of air from the actual chemical equation, we find

% theoretical air 8=: : :

)( 100%) = 108%

12.2

ENTHALPY OF FORMATION, ENTHALPY OF COMBUSTION, AND THE FIRST LAW

When a chemical reaction occurs, there may be considerable change in the chemical composition
of a system. The problem this creates is that for a control volume the mixture that exits is different
from the mixture that enters. Since various tables use different zeros or the enthalpy, it is necessary
to establish a standard reference state, which we shall choose as 25C (77F) and 1 atm and which
shall be denoted by the superscript " " ," for example, h" .
Consider the combustion of H, with O,, resulting in H,O:
(12.7)
H, + i02-+H,O(Z)
If H, and 0, enter a combustion chamber at 25 "C (77 O F ) and 1 atm and H,O(I) leaves the chamber
at 25C (77F) and 1 atm, then measured heat transfer will be -285 830 kJ for each kmol of H,O(Z)

274

COMBUSTION

[CHAP. 12

formed. [The symbol (1) after a chemical compound implies the liquid phase and ( g ) implies the
gaseous. If no symbol is given, a gas is implied.] The negative sign on the heat transfer means energy
has left the control volume, as shown schematically in Fig. 12-1.

Reactants
25C. 1 atm

Products

Fig. 12-1

The first law applied to a combustion process in a control volume is

Q

= Hp

(12.8)

-HR

where H p is the enthalpy of the products of combustion that leave the combustion chamber and H R is
the enthalpy of the reactants that enter. If the reactants are stable elements, as in our example in Fig.
12-1, and the process is at constant temperature and constant pressure, then the enthalpy change is
called the enthalpy of formation, denoted by h:. The enthalpies of formation of numerous compounds
are listed in Table B-6. Note that some compounds have a positive h:, indicating that they require
energy to form (an endothermic reaction); others have a negative h:, indicating that they give off
energy when they are formed (an exothermic reaction).
The enthalpy of formation is the enthalpy change when a compound is formed. The enthalpy
change when a compound undergoes complete combustion at constant temperature and pressure is
called the enthalpy of combustion. For example, the enthalpy of formation of H, is zero, yet when
1 mol H, undergoes complete combustion to H,O(f), it gives off 285830k.T heat; the enthalpy of
combustion of H, is 285830 kJ/kmol. Values are listed for several compounds in Table B-7. If the
products contain liquid water, the enthalpy of combustion is the higher heating calue (HHV); if the
products contain water vapor, the enthalpy of combustion is the lower heating Llalue. The difference
at
between the higher heating value and the lower heating value is the heat of vaporization
standard conditions.
For any reaction the first law, represented by (12.81, can be applied to a control volume. If the
reactants and products consist of several components, the first law is, neglecting kinetic and potential
energy changes,

xfg

Q - W, =

prod

&(h; + h

X"), react

&(X; + h -

(12.9)

KO),

where Ni represents the number of moles of substance i . The work is often zero, but not in, for
example, a combustion turbine.
If combustion occurs in a rigid chamber, for example, a bomb calorimeter, the first law is

up- UR =

Ni(h;-k h
prod

4.(h; -k h

ho - PL'), -

- h" -

PLl)i

( 22.20)

react

where we have used enthalpy since the h; values are tabulated. Since the volume of any liquid or solid

275

COMBUSTION

CHAP. 121

is negligible compared to the volume of the gases, we write (12.11) as

Q = xN,(h"f+h-h"-RT),prod

~ N , ( h " / + - - ~- RoT ) ,

(22.11)

react

If Nprod= Nreact,then Q for the rigid volume is equal to Q for the control volume for the isothermal
process.
In the above relations we employ one of the following methods to find ( h - h"):
For a solid or liquid

Use Cp AT.
For gases
Method
Method
Method
Method

1:
2:
3:
4:

Assume an ideal gas with constant specific heat so that 5 - h"

Assume an ideal gas and use tabulated values for h.
Assume nonideal-gas behavior and use the generalized charts.
Use tables for vapors, such as the superheated steam tables.

= Cp

AT.

Which method to use (especially for gases) is left to the judgment of the engineer. In our examples
we'll usually use method 2 for gases since temperature changes for combustion processes are often
quite large and method 1 introduces substantial error.
EXAMPLE 12.5 Calculate the enthalpy of combustion of gaseous propane and of liquid propane assuming the
reactants and products to be at 25C and 1 atm. Assume liquid water in the products exiting the steady-flow
combustion chamber.
Assuming theoretical air (the use of excess air would not influence the result since the process is isothermal),
the chemical equation is

C,H,

+ 5 ( 0 2 + 3.76N2) + 3C0, + 4 H 2 0 ( / ) + 18.8N2

where, for the HHV, a liquid is assumed for H 2 0 . The first law becomes, for the isothermal process h

prod
=

(3)(

- 393 520)

h",

&.(h"fl

N,(h"fi -

= Hp - HR =

react

+ (4)( - 285 830) - ( - 103850) = - 2 220 000 kJ/kmol

fuel

This is the enthalpy of combustion; it is stated with the negative sign. The sign is dropped for the HHV; for
gaseous propane it is 2220 MJ for each kmol of fuel.
For liquid propane we find

(3)( - 393 520)

+ (4)(

- 285 830)

- ( - 103850

15 060)

= - 2 205 000

kJ/kmol fuel

This is slightly less than the HHV for gaseous propane, because some energy is needed to vaporize the liquid fuel.
EXAMPLE 12.6 Calculate the heat transfer required if propane and air enter a steady-flow combustion
chamber at 25C and 1 atm and the products leave at 600 K and 1 atm. Use theoretical air.
The combustion equation is written using H,O in the vapor form due to the high exit temperature:

C,H,

+ 5 ( 0 2 + 3.76N2) + 3C0, + 4 H 2 0 ( g ) + 18.8N2

The first law takes the form [see (12.9)]

N,(h; + h

prod
=

(3)( -393520

h0), react

N,(h>+ h

+ 22280 - 9360) + (4)(

h");

-241 810

+ (18.8)( 17 560 - 8670) - ( - 103 850) =

+ 20400 - 9900)

- 1 796 000 kJ/kmol fuel

where we have used method 2 listed for gases. This heat transfer is less than the enthalpy of combustion of
propane, as it should be, since some energy is needed to heat the products to 600 K.

276

[CHAP. 12

COMBUSTION

EXAMPLE 12.7 Liquid octane at 25 C fuels a jet engine. Air at 600 K enters the insulated combustion chamber
and the products leave at 1000 K. The pressure is assumed constant at 1 atm. Estimate the exit velocity using
theoretical air.
The equation is CsH18(l) + 12.5(02 + 3.76N2) + 8 C 0 2 + 9 H 2 0 + 47N2. The first law, with Q = W, = 0
and including the kinetic energy change (neglect Ynlet),is

H p - HR

V2
+ + -Mp

2
V 2 = -(HR

or

MP

-Hp)

where M p is the mass of the products per kmol fuel. For the products,

H p = (8)( - 393 520 + 42 770

=

9360)

+ (9)( - 241 810 + 35 880 - 9900) + (47)(30 130 - 8670)

- 3 814 700 kJ/kmol fuel

For the reactants, HR = ( - 249 910) + (12.5X17 930 - 8680) + (47x17 560 - 8670) = 283 540 kJ/kmol.
The mass of the products is M p = (8x44) + (9x18) + (47x28) = 1830 kg/kmol fuel and so
V 2= z [(0.28354
1830

+ 3.8147)109]

:. V = 2120 m/s

EXAMPLE 12.8 Liquid octane is burned with 300% excess air. The octane and air enter the steady-flow
combustion chamber at 25C and 1 atm and the products exit at 1000 K and 1 atm. Estimate the heat transfer.
The reaction with theoretical air is C,H,, + 12.5(02 + 3.76N2) -+ 8 C 0 2 + 9 H 2 0 + 47N2. For 300% excess
air (400% theoretical air) the reaction is

CsH18(l) + 5 0 ( 0 2 + 3.76N2) + 8 C 0 2 + 9 H 2 0 + 37.50,

The first law applied to the combustion chamber is

Q

Hp

HR

(8)( -393 520

+ 42 770 - 9360) + (9)( -241

+ (37.5)(31390

8680)

+ 188N2

810 + 35 880 - 9900)

+ (188)(30 130 - 8670) - ( - 249 910) = 312 500 kJ/kmol

fuel

In this situation heat must be added to obtain the desired exit temperature.
EXAMPLE 12.9 A constant-volume bomb calorimeter is surrounded by water at 77F. Liquid propane is
burned with pure oxygen in the calorimeter, and the heat transfer is determined to be -874,000 Btu/lbmol.
Calculate the enthalpy of formation and compare with that given in Table B-6E.
The complete combustion of propane follows C,H, + 5 0 , -+ 3 c 0 2 + 4H20(g). The surrounding water
sustains a constant-temperature process, so that (12.11) becomes

-874,000

=
=

prod

N,(%fi -

(3)( - 169,300)

:.
This compares with

react

N,(q)i
+ (NR

N p ) R T = -874,000

+ (4)( - 104,040) - ( T ~ o f ) ~ +, ~(6, - 7)(1.987)(537)

(hOf)C,H,

= - 51,130 Btu/lbmol

hf from the Table B-6E of (-44,680

6480) = -51,160 Btu/lbmol.

12.3 ADIABATIC FLAME TEMPERATURE

If we consider a combustion process that takes place adiabatically, with no work or changes in
kinetic and potential energy, then the temperature of the products is referred to as the adiabatic flame
temperature. We find that the maximum adiabatic flame temperature that can be achieved occurs at
theoretical air. This fact allows us to control the adiabatic flame temperature by the amount of excess
air involved in the process: The greater the amount of excess air the lower the adiabatic flame
temperature. If the blades in a turbine can withstand a certain maximum temperature, we can
determine the excess air needed so that the maximum allowable blade temperature is not exceeded.
We will find that an iterative (trial-and-error) procedure is needed to find the adiabatic flame
temperature. A quick approximation to the adiabatic flame temperature is found by assuming the
products to be completely N,. An example will illustrate.

CHAP. 121

277

COMBUSTION

The adiabatic flame temperature is calculated assuming complete combustion, no heat transfer
from the combustion chamber, and no dissociation of the products into other chemical species. Each
of these effects tends to reduce the adiabatic flame temperature. Consequently, the adiabatic flame
temperature that we will calculate represents the maximum possible flame temperature for the
specified percentage of theoretical air.
If a significant amount of heat transfer does occur, we can account for it by including the
following term in the energy equation:
Q

(12.12)

UA(Tp - T E )

where U = overall heat-transfer coefficient (specified),

TE = temperature of environment
Tp = temperature of products,
A = surface area of combustion chamber.
[Note that the units on U are kW/m2

K or Btu/sec-ft2- R.]
O

EXAMPLE 12.10 Propane is burned with 250% theoretical air; both are at 25C and 1 atm. Predict the
adiabatic flame temperature in the steady-flow combustion chamber.
The combustion with theoretical air is C,H, + 5 ( 0 2 + 3.76N2) + 3 c 0 2 + 4 H 2 0 + 18.8N2. For 250%
theoretical air we have

C,H,

+ 12.5(02 + 3.76N2) + 3C0, + 4H2O + 7.50, + 47N2

Since Q = 0 for an adiabatic process we demand that HR = H p . The enthalpy of the reactants, at 25"C, is
HR = - 103 850 kJ/kmol fuel.
The temperature of the products is the unknown; and we cannot obtain the enthalpies of the components of
the products from the tables without knowing the temperatures. This requires a trial-and-error solution. To
obtain an initial guess, we assume the products to be composed entirely of nitrogen:

HR

Hp

-103850

(3)( --393520)

+ (4)( -241

820)

+ (61.5)(hp

8670)

where we have noted that the products contain 61.5 mol of gas. This gives h p = 43 400 kJ/kmol, which suggests a
temperature of about 1380 K (take Tp a little less than that predicted by the all-nitrogen assumption). Using this
temperature we check using the actual products:
- 103 850

+ 64 120 - 9360) + (4)( -241 820 + 52430 - 9900)

+ (7.5)(44 920 - 8680) + (47)(42 920 - 8670) =68 110

(3)( -393 520

The temperature is obviously too high. We select a lower value, Tp = 1300 K. There results:
- 103850

- 393 520 + 59 520 - 9360) + (4)( - 241 820 + 48 810 - 9900)

+ (7.5)(44 030 - 8680) + (47)(40 170 - 8670) = - 96 100

L (3)(

We use the above two results for 1380 K and I300 K and, assuming a linear relationship, predict that Tp is

Tp = 1300 -

[g T1_9966:oooo) 1(1380

1300) = 1296 K

EXAMPLE 12.11 Propane is burned with theoretical air; both are at 25C and 1 atm in a steady-flow
combustion chamber. Predict the adiabatic flame temperature.
The combustion with theoretical air is C,H, + 5(0, + 3.76N2) + 3 c 0 2 + 4 H 2 0 + 18.8N2. For the adiabatic process the first law takes the form HR = H p . Hence, assuming the products to be composed entirely of
nitrogen,

-103850

(3)(-393520)

+ (4)(-241820) + (25.8)(hp - 8670)

where the products contain 25.8 mol gas. This gives h p = 87 900 kJ/kmol, which suggests a temperature of about
2600 K. With this temperature we find, using the actual products:
- 103 850

2 (3)( - 393 520 + 137400 - 9360) + (4)( - 241 820 + 114 300 - 9900) + (18.8)(86 600 - 8670)
=

119000

278

[CHAP. 12

COMBUSTION

A t 2400 K there results:

- 103 850

9 (3)( - 393 520 + 125 200 - 9360) + (4)( -241

=

820

+ 103500 - 9900) + (18.8)(79 320 - 8670)

-97700

A straight line extrapolation gives Tp = 2394 K.

EXAMPLE 12.12 The overall heat-transfer coefficient of a steady-flow combustion chamber with a 2-m2 surface
area is determined to be 0.5 kW/m2 - K. Propane is burned with theoretical air, both at 25C and 1 atm. Predict
the temperature of the products of combustion if the propane mass flow rate is 0.2 kg/s.
The molar influx is ljtfue, = 0.2/44 = 0.004545 kmol/s, where the molecular weight of propane, 44 kg/kmol,
is used. Referring to the chemical reaction given in Example 12.11, the mole fluxes of the products are given by:

Mcoz

(3)(0.004545)

MNZ= (18.8)(0.004545)

MHzO.
= (4)(0.004545)

0.01364 kmol/s
=

0.02273 kmol/s

0.1068 k m o l / ~

We can write the energy equation (the first law) as

Q

+ HR = H p

Using (12.12), the energy equation becomes

+ (0.004545)( - 103 850)

= (0.01364)( -393520 + hco2 - 9360) + (0.02273)( -241

- (0.5)(2)( Tp - 298)

820 + hH,O - 9900)

+ (0.1068)(AN2- 8670)

For a first guess at Tp let us assume a somewhat lower temperature than that of Example 12.11, since energy is
leaving the combustion chamber. The guesses follow:

Tp = 1600 K:
2000 K:

-2174

Tp = 1900 K:

-2074

Tp

+ 4475 = -4266
4120 - 3844 + 5996 = - 1968
2 - 4202 - 3960 + 5612 = -2550
7

- 1774 =L

4446 - 4295

?
= -

Interpolation between the last two entries gives Tp = 1970 K. Checking,

Tp = 1970K:

-2144

- 4145 - 3879

+ 5881 = -2143

Hence, Tp = 1970 K. If we desire the temperature of the products to be less than this, we can increase the overall
heat-transfer coefficient or add excess air.

Solved Problems

12.1

Mathcad

Ethane (C,H,) is burned with dry air which contains 5 mol 0, for each mole of fuel.
Calculate ( a ) the percent of excess air, ( b ) the air-fuel ratio, and ( c ) the dew-point
temperature.
The stoichiometric equation is C,H,
quired combustion equation is
C,H,
(a)

+ 3.5(0, + 3.76N2) -, 2C0, + 3 H 2 0 + 6.58N2. The

re-

+ 5 ( 0 , + 3.76N2) -, 2C0, + 3 H 2 0 + 1.50, + 18.8N,

There is excess air since the actual reaction uses 5 mol 0, rather than 3.5 mol. The percent of
excess air is

% excess air = ,.:*5)(100%)

42.9%

279

COMBUSTION

CHAP. 121

( b ) The air-fuel ratio is a mass ratio. Mass is found by multiplying the number of moles by the
molecular weight:

(c) The dew-point temperature is found using the partial pressure of the water vapor in the
combustion products. Assuming atmospheric pressure of 100 kPa, we find

P,= yHZOPatm
= (&)(loo)

1.86 kPa

49C.

Using the Table C-2,we interpolate and find Td.p.=

12.2

A fuel mixture of 60% methane, 30% ethane, and 10% propane by volume is burned with
stoichiometric air. Calculate the volume flow rate of air required if the fuel mass is 12 lbm/h
assuming the air to be at 70F and 14.7 psia.
The reaction equation, assuming 1 mol fuel, is
0.6CH4 + 0.3C2H,

+ O.lC,H, + a(0, + 3.76N2)

bCO,

+ cH,O + dN,

We find a, b, c, and d by balancing the various elements as follows:

C:

0.6 + 0.6 + 0.3 = b

H:

2.4 + 1.8 + 0.8 = 2c

0:

2a

N:

(2X3.76a) = 2d

2b

:.

:. c

+c

1.5

2.5

:. a
:. d

2.75

10.34

The air-fuel ratio is

AF
and hair
= (AF)m,,,
It is

(0.6)(16)
=

(2.75)(4.76)(29)
+ (0.3)(30) + (0.1)(44)

379.6
23

=-=

lbm air

16S lbm fuel

(16.5)(12) = 198 lbm/h. To find the volume flow rate we need the air density.

whence

(The volume flow rate is usually given in ft3/min (cfm).)

12.3

Butane (C,H,,) is burned with 20C air at 70% relative humidity. The air-fuel ratio is 20.
Calculate the dew-point temperature of the products. Compare with Example 12.1.
The reaction equation using dry air (the water vapor in the air does not react, but simply tags
along, it will be included later) is
C,H,,

+ "(0,+ 3.76N2)

4C0,

+ 5H,O + 6 0 , + cN,

The air-fuel ratio of 20 allows us to calculate the constant a, using Mhe,

= 58 kg/kmol, as follows:
mdryair

- (a)(4.76)(29) = 2o
A F = -:. a = 8.403
mtiel
( 1) ( 5 8 )
We also find that b = 1.903 and c = 31.6. The partial pressure of the moisture in the 20C air is

P,.= $Pg= (0.7)(2.338)

1.637 kPa

280

COMBUSTION

[CHAP.12

The ratio of the partial pressure to the total pressure (100 kPa) equals the mole ratio, so that

N,

p,
NP

[ (8.403)(4.76)

E)

+ Nu](

or

Nu = 0.666 kmol/kmol fuel

We simply add N,. to each side of the reaction equation:

C,H,,

+ 8.403(02 + 3.76N2) + 0.666H20

-+

4C0,

+ 5.666H20 + 1.9030, + 31.6N2

The partial pressure of water vapor in the products is P, =

= (100)(5.666/43.17) = 13.1 kPa.
From Table C-2 we find the dew-point temperature to be Td,p.=51"C, which compares with 49 "C using
dry air as in Example 12.1. Obviously the moisture in the combustion air does not significantly
influence the products. Consequently, we usually neglect the moisture.

12.4

Methane is burned with dry air, and volumetric analysis of the products on a dry basis gives
10% CO,, 1% CO, 1.8% O,, and 87.2% N,. Calculate ( a ) the air-fuel ratio, ( b ) the percent
excess air, and ( c ) the percentage of water vapor that condenses if the products are cooled to
30 "C.
Assume 100 mol dry products. The reaction equation is

+ b ( 0 , + 3.76N2)

uCH,

-+

10C0,

+ CO + 1.80, + 87.2N2 + c H 2 0

A balance on the atomic masses provides the following:

c:
H:
0:

a=10+1
:. a = 11
4a = 2 c
:. c = 22
2b=20+1+3.6+~
:. b

23.3

Dividing the reaction equation by a so that we have 1 mol fuel:

CH,

+ 2.12(0, + 3.76N2)

-+

+ 0.091CO + 0.1640, + 7.93N2 + 2H,O

0.909C0,

( a ) The air-fuel ratio is calculated from the reaction equation to be

( b ) The stoichiometric reaction is CH,

excess air as

+ 2(0, + 3.76N2)

% excess air

( 2*1:~

-+

CO,

) (100%)

+ 2H,O + 7.52N2. This gives the

=

6%

( c ) There are 2 mol water vapor in the combustion products before condensation. If N, represents
moles of water vapor that condense when the products reach 30 "C, then 2 - N, is the number of
water vapor moles and 11.09 - N, is the total number of moles in the combustion products at
30C. We find N, as follows:

N, N

p,
P

2 - N,
- 4.246
11.09 - N, - 1oO

.. N,

1.597 mol H 2 0

The percentage of water vapor that condenses out is

% condensate

12.5

Mathcad

(1*77)(1~~)
79.8%
=

An unknown hydrocarbon fuel combusts with dry air; the resulting products have the
following dry volumetric analysis: 12% CO,, 1.5% CO, 3% 0,, and 83.5% N,. Calculate the
percent excess air.

The reaction equation for 100 mol dry products is

C,H,

+ c ( 0 , + 3.76N2)

-+

12C0,

+ 1.5CO + 3 0 , + 83.5N2 + dH,O

CHAP. 121

281

COMBUSTION

A balance on each element provides the following:

C:

a = 12

N:

+ 1.5

:. c

3 . 7 6 ~= 83.5

:.

a = 13.5

22.2

+ 1.5 + 6 + d

0:

2c

24

H:

2d

:. b

:.

12.9

25.8

The fuel mixture is represented by Cl13.5Hz.8.

For theoretical air with this fuel, we have

+ 3.76N2)

C13.5Hz.8+ 19.95(0,

-+

13.5c0,

+ 12.9H20 + 75.0N2

Comparing this with the actual equation above, we find

% excess air

12.6

( 22-21;$.95)(100%)

11.3%

Carbon reacts with oxygen to forni carbon dioxide in a steady-flow chamber. Calculate the
energy involved and state the type of reaction. Assume the reactants and products are at
25C and 1 atm.
The reaction equation is C

+ 0,

-+

CO,. The first law and Table B-6 give

C N,.(%)i

Hp - HR =

(1)( -393 520)

prod

0-0

react

N,(h"f)i

-393 520 kJ/kmol

The reaction is exothermic (negative Q).

12.7
Mathcad

Methane enters a steady-flow combustion chamber at 77F and 1 atm with 80% excess air
which is at 800 "R and 1 atm. Calculate the heat transfer if the products leave at 1600 OR and
1 atm.
The reaction equation with 180% theoretical air and with the water in vapor form is

CH,

+ 3.6(0, + 3.76N2)

-+

CO,

+ 2H,O(g) + 1.60, + 13.54N2

The first law, with zero work, provides the heat transfer:

Q = CN,(%+h-h")i- CN,(%+h-h")
prod

12.8

react

+ 15,829 - 4030) + (2)( -104,040 + 13,494 - 4258) + (1.6)(11,832 - 3725)

(1)( - 169,300

+(13.54)(11,410 - 3730) - (-32,210) - (3.6)(5602 - 3725)

- 229,500 Btu/lbmol fuel

(13.54)(5564 - 3730)

Ethane at 25C is burned in a steady-flow combustion chamber with 20% excess air at
127"C, but only 95% of the carbon is converted to CO,. If the products leave at 1200 K,
calculate the heat transfer. The pressure remains constant at 1 atm.
The stoichiometric reaction equation is

C,H,

+ 3.5(0,, + 3.76N2)

-+

2C0,

+ 3H,O + ll.28N2

With 120% theoretical air and the product CO, the reaction equation becomes

C,H,

+ 4.2(0, + 3.76N2:)-+

The first law with zero work is Q

= HP

1.9C0,

+ (0.1)( - 110530 + 37 100 - 8670)

9900) + (0.75)(38 450 - 8680) + (11.28)(36 780 - 8670)

H p = (1.9)( -393 520 + 53 850 - 9360)

+ (3)( - 241 820 + 44 380

= - 1 049 000

kJ/kmol fuel

-.

+ 0.1CO + 3H,O + 0.750, + 11.28N2

- HR. The enthalpy of the products is [see (12.9)]

282

[CHAP. 12

COMBUSTION

The enthalpy of the reactants is

HR
Then Q

12.9
Mathcad

+ (4.2)( 11710 - 8680) + (15.79)( 11640 - 8670) = - 25 060 kJ/kmol

= - 84 680

= - 1049 000 - ( - 25 060) = - 1024 000

fuel

kJ/kmol fuel.

A rigid volume contains 0.2 lbm of propane gas and 0.8 lbm of oxygen at 77F and 30 psia.
The propane burns completely, and the final temperature, after a period of time, is observed
to be 1600 OR. Calculate ( a ) the final pressure and ( b ) the heat transfer.
The moles of propane and oxygen are Npropane
= 0.2/44 = 0.004545 lbmol and NoWgen= 0.8/32
0.025 lbmol. For each mole of propane there is 0.025/0.004545 = 5.5 mol 0,. The reaction equation
for complete combustion is then
=

C3H8 + 5.502

3c0,

+ 4H,O(g) + 0.502

( a ) We use the ideal-gas law to predict the final pressure. Since the volume remains constant, we
have

N ETl
N2RT2
v=1
-PI

(6.5)( 537) - (7.5)( 1600)

30
p2

p2

( b ) By (12.11), with

=
=

P2 = 103.1 psia

1.986 Btu/lbmol- OR,we have for each mole of propane:

E &(% + h

h"

E &.(%+ h - h" -

- RT)i -

react

prod
=

:.

(3)[ - 169,300 + 15,830 - 4030

(1.986)(1600)]

+ (4)[ - 104,040 + 13,490 - 4260 - (1.986)(1600)]

+ (0.5) [ 11,830 - 3720 - (1.986)( 1600)]
-(l)[ -44,680

(1.986)(537)] - (5.5)[( -1.986)(537)]

= - 819,900 Btu/lbmol

Thus Q

12.10

= ( - 819,900)(0.004545) =

fuel

3730 Btu.

Propane is burned in a steady-flow combustion chamber with 80% theoretical air, both at
25C and 1 atm. Estimate the adiabatic flame temperature and compare with that of
Examples 12.10 and 12.11.
Using the stoichiometric reaction equation of Example 12.11 and assuming production of CO, the
combustion with 80% theoretical air follows
C,H8

+ 4(0, + 3.76N2) -+

CO,

+ 4H,O + 2c0 + 15.04N2

(A mass balance of the elements is required to obtain this equation.)

For an adiabatic process, the first law takes the form HR = H p , where HR for propane is -103850
kJ/kmol. Assuming the temperature close to but less than that of Example 12.11, we try Tp = 2200 K:
- 103 850

( -393 520 + 112 940 - 9360)

+ (4)( -241 820 + 92 940 - 9900)

+ (2)( - 110 530 + 72 690 - 8670) + (15.04)(72 040 - 8670) = - 65 000

At 2100 K:
- 103 850

9 ( - 393 520 + 106 860 - 9360) + (4)( - 241 820 + 87 740 - 9900)
+ (2)( - 110530 + 69 040 - 8670) + (15.04)(68 420 - 8670) = - 153 200

A straight-line interpolation provides the adiabatic flame temperature Tp = 2156 K. Note that this
temperature is less than that of the stoichiometric reaction of Example 12.11, as was the temperature
for Example 12.10 where excess air was used. The stoichiometric reaction provides the maximum
adiabatic flame temperature.

CHAP. 121

12.11

283

COMBUSTION

An insulated, rigid 0.7-m3 tank contains 0.05 kg of ethane and 100%theoretical air at 25C.

The fuel is ignited and complete combustion occurs. Estimate ( a ) the final temperature and
( b ) the final pressure.
With 100% theoretical air, CZH6 + 3.5(0,
( a ) The first law, with

react

+ 3.76N,)

-+

2C0,

+ 3H,O + 13.16N2.

0, is written for this constant-volume process using (22.11):

iy(q+ 7.2

- E T ) ,=

'

prod

&(q + 7.2 - P - WT),

The reactants are at 25C (the initial pressure is unimportant if not extremely large) and the
products are at ;
'7 therefore,

L.H.S. = (1)[ -84680 - (8.314)(298)]

R.H.S.

(2)[ -393520

+ (3.5)[( -8.314)(298)] + (13.16)[( -8.314)(298)]

+ zco, - 9360 - 8.314Tp]

+(3)[(-241820

+ E H 2 0 - 9900 - 8.314Tp) + (13.16)(AN2 - 8670 - 8.314Tp)I

or

1579000 = 2X,-02

+3

+ 13.16&,,
~ ~

-~151Tp

We solve for Tp by trial and error:

Tp = 2600K:

1579000

1(2)(137400) + (3)(114300) + (13.16)(86850) - (151)(2600)

=

Tp = 2800 K:

1579000 2 (2)(149810)
=

Tp = 3000 K:

1365000

+ (3)( 125 200) + (13.16)(94010) - (151)(2800)

1490000

1579000 2 (2)(162 230)

+ (3)(136 260) + (13.16)(101410) - (151)(3000)

= 1615 000
Interpolation provides a temperature between 2800 K and 3000 K: Tp = 2942 K.

( b ) We have Nfue,= 0.05/30 = 0.001667 kmol; therefore, Nprod= (18.16)(0.001667)

The pressure in the products is then
NprodRTprod

Pprod =

- (0.03027)(8.314)(2942)

0.03027 kmol.

1058 kPa

0.7

Supplementary Problems
12.12

The following fuels combine with stoichiometric air: (a) C2H4, ( b ) C,H,, ( c ) C4H10,( d ) C5H12,
(e) C8H18, and ( d ) CH,OH. Provide the correct values for x , y, z in the reaction equation

C,H,
Am.

12.13

12.14

( a ) 2,2,11.28
( f )1,2,5.64

+ w ( 0 , + 3.76N2)

( b ) 3,3,16.92

-+

xC0,

(c) 4,5,24.44

+ yH,O + zN,

( d ) 5,6,30.08

( e ) 8,9,47

Methane (CH,) is burned with stoichiometric air and the products are cooled to 20C assuming
complete combustion at 100 kPa. Calculate (a) the air-fuel ratio, (6) the percentage of CO2 by weight
of the products, (c) the dew-point temperature of the products, and ( d ) the percentage of water vapor
condensed.
Am. ( a ) 17.23
( b ) 15.14%
( c ) 59C
( d ) 89.8%
Repeat Prob. 12.13 for ethane (CZH6).
(a) 16.09
( b ) 17.24%
( c ) 55.9"C

Ans.

( d ) 87.9%

284

12.15

12.16

12.17

COMBUSTION

Am.

Repeat Prob. 12.13 for propane (C3H8).

( a ) 15.67
( 6 ) 18.07%
( c ) 53.1"C

( d ) 87.0%

Ans.

Repeat Prob. 12.13 for butane (C4H10).

( a ) 15.45
( 6 ) 18.52%
( c ) 53.9"C

( d ) 86.4%

Repeat Prob. 12.13 for octane (c4H18).

( a ) 16.80
( 6 ) 15.92%
( c ) 57.9"C

( d ) 89.2%

Am.

[CHAP. 12

12.18

Ethane (C,H,) undergoes complete combustion at 95 kPa with 180% theoretical air. Find ( a ) the
air-fuel ratio, (6) the percentage of CO, by volume in the products, and ( c ) and dew-point temperature.
Ans. ( a ) 28.96
( 6 )6.35%
( c ) 43.8"C

12.19

Repeat Prob. 12.18 for propane (C3H8).

Ans. ( a ) 28.21

12.20

Repeat Prob. 12.18 for butane (C4H10).

Am. ( a ) 27.82

( 6 ) 6.87%

12.21

Repeat Prob. 12.18 for octane (C5Hl8).

Ans. ( a ) 30.23

( 6 ) 10.48%

12.22

Calculate the mass flux of fuel required if the inlet air flow rate is 20 m3/min at 20C and 100 kPa
using stoichiometric air with ( a ) methane (CH,), ( 6 ) ethane (C,H,), ( c ) propane (C3H8),( d ) butane
(C4H10), and ( e ) octane (c5H18).
Am. ( a ) 1.38 kg/min
( 6 ) 1.478 kg/min
( c ) 1.518 kg/min
( d ) 1.539 kg/min
( e ) 1.415 kg/min

12.23

Propane (C3H8) undergoes complete combustion at 90 kPa and 20C with 130% theoretical air.
Calculate the air-fuel ratio and the dew-point temperature if the relative humidity of the combustion air
is ( a ) 90%, ( 6 ) 80%, ( c ) 60%, and ( d ) 40%.
Ans. ( a ) 20.67, 50.5"C
( 6 )20.64, 50.2"C
( c ) 20.57, 49.5"C
( d ) 20.50, 48.9"C

12.24

An air-fuel ratio of 25 is used in an engine that burns octane (C8HI8).Find the percentage of excess air
Am. 165.4%, 7.78%
required and the percentage of CO, by volume in the products.

12.25

Butane (C4Hlo) is burned with 50% excess air. If 5% of the carbon in the fuel is converted to CO,
calculate the air-fuel ratio and the dew-point of the products. Combustion takes place at 100 kPa.
Am. 23.18, 46.2"C

12.26

A fuel which is 60% ethane and 40% octane by volume undergoes complete combustion with 200%
theoretical air. Find ( a ) the air-fuel ratio, ( 6 ) the percent by volume of N , in the products, and ( c ) the
dew-point temperature of the products if the pressure is 98 kPa.
Ans. ( a ) 30.8
(6) 76.0%
( c ) 40.3"C

12.27

One lbm of butane, 2 lbm of methane, and 2 lbm of octane undergo complete combustion with 20 lbm
of air. Calculate ( a ) the air-fuel ratio, (6) the percent excess air, and ( c ) the dew-point temperature of
the products if the combustion process occurs at 14.7 psia.
Ans. ( a ) 19.04
( 6 ) 118.7%
( c ) 127F

12.28

Each minute 1 kg of methane, 2 kg of butane, and 2 kg of octane undergo complete combustion with
stoichiometric 20C air. Calculate the flow rate of air required if the process takes place at 100 kPa.
Ans. 65.92 m3/min

12.29

A volumetric analysis of the products of butane (C4H1o) on a dry basis yields 7.6% CO,, 8.2% O,,
Am. 159%
82.8% N,, and 1.4% CO. What percent excess air was used?

( b )6.69%

( c ) 42.5"C
(c)

41.8"C

( c ) 45.7"C

CHAP. 121

COMBUSTION

285

12.30

A volumetric analysis of the products of combustion of octane (CgH18) on a dry basis yields 9.1% CO,,
A m . 21.46
7.0% O,, 83.0% N,, and 0.9% CO. Calculate the air-fuel ratio.

12.31

Three moles of a mixture of hydrocarbon fuels, denoted by C,H,, is burned and a volumetric analysis
on a dry basis of the products yields 10% CO,, 8% O,, 1.2% CO, and 80.8% N,. Estimate the values
Am. 3.73, 3.85, 152.6%
for x and y and the percent theoretical air utilized.

12.32

Producer gas, created from coal, has a volumetric analysis of 3% CH,, 14% H,, 50.9% N,, 0.6% O,,
27% CO, and 4.5% CO,. Complete combustion occurs with 150% theoretical air at 100 kPa. What
percentage of the water vapor will condense out if the temperature of the products is 20"C?
Ans. 76.8%

12.33

Using the enthalpy of formation data from Table B-6 calculate the enthalpy of combustion for a
steady-flow process, assuming liquid water in the products. Inlet and outlet temperatures are 25 "C and
the pressure is 100 kPa. (Compare with the value listed in Table B-7.) The fuel is ( a ) methane, (6)
acetylene, ( c ) propane gas, and ( d ) liquid pentane.
( c ) - 2 220000 kJ/kmol
Ans. ( a ) - 890300 kJ/kmol
(6) - 1 299 600 kJ/kmol
( d ) - 3 505 000 kJ/kmol

12.34

Propane gas (C3H,) undergoes complete combustion with stoichiometric air; both are at 77F and 1
atm. Calculate the heat transfer if the products from a steady-flow combustor are at ( a ) 77"F, (6)
1540"F, and ( c ) 2540F.
Ans. ( a ) - 955,100 Btu/lbmol
(6) - 572,500 Btu/lbmol
( c ) - 13,090 Btu/lbmol

12.35

Liquid propane (C3H8) undergoes complete combustion with air; both are at 25 "C and 1 atm. Calculate
the heat transfer if the products from a steady-flow combustor are at 1000 K and the percent theoretical
air is ( a ) loo%, (6) 150%, ( c ) 200%.
Ans. ( a ) - 1436000 kJ/kmol
( b ) - 1178000 kJ/kmol
( c ) - 919400 kJ/kmol

12.36

Ethane gas (C2H6) at 25C is burned with 150% theoretical air at 500 K and 1 atm. Find the heat
transfer from a steady-flow combustor if the products are at 1000 K and ( a ) complete cornbustion
occurs; (6) 95% of the carbon is converted to CO2 and 5% to CO.
Am. ( a ) - 968400 kJ/kmol
(6) - 929 100 kJ/kmol

12.37

Complete combustion occurs between butane gas (C4H1,) and air; both are at 25C and 1 atm. If the
steady-flow combustion chamber is insulated, what percent theoretical air is needed to maintain the
products at ( a ) 1000 K and (6) 1500 K?
A m . ( a ) 411%
( b ) 220%

1238

Complete combustion occurs between ethylene gas (C2H4) and air; both are at 77F and 1 atm. If
150,000 Btu of heat is removed per lbmol of fuel from the steady-flow combustor, estimate the percent
theoretical air required to maintain the products at 1500"R.
Ans. 820%

12.39

Butane gas (C4H10) at 25C is burned in a steady-flow combustion chamber with 150% theoretical air
at 500 K and 1 atm. If 90% of the carbon is converted to CO, and 10% to CO, estimate the heat
transfer if the products are at 1200 K.
Ans. - 1 298 700 kJ/kmol

12.40

Butane gas (C4HIo) undergoes complete combustion with 40% excess air; both are at 25C and 100
kPa. Calculate the heat transfer from the steady-flow combustor if the products are at loo0 K and the
humidity of the combustion air is ( a ) 90%, ( b ) 70%, and ( c ) 50%.
Am. ( a ) - 1 854 800 kJ/kmol
( b ) - 1 790 000 kJ/kmol
( c ) - 1 726 100 kJ/kmol

12.41

A rigid tank contains a mixture of 0.2 kg of ethane gas (C2H6) and 1.2 kg of 0, at 25C and 100 kPa.
The mixture is ignited and complete combustion occurs. If the final temperature is loo0 K, find the heat
transfer and the final pressure.
Am. - 12 780 kJ, 437 kPa

COMBUSTION

[CHAP. 12

12.42

A mixture of 1 lbmol methane gas (CH,) and stoichiometric air at 77F and 20 psia is contained in a
rigid tank. If complete combustion occurs, calculate the heat transfer and the final pressure if the final
A m . -220,600 Btu, 74.5 psia
temperature is 1540F.

12.43

A mixture of octane gas (CgH,,) and 20% excess air at 25C and 200 kPa is contained in a 50-liter
cylinder. Ignition occurs and the pressure remains constant until the temperature reaches 800 K.
Assuming complete combustion, estimate the heat transfer during the expansion process.
Am. -219 kJ

12.44

A mixture of butane gas (C,Hl0) and stoichiometric air is contained in a rigid tank at 25C and 100
kPa. If 95% of the carbon is burned to CO2 and the remainder to CO, calculate the heat transfer from
the tank and the volume percent of the water that condenses out if the final temperature is 25C.
Ans. -2600400 kJ/kmol fuel, 81.3%

12.45

Butane gas (C4Hio) mixes with air, both at 25C and 1 atm, and undergoes complete combustion in a
steady-flow insulated combustion chamber. Calculate the adiabatic flame temperature for ( a ) 100%
theoretical air, (6) 150% theoretical air, and ( c ) 100% excess air.
Ans. (a) 2520 K
( 6 ) 1830 K
( c ) 1510 K

12.46

Ethane (C,H6) at 25C undergoes complete combustion with air at 400 K and 1 atm in a steady-flow
Ans. 1895 K
insulated combustor. Determine the exit temperature for 50% excess air.

12.47

Hydrogen gas and air, both of 400 K and 1 atm, undergo complete combustion in a steady-flow
Ans. 1732 K
insulated combustor. Estimate the exit temperature for 200% theoretical air.

12.48

Liquid methyl alcohol (CH,OH) at 25C reacts with 150% theoretical air. Find the exit temperature,
assuming complete combustion, from a steady-flow insulated combustor if the air enters at (a) 25 "C, ( 6 )
400 K, and ( c ) 600 K. Assume atmospheric pressure.
Ans. (a) 2110 K
( 6 ) 2180 K
( c ) 2320 K

12.49

Ethene (C,H,) at 77 OF undergoes complete combustion with stoichiometric air at 77 "F and 70%
humidity in an insulated steady-flow combustion chamber. Estimate the exit temperature assuming a
pressure of 14.5 psia.
A m . 4740"R

12.50

Ethane (C2H6) at 25C combusts with 90% theoretical air at 400 K and 1 atm in an insulated
Ans. 2410 K
steady-flow combustor. Determine the exit temperature.

12.51

A mixture of liquid propane (C,Hg) and stoichiometric air at 25C and 100 kPa undergoes complete
combustion in a rigid container. Determine the maximum temperature and pressure (the explosion
pressure) immediately after combustion.
Ans. 3080 K, 1075 kPa