LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY

SIX MONTHS INDUATRIAL TRAINING

ON
Quality Environment Health and Safety
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of the
degree of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
Under the Guidance of
Aditya Tiwari
Department of Quality & Control
Submitted By
Samay Dhirwani
Reg No.-11101255

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY, PUNJAB

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Undertaking

I certify that research work titled Quality Control is my own work. This work has not been
submitted partially or wholly to any other University or Institute for the award of this or any
other degree or diploma. Where material has been used from other sources it has been properly
acknowledged / referred.

Signature of Student
Samay Dhirwani
11101255

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CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the research work titled Quality Control submitted by SAMAY
DHIRWANI in partial fulfillment for the award of degree of Bachelors of Technology from ,
Lovely Professional University, Punjab has been carried out under my supervision.

Name of Supervisor : Aditya Tiwari

Designation : Quality Engineer at ALSTOM PAC
Date:

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I am highly grateful to Mr. R.K Sharma, HOD ,Department of ELECTRICAL AND

ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING for providing this opportunity to carry out the Semester
Industrial Training at French multinational conglomerate, Alstom, PAC India Limited.
Now I would like to express deep sense of gratuity and thanks profusely to Mr. Manoj Kumar,
Quality & EHS Manager, QEHS department. Without the wise counsel and able guidance, it
would have been impossible to complete the report in this manner.
I would also like to acknowledge Mr. Aditya Tiwari and Mr. Ajay Mattoo who helped me in one
way or the other with their constant involvement during my project tenure.
Now I would like to thank the other members of EEE department for providing me the basic
theoretical skills of subject and for all intellectual support throughout the course of this work.
Finally, I would like to express my gratitude to all whosoever have contributed in this report
work and stayed friendly at the workplace of department.

Signature of Student
Samay Dhirwani
11101255

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abstract .............................................................................................. ...ii
Acknowledgement ..............................................................................................v
List of Tables ......................................................................................................vi
Abbreviationsviii
Chapter 1:

Company introduction

Chapter 2:

Company structure, product and services

2.1

Power generation10

2.2

Transport.11

2.3

Alstom grid.12

2.4

Alstom thermal power13

2.5 Power automation and control..15

2.6 Gas...15
2.7 Nuclear.15
2.8 Steam16
2.9 Thermal services..16
Chapter 3: Alstom PAC in India
3.1 About Alstom in India...17
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3.2 Power automation and control 18

Chapter 4: Study of power plant
4.1 Power plant basics..19
4.2 Nuclear power plants.20
4.3 Thermal power plant..20
4.4 Hydro power plant.20
4.5 Ssolar power plant..21
Chapter 5: Diagram of coal base thermal power plant
5.1 Process...23
5.2Miscellaneous facilities...24
Chapter 6: Control system
6.1 Distributed control system. 27
6.2 Programable logic controller...28
6.2Commercial distributed control system29
6.3Advantage of DCS system...31
Chapter 7: Excitation system

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Chapter 8: Vibration monitoring system

Chapter 9: Quality
9.1 Quality control.44
9.2 Inspection.44
9.3 Objective of inspection.....45
9.4 Purpose of inspection...45
9.5 Stage of inspection..46
9.6 Inspection procedure...46
9.6.1 Advantage.47
9.6.2 Disadvantage 47
9.7 Suitability.47
9.8 Centralized inspection..47
9.8.1 Advantage.47
9.8.2 Disadvantage.48
9.9 Suitability.48
9.10 Combined inspection..48

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9.11 Method of inspection..48

9.12 Drawback of inspection...49
9.13 Quality.49
9.14 Control50
9.15 Statistical quality control.50
9.16 Quality characteristics.56
9.17 Total quality control57
10. Reference...58

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CHAPTER- 1
1. INTODUCTION
Alstom is a large French multinational conglomerate which holds interests in the power
generation and transport markets. According to the company website, in the years 2010-2011
Alstom had annual sales of over 20.9 billion, and employed more than 85,000 people in 70
countries. Alstom's headquarters are located in Levallois-Perret, west of Paris. Its current CEO is
Patrick Kron.
Alstom is active in the field of hydroelectric power generation; in conventional islands for
nuclear power plants; and in environmental control systems. It is also the manufacturer of
the AGV, TGV, and Eurostar trains, as well as of Citadis trams. Alstom is also present in the
urban transport market, and is behind regional train models, signalling infrastructure equipment,
and a number of associated services.

FIG .1

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CHAPTER- 2
2. COMPANY STRUCTURE, PRODUCT AND SERVICES
Alstom operates in three main business areas: Power generation, Rail transport, and
Transmission.
2.1 Power generation
Alstom power activities include the design, manufacturing, services and supply of products and
systems for the power generation sector and industrial markets. The group covers all energy
sources - gas, coal, nuclear, hydro, wind. Alstom supplies and maintains all components of a
power plant and provides complete turn-key solutions. During the financial year 2007/08,
Alstom Power sales amounted to 11.4 billion euros.
The company provides components for power generation: boilers, steam turbines and gas
turbines, wind turbines, generators, air quality control systems and monitoring and control
systems for power plants, as well as related products.
Additionally the company provides turn-key solutions for the construction and operation of gasfired, coal fired and hydroelectric power plants, conventional islands for nuclear power plants,
and wind farms
The company also provides a variety of services including product retrofitting for nuclear and
fossil steam turbines and refurbishment of existing power plants, maintenance as well as
servicing under long term agreements for Alstom, GE and Siemens gas turbines.
Notes

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The company supplied major equipment for 25% of the worldwide existing power plants.
Recently, the group won a contract for the turn-key construction of two coal-fired power
plants in South Africa.

In France, Alstom is currently providing the "conventional island" (turbogenerator unit)

of Flamanville 3, the third generation of nuclear power plants.

The group participated in the largest hydropower projects in the world like the Three
Gorges Dam in China and Itaipu in Brazil and Paraguay.

In May 2008, the company signed a frame agreement with Iberdrola to supply around
300MW of wind turbines.

In the emirate of Fujairah (United Arab Emirates), an Alstom-led consortium won a

contract to build a 2,000 MW gas-fired power and desalination plant including a long
term maintenance contract.

In the late 2000s, Alstom won Middle Eastern contracts to the value of ~100m for
power generation equipment.

2.2 Transport
Alstom Transport develops and markets a complete range of systems, equipment and service in
the railway industry. With a market share of 18% and sales of 5.3 billion euros, the company is
number 1 in very high-speed trains, number 2 in tramways and metros, and is among the leaders
for electrical and diesel trains, information systems, traction systems, power supply systems and
track work. Alstom Transport is present in 60 countries with 26,000 employees.
Alstom's product range includes high and very high speed trains, trams, metros, commuter and
intercity trains, as well as tilting trains and locomotives. The company also operates in the rail
infrastructure market, designing, producing and installing infrastructure for the rail network to
upgrade safety and performance of existing networks, or as part of new turn-key solutions. These
includes information solutions, electrification, communication systems, track laying, station
utilities, as well as workshops and depots.

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Turn-key systems for light-rail systems, including tramways with or without electric overhead
lines, metro systems and air-rail links (traditional and automatic), are also supplied.
Maintenance, rebuilding and renovation services are also provided by the company.
2.3 Alstom Grid
A third business section based on power transmission was formed on 7 June 2010 with the
acquisition of the transmission business of Areva SA. The division manufactures equipment for
the entire chain of electrical power transmission, including ultra-high voltage transmission lines
(both AC and DC). The new sector, headquartered in France at La Defense, the business district
west of Paris, has four main businesses: products (electrical equipment of the ultra-high-voltage
and high-voltage electricity transmission system, 51% of sales), with world leading positions in
disconnections and instrument transformers; Systems (network management systems and big
turn-key projects, 34% of sales), with a leading position in HVDC solutions (high voltage direct
current) thanks to its expertise in power electronics; Automation (sophisticated information
systems for real-time management of electricity grids); and Service.
There are three main activities in four sectors and though are:
1. Thermal Power
2. Grid
3. Renewable
4. Transport

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FIG. 2.
2.4 Alstom Thermal Power:
Thermal Power consists of five Businesses: Power Automation and Controls, Gas, Nuclear,
Steam, Thermal Services. The Sector is a supplier of all types of power generation technology:
coal, gas, fuel oil, nuclear.

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2.5 Power Automation and Controls

Power Automation & Controls offers energy management for utilities and industrial customers
from plant automation and management to grid connection and information solutions.

2.6 Gas
Gas designs, engineers and constructs turnkey gas power plants in addition to providing the
equipment at the heart of thermal power plants, such as gas turbines, heat recovery steam
generators, and hot gas path parts.

2.7 Nuclear

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Nuclear offers a full portfolio of components for nuclear turbine island that suit all reactor
types, including emergency generators, pumps, nuclear systems and heat exchangers.

2.8 Steam

Steam designs, engineers and constructs turnkey steam power plants in addition to offering a
range of products such as boilers, generators, air quality control systems and CO2 capture &
storage technologies

2.9 Thermal Services

Specialists in customer care, Thermal Services provides cradle to grave operation, maintenance
and service of components and power plants from Alstom and beyond.

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CHAPTER-3
3. ALSTOM PAC IN INDIA
3.1 ABOUT ALSTOM India:
ALSTOM has been associated with Indias progress for a century and has a long-standing
reputation for providing highly innovative and sustainable solutions for meeting the countrys
energy and transport requirements. The company has full capabilities in engineering,
manufacturing, project management and supply of power generation, transmission and transport
sector requirements. Since its inception in the year 1911, the company has been at the forefront
of leading-edge technology at every level, serving these three infrastructure markets essential to
economic, social and environmental development of India.
The company works with a number of strategic partners in India to offer a wide range of
solutions for every sector Power, Transport & Grid. With power transmission now included in
the business portfolio, ALSTOM in India looks forward to new synergies amongst its three core
sectors

and

is

well

poised

to

offer

end-to-end

solutions

to

its

customers.

ALSTOM India Statistics:

1. Global Engineering & Software Centre for Railway & Metro in Bengaluru for More
than 8,000 employees in India
2. Four R & D Centers in Bengaluru (Power and Transport), Vadodara (Power) and Hosur
(Grid)
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3. Two Engineering Centers for Power in Noida, Kolkata

4. Manufacturing Units

a.

Power Vadodara, Durgapur, Shahabad, Mundra

b. Transport Coimbatore, Sricity

c.

Grid Padappai, Pallavaram, Hosur, Vadodara, Naini

d.

5. Transport
6. Metro & Railway Signalling Engineering and Software Centre in Bengaluru

3.2 POWER AUTOMATION AND CONTROLS in ALSTOM

ALSTOM provides the following products in Power Automation and Controls:

1. PAC Automation
a. DCS & Plant Management
b. Turbine Machine Control (Gas & Steam)

2. PAC Connection
a. Isolated Phased Bus-ducts (IPB)
b. Excitation & Automated Voltage Regulation

3. PAC Information
a. Monitoring & Diagnostic Systems (M&D)
4 Customer Support

LOCATION:

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Power Automation and Controls,

Alstom India Ltd (Noida)
A-206 Sector 63, NOIDA

CHAPTER-4
Study of Power Plant.
4.1 POWER PLANT BASICS:
Energy is an important requirement for us. From running our air conditioners to fuelling our
vehicles, our daily survival depends upon energy. Energy requirements have led countries to war
and continue to be a bone of contention between many nations. Insufficient power (energy)
supply is one of the main causes of crippling economies. Strong power generation industry
indicates strong economic growth and prosperity for any nation. Energy comes in various forms.
The most convenient of all of them is electrical energy. Not only is it easy to generate, but it can
also be generated through a number of different ways with the help of different types of power
plants. Although the word 'generated' is commonly used along with the term 'energy', it is a fact
that energy cannot be generated or destroyed. We can just change the form of energy. At power
plants too, energy that is available in a particular form is converted into another form.

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4.2 Nuclear Power Plants:

Nuclear power plants work on the chemical process of fission. Nuclear reactors are used to
generate electricity. Fission is a type of nuclear reaction in which, when the atoms of certain
elements called nuclear fuels absorb free neutrons, they split into two or more small nuclei and
some free neutrons. In the process, large amount of energy is released. The free neutrons further
strike the atoms of other fissile materials, thus setting off a chain reaction. The energy released
from this chain reaction is harnessed in nuclear power plants to generate electricity.
Nuclear power plants have ways to control or stop these reactions when they seem to go out of
control and become threatening. The nuclear fuel used in the nuclear power plants is Uranium235 or Plutonium-239. Every country is in the race of becoming capable of harnessing nuclear
energy. It is so because the free energy released by nuclear material is millions times more than
that contained in an equal amount of any other traditional fuel. However, what raises the concern
about these reactions is that a lot of radioactive material is created in the process. These
substances remain radioactive for long. This raises the problem of managing nuclear waste.
Records show that there are about 435 working nuclear power plants in the world. We have
heard and read about the 2011 Fukushima nuclear accidents. Managing the 'used fuel' at the
plants and reducing the chances of threats involve high designing skills, extensive research and
use of advanced technology. Moreover, nuclear power stations should be able to sustain a
terrorist attack (large fires or explosions), as power stations are preferred targets of terrorist
attacks. Thus, the operating cost or cost of setting up a new nuclear plant is likely to shoot up
rapidly not only due to increasing costs of fuels but also due to the advanced technology
required.
4.3 Thermal Power Plants

These power plants generate electrical energy from thermal energy (heat). Since heat is
generated by burning fossil fuels like coal, petroleum, or natural gas, these power plants are also
collectively referred to as the fossil fuelled power plants. Coal power plants were the earliest of
the fossil power plants to have been built. Even today, coal is the most common fuel that is used
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by thermal power stations. The heat generated by burning the fossil fuels is used to turn rotating
machinery, most commonly a steam turbine or a gas turbine that changes the thermal energy into
mechanical energy. The rotating turbine is attached to an alternator that coverts the mechanical
energy of the rotating turbine into electrical energy. Handling and disposal of ash plays an
important role in maintaining the environmental balance. These days, thermal power stations that
use biomass or bio fuel to generate electricity are being constructed.
4.4 Hydro Power Plants
These plants use the kinetic energy of flowing water to produce electrical energy. Hydro power
plants store water in large reservoirs. Water in these reservoirs flow down the dam and rotate a
turbine. As the blades of a turbine turn, so do the magnets inside the generator which is
connected to the turbine. These magnets rotate past copper coils and with each rotation,
electricity is produced. There are more than 2,000 hydro power plants in the US, making it the
largest source of energy in the country. Despite their utility, the major drawback of hydro power
plants is that they are highly dependent on the hydrological cycle of the area where they are built.
Less electricity is generated when the supply of water to the plant is insufficient. Some hydro
power stations were shut down due to shortage of water. Direct benefits of dams, reservoirs and
hydro power plants include increased availability of water for drinking and for crops, improved
irrigation, good employment opportunities and a better standard of living for the villagers in the
surrounding area. Construction of dams and hydro power plants results in economic and social
upliftment of the local people. Reservoirs also promote fish farming and eco-tourism in the area.
But, at the same time, people have to surrender their lands; millions are displaced, as few
villages, cities and towns are flooded due the dam. According to the available records, the Three
Gorges Dam built on the river 'Yangtze' in China is the world's largest hydro power project.
4.5 Solar Power Plants
Solar energy is one of the most abundant natural resources that is capable of providing more
power than the current demand requires. Most of the solar power plants are concentrating solar
power plants in which the rays of the Sun are concentrated into a single beam using lenses and
mirrors. The beam is then used to heat a working fluid that is used to generate power. Besides the
concentrating solar power plants, multi-megawatt photovoltaic plants have also been built in
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recent times. In these plants, Sun-rays are concentrated on photovoltaic surfaces which convert
the Sun's energy into electrical energy using the photoelectric effect. Scientists are working on
the idea of space-based solar power station. It involves collection of solar power in the solar
panels fixed on a satellite in earth's orbit and its use on earth. More solar energy is available in
the space than that is available on the surface of the earth. It is easier to collect solar energy in
space. On the surface of the earth, various factors like day/night cycle, changing weather and
seasons affect the process of energy collection. As the rays of the Sun pass through the gases
present in the Earth's atmosphere, their intensity is reduced.

Other than the types of power plants that are mentioned above, there are geothermal energy
power plants, wind turbines and renewable power plants that generate electricity for human
consumption. Man has discovered various ways of generating electricity, but they are not
sufficient as the need for electricity is constantly increasing. Therefore, scientists are still on the
lookout for more ways of generating power. Although fission is the only way of producing
energy in nuclear power plants, efforts are on to use nuclear fusion and radioactive decay for
energy production.

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CHAPTER-5

5.1 DIAGRAM OF COAL BASED THERMAL POWER PLANT:

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1. Cooling tower

15. Coal hopper

2. Cooling Water Pump

16. Pulverised fuel mill

3. Transmission Line (3-phase)

17. Boiler drum

4. Unit Transformer (3-phase)

18. Ash hopper

5. Electric Generator (3-phase)

19. Superheated

6. Low Pressure Turbine

20. Forced draught fan

7. Condensate Extraction Pump

21. Reheater

8. Condenser

22. Air intake

9. Intermediate Pressure Turbine

23. Economiser

10. Steam Governor Valve

24. Air preheater.

11. High Pressure Turbine

25. Precipitator

12. Degenerater

26. Induced draught fan

13. Feed Heater

27. Chimney Stack.

14. Coal Conveyer

5.2 PROCESS:

1. Coal is conveyed (14) from an external stack and ground to a very fine powder by large
metal spheres in the pulverised fuel mill (16).
2. There it is mixed with preheated air (24) driven by the forced draught fan (20). The hot
air-fuel mixture is forced at high pressure into the boiler where it rapidly ignites.
3. Water of a high purity flows vertically up the tube-lined walls of the boiler, where it turns
into steam, and is passed to the boiler drum, where steam is separated from any
remaining water.

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4. The steam passes through a manifold in the roof of the drum into the pendant superheater (19) where its temperature and pressure increase rapidly to around 200 bars and
570C, sufficient to make the tube walls glow a dull red.
5. The steam is piped to the high pressure turbine (11), the first of a three-stage turbine
process. A steam governor valve (10) allows for both manual control of the turbine and
automatic set-point following.
6. The steam is exhausted from the high pressure turbine, and reduced in both pressure and
temperature, is returned to the boiler re-heater (21).
7. The reheated steam is then passed to the intermediate pressure turbine (9), and from there
passed directly to the low pressure turbine set (6).
8. The exiting steam, now a little above its boiling point, is brought into thermal contact
with cold water (pumped in from the cooling tower) in the condenser (8), where it
condenses rapidly back into water, creating near vacuum-like conditions inside the
condenser chest.
9. The condensed water is then passed by a feed pump (7) through a deaerator (12), and prewarmed, first in a feed heater (13) powered by steam drawn from the high pressure set,
and then in the economiser (23), before being returned to the boiler drum.
10. The cooling water from the condenser is sprayed inside a cooling tower (1), creating a
highly visible plume of water vapour, before being pumped back to the condenser (8) in
cooling water cycle.

The three turbine sets are sometimes coupled on the same shaft as the three-phase electrical
generator (5) which generates an intermediate level voltage (typically 20-25 kV). This is stepped
up by the unit transformer (4) to a voltage more suitable for transmission (typically 250-500 kV)
and is sent out onto the three-phase transmission system (3).

5.3 Miscellaneous facilities

The Coal Handling Plant is also provided with sump pumps at suitable location in underground
buildings to drain out water. Necessary monorails with manual or electric hoist are provided for
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handling various equipments of CHP. Flap Gates or movable head systems are provided at
transfer points for dropping coal from one conveyor to other conveyor and also changing the coal
flow stream. Necessary service water, potable water and cooling water system are provided in
CHP area as per requirement.

DIAGRAMS:

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CHAPTER-6
6.1 DISTRIBUTED CONTROL SYSTEM
A distributed control system (DCS) refers to a control system usually of a manufacturing
system, process or any kind of dynamic system, in which the controller elements are not central
in location (like the brain) but are distributed throughout the system with each component subsystem controlled by one or more controllers. The entire system of controllers is connected by
networks for communication and monitoring.

DCS is a very broad term used in a variety of industries, to monitor and control distributed
equipment.

1. Electrical power grids and electrical generation plants

2. Environmental control systems
3. Traffic signals

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4. Radio signals
5. Water management systems
6. Oil refining plants
7. Metallurgical process plants
8. Chemical plants
9. Pharmaceutical manufacturing
10. Sensor networks
11. Dry cargo and bulk oil carrier ships

6.2 Programmable Logic Controllers

Programmable logic controller (PLC) is another type of digital technology used in process
control. It is exclusively specialized for non-continuous systems such as batch processes or that
contains equipment or control elements that operate discontinuously. It can also be used for
many instants where interlocks are required; for example, a flow control loop cannot be actuated
unless a pump has been turned on. Similarly, during start-up or shutdown of continuous
processes many elements must be correctly sequenced; that is, upstream flows and levels must be
established before downstream pumps can be turned on.

The PLC concept is based on designing a sequence of logical decisions to implement the control
for the above mentioned cases. Such a system uses a special purpose computer called
programmable logic controllers because the computer is programmed to execute the desired
Boolean logic and to implement the desired sequencing. In this case, the inputs to the computer
are a set of relay contacts representing the state of various process elements. Various operator
inputs are also provided. The outputs from the computer are a set of relays energized (activated)
by the computer that can turn a pump on or off, activate lights on a display panel, operate
solenoid valve, and so on.

Moreover, programming PLC by a higher-level languages and/or capability of implementing

advanced control algorithms is also limited. PLCs are not typical in a traditional process plant,
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but there some operations, such as sequencing, and interlock operations, that can use the
powerful capabilities of a PLC. They are also quite frequently a cost-effective alternative to
DCSs (discussed next) where sophisticated process control strategies are not needed.
Nevertheless, PLCs and DCSs can be combined in a hybrid system where PLC connected
through link to a controller, or connected directly to network.

6.3 Commercial Distributed Control Systems

In more complex pilot plants and full-scale plants, the control loops are of the order of hundreds.
For such large processes, the commercial distributed control system is more appropriate. There
are many vendors who provide these DCS systems such as Baily, Foxboro, Honeywell,
Rosemont, Yokogawa, etc. In the following only an overview of the role of DCS is outlined.
Conceptually, the DCS is similar to the simple PC network. However, there are some
differences. First, the hardware and software of the DCS is made more flexible, i.e. easy to
modify and configure, and to be able to handle a large number of loops. Secondly, the modern
DCS are equipped with optimization, high-performance model building and control software as
options. Therefore, an imaginative engineer who has theoretical background on modern control
systems can quickly configure the DCS network to implement high performance controllers.
A schematic of the DCS network is shown in figure.

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Basically, various parts of the plant processes and several parts of the DCS network elements are
connected to each other via the data highway (field-bus). Although figure 3 shows one data
highway, in practice there could be several levels of data highways. A large number of local data
acquisition, video display and computers can be found distributed around the plant.
They all communicate to each other through the data highway. These distributed elements may
vary in their responsibilities. For example, those closest to the process handle high raw data
traffic to the local computers while those farther away from the process deal only with processed
data but for a wider audience. The data highway is thus the backbone for the DCS system. It
provides information to the multi-displays on various operator control panels sends new data and
retrieve historical data from archival storage, and serves as a data link between the main control
computer and other parts of the network.

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On the top of the hierarchy, a supervisory (host) computer is set. The host computer is
responsible for performing many higher level functions. These could include optimization of the
process operation over varying time horizons (days, weeks, or months), carrying out special
control procedure such as plant start-up or product grade transition, and providing feedback on
economic performance.

A DCS is then a powerful tool for any large commercial plant. The engineer or operator can
immediately utilize such a system to:

1. Access a large amount of current information from the data highway.

2. See trends of past process conditions by calling archival data storage.
3. Readily install new on-line measurements together with local computers for data
acquisition and then use the new data immediately for controlling all loops of the process.
4. Alternate quickly among standard control strategies and re-adjust controller parameters in
software.
5. A sight full engineer can use the flexibility of the framework to implement his latest
controller design ideas on the host computer or on the main control computer.

In the common DCS architecture, the microcomputer attached to the process are known as frontend computers and are usually less sophisticated equipment employed for low level functions.
Typically such equipment would acquire process data from the measuring devices and convert
them to standard engineering units. The results at this level are passed upward to the larger
computers that are responsible for more complex operations. These upper-level computers can be
programmed to perform more advanced calculations.

6.4 The advantages of DCS systems

The major advantages of functional hardware distribution are flexibility in system design, ease of
expansion, reliability, and ease of maintenance. A big advantage compared to a single-computer
system is that the user can start out at a low level of investment. Another obvious advantage of
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this type of distributed architecture is that complete loss of the data highway will not cause
complete loss of system capability. Often local units can continue operation with no significant
loss of function over moderate or extended periods of time. Moreover, the DCS network allows
different modes of control implementation such as manual/auto/supervisory/computer operation
for each local control loop. In the manual mode, the operator manipulates the final control
element directly. In the auto mode, the final control element is manipulated automatically
through a low-level controller usually a PID. The set point for this control loop is entered by the
operator. In the supervisory mode, an advanced digital controller is placed on the top of the low
level controller. The advanced controller sets the set point for the low-level controller. The set
point for the advanced controller can be set either by the operator or a steady state optimization.
In the computer mode, the control system operates in the direct digital mode.

One of the main goals of using DCS system is allowing the implementation of digital control
algorithms. The benefit of digital control application can include:
1. Digital systems are more precise.
2. Digital systems are more flexible. This means that control algorithms can be changed and
control configuration can be modified without having rewiring the system.
3. Digital system cost less to install and maintain.
4. Digital data in electronic files are easier to deal with. Operating results can be printed out,
displayed on color terminals, stored in highly compressed form.

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At first glance, the pictured system architectures look very similar. Both systems share the
following components:
1. Field devices
2. Input/output modules
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3. Controllers
4. Human machine interface (HMI)
5. Engineering
6. Supervisory control
7. Business integration
As we look at the following system architectures, we should note that the technologies used in
each system are in fact, very similar; the difference becomes more apparent when you consider
the nature and requirements of the application.

For example, in the DCS architecture diagram, redundancy is often employed for I/O,
controllers, networks, and HMI servers. Since redundancy adds cost and sometimes complexity,
DCS users must carefully evaluate their need for redundancy in order to achieve their required
system availability and to prevent unplanned downtime.

The PLC architecture illustrates one of its most common applications, the control of discrete
field devices such as motors and drives. To effectively control motors and drives requires that the
controller be able to execute at high speeds (typically a 1020 m/sec scan rate), and that the
electrical technician responsible for maintaining it be able to read and troubleshoot the
configuration in a language that he is familiar with (relay ladder logic).

From a technology point of view, one can see that PLC and DCS are not that different, which has
paved the way for them to merge. Therefore, we must look beyond technology to the application
expertise and domain knowledge that is built in to these systems by the supplier, so that we can
better understand the "sweet-spots" where each is best applied.

The following points shall illustrate how a DCS or a PLC is chosen:

1. Typical factory automation applications, for which the PLC was originally designed, involve
the manufacturing and/or assembly of specific items "things." These applications may
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employ one or more machines and a fair amount of material movement from machine to
machine. A typical characteristic of this type of process is that the operator can usually
monitor the "things" visually as they progress through the manufacturing line. The process is,
by nature, very logic control intensive, often with high-speed requirements (throughput =
profits). This type of process is often controlled by a PLC and Human Machine Interface
(HMI) combination.

Process automation applications typically involve the transformation of raw materials through
the reaction of component chemicals or the introduction of physical changes to produce a new,
different product "stuff." These applications may be composed of one or more process unit
operations piped together. One key characteristic is that the operator can't see the product. It is
usually held within a vessel and may be hazardous in nature. There is usually a large amount of
simple to complex analog control (i.e., PID or loop control), although the response time is not
that fast (100ms or greater). This type of process is often controlled by a DCS, although the
analog control capability of a PLC may be more than adequate. A determining factor in the
selection process is often how large in scope the control application is (i.e., plant wide versus
single unit and number of I/O points).

2. There may also be sequential (or batch) control needs. A PLC can be used effectively for
"simple" batch applications, while a DCS is typically better suited for "complex" batch
manufacturing facilities that require a high level of flexibility and recipe management. Again,
the requirements of the batch application determine whether it is "simple" or "complex:"
3. Typically the heart of a factory automation control system is the controller (PLC), which
contains all of the logic to move the product in through the assembly line. The HMI is often
an on-machine panel or a PC-based station that provides the operator with supplemental or
exception data. Increasingly, operational information resulting from data analysis is also a
requirement for factory automation applications driving demand for a more sophisticated
HMI. In process automation, where the environment can be volatile and dangerous, and
where operators can't see the actual product, the HMI is considered by most to be the heart of
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the system. In this scenario, the HMI is a central control room console that provides the only
complete "window" into the process, enabling the operator to monitor and control the
processes which are occurring inside pipes and vessels located throughout the plant, here
DCS is used.
4. In a PLC environment, the operator's primary role is to handle exceptions. Status information
and exception alarming help keep the operator aware of what is happening in the process,
which in many cases can run "lights out."
The DCS plant requires an operator to make decisions and continuously interact with the
process to keep it running. In fact, leveraging the operator's process knowledge is often
critical to operational excellence and keeping the process running optimally. Operators
particularly earn their keep during product grade changes and when adjusting the process to
address changes in the production environment (such as a different feedstock). The operator
will change set points, open/close valves, or make a manual addition to move a batch to the
next stage of production. Within the HMI, faceplates and analog trends provide a critical
view into what is really happening in the production process, while the alarm management
system focuses the operator's attention on areas where he must intervene to keep the process
running within its target performance envelope. In the event of an HMI failure, the plant
could be forced to shut down in order to keep people and equipment safe. It all boils down to
the vital need to have an operator "in the loop" versus "out of the loop." The DCS operator is
the ultimate stakeholder, whose upfront buy-in for the HMI design is essential for overall
project success.

5. Factory automation engineers want customizable control platforms, which offer the
individual components that can be quickly programmed together to accomplish the task at
hand. Often integrators and engineers open the PLC "toolkit," roll up their sleeves, and start
programming. The tools provided by a PLC are typically optimized to support a "bottom-up"
approach to engineering, which works well for smaller applications.

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DCS engineers, on the other hand, are typically most effective using a "top-down" approach
for engineering, which forces them to put significant effort into the upfront design. This
focus on upfront design is a key to minimizing costs, compressing the project schedule, and
creating an application that can be maintained by plant personnel over the long term.

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CHAPTER-7
7.1 Excitation System.
In electricity

generation,

an electric

generator is

device

that

converts mechanical

energy to electrical energy. A generator forces electric current to flow through an

external circuit. The source of mechanical energy may be a reciprocating or turbine steam
engine, water falling through a turbine or waterwheel, an internal, a wind turbine, a
hand crank, compressed air, or any other source of mechanical energy. Generators provide nearly
all of the power for electric power grids.
The reverse conversion of electrical energy into mechanical energy is done by an electric motor,
and motors and generators have many similarities. Many motors can be mechanically driven to
generate electricity and frequently make acceptable generators.

An electric generator or electric motor that uses field coils rather than permanent magnets
requires a current to be present in the field coils for the device to be able to work. If the field
coils are not powered, the rotor in a generator can spin without producing any usable electrical
energy, while the rotor of a motor may not spin at all.
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Smaller generators are sometimes self-excited, which means the field coils are powered by the
current produced by the generator itself. The field coils are connected in series or parallel with
the armature winding. When the generator first starts to turn, the small amount of remnant
magnetism present in the iron core provides a magnetic field to get it started, generating a small
current in the armature. This flows through the field coils, creating a larger magnetic field which
generates a larger armature current. This "bootstrap" process continues until the magnetic field in
the core levels off due to saturation and the generator reaches a steady state power output.

Very large power station generators often utilize a separate smaller generator to excite the field
coils of the larger. In the event of a severe widespread power outage where islanding of power
stations has occurred, the stations may need to perform a black start to excite the fields of their
largest generators, in order to restore customer power service.

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CHAPTER-8
8.1 Vibration monitoring System.
Condition monitoring (or, colloquially, CM) is the process of monitoring a parameter of
condition in machinery (vibration, temperature etc.), in order to identify a significant change
which is indicative of a developing fault. It is a major component of predictive maintenance. The
use of conditional monitoring allows maintenance to be scheduled, or other actions to be taken to
prevent failure and avoid its consequences. Condition monitoring has a unique benefit in that
conditions that would shorten normal lifespan can be addressed before they develop into a major
failure. Condition monitoring techniques are normally used on rotating equipment and other
machinery

(pumps,

electric motors,

internal

combustion

engines,

presses),

while

periodic inspection using non-destructive testing techniques and fit for service (FFS) evaluation
are used for stationary plant equipment such as steam boilers, piping and heat exchangers.

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The

most

commonly

used

method

for

rotating

machines

is

called

vibration

analysis. Measurements can be taken on machine bearing casings with accelerometers (seismic
or piezo-electric transducers) to measure the casing vibrations, and on the vast majority of
critical machines, with eddy-current transducers that directly observe the rotating shafts to
measure the radial (and axial) displacement of the shaft. The level of vibration can be compared
with historical baseline values such as former startups and shutdowns, and in some cases
established standards such as load changes, to assess the severity.
Interpreting the vibration signal obtained is an elaborate procedure that requires specialized
training and experience. It is simplified by the use of state-of-the-art technologies that provide
the vast majority of data analysis automatically and provide information instead of raw data. One
commonly employed technique is to examine the individual frequencies present in the signal.

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These frequencies correspond to certain mechanical components (for example, the various pieces
that make up a rolling-element bearing) or certain malfunctions (such as shaft unbalance or
misalignment). By examining these frequencies and their harmonics, the CM specialist can often
identify the location and type of problem, and sometimes the root cause as well. For example,
high vibration at the frequency corresponding to the speed of rotation is most often due to
residual imbalance and is corrected by balancing the machine. As another example, a
degrading rolling-element bearing will usually exhibit increasing vibration signals at specific
frequencies as it wears. Special analysis instruments can detect this wear weeks or even months
before failure, giving ample warning to schedule replacement before a failure which could cause
a much longer down-time. Beside all sensors and data analysis it is important to keep in mind
that more than 80% of all complex mechanical equipment fail accidentally and without any
relation to their life-cycle period.
Most vibration analysis instruments today utilize a Fast Fourier Transform (FFT)which is a
special case of the generalized Discrete Fourier Transform and converts the vibration signal from
its time domain representation to its equivalent frequency domain representation. However,
frequency analysis (sometimes called Spectral Analysis or Vibration Signature Analysis) is only
one aspect of interpreting the information contained in a vibration signal. Frequency analysis
tends to be most useful on machines that employ rolling element bearings and whose main
failure modes tend to be the degradation of those bearings, which typically exhibit an increase in
characteristic frequencies associated with the bearing geometries and constructions. Depending
on the type of machine, its typical malfunctions, the bearing types employed, rotational speeds,
and other factors, the CM specialist may use additional diagnostic tools, such as examination of
the time domain signal, the phase relationship between vibration components and a timing mark
on the machine shaft (often known as a keyphasor), historical trends of vibration levels, the
shape of vibration, and numerous other aspects of the signal along with other information from
the process such as load, bearing temperatures, flow rates, valve positions and pressures to
provide an accurate diagnosis. This is particularly true of machines that use fluid bearings rather
than rolling-element bearings. To enable them to look at this data in a more simplified form
vibration analysts or machinery diagnostic engineers have adopted a number of mathematical
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plots to show machine problems and running characteristics, these plots include the bode plot,
the waterfall plot, the polar plot and the orbit time base plot amongst others.
Handheld data collectors and analyzers are now commonplace on non-critical or balance of
plant machines on which permanent on-line vibration instrumentation cannot be economically
justified. The technician can collect data samples from a number of machines, then download the
data into a computer where the analyst (and sometimes artificial intelligence) can examine the
data for changes indicative of malfunctions and impending failures. For larger, more critical
machines where safety implications, production interruptions (so-called "downtime"),
replacement parts, and other costs of failure can be appreciable (determined by the criticality
index), a permanent monitoring system is typically employed rather than relying on periodic
handheld data collection. However, the diagnostic methods and tools available from either
approach are generally the same.
Recently also on-line systems have been applied to heavy process industries such as pulp, paper,
mining, petrochemical and power generation. These can be dedicated systems like Sensodec
6S or nowadays this functionality has been embedded into DCS.
Performance monitoring is a less well-known condition monitoring technique. It can be applied
to rotating machinery such as pumps and turbines, as well as stationary items such as boilers and
heat exchangers. Measurements are required of physical quantities: temperature, pressure, flow,
speed, displacement, according to the plant item. Absolute accuracy is rarely necessary, but
repeatable data is needed. Calibrated test instruments are usually needed, but some success has
been achieved in plant with DCS (Distributed Control Systems). Performance analysis is often
closely related to energy efficiency, and therefore has long been applied in steam power
generation

plants.

Typical

applications

in

power

generation

could

be boiler, steam

turbine and gas turbine. In some cases, it is possible to calculate the optimum time for overhaul
to restore degraded performance.

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CHAPTER-9
9.1 Quality Control.
Quality control, or QC for short, is a process by which entities review the quality of all factors
involved in production. This approach places an emphasis on three aspects.
1. Elements such as controls, job management, defined and well managed processes,
performance and integrity criteria, and identification of records
2. Competence, such as knowledge, skills, experience, and qualifications
3. Soft elements, such as personnel, integrity, confidence, organizational culture,
motivation, team spirit, and quality relationships.
Controls include product inspection, where every product is examined visually, and often using
a stereo microscope for fine detail before the product is sold into the external market. Inspectors
will be provided with lists and descriptions of unacceptable product defects such as cracks or
surface blemishes for example.
The quality of the outputs is at risk if any of these three aspects is deficient in any way.
Quality control emphasizes testing of products to uncover defects and reporting to management
who make the decision to allow or deny product release, whereas quality assurance attempts to
improve and stabilize production (and associated processes) to avoid, or at least minimize, issues
which led to the defect(s) in the first place For contract work, particularly work awarded by
government agencies, quality control issues are among the top reasons for not renewing a
contract.
9.2 INSPECTION
Inspection is the most common method of attaining standardization, uniformity and quality of
workmanship. It is the cost art of controlling the product quality after comparison with the
established standards and specifications. It is the function of quality control. If the said item does

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not fall within the zone of acceptability it will be rejected and corrective measure will be applied
to see that the items in future conform to specified standards.

Inspection is an indispensable tool of modern manufacturing process. It helps to control quality,

reduces manufacturing costs, eliminate scrap losses and assignable causes of defective work.

9.3 Objectives of Inspection

(1) To collect information regarding the performance of the product with established Standards
for the use of engineering production, purchasing and quality control etc.
(2) To sort out poor quality of manufactured product and thus to maintain standards.
(3) To establish and increase the reputation by protecting customers from receiving poor quality
products.
(4) Detect source of weakness and failure in the finished products and thus check the work of
designer.
9.4 Purpose of Inspection
(1) To distinguish good lots from bad lots
(2) To distinguish good pieces from bad pieces.
(3) To determine if the process is changing.
(4) To determine if the process is approaching the specification limits.
(5) To rate quality of product.
(6) To rate accuracy of inspectors.
(7) To measure the precision of the measuring instrument.
(8) To secure products design information.
(9) To measure process capability.
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9.5 Stages of Inspection

(1) Inspection of incoming material
(2) Inspection of production process
(3) Inspection of finished goods.
(1) Inspection of incoming materials. It is also called receiving inspection. It consists of
inspecting and checking of all the purchased raw materials and parts that are supplied before they
are taken on to stock or used in actual manufacturing. Inspection may take place either at
suppliers end or at manufacturers gate. If the incoming materials are large in quantity and
involve huge transportation cost it is economical to inspect them at the place of vendor or
supplier.

(2) Inspection of production process. The work of inspection is done while the production
process is simultaneously going on. Inspection is done at various work centers of men and
machines and at the critical production points. This had the advantage of preventing wastage of
time and money on defective units and preventing delays in assembly.
(3) Inspection of finished goods. This is the last stage when finished goods are inspected and
carried out before marketing to see that poor quality product may be either rejected or sold at
reduced price.
9.6 Inspection Procedures
There are three ways of doing inspection. They are Floor inspection, Centralized inspection and
combined inspection.
Floor Inspection
It suggests the checking of materials in process at the machine or in the production time by
patrolling inspectors. These inspectors move from machine to machine and from one to the other
work centers. Inspectors have to be highly skilled. This method of inspection minimize the
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material handling, does not disrupt the line layout of machinery and quickly locate the defect and
readily offers field and correction.
9.6.1 Advantages
(1) Encourage co-operation of inspector and foreman.
(2) Random checking may be more successful than batch checking.
(3) Does not delay in production.
(4) Saves time and expense of having to more batches of work for inspection.
(5) Inspectors may see and be able to report on reason of faculty work.
9.6.2 Disadvantages
(1) Difficult in inspection due to vibration.
(2) Possibility of biased inspection because of worker.
(3) Pressure on inspector.
(4) High cost of inspection because of numerous sets of inspections and skilled inspectors.
9.7 Suitability
(1) Heavy products are produced.
(2) Different work centers are integrated in continuous line layout.
9.8 Centralized Inspection
Materials in process may be inspected and checked at centralized inspection center which are
located at one or more places in the manufacturing industry.
9.8.1Advantages
(1) Better quality checkup.
(2) Closed supervision.
(3) Absence of workers pressure.

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(4) Orderly production flow and low inspection cost.

9.8.2 Disadvantages
(1) More material handling.
(2) Delays of inspection room cause wastage of time.
(3) Work of production control increases.
(4) Due to non-detection of machining errors in time, there may be more spoilage of work.
9.9 Suitability
(1) Incoming materials inspection.
(2) Finished product inspection.
(3) Departmental inspection.
(4) High precision products of delicate products.
(5) Small and less expensive products.
9.10 Combined Inspection
Combination of two methods whatever may be the method of inspection, whether floor or
central. The main objective is to locate and prevent defect which may not repeat itself in
subsequent operation to see whether any corrective measure is required and finally to maintained
quality economically.
9.11 Methods of Inspection
There are two methods of inspection. They are 100% inspection and Sampling inspection.
a) 100% Inspection
This type will involve careful inspection in detail of quality at each strategic point or stage of
manufacture where the test involved is non-destructive and every piece is separately inspected. It
requires more number of inspectors and hence it is a costly method. There is no sampling error.

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This is subjected to inspection error arising out of fatigue, negligence, difficulty of supervision
etc. Hence complete accuracy of influence is seldom attained.
It is suitable only when a small number of pieces are there or a very high degree of quality is
required. Example: Jet engines, Aircraft, Medical and Scientific equipment.
b) Sampling Inspection
In this method randomly selected samples are inspected. Samples taken from different Batches of
products are representatives. If the sample prove defective. The entire concerned is to be rejected
or recovered. Sampling inspection is cheaper and quicker. It requires less number of Inspectors.
Its subjected to sampling errors but the magnitude of sampling error can be estimated. In the case
of destructive test, random or sampling inspection is desirable. This type of inspection governs
wide currency due to the introduction of automatic machines or equipments which are less
susceptible to chance variable and hence require less inspection, suitable for inspection of
products which have less precision importance and are less costly.
Example: Electrical bulbs, radio bulbs, washing machine etc.
Destructive tests conducted for the products whose endurance or ultimate strength properties are
required.
Example: Flexible strength, resistance capacity, compressibility etc.
9.12 Drawbacks of Inspection
(1) Inspection adds to the cost of the product but not for its value.
(2) It is partially subjective, often the inspector has to judge whether a product passes or not.
9.13 Quality
Different meaning could be attached to the word Quality under different circumstances. The
word Quality does not mean the Quality of manufactured product only. It may refer to the
Quality of the process (i.e., men, material, and machines) and even that of management. Where
the quality of manufactured product referred as or defined as Quality of product as the degree
in which it fulfills the requirement of the customer. It is not absolute but it judged or realized by
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comparing it with some standards. It is usually determined by some characteristics namely

design, size, material, chemical composition, mechanical functioning workmanship, finish and
other properties. In the final analysis the Quality standards for the products are established by the
customer.
Example: Gear used in sugarcane extracting machine through not of the same material and
without possessing good finish, tolerance and accuracy as that of gear used in the hand stock of a
teeth may be considered of good quality if it work satisfactory in the juice extracting machine.
Quality begins with the design of a product in accordance with the customer specification further
it involves the established measurement standards, the use of proper material, selection of
suitable manufacturing process and the necessary tooling to manufacture the product, the
performance of the necessary manufacturing operations and the inspection of the product to
check the manufacturing operations and the inspection of the product to check on performance
with the specifications. Quality characteristics can be classified as follows:
(1) Quality of design
(2) Quality of conformance with specifications
(3) Quality of performance.
9.14 Control
The process through which the standards are established and met with standards is called control.
This process consists of observing our activity performance, comparing the performance with
some standard and then taking action if the observed performance is significantly to different
from the standards.
The control process involves a universal sequence of steps as follows:
(1) Choose the control subject.
(2) Choose a unit of measure.
(3) Set a standard value i.e., specify the quality characteristics
(4) Choose a sensing device which can measure.
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(5) Measure actual performance.

(6) Interpret the difference between actual and standard.
(7) Taking action, if any, on the difference.

Quality Control
Quality control can be defined as that Industrial Management technique by means of which
product of uniform acceptable quality is manufactured.
a) Factors Affecting Quality
(1) Men, Materials and Machines
(2) Manufacturing conditions
(3) Market research in demand of purchases
(4) Money in capability to invest
(5) Management policy for quality level
(6) Production methods and product design
(7) Packing and transportation
(8) After sales service
b) Objectives of Quality Control
(1) To decide about the standard of Quality of a product that is easily acceptable to the customer.
(2) To check the variation during manufacturing.
(3) To prevent the poor quality products reaching to customer.
9.15 Statistical Quality Control (SQC)
A Quality control system performs inspection, testing and analysis to conclude whether the
quality of each product is as per laid quality standard or not. Its called Statistical Quality

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Control when statistical techniques are employed to control quality or to solve quality control
problem. SQC makes inspection more reliable and at the same time less costly. It controls the
quality levels of the outgoing products. SQC should be viewed as a kit of tools which may
influence related to the function of specification, production or inspection.
A successful SQC programe is expected to yield the following results:
(1) Improvement of quality.
(2) Reduction of scrap and rework.
(3) Efficient use of men and machines.
(4) Economy in use of materials.
(5) Removing production bottle-necks.
(6) Decreased inspection costs.
(7) Reduction in cost/unit.
(8) Scientific evaluation of tolerance.
(9) Scientific evaluation of quality and production.
(10) Quality consciousness at all levels.
(11) Reduction in customer complaints.
9.15 QUALITY CHARACTERISTICS
a) Quality of Design
Quality design is a technical term. It can be regarded as a composite of 3 separate terms or steps
in a common progression of activities.
(i) Identification of what constitutes fitness for use to the user (Quality of marketresearch).
(ii) Choice of concept of product or service to be responsible to the identified needs of the user
(Quality of concept).
(iii) Translation of the chosen product concept into a detailed set of specifications which is
faithfully executed, will then meet the users need (Quality of specification). The total
progression composed of these three activities is called Quality of Design and it may be said
to consist of Quality of market research: Quality of concept and Quality of specification.
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Example: All automobiles provide the user with the service of transportation. The Various
models differ as to size, comfort, appearance, performance, economy, status conferred etc. These
differences are in turn the results of intended or designed differences in the size, styling,
materials, tolerances, test programs etc. Higher quality of design can be attained only at an
increase in costs. Quality of Conformance The design must reflect the needs of fitness for use,
and the products must also confirm to the design. The extent to which the product does confirm
to the design is called Quality of conformance. This extent of conformance is determined by
variables as:
(i) Choice of process i.e., whether they are able to hold the tolerances.
(ii) Training of the supervision and the work force.
(iii) Degree of adherence to the program of inspect, test, audit etc. motivation for quality.
Higher quality of conformance can be attained with an accompanying reduction in cost.
Example: Two scooters both are produced at the same level of time but one may be 100%
according to the drawing and specification of the same design; the second scooter may be 90%
according to the drawing and specification and probably a few dimensions may be different from
those of drawing. Therefore quality of conformance of 1st scooter is better than the 2nd scooter
even though both are of same design.
b) Quality Costs
Quality costs are the incurring in introducting quality and benefits. This is done by identifying
and defining the following categories of costs which are associated with making, finding,
repairing or avoiding (preventing) defects.
(A) Failure costs
Internal failure costs. These are costs which would disappear if no defects exit in the product
prior to shipment to the customer. They include.
Scrap: The net loss in labor and material resulting from defectives which cannot economically be
repaired or used.
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Rework: The cost of correcting defectives to make them fit for use.
Retest: The cost of inspection and retest of products that have undergone rework or other
revision.
Down time: The cost of idle facilities resulting from defects. (Example: Aircraft idle due to
unreliability, printing press down due to paper break).
Yield losses: The cost of process yield lower that might be attainable by improved controls.
Includes overfill of containers (going to customers) due to variability in filling and measuring
equipment. External failure costs. These costs would also disappear if there were no defects.
They are disguised from the internal failure costs by the fact that the defects are found at the
shipment to the customer. They include:
Complaint adjustment: All costs of investigation and adjustment of justified complaints
attributable to defective product or installation.
Returned material: All costs associated with receipts and returned from the field.
Warranty charges: All costs involved in service to customers under warranty contracts.
Allowances: Costs of concessions made to customers due to substandard products being accepted
by the customer as is include loss in income due to down grading products for sale as seconds.
(B) Appraisal Costs
These are costs incurred to discover the conditions of the products, mainly during the first
come through costs include.
Incoming material inspection: The cost of determining the quality of vendor made products,
whether by inspection on receipt or at source or by surveillance method.
Inspection and test: The cost of checking the conformance of the product throughout its
progression, in the factory, including final acceptance and check of packing and shipping
includes life, environmental and reliability tests. Also includes testing done at customers
premises prior to giving up the product to the customer. Maintaining accuracy of test equipment:

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Includes the cost of operating the system that keeps the measuring instruments and equipment in
calibration.
Materials and services consumed: Includes costs of product consumed through destructive tests,
materials consumed and services where significant.
Evaluation of stock : Include the costs of testing products in field storage or in stock to evaluate
degradation.
(C) Prevention Costs
These costs are incurred to keep future and appraisal costs at a minimum. It includes:
Quality Planning: This includes the broad array of activities which collectively create quality
plan, the inspection plan, reliability plan, data system and numeric specialized plans. It includes
also preparation of the manuals and procedures needed to communicate these plans to all
concerned.
New Product review: Includes preparation of bid proposals evaluation of new design, preparation
of test and experiment programs and other quality activities associated with the launching of new
designs.
Training: The costs of preparing training programs for attaining and improving quality
performance includes the cost of conducting formal training programs as well.
Process control: Includes that part of process control which is conducted to achieve fitness for
use as distinguished from achieving productivity, safety etc.
Quality data acquisition and analysis: This is the work of running the quality of data systems to
acquire continuing data on quality performance. It includes analysis of these data to identify the
quality troubles, to sound alarms etc.
Quality reporting: Includes the work of summering and publishing quality information to the
middle and upper management.

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Improvement Projects: Includes the work of structuring and carrying out programs for
breakthrough to new levels of performance i.e., defective prevention programs, motivation
programs etc.
9.16 Total Quality Control
Total Quality Control defined as an effective system for integrating the quality development,
quality maintenance and quality improvement efforts of the various groups in an organization so
as to enable production and service at the most economical level which allow for full customer
satisfaction. It may be classified as a Management Tool for many industries outstanding
improvement in product quality design and reduction in operating costs and losses. Product
quality is defined as the composite product of engineering and manufacture that determine the
degree to which the product in use will meet the expectations of the customer. Control
represents a tool with four steps:
Setting up of quality standards.
Appraising conformance to these standards
Acting when these standards are exceeded.
Planning for improvements in these standards.
Quality control emerges as a based function based on the collection analysis and interpretations
of data on all aspects of the enterprise.
Total quality control is an aid for good engineering designs, good manufacturing methods and
conscious inspection activity that have always been required for the production of high quality
articles.
Quality of any product is affected at many stages of the industrial cycle:
Marketing: Evaluates the level of Quality which customers want for which they are willing to
pay.
Engineering: Reduces these marketing evaluations to exact specification.
Purchasing: Chooses contracts with and retains vendors for parts and materials.
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Manufacturing Engineering: Select the jigs, tools and processes for production.
Manufacturing Supervision and shop operators: Exert a major quality influence during
Parts making, sub assembly and final assembly.
Mechanical Inspection and function Test: Check conformance to specifications.
Shipping: Influences the caliber of packaging and transportation.
Installation: Helps ensure proper operations by installing the product according to proper
instructions and maintaining it through product service.
In other words, the determination of both quality and quality costs actually takes place
throughout the entire industrial cycle.
Quality control is responsible for quality assurance at optimum quality costs. The benefits
resulting from Total Quality Control programs are:
1. Improvements in product quality and design
2. Reduction in operating costs and losses
3. Reduction in production line bottle necks
4. Improvement in employee morale
5. Improved inspection methods
6. Setting time standards for labor
7. Definite schedule for preventive maintenance
8. Availability of purposeful data for use in co-advertising
9. Furnishing of actual basis for cost accounting for standard and for scrap, rework and inspection.

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10. Reference
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alstom
https://online.alstom.com/Businesses/ThermalPower/Services/about/missionvisionpriorities/Page
s/default.aspx
https://online.alstom.com/Businesses/Renewable-Power/Pages/default.aspx
http://www.alstom.com/grid/
http://www.ALSTOM.com/india/about-us/

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